CIRCUIT

THEOREMS

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

4.7 Thevenins Theorem
4.8 Nortons Theorem
4.9 Source Transformation
4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
f (g)
x y
input output
The relationship f (x) between cause x and effect y
is linear if f () is both additive and homogeneous.

definition of additive property

If f(x1)=y1 , f(x2)=y2 then f(x1+x2)=y1+y2
definition of homogeneous property
If f(x)=y and is a real number then f(x)= y
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4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Example 4.6.1
Assume I0 = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual
value of I0 in the circuit in figure.

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem

If I 0 = 1A , then V1 = (3 + 5) I 0 = 8V
V1
I1 = = 2A , I 2 = I1 + I 0 = 3A
4
V2
V2 = V1 + 2 I 2 = 8 + 6 = 14V , I 3 = = 2A
7
I 4 = I 3 + I 2 = 5A I S = 5A
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4.6 Superposition Theorem

For a linear circuit N consisting of n inputs , namely
u1 , u2 , , un , then the output y can be calculated
as the sum of its components
y = y1 + y2 + + yn
where
yi=f(ui) , i=1,2,,n

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
Proof Consider the nodal equation of the corresponding
circuit for the basic case as an example
G11 G12 L G1n e1 I1s
G G L G2 n e I
21 22 2 = 2 s LLL ( A )
M O M M M

Gn1 Gn 2 L Gnn en I ns
[G ] e = I s LLLLLLLLLLLL ( B )
Let Gk = [ Gk1 Gk2 Gkn ]T

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Then [G] = [ G1 G2 Gn ] 7

4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Cramers Rule for solving Ax=b
Take n=3 as an example.

a11 a12 a13 x1 b1

a a22 a23 x2 = b2
21
a31 a32 a33 x1 b3
Let
det A = 0
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
Then b1 a12 a13
det b2 a22 a23
b3 a32 a33
x1 =

a11 b1 a13
det a21 b2 a23
a31 b3 a33
x2 =

a11 a12 b1
det a21 a22 b2
a31 a32 b3
x3 =
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9

4.6 Superposition Theorem

Suppose that the kth nodal voltage ek is to be found.
Then from Cramers rule one has
det G 1 G 1 L I s L G n
ek =
det [ G ]
n jk
=
j=1
I js

w h ere @ det [ G ]
e k = e k1 + e k2 + L L + e kn
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
where
1k
ek1 = I , due to I 1 s only
1s

nk
ekn = I , due to I ns only
ns

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Example 4.6.2

Find e2 = ?

Nodal Equation
G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e1 I1S
-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e2 I2S
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e3 I3S
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
By using Cramers rule
G1 + G4 + G6 I1S G6

det G4 I2S G5
G6 G3 + G5 + G6
e2 = I3S

12
= I1S + 22 I 2 S + 32 I 3 S

= e21 + e22 + e23

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

Where e21 is due to I1S onlyI2SI3S0

G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e11 I1S

-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e21 0
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e31 0
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e11 I1S
-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e21 0
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e31 0

G1 + G4 + G6 I1S G6

det G4 0 G5
G6 G3 + G5 + G6
e21 = 0

12
= I1S , due to I1S only

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

Similarly

Duo to I 2 S only Duo to I 3 S only

I1S = I 3 S = 0 I1S = I 2 S = 0
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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem

In high school, one finds the equivalent

resistance of a two terminal resistive circuit
without sources.
Now, we will find the equivalent circuit for two
terminal resistive circuit with sources.

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a
resistor RTH where VTH is the open circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off .
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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
I a
Linear + Connected
two-terminal V
- circuit
circuit
b

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at the
terminals.
VTH = VOC : Open circuit voltage at a-b

VTH = VOC

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
RTH = RIN : input resistance of the dead circuit

Turn off all independent sources

RTH = RIN
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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

CASE 1
If the network has no dependent sources:
- Turn off all independent source.
- RTH : input resistance of the network looking
into a-b terminals

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
CASE 2
If the network has dependent sources
-Turn off all independent sources.
-Apply a voltage source VO at a-b

VO
R TH =
IO

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

-Alternatively, apply a current source IO at a-b

VO
R TH =
IO

If RTH < 0, the circuit is supplying power.

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Simplified circuit
VTH
IL =
R TH +R L
RL
VL = R L I L = VTH
R TH +R L

Voltage divider

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Proof : Consider the following linear two terminal circuit
consisting of n+1 nodes and choose terminal b as
datum node and terminal a as node n .
L

V1 I1s
G 11 K G 1n
V = I2s
M O M 2
G M M
n1 L G n n
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Vn I ns 26
 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Then nodal voltage Vn when a-b terminals are open
can be found by using Cramers rule .
n
1
Vn =


k =1
kn I ks LLL (A )

is the determinant of [G] matrix

ku is the corresponding cofactor of Gkn
Now connect an external resistance Ro to a-b terminals .
The new nodal voltages will be changed to e1 , e2 , , en
respectively .
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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Nodal equation
G11 K G1n + 0
e1 I1s
M G 2 n + 0 e I
M M 2 = 2s . . . . . . . . . ( B)
M M
G L G + 1
Ro n ns
n1 nn e I

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Note that
G11 K G1n + 0 G11 K 0

M G2 n + 0 G21 0
det M M = det [G ] + det M M

G L G + 1 G L 1
n1 nn
Ro n1 Ro

1
= + nn
Ro

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Hence , en can be obtained as follows .
G11 K I1s

det M O M n
1 n
G L I
ns
kn I ks kn I ks
k =1 Ro
en = n1
= k =1
= = Vn
1 1 1 nn Ro + RTH
+ nn + nn 1+
Ro Ro Ro

where R TH @ nn

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
TH

n o

In other words , the linear circuit looking into terminals a-b can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source VTH in series with an equivalent resistance RTH , where
nn
VTH is the open circuit voltage Vn and RTH = .

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.1

1
1
2 1

4 6

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.1 (cont.)
Find open circuit voltage V2
2+ 4 2 V1 5 2V x
=
2 2 + 6 2 2V x
V
2V x = 2V1
2+ 4+ 2 2 V1 5
=
2 2 2 + 6 V2 0
8 2
= det = 64 8 = 56
4 8
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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.1 (cont.)
8 5
det
4 0 20 5
V2 = = = V = VTH
56 56 14
8 1
RTH = 22 = =
56 7
1

7 a
Ans.
5
V
14

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.2 20
10

10

By voltage divider principle :

open circuit voltage VTH=10V
Let independent source be zero
10 20
a
10 RTH=5+20=25
b
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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.3
n Find the Thevenins equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown below, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then
find the current through RL = 6, 16, and 36 .

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.3 (cont.)
R TH : 32V voltage source short
2A current source open
4 12
R TH = 4 P 12 +1 = + 1 = 4
16

VTH

RTH
VTH

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.3 (cont.)

VTH :
Mesh analysis
32 + 4 i 1 + 12 ( i1 i2) = 0 , i 2 = 2A
i1 = 0.5A
VTH = 12 (i 1 i 2 ) =12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30V

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.3 (cont.)

To get iL :
VTH 30
iL = =
RTH + RL 4 + RL

RL = 6 IL = 30 / 10 = 3A
RL =16 IL = 30 / 20 =1.5A
RL = 36 IL = 30 / 40 = 0.75A
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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.4
Find the Thevenins equivalent of the following
circuit with terminals a-b.

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
(independent + dependent source case)
To find RTH from Fig.(a)
independent source 0
dependent source unchanged

vo 1
Apply vo = 1V , RTH = =
io io

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
For loop 1 , -2vx + 2(i1 i2 ) = 0 or vx =i1 i2

But
4i2 = vx = i1 i2

i1 = 3i2

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
Loop 2 and 3 :
4i2 + 2(i2 i1 ) + 6(i2 i3 ) = 0
6(i3 i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0
Solving these equations gives
1
i3 = A
6
1
But io = i3 = A
6
1V
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io

4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.4 (cont.)

To find VTH from Fig.(b)

Mesh analysis

i1 = 5
2v x + 2(i 3 i2 ) = 0 vx = i 3 i 2
4(i2 i1 ) + 2(i2 i3) + 6i2 = 0 12i2 4i1 2i3 = 0

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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)

But 4 (i1 i2 ) = vx
i2 =10 / 3.
VTH = voc = 6i2 = 20V

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4.7 Thevenins Theorem

Example 4.7.5
Determine the Thevenins
equivalent circuit :
Solution:
(dependent source only)
vo
VTH = 0 , RTH =
io
Nodal analysis
vo
io + ix = 2ix +
4
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 4.7 Thevenins Theorem
Example 4.7.5 (cont.)
But
0 vo v
ix = = o
2 2
v v v v
io = ix + o = o + o = o
4 2 4 4
or vo = 4io

Thus
vo
RTH = = 4 : Supplying Power !
io
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4.8 Nortons Theorem

n Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem

a
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
b
(a)

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Proof
By using Mesh Analysis as an example
Assume the linear two terminal circuit is
a planar circuit and there are n meshes
when a b terminals are short circuited.

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Mesh equation for case 1 as an example
R11 R1n I1 V1S

M O
M I 2 V2 S
=
M M M M

Rn1 LL Rnn I n Vns
Hence the short circuit cuurent
1 n
In = kn Vks
k =1
where = det [ Rik ]
kn is the cofactor of Rkn
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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Now connect an external resistance Ro to a , b
terminals , then all the mesh currents will be
changed to J1, J2, Jnrespectively.
R11 R1n + 0 J 1 V1S

M O
R2 n + 0 J 2 V2 S
=
M M M M

Rn1 LL Rnn + Ro J n Vns
Note that
R11 R1n + 0 R11 K 0

M R2 n + 0 M M
det O = + det O
M M M M

Rn1 LL Rnn + Ro Rn1 L Ro
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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Hence, one has
R11 V1s

det M O M n

R L V knVks
Jn = n1 ns
= k =1
+ Ro nn + Ro nn
1 n
knVks
k =1
=

1 + Ro nn

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

In
=

1 + Ro nn

RN
= In
Ro + RN

where RN = , I N = In
nn

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Example 4.8.1 By using the above formula
4

3 3

Find the short circuit current I3

3+3 -3 -3 I1 10V
-3 3+3+4 -3 I2 0
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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Example 4.8.1 (cont.)
3+3 -3 -3 I1 10V
-3 3+3+4 -3 I2 0
-3 -3 3+3 I3 0
det [ Rik ] = 360 27 27 27 90 54 54 = 108
6 3 10
1 10 390 65
I3 = det 3 10 0 = ( 39 ) = = A = IN
108 3 3 0 108 108 18

108 36
RN = = =
33 60 9 17
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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Example 4.8.2
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the following circuit

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Example 4.8.2 (cont.)

To find RN from Fig.(a)

RN = 5 ||(8 + 4 + 8)
20 5
= 5 || 20 = = 4
25

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
To find IN from Fig.(b)
short-circuit terminal a and b
Mesh Analysis: 8 a
i1 = 2A 4

20i2 - 4i1 12 = 0 iSC

2A
i 1 5 =IN
i2

i2 = 1A = IN 12V

8 b
(b)

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
VTH
Alternative method for IN : IN =
RTH
VTH : open circuit voltage across terminals a and b
Mesh analysis : 8 a

i3 = 2 A , 25i4 4i3 12 = 0 2A
4

i3 i4 5 VTH=vSC

i4 = 0.8A 12V

voc = VTH = 5i4 = 4V 8 b

(b)

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
Hence , IN = V TH = 4 / 4 = 1A
R TH

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Example 4.8.3
n Using Nortons theorem, find RN and IN of the
following circuit.

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 4.8 Nortons Theorem
Example 4.8.3 (cont.)
To find RN from Fig.(a)
vo 1
Hence , io = = = 0.2 A
5 5
vo 1
RN = = = 5
io 0.2

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4.8 Nortons Theorem

Example 4.8.3 (cont.)
To find IN from Fig.(b)
10
ix = = 2.5 A
4
10V
IN = + 2ix
5
10
= + 2(2.5) = 7 A
5
IN = 7 A
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 4.9 Source Transformation
R a i

Vs v N

b
The current through resistor R can be obtained
as follows :
V v VS v v
i= S = @ IS
R R R R

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4.9 Source Transformation

From KCL, one can obtain the following
equivalent circuit

VS
where I S @
R
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 4.9 Source Transformation

The voltage across resistor R can be obtained as

follows :
v = ( I S i ) R = I S R iR @ VS iR

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4.9 Source Transformation

From KVL, one can obtain the following
equivalent circuit

where VS @ R I S

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 4.9 Source Transformation
Example 4.9.1

a 3
a
10A 3 30V
b
b
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4.9 Source Transformation

Example 4.9.2
n Find the Thevenins equivalent

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 4.9 Source Transformation
Example 4.9.2 (cont.)

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

a

RL

b
n Problem : Given a linear resistive circuit N
shown as above, find the value of
RL that permits maximum power
delivery to RL .
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Solution : First, replace N with its Thevenin
equivalent circuit.

RTH a i

VTH +- RL

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

VTH
p = i2 R = ( ) 2 RL
RTH + RL
dp
Let =0 ,
dRL
VTH 2 VTH2
Then R L =R TH and Pmax =( ) RL =
2 RL 4 RL

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
nExample 4.10.1

(a) Find RL that results in maximum power transferred to RL.

(b) Find the corresponding maximum power delivered to RL ,
namely Pmax.
(c) Find the corresponding power delivered by the 360V
source, namely Ps and Pmax/Ps in percentage.
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

150
S o lu tio n : ( a ) V TH = (3 6 0 ) = 3 0 0 V
180
150 30
R TH = = 25
180
2
300
(b ) P m ax 2 5 = 9 0 0W
50
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

300
S o lu tio n : (c ) V a b = 25 = 150V
50
- (3 6 0 - 1 5 0 )
is = = -7 A
30
P s = i s ( 3 6 0 ) = -2 5 2 0 W (d is s ip a te d )
P m ax 900
= = 3 5 .7 1 %
Ps 2520
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Summary
nObjective 7 : Understand and be able to use
superposition theorem.
nObjective 8 : Understand and be able to use
Thevenins theorem.
nObjective 9 : Understand and be able to use
Nortons theorem.

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 Summary
nObjective 10 : Understand and be able to use
source transform technique.
nObjective 11 : Know the condition for and be
able to find the maximum
power transfer.

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Summary
n Problem : 4.60
4.64
4.68
4.77
4.86
4.91
n Due within one week.

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