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12th - Political Science Key Concepts and Theories PDF
12th - Political Science Key Concepts and Theories PDF
AUTHOR
V.R. MEHTA
EDITOR
NALINI PANT
CONTENTS
1. Law 3
2. Liberty 9
3. Equality 19
4. Justice 23
5. Human Rights 30
6. Dharma 36
12. Liberalism 81
13. Socialism 87
14. Marxism 92
15. Fascism 100
16. Gandhism 106
17. Humanism 113
GLOSSARY 117
UNIT I
KEY CONCEPTS
INDIAN AND WESTERN PERSPECTIVES
2 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
3
CHAPTER 1
Law
The private law, thus, refers to civil seen, issues about law are not as simple
society while the public law refers to as they appear. There is no agreement
the state. However, society has two about the nature of morality either. We
kinds of law. A family cannot be isolated shall not go into what constitutes
from property and property is integrally morality. Here we shall only briefly state
related to the system of taxation, torts the relationship between law and
and contracts. It is for this reason that morality
some people believe that there can be There are people who believe that
no differentiation between different there is no connection between law and
types of law. morality. Law is something definite and
Whatever the distinction between objective and has nothing to do with
public and private law, the indisputable morality which is vague and subjective.
fact is that law is almost a universal According to them, law is not concerned
human need. No society can exist with values. Good and just are not
without a legal order. We need its subject matter. It is concerned with
institutions and a framework of rules what is and not with what ought to
and regulations to provide firmness to be. It is argued that moral concepts are
our mutual relations. Without law there essentially contested and in case of a
would be complete anarchy in society. dispute one is helpless. But in the case
That is why we regard Rule of Law as of law there are courts to adjudicate
the essence of civilised living. It provides and give a firm interpretation.
certainty to our relationships. It It is true that both the words do not
emphasises that laws ought to be mean the same thing. A thing may be
general in character so that there is no legally right and morally wrong. When
arbitrariness in their exercise. It also we say that an action is legal all that is
emphasises complete equality before meant is that it is in accordance with
law and equal conformity to law by the law of the day. When we say that a
officials and individuals. particular action is moral, all that is
Let us emphasise, however, that all meant is that it is in accordance with
laws are not conducive to human good accepted norms of the society. This
or protect our rights or help those who distinction helps us to differentiate legal
are the least advantaged by the system. and moral aspects of law.
In fact, there are laws, which tend to However, it should be clear that
destroy our freedom and humanity. sometimes moral and legal
Rowlatt Act of 1919 was one such law. considerations overlap. In fact, moral
It led to Jallianwala Bagh tragedy. considerations have influenced the
making or enforcement of laws and
LAW AND MORALITY conversely, morality itself has been
shaped by laws. Both of them interact
The relationship between law and with each other. As we have seen, we
morality is complex. As we have already are morally obliged to obey the laws of
LAW 7
our country. But if laws lose moral are collective moralities also which stress
aspect, they will not be effective. The on the social side of moral behaviour.
notions of value and rightness in the These moralities are also known as public
legal system are tied to its being moral morality. Some laws may offend our
in the eyes of the people. personal morality and we may have to
There is another sense in which decide on our own whether to obey such
morality is relevant to law. Whenever a laws or to offer resistence. Similarly, some
law is not clear, the judges use the laws may be incompatible with collective
concepts of natural law, equity and morality morality of tribes. However,
justice to decide the issue. Again, there there is a general agreement that as far
are situations when law has to as possible, the state should not attempt
pronounce judgement on moral issues. to enforce personal morality. As far as the
For instance, laws of marriage. In all public morality is concerned, the
cases law will have to decide in the relationship is complex. Sometimes law
context of the moral character of the embodies it. But at times we know that a
parties involved. In deciding cases of libel particular thing is against public morality
or slander the courts take moral and therefore we would not like the state
considerations into account. In fact all to enforce it. Lying is against all moral
courts insist on taking oath by principles but except in court on oath, it
witnesses. It will be meaningless if moral is not prohibited by law. It is not prudent
obligation meant nothing. Questions of to have laws which are difficult to enforce
good faith and moral intent keep arising or which are not likely to be followed by
from time to time. others at all. It is bad to pass laws which
Law is also used to protect and dont have the support of the majority.
enforce morality. At least that is the view Such a law will not only cause lot of
the ancient Indians took when they suffering in the process of enforcement
thought of law in the context of Dharma. but will also shake public faith in the
Law cannot be viewed in isolation. It is a effectiveness of the legal system.
part of society and is interwoven into its Sometimes law may be at variance
fabric. That is why law deals with with collective morality. In such cases the
murder, theft, perjury, incest, cruelty to question may arise whether we have a
animals. All these are prohibited by law moral obligation to obey such a law.
and are contrary to morality. What is However, law is necessary not merely for
considered as harmful depends maintenance of order but, at least in part,
generally upon the common values of a also for good life. It must be kept in mind
community. that law can and in some cases should
There are different views of morality. enforce morality; it should do so with
Many levels and stages of argument great care, otherwise morality becomes
come into play. There are individual rigid and loses its dynamism. Morality
moralities for which each individual must be dynamic. It must respond to
takes responsibility upon himself. There changes in society.
8 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 2
Liberty
fundamental sense of freedom, says Sir state. This is inconsistent with the view
Isaiah Berlin, is freedom from chains, of the state as a welfare institution
from imprisonment, from enslavement trying to create condition in which
by others. The rest is extension of this everyone will be able to realise his or
sense. her potential. The negative view does
Mill and others believed that unless not adequately take into account the
such an area is guaranteed to fact that poverty or lack of land, capital
individuals, civilisation cannot and political power are all grave
advance. We shall never know the truth. obstacles to realisation of our powers.
There will be no scope for originality or It does not see that these obstacles are
genuine moral courage. Mill argued an inevitable part of socio-economic
that society will be crushed by the system, and have to be removed by law
weight of collective mediocrity. for attaining the common good.
But this view of negative liberty
suffers from following grave drawbacks: POSITIVE LIBERTY
(i) Mills argument that without
The positive view of liberty implies two
liberty truth will not come out is
things:
not empirically correct. History
(i) It implies the right to participate
shows that love for truth grows
in sovereign authority. It is
even in communities where there
involved in answer to the question
is strict discipline.
Who is the source of control or
(ii) Liberty in this sense is concerned interference?. It accepts the
with area of control and not with individual self-direction as final.
its source. It is not necessary to It means ability to live according
have democracy to enjoy this to ones own conscious purposes,
liberty. An autocrat may leave his to act and decide oneself rather
subjects with a wide variety of than be acted upon and decided
liberty and yet be unjust or by others.
encourage inequalities. The
(ii) It implies freedom of rational self.
question who governs? is as
Rousseau and other idealists
important as the question How far
believed that man is rational and
does government interfere with
it is this which distinguishes
me?
human beings from other
(iii) The job of the state is reduced to creatures. They called this real
the minimum. The state is a self inasmuch as it identifies
necessary evil. ourselves with the social whole of
Herbert Spencer summed-up the which we are a part. Man can be
negative view where he said The state controlled for the fulfilment of his
exists because crime exists in society, real self. Rousseau gave us the
otherwise there would be no need of a concept of General Will which was
LIBER TY 11
and control. John Rawls argues preserved by it; only then it is fit to
that everyone should enjoy the contribute its best to the ever-flowing
widest liberty consistent with the stream of civilisation. A colonial
liberty of all. This he interprets to country, or a country perpetually
mean that we must do what we dependent on others, or which is ruled
can to ensure that even the least by others is like a dead body which has
advantaged will enjoy freedom as no life and vitality. Every society has its
a goal worth pursuing. This view own peculiar ethos, which can be
implies something like a Welfare developed only when it is not dependent
State. on others and when it has complete
(ii) Sufficient checks must be liberty to manage its own affairs. When
provided in the form of rights, rule Tilak declared, Swaraj is My Birth
of law and adherence to Right, he meant that so long as one
institutional arrangements of country is in the clutches of another, it
society. cannot develop according to its genius
(iii) There must be some area left to or realise its ends.
the individual in which the state Secondly, political liberty also
will not interfere without sufficient implies that the state or its agents shall
reasons. not use their powers to interfere or
control individual autonomy. It implies
creation of an atmosphere in which
TYPES OF LIBERTY
individuals will not live in fear of
There are three types of liberty persecution for holding beliefs or
political, economic and natural or expressing views contrary to what
moral. By political liberty we mean the holders of power at a particular time
maintenance of an atmosphere in which have. It also means rule of law as
the state does not interfere in an against the rule of human caprice.
individuals life without sufficient and The state should interfere only when
compelling reasons. Thus, the liberty it is absolutely necessary and is
of speech and expression must not be demanded by the happiness or interest
interfered with by the government, of the society at large. Indiscriminate
because any interference with it might interference, not warranted by the
muffle public opinion which stands for above considerations, destroys
truth. Without such an assurance our individuals freedom. It makes
liberty is of no avail. Political liberty has individual a mere puppet or a lifeless
two aspects it implies that society machine. Here we should bear in mind
shall not remain subservient to any that it is only when individuals are
other society. It would have complete made to feel that the state seeks to
autonomy to manage its own affairs. make their lives better that they obey the
Every society has its own peculiar and state. The moment this feeling
distinctive character which must be disappears, discontent, anarchy and
LIBER TY 13
decides whether the person can be set Social liberty implies freedom from
at liberty. orthodoxy or narrow walls of fanaticism
One important aspect of civil liberty or any social compulsion to make
is the freedom of speech and expression. people conformists. The majority has
It implies freedom to communicate ones a tendency to suppress the minority
thoughts to others. It implies freedom of and become tyrannical. In the past so
speech, freedom to print and to speak many great human souls have been
in public. It also implies freedom of sent to the scaffold simply because they
conscience, and enjoins all of us to held beliefs which were contrary to the
practice tolerance. We owe much of beliefs of the majority of members in
freedom of speech and expression to society. Indeed the tyranny of majority
ancient Athens. Our own law givers too can be much worse than the tyranny of
emphasised its importance. But in one man; for the former, if it chooses,
Athens it reached its high watermark. can penetrate into almost all the nooks
Socrates became the first martyr for its and corners of the life of individual.
sake. His life in a way exemplifies the Therefore, it is the responsibility of the
paradox of freedom. He was condemned state to remove obstacles in the way of
to death because he preached beliefs and an individual pursuit of autonomy and
ideas unpalatable to the government of free articulation of his faculties without
the day. He told his judges, Daily any fear.
discussion of the matters about which Economic liberty provides an
you hear me conversing is the highest opportunity to get all the basic things
good for man. He was of the opinion of sustenance, without depending on
that life in which there is no such the will of somebody else. Economic
discussion is not worth living. liberty is the backbone of a free society,
But Socrates was also aware of the human being who is to depend
responsibilities of a person who enjoys constantly on somebody else for the
freedom of speech and expression. It wants of tomorrow cannot be expected
cannot be used for libellous or seditious to adhere to any notion of civic virtue.
purposes. If Socrates promised silence He is likely to lose even the basic
and stopped perpetual discussion, the sediments of humanity. This applies as
jury was prepared to acquit him. But much to the state as to the individual.
I shall not change my ways, he said, A state which depends too much on
though I die a thousands deaths. He foreign assistance, sooner or later, is
upheld the freedom of speech and compelled to compromise its freedom
expression, but denied the right of for the economic advantage it gets in
sedition. Speaking of mans debt to his return. The experience of the countries
country, as he lay in prison, he told of Latin America is the best example.
Crito, that every person ought to respect Similarly, an individual who is
his country and submit to her and work constantly haunted by the nightmare
for her when she is in need. of hunger, disease and poverty cannot
LIBER TY 15
Such a situation will lead to anarchy in courts may be arbitrary. People can be
which no one except the powerful will punished for the crimes they have been
be able to exercise his freedom. We can alleged to have committed without
be absolutely free in a vacuum in which proper investigation. That is why
there are no other individuals. This is freedom from arbitrary exercise of
so because the moment there are other authority has been claimed from the
individuals we shall begin to coerce beginning or the government might
each other for the fulfilment of our have usurped power by insurrection or
demands and wishes. Therefore, law coup detat or there may have been
and liberty are closely connected. Law foreign power ruling over us. If the ruler
may be a necessary evil and we may is arbitrary or unlawful, it will be
aim at minimum of law, but it is an difficult for anyone to disobey. Unless
inescapable condition necessary to there are limitations, we lose our
secure freedom of all. capacity to resist unlawful or arbitrary
Some restrictions become necessary or immoral authority. We may be
to enhance our liberty. Sometimes law compelled to do a certain thing just for
restrains it in the name of public the fear of punishment like threat of
interest. The law of copyright, for death, torture or even of losing our job.
example, restrains mans freedom of It is for this reason that checks and
speech and expression because if there balances are created within the legal
were no such law, we would prevent system. Rights are secured and
authors from reaping the fruits of their immunities are granted so that citizens
labour. Similarly, restriction of freedom can know that there is nothing to fear
to secure equal treatment of all is one from government. We insist on rule of
such example. We insist that same price law and independence of judiciary.
be charged to anyone for buying the Rights prescribe the limits beyond
same articles. We do not encourage which the rulers cannot go. They define
people to open schools if they freedom of citizens vis-a-vis the
discriminate in the name of caste, government and are the most classic
religion, language or community. expression of freedom. They provide
But, as has been pointed out earlier, security against the exercise of arbitrary
not every law is conducive to liberty. Law powers. We cannot freely participate in
has often been abused. Not all laws are civic life unless we are free from
reasonable and just. Sometimes the coercion. It is for this reason also that
authorities may promulgate a law in we insist that the process by which law
good faith but the decision they have is administered should be proper.
made may be wrong or there may be Freedom from coercion except by due
no access to courts for justice so that process of law becomes the first
there is no procedure for dealing with condition of our being free in the larger
disputes except the will of the executive. sense of the term. The due process
Sometimes even the adjudication of the should be recognisable so that everyone
18 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
knows not only the decision but also to protect their own liberty. The French
as to how it is reached. This creates Revolution was one such case. Legal
confidence in the minds of citizens. The positivists may be right in normal cases
citizens will know that the authorities when they declare a law valid on the
cannot get them unless they have done ground that it is enforceable. But in
a wrong in terms of a specific law. I may abnormal situations we are reminded
be in the bad book of the police, but I of St. Augustine that states without
can be sure that I will not be punished justice are but rubber bands enlarged.
unless I have violated a definite law. Nazi system in Germany was effective
Citizens are not only free, but they but insane. The British rule in India was
must know that they are free. These effective but exploitative. In such
substantial as well as procedural situations we may be obliged to obey
safeguards protect people against the in the sense that if we do not, we shall
abuse of law. It is a need that has been be shot dead; but there is no moral
felt more in recent times with the compulsion to obey. As Rousseau
massive expansion of government pointed out, we are obliged to obey only
activities in all spheres of life. legitimate powers, which confirm to the
In the ultimate cases when the communitys sense of what is right and
system is abused, people claim right to lawful. And every law must conform to
rebellion and duty of resistance in order this requirement of legitimacy.
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 3
Equality
in which equally meritorious children others think that it increases the hold
are provided equal chance. Adequate of bureaucracy. This bureaucracy
opportunities mean that all shall have takes the place of the property owners.
conditions necessary for the Socialists, therefore, plead for
development of their personality. It decentralisation of economic along with
implies that a daughter of a poor man, political power.
if she has some special nature or talent, In a truly egalitarian society all have
will not be hampered by either the equal opportunities to satisfy their needs
status of her parents or for want of and realise their potential unaffected by
money. It recognises the value of political control, social discrimination
freedom and autonomy of the freedom and economic deprivation.
to pursue ones own life plan. But we
must have opportunities to pursue it. LIBERTY AND EQUALITY
Early liberals postulated absolute
right to property. But it has been As one can see, the general concept of
criticised on the ground that it does not liberty is inseparably tied to the
take into account the need to distribute concept of equality. Liberty is the
the resources of society. Without such condition of equality and vice-versa.
distribution the weaker sections cannot We can be free when we are
maximise their freedom. We have autonomous and self-determining and
realised, for instance, that protective we can be so only when we are equal.
discrimination in favour of the And yet people like Lord Acton believed
scheduled castes is necessary to make them to be incompatible. In his lectures
them equal and free. on liberty he declared that in the course
Liberals have emphasised political of the French Revolution the passion
equality. All should participate in the for equality made vain the hope of
political process as equals. For this freedom. But such a concept as that
some argue in favour of direct of Acton is based on misunderstanding.
democracy. Others think that since it Liberty does not mean mere absence of
is not possible in the modern states, restraint. It is a more positive thing. It
which are large in size, we should go in means to be autonomous and self-
for more and more decentralisation of determining. It implies that whatever
political power. autonomy I have will not prevent others
Marxists and Socialists, emphasise from equal autonomy. It implies that
economic equality. A few propertied we are all equally entitled to realise our
people should not decide the fate of all. capacities. Equality is the condition in
They criticise various kinds of which this takes place to the maximum.
inequalities in society because all these When we say that men have a right to
inequalities lead to concentration of liberty, we imply equal liberty or equal
power in a few hands. Some socialists claims. It is for this reason that equality
plead for nationalisation of all wealth, is often identified with justice. The
EQUALITY 21
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 4
Justice
other hand, deals with what is notion of justice. The case of preventive
right and what is wrong, what are detention without trial is an example of
our rights and what are our duties this. Justice, therefore, is concerned
as human beings, etc. Legal about the relationship between the
justice most of the time merely individuals and also relationship
protects and enforces these rights between the individuals and the
and duties. groups.
It does not mean that everything that (iii) Some people believe that justice
happens in a court of law is justice. It implies establishment of status
may be legally right but can be criticised quo. It seeks to protect freedom,
from moral angle as injustice. If a person and property of the
particular law fails to meet the individual. This is called
requirement of moral ideal of justice it conservative justice. There is
can be called injustice. Similarly, a another concept of justice which
system of administration can be called is called social justice. It seeks to
unjust, if it fails to meet the requirement reform society in accordance with
of justice as fairness. current idea of what is right or fair.
(ii) Justice on the one hand, is for the In our own times it seeks to bring
general order of society as a about changes in land
whole, and on the other it protects distribution and property right. It
the individual. Criminal law is the also seeks to prevent
best example. Its purpose is not discrimination on grounds of race,
merely to punish the criminal but sex, caste or creed so that there is
also to protect the fabric of society. equitable distribution of national
The individuals settle their claims resources and wealth. All courts
against one another in terms of tend to shift their emphasis from
punishment or compensation for time to time in order to suit the
the crime. But in the process, it is requirements of the people. Our
backed by the general desire of own Supreme Court has been
society to be protected from taking a very conservative position
harmful conduct. in property cases and very
This does not mean that social good reformative attitude in defence of
always takes precedence over the civil rights.
individual good. The system of justice However, in all cases the idea of
is supposed to stand for the rights of justice is equated with equity and
the individual. That the innocent should fairness. Originally both these terms
not be punished is the basic principle implied equality. Indeed, the notion of
of all civilised systems of justice. equality is in some sense central to any
However, there may be exceptional notion of justice. Our own constitution
situations like war when the state may accepts equality before law as one of the
force an individual to conform to its own fundamentals of the system of justice.
JUSTICE 25
In the history of ideas, there are two In Platos Republic too justice is
major concepts of justice: related to the social order. His idea of
(i) Numerical Concept of Justice justice in the soul is analogous to
(ii) Geometrical Concept of Justice justice in the state. In the individual it
consists in keeping balance between
(i) Numerical Concept of Justice different elements. It consists in giving
due satisfaction to different elements
It gives equal share to all. Jeremy such as appetite (labour class), courage
Bentham said, Everyone is to count for (warrior class) and reason (ruling class).
one, nobody for more than one. It Justice in the state, according to Plato,
means even unequal would be treated consists in harmonious order between
as equal. The Greek city states took the different social classes. When each class
rule so far that many offices were filled minds its own business and does the
by lot. The holding of an office did not job for which it is naturally fitted and
call for any special knowledge or does not interfere with the job of others,
qualification. Modern liberal there is justice in the state. The ancient
democracies are also based on this Indian concept of Dharma also had
principle. similar implications insofar as it
identified justice with harmony of social
(ii) Geometrical Concept of relations in terms of the principle of my
Justice station and its duties. Rights or
Plato and Aristotle favoured this privileges of different individuals flowed
concept of justice. It is a concept of from this principle of Swadharma.
proportionate equality. It means Most people, however, agree that
equal share to equals and unequal to justice as equity or fairness does not
unequals. It also means that mean strict equality. It is largely a
distribution of power and patronage matter of proportionate distribution in
should be proportionate to the worth terms of morally justifiable differences.
or contribution of the individual. As The state can discriminate on the basis
Aristotle put it, if flutes are to be of some classification. This classification
distributed, they should be distributed can be in terms of sex or need or merit
only among those who have the or ability. Justice in this sense is
capacity for flute-playing. Similarly, equality of circumstances. It means to
only those people should rule who are treat like cases alike and unlike cases
capable of ruling. In this concept of differently.
justice, benefits and responsibilities are Our Constitution has accepted
equated with the worth of recipient. equality before law as the basic
Numerical Justice is sometimes called governing principle. But this does not
democratic justice and geometrical mean that the judge should treat all
justice is equated with aristocratic alike. He will have to make a distinction
justice. between the innocent and guilty, sheep
26 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
and wolf. The judge has a right to make preferential treatment to the weaker
differences. The principle of fairness section of the society. For example, in
requires two things. our society there has been a widespread
(a) The judge should not be a practice of discriminating against the
respecter of privileges. He should scheduled castes. The state is now
not favour someone because entitled to discriminate in their favour.
one is rich and powerful and Without this kind of discrimination
punish someone merely because these people will not be able to lead a
one is poor. human life. Whatever the state does to
(b) The judge should discriminate secure them their rights is justice and
only in terms of relevant it is covered by the words equity and
differences. For example, in a fairness. The blacks in South Africa
criminal court the relevant were discriminated against. The state
differences will be ones guilt system there was unjust because its
or innocence. Similarly, for practices were morally unjustifiable.
appointment to teaching position There was no equality of any kind. The
the relevant difference would be strong discriminated against the weak.
ones capacity to teach. The system thus worked in favour of
All discrimination is not bad. the most advantaged section in society.
Sometimes law has to discriminate in The apartheid as it was practiced in
favour of some people to ensure larger South Africa is morally an offence,
good of society. Rawls would think that because it considers the powerful as
it is justice if the laws work in favour of superior to the less powerful on account
least advantaged. Most socialists and of the racial lineage. In India the caste
Marxists would identify justice with system, is bad not because it separates
eradication of exploitation of the weak different groups but because it
or the working class. Some identify it postulates a hierarchy in which some
with equality of opportunity. Others groups are considered superior to
consider satisfaction of basic needs as others on account of heredity.
basic to any concept of justice. There The object of protective
cannot be universal agreement about discrimination, however, is not to give
the areas where discrimination is just. special advantages to a particular
But if the state is doing something for section but to raise them to a level where
the least advantaged or weaker section they can take advantage of the principle
of the society, it is obvious that it is of equality of opportunity and compete
working for the betterment of the with other sections of society on equal
people. This is known as protective footing.
discrimination. The state, therefore, tries to remove
It implies discrimination in favour imbalances in social, political and
of the weaker and the backward economic life. It provides employment,
sections of society. It also implies giving maternity benefits, insurance against
JUSTICE 27
sickness and old age security. It tries and person to person. A refrigerator in
to fulfil basic needs as also to eliminate America is a basic need while in India
unjust inequalities. As per Laissez faire it may be considered a luxury when
the business of the state was only to millions live in dire poverty. But
hold the ring for the competition in the whatever the difference, there is a
society. Everyone was left to oneself. If consensus that there should be a
the weak perished it did not matter. But, fulfilment of basic needs of all before we
the welfare state implies that everyone can allow fulfilment of superfluous
has a right to fulfilment of ones basic needs of some. In our country people
needs. Fulfilment of these basic needs can obtain free medical aid in
is a matter of justice. government hospitals. But if they want
The Communist view of justice goes greater personal care and more
a step further. Marx declared from each facilities, they are expected to pay for
according to his ability, to each it. The view is that protection against
according to his needs. It means that disease is basic but not the extra
the burden should be distributed comforts of a private nursing home.
according to our capacity while benefits It is in this sense that social justice
be distributed according to our needs. becomes important. Plato and Aristotle
Merit does not come into the picture. were perhaps right when they talked of
The basic presumption is that all of us distribution in terms of needs, ability
will spontaneously work for the and capacities. There are different
common good and we shall be content spheres of justice. Each sphere has its
to receive whatever the society gives us own logic. Justice which is applicable
in lieu of that work. It expects all to to the realm of friendship is different
contribute consciously to common from justice in the realm of state. We
good and not for any private good and choose a friend according to our own
be satisfied with the rewards given by liking. We are sometimes partial to
the society. As we have seen earlier, there them. There is nothing wrong in that.
are problems with such a view. There This is all the friendship is about. But
is some selfishness in all of us and this we cannot be partial in the sphere of
view does not take that into account. state. Duty to act impartially is built into
The welfare idea of distributive the notion of equality before law.
justice has been put forward by a
combination of the socialists and the SOCIAL JUSTICE IN INDIA
liberals. It accepts that fulfilment of
basic needs of all is necessary. But once At the time of Independence in 1947,
these needs are fulfilled, the individuals India was one of the poorest countries
should be free to compete for greater in the world. It was largely a result of
benefits. People will differ about what economic stagnation under the British.
could constitute the basic needs. Their But another reason was the growth of
views will vary from country to country many patterns of inequalities based on
28 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
caste, class and religion. That is why we Special steps have been taken to
accepted the goal of social justice from improve the economic condition and
the beginning. The Preamble of the social status of the scheduled castes
Indian Constitution proclaims that the and scheduled tribes. Reservations
Democratic Republic of India stands have been made in the services. The
committed to securing to all its citizens state has positively discriminated in
Justice, social, economic and political. their favour by giving them
The state has provided for free preferential treatment in schools,
and compulsory education to colleges and employment. Posts have
children. Since independence various been reserved in favour of backward
programmes have been launched which classes also. The state has also made
aimed at tackling the problem of special provisions for the upliftment
poverty. For instance, the Maharashtra of the backward classes by reserving
Government had passed a legislation 27 per cent of government jobs
guaranteeing employment at a as recommended by Mandal
minimum rural wage there. The Commission. Awareness Generation
Antyodaya scheme aims at the Programme (AGP) undertaken by the
upliftment of the poorest by helping government aims at improving the
them to acquire income earning assets. conditions of women by creating
Various programmes like Farmer social awareness.
Development Agency Programmes have Inspite of all this India still
helped small farmers with holdings of remains one of the poorest countries
less than two hectares by giving them in the world. Disparities between the
special loans. The Five Year Plans have rich and the poor or in terms of caste,
evolved programmes of fulfilment of class, wealth and power are glaring.
minimum needs particularly for The legal process too is costly. Our
backward areas as well as backward budget on welfare programmes is also
people. The state has also taken not adequate enough. In order to
various steps to improve health and secure effective social justice, we shall
sanitation, housing and education. The have to work for speedy economic
state has tried to provide living wage, growth so that there are no financial
good conditions of work and reasonable constraints. We shall also have to
standards of living to all workers. In make a concerted effort to reduce
addition, some land reforms have been disparities by proper distribution of
implemented and efforts have been wealth and removal of inequalities of
made to contain growth of monopolies. all kinds.
JUSTICE 29
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 5
Human Rights
establishment of fascist, barbarous and meanings. First, human rights are those
aggressive regimes in some of the inherent and inalienable rights, which
countries could be seen in this era. are due to a person simply because of
Besides, the rise of national liberation being human. These are moral rights
movements in the colonies and which are derived from humanness of
movements of democracy and social every human being and they aim at
progress in various countries provided ensuring their dignity. Second, human
a framework for the popularisation of rights are those rights that pertain to
the theory of Human Rights in the legal rights. Legal rights are established
entire world. according to the law making processes
This period was also a witness to of societies, both national and
the most devastating wars in human international. In the modern world
history. It was during the closing years scenario both the moral and the legal
of the Second World War that the aspects of rights relating to life, liberty,
conceptualisation and articulation of equality and dignity of the individual
human rights in its proper perspective represent the core of Human Rights.
took place. The most significant feature Human Rights, common to all
of the new conceptualisation was its without discrimination, has found
universality. It was reflected in various propagation in almost all societies. The
declaration of the aims proclaimed by principle of equality of the human race
countries allied against fascism and can be found in virtually every culture,
militarism. It would be appropriate if civilisation, religion and philosophical
we endeavour to know the meaning of tradition. Yet, there has always been
the concept human rights. some justification offered by states and
societies for violation of human dignity
MEANING OF HUMAN RIGHTS and discrimination between the rights
of the people on various grounds. The
Like various other concepts of Political conflict between the concept of having
Science the term Human Rights has rights from nature, and the state
been defined and understood in denying it led to the theory of legal
different ways. But in general and in the rights. This means rights, to be secure,
ultimate analysis, human rights revolve must be recognised by the state and
primarily around the basic theme of guaranteed preferably through the
survival and well-being of human Constitution. It is a matter of concern,
beings and respect for human dignity that despite legal rights, various
and humanity. Human rights are those regimes have continued suppressing
minimal rights, which every individual and coercing their citizens, by denying
must enjoy by virtue of being a member them the proclaimed equality and
of the human society irrespective of any dignified human life. As such, there had
other consideration. Conceptually, been a growing belief that governments
the term Human Rights has two alone cannot be trusted to safeguard
32 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
the rights of people. It was felt that these To define the contents of Human Rights,
rights require both national and the UN in 1945 itself, created a United
international guarantee. The major National Commission on Human
pressure for the internationalisation of Rights. Its main task was to draw an
human rights gained momentum after International Bill of Human Rights,
the Second World War. During and defining the rights and freedoms
preceding the War, totalitarian regimes referred to in the Charter. The
grossly violated human rights in their Commission came out with a Universal
own territories as well as in their Declaration of Human Rights. On 10
occupied territories. These totalitarian December 1948 the General Assembly
regimes were also responsible for the of the United Nations unanimously
elimination of entire groups of people adopted the Universal Declaration of
because of their race, religion or Human Rights as a common standard
nationality. The experience of the War of achievement for all peoples and all
resulted in a widespread conviction that nations. It is because of this adoption
effective international protection of that 10 December is celebrated as
human rights was an urgent need of the Human Rights Day. Article 1 of the
time to secure international peace and Universal Declaration lays down the
progress. This conviction was philosophy of Human Rights. It states,
subsequently reflected in and reinforced All human beings are born free and
by the Charter of the United Nations. equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience
THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF and should act towards one another in
a spirit of brotherhood. The article thus
HUMAN RIGHTS defines the basic assumption as:
The United Nations Charter reaffirms (1) That the right to liberty and
faith in fundamental human rights, in equality is mans birthright and
the dignity and worth of human beings, cannot be alienated; and
in the equal rights of men and women (2) That because man is a rational
and of nations large and small. The and moral being, is different from
Charter makes repeated references to other creatures on earth and,
human rights and fundamental therefore, entitled to certain rights
freedoms. Article 1 of the Charter states and freedoms which other
that one of the aims of the United creatures do not enjoy.
Nations is to achieve international co- The Universal Declaration of Human
operation in promoting and Rights comprising a Preamble and 30
encouraging respect for human rights Articles defines certain rights which
and fundamental freedoms for all should be available to all without any
without any distinction relating to race, distinction of race, religion, nation,
sex, language or religion. gender, and colour.
HUMAN RIGHTS 33
and under the colonial rule. The boundary values. Also international
Declaration, however, was not a legally cooperation entails an obligation on the
binding document. To give legal part of states to fulfil in good faith the
sanction to human rights the General undertakings they have assumed on the
Assembly on 16 December 1966 basis of the Charter of the United Nations
adopted two Covenants: the and Universal Declaration of Human
International Covenant on Economic, Rights. It is in this context that in the
Social and Cultural Rights, and the present world Human Rights have
International Covenant on Civil and become an important international
Political Rights. The Covenants are issue. Their violation is considered not
legally binding treaties. Any state may just an internal matter of a state, but it
or may not become party to these. Upon concerns the entire international
agreeing to become parties to the community. There is also a view that
Covenants, states accept procedures for some big powers are misusing this
the implementation of articles, including concept of international concern and are
the submission of reports on their interfering in the affairs of other countries
compliance, in accordance with the in the name of protection of human
provisions of the Covenants. Apart from rights; this they are doing primarily to
fulfil their own vested national interests.
Universal Declaration on Human Rights
Therefore, Human Rights issue has
and two Covenants there are also a large
become a subject of serious debate.
number of other declarations,
Many countries are signatories to the
recommendations and conventions
Covenants and Conventions on human
adopted by the General Assembly. As
rights, which denotes that they have
has already been mentioned,
undertaken a pledge to implement
declarations and recommendations them. Therefore, it is responsibility of the
usually apply to all the members of the governments to protect and promote all
United Nations but do not have the same these rights. However, it is necessary to
legal force as the conventions, which are remember the distinction between
binding upon the states that have human rights as articulated in
become parties to them. international declarations and
Importance of Declaration, however, conventions, and those rights which are
is that it states a common laid down by the law of the country. The
understanding of all members of the latter can be enforced, if necessary,
human family and constitutes an through the intervention of the courts.
obligation for the members of the The record of the past half a century,
international community, This also since the adoption of the UN Charter, in
places human rights in a system of the implementation of human rights has
international cooperation. This implies been dismal. Despite the fact that the
that national borders put no limit to necessity of building an understanding
human rights; that by their very nature, and concern for making human rights
human rights represent trans- a reality had never been greater.
HUMAN RIGHTS 35
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 6
Dharma
In Gita, while exhorting Arjuna to society and at different stages of life and
act according to his Dharma, Krishna status. It could be different for men and
asks him to conquer his passion and women. It is indeed a network of
impulses as determined by his nature diversified but interrelated duties. It
and temperament, and follow his duty has to be defined in each case by the
(swadharma) in a spirit of equanimity. individual himself. Fourthly, while
Man does not know the working of fate. referring to the areas and operations of
He cannot also ensure that the results Dharma as ordained in the Vedas and
of his actions will be good always. But Smritis concerning four classes
he is totally autonomous insofar as his (chaturvarna), the law-giver Manu and
motives and reasoning are concerned. other exponents of Hindu philosophy
This autonomy imposes on him an have given a leading place to the
obligation to work for society. The text accepted conducts which were handed
enjoins the central meaning of the down from generations to generations
concept of Dharma in terms of duty to by the well-meaning persons of the
work for others. The totality of the community. An administrator has to
concept is embodied in Krishnas idea see that local customs are honourably
of nishkama karma. maintained and given proper
How then we decide the right course safeguards. Fifthly, we should not only
of action. It is suggested that first follow talk about Dharma in the context of
the customs of morality as embodied class or status and situation, we should
in the Vedas, Smriti and other also understand and implement it in
traditional sources of moral life. the context of time and age. Lastly, the
Dhar ma covers a wide range of most important aspect of Dharma is
meaning. The Manu Samhita discusses the inclusion of the spiritual purpose
various characteristics of dharma. In of life within its ambit. Every creation
usage, the term dharma refers not only has a spiritual beginning as well as end.
to qualities and natural characteristics The Dharma is related to four ends of
of things; it also refers to the highest life. These are: Dharma, arth, kama
virtue and spiritual efforts. It also talks and moksha. Dhar ma is the
about what one should or should not controlling factor, arth and kama are
do. Secondly, dharma not only refers subservient to it and yet, it cannot be
to civil, religious and spiritual matters, divorced from pleasure or prosperity.
it also talks about general behaviour of Dhar ma is superior because it
individuals, as personal habits like regulates all our activities in the interest
cleanliness, sanitation and civic of all. It is a positive concept; it is an
consciousness, good behaviour, enunciation of the highest possible
courteous and polite ways of conduct, ideal; it pertains to self-realisation and
and even subjects of common sense. soul-emancipation.
Thirdly, dharma can be understood Whenever there is a contradiction of
in different ways to different classes in different principles, the basic principle
38 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
has to be welfare of all (upkar). The to all its citizens irrespective of their
welfare of the larger group must take religion, caste or creed. The Indian
precedence over the welfare of a smaller Constitution, as you know, is emphatic
group. The good of the society is to be on this point. The right to religious
preferred to the good of the individual. freedom and equality before law are
The Mahabharata goes on to say that included in the chapter on
while an individual can be sacrificed for Fundamental Rights.
the sake of the village, village for the However, one thing is of paramount
sake of the state, the whole world may importance to know that behind a
be abandoned for the sake of the soul. secular state, there must be a secular
In the ultimate analysis, except two society to sustain it. This means that
virtues, truth (satya) and non-violence the members of the society should not
(ahimsa), the practice of all other only refrain from hurting the
virtues is dependent on a complex set sentiments of fellow members of their
of circumstances which includes religions, but also should respect their
individual nature and temperament as feelings. Secularism is, thus a positive
well as the status which one occupies concept. India has a long tradition of
in the society. Indeed, the oral life is tolerance and living in harmony with
not made up of a straight timber. their fellow-members.
Krishna lays down two general Against the above backdrop
principles in case of doubt. First, one dharma cannot exactly be translated as
must strive to follow the example of the English word religion. In our ancient
great men in similar situations in the tradition and culture Dharma, being a
past. Second, one must subordinate composite word, meant four things
personal interest to the welfare of together. It meant (1) righteousness,
society (loksamgraha). While Manu (2) duty, (3) lawfulness, and (4) rightful
summed up the concept of dharma in claims.
one word upkar. In the Western tradition the essence
of Dharma is captured by the motto My
DHARMA, STATE, LAW AND station and its duties. It means that
every one should discharge the
SOCIETY
functions of his station dutifully. In
The above description of Dharma Indian tradition this is the philosophy
makes it amply clear that although the of four classes (chaturvarna). For Plato,
concept of Dharma is not directly justice in an ideal state means division
related to either law or to the state, yet of labour and specialisation of
it has its influence on both. functions among the three classes of
You have already learnt about society. To him, an ideal state/society
secular state in your earlier class. By is comprised of three classes not on the
secular state we mean that the state has basis of birth, but on the basis of
no religion of its own. It gives protection inherent qualities of individuals. These
DHARMA 39
qualities are desire, valour (bravery), that there is always a choice between
and reason. Those in whom desire the more or the less. The sage
predominates they produce things for Markandeya thus declared that the
the entire community; in whom valour ways of the righteous are subtle,
predominates, they protect the state/ diverse and infinite. When life or
society, and in whom reason property or the moral principles
predominates they become the themselves are at stake, one may
Philosopher-Rulers or Philosopher- deviate from the basic position.
King. Thus, justice is to perform the However, in most cases the ground on
duty of ones class faithfully without which deviation is permitted is the
interfering in the functions of other welfare of all.
classes, and to specialise in the function The concept of Dharma, thus, is too
of his class (station). wide, and it is too idealistic. Despite its
Gandhi identified it with idealism, it is valuable in so far as it
compassion for fellow human beings emphasises the need for a moral order,
in distress. (You will study Gandhian which applies both to the states and to
views in one of the last chapters.) The the individuals. Just as individuals are
concept of Dharma, however, is vague. bound by moral rules, the states too
For example, a liberal might think that must conform to moral principles.
right to property is necessary. A Some ancient texts point out that a king
communist might argue against this. who discards dhar ma loses both
The principle of ahimsa is valuable. No righteousness and merit. To sum up,
one would dispute the importance of the philosophy of dharma affirms life
the adage ahimsa paramo Dharma and enjoins us to look at it in terms of
but in actual practice it is admitted all its complexities.
EXERCISES
1. Explain the importance of Dharma in our social, political and civic life.
2. Explain the ancient Indian concept of Dharma.
3. Do you agree with the statement that the concept of Dharma is vague and
idealistic? Explain with illustrations.
4. Explain Dharma as highest ethical, social and civic virtues.
5. Write short notes on :
(i) Secularism ;
(ii) My station and its duties ;
(iii) Chaturvarna.
6. Swadharma and Students, write an essay.
UNIT II
STATE AND THE CITIZEN
CHAPTER 7
Rights and Duties:
Meaning and Relationship
Bentham believed. Since rights are the before the emergence of civil society, the
conditions necessary for the law of nature, it is claimed, established
development of individual personality, a system of reciprocal claims and
these are those principles from which obligations in the form of natural rights
the state laws derive their own validity. and duties. The state of nature was
A state is to be judged by the conditions conceived by him to be a vast network
it is able to create for its citizens for their of reciprocal claims and duties. The
development; and those conditions are rights which man enjoyed in the state
called Rights. A purely legalistic theory of nature, according to Locke, were
of rights, making it creature of the will rights permanent and indefeasible; the
of the state, as Laski points out, has most important rights being the right
nothing to contribute to the to life, liberty and property. But Locke
development of political philosophy. He as well as Hobbes never succeeded in
says: It merely tells us what in fact the delineating precisely the contents of
character of the state is. It will not tell what is nature. Sometimes the word
us whether rights recognised need natural is identified in their theory with
recognition. Rights are those claims what is inherent in the spontaneous
without which the individual cannot search of man for security or sheer
realise the purpose of his existence. acquisitiveness, or even, for means to
Since the state exists to secure human satisfy his aggressive instinct.
happiness, it can only succeed by Sometimes, it is identified with
recognising and granting to its citizens something which perfect reason would
such rights as are demanded by them prompt us to do. Indeed, the doctrine
as necessary to their development. of natural rights as rights enjoyed by
Sometimes there might be a conflict men in the childhood of the human race
between the rights recognised by the is a myth. It is based on the false
state and the rights approved by assumption that we can have rights and
society. A state might try to protect duties independently of society. Burke
certain privileges, as the ancient regime, very eloquently pointed out that we
for instance, did in France before 1789, couldnt enjoy the rights of civil and
which ultimately kindled the flames of uncivil state at the same time. The more
the French Revolution. In those perfect the natural rights are in the
circumstances the advocates of the abstract, the more difficult it is to
ideal rights would try to subvert the recognise them in practice.
foundations of the state in order to The rights are the products of social
replace it by a new one, which would circumstances. They cannot be
recognise the ideal claims of individuals, independent of society. Even if they are
as embodied in the social will. natural they are natural in the sense
Locke had advocated the theory of that they represent the ends we ought
natural rights, which people enjoyed in to pursue. They are natural in the sense
the state of nature. In the state of nature, that they are the conditions which
RIGHTS AND DUTIES : MEANING AND RELATIONSHIP 45
treated alike. However, the state can which has a free hand in muzzling the
make some classifications; the example freedom of speech in times of war or
is laws relating to reservations for the grave national emergencies is more
Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Such often than not, likely to abuse his
classifications must be reasonable and powers. Germany and Italy before the
ought to be justified on no other ground Second World War encountered such
but that it would lead to the public experiences and were destroyed in the
good. If a law deals with the members process. However, there are limitations
of only one well-defined class for the to the extent to which a government
sake of the common good, it is would allow this right to be exercised
supported to be upholding the in actual practice. No government
principle of equality. would allow a part of its population to
Third important right, which carry out subversive propaganda. It
must be guaranteed to the citizens, is could not obviously allow anybody to
the right to freedom of speech and go and tell the army not to fight while
expression. This would enable people the war is on. If it does so, it would cease
to ventilate their grievances and to be a government. Similarly, an
organise public opinion on issues of attempt to plead for a civil war or the
public concern. Conversely, it would disintegration of the country cannot be
also enable the rulers to know the mind tolerated by any government. The first
of the people. John Stuart Mill gave the duty of the state is to ensure its own
classic argument in favour of the integrity. If it does not survive, how will
freedom of speech and expression the right to freedom of speech and
when he asserted that even the whole expression survive? Moreover, freedom
mankind has no right to silence a single of speech and expression does not mean
dissenter, for who knows that he might right to make libellous charges or to
be in the right and all others in the excite the public to commit crime. If the
wrong. Human history is replete with right is thus abused, everyone affected
such examples when a single dissenter has a right to have a suitable remedy.
was ultimately proved to be in the right Fourth important right is the right
and others in the wrong. The cases of to work and be paid adequate wages.
Socrates, Christ and Galileo would Citizens have a right to employment and
forever remain reminders to us that the it is the responsibility of the state to
restrictions on our freedom of speech provide suitable work to them. The
and expression, on the ground that it right to work does not mean the right
might lead to blasphemy, or prove to do a particular work. It only means
contrary to the well-being of society, can some gainful work in society by which
be negation of individuals freedom. one can sustain and nurture ones own
Some thinkers opine that freedom self and dependants. It is, therefore, said
of speech and expression could not be that the state must pay compensation
denied even during a war. An executive if a person is unemployed during a
48 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
certain period of time depending upon the right to education does not mean
the ability of the person concerned. The equal education for all. Obviously
right to be paid adequate wages is a people differ in their capacities and
necessary corollary of the right to work. aptitudes and, therefore, all of them are
This right, however, does not imply not equally fit to get the same type of
equality of income. It only means education. The right to education also
conformity to the general principles of does not mean that everyone in society
equality. The right to work is a claim should be able to get university
on the part of the individuals to occupy education unless he is fit to do so. To
a definite place in society and perform teach the unfit and reluctant members
its attendant duties. of society would be a waste of human
Fifth important right of the citizen resources. What is necessary is that
is the right to health care. It does not everyone in society should have, a
mean that a state can make us free from certain minimum of education which is
disease. Such a freedom will ultimately necessary for him to be a citizen in a
depend on our own care of our health.
meaningful sense and be able to
If a man struck with paralysis refuses
perform necessary functions in society.
to take advantages of the facilities
Among other rights, which need
provided by the state, the state is not
enumeration, are the right to
held responsible for his health care. The
participate in the affairs of the state,
right to health means that anybody who
including the right to vote and the
is interested in keeping fit, as most of
us are, shall not be hampered for want right to contest elections, and to
of proper facilities. This means that it is form associations and to have
the responsibility of the state to ensure adequate hours of rest and leisure.
that adequate medical treatment is All these rights are necessary to
available to all. A state can do so by make the state a real political
ensuring that the poor patients are not community. They are necessary to
neglected or inefficiently treated. make us active citizens. However, the
Moreover, the state ought to provide extent to which these rights are
proper safeguards against the spread recognised will vary with the nature of
of contagious disease. This could be the state. In fact, the state often adjusts
done state through the schemes of the various rights in terms of their
vaccination, inoculation, etc. priority according to nature and the
Right to education is another problems of the society in which it has
important right for human to operate. In a society in which poverty
development. Citizens must be is writ large, economic rights will get
provided with proper means by which precedence over political rights; and in
they can follow public debates with a economically developed society a need
interest and participate intelligently in would be felt for a greater stress on
the social, political and cultural political rights. The mounting pressure
processes of then country. But again, for liberalisation of political life in some
RIGHTS AND DUTIES : MEANING AND RELATIONSHIP 49
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 8
The Changing Nature of State Activity
citizens, conserves natural resources, too inadequate to cope with the huge
takes steps to develop them and problem. The state had to undertake
distribute the national wealth so massive relief work.
developed among the citizens. Just as The essential functions of the state
the concept of order widens into have remained more or less the same. But
protection, protection in turn widens into in different times, different activities have
development of what has been protected been emphasised. In the nineteenth
and proper distribution of what has been century the state was looked upon
developed. In the nineteenth century the primarily as an organisation responsible
main function of the state was for law and order. This was the period of
understood to be providing stability and early liberalism in which liberals pleaded
security. It was also expected to provide for the cause of free market and
support to private enterprises at home maximisation of individual liberty. They
and abroad. The power of feudalism had considered the state as evil, yet the state
to be broken. was necessary to hold the very basis of
Today the function of the state is competitive society. It was supposed to
rather different. It still includes law and maintain law and order. These liberals
order and making of foreign policy; but stood for free market, free trade and non-
more than that, it includes management interference of the state in economic
and administration of vast services and affairs. The primary role of the state was
industries. This expansion in the role of to ensure that citizens, in their pursuit of
the state is the result of the industrial private goods and happiness, do not
revolution, rise of the nation-state, and harm each other. This view is known as
mass participation in policies. When the laissez-faire. It means: (1) absence of
state structure was not fully developed, paternal Government, and (2) freedom
people did not look to the state to create of trade and commerce.
conditions necessary for development.
But now people expect that the state WELFARE STATE
would alter inequalities arising out of the
distribution of land, wealth, income, race There is another view of the state activity;
and colour. The great Industrial it does not agree with the laissez-faire
Revolution in England and the Great view of limited State functions. It
Depression of 1929-1933 in America considers state as an agency to transform
led to grave economic crises. In the first society for the welfare of all. The state,
case there was concentration of wealth according to this view, is a pro-active
in a few hands. It led to impoverishment agent to ensure the welfare of the people.
of large mass of population which was John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946)
required to sell labour. In the second pioneered the idea in the context of the
case, economic crises led to severe events during the World War-II. The
unemployment. Private parties and emphasis becomes more on state playing
meagre state and local programmes were an active role in the field of public health
54 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
model is that state must ensure equal Globalisation often means different
opportunities to all. The earlier system things to different people. To some it
tried to achieve this in the terms of means a brave new world where there are
subsidies and reservations, which no barriers. For others it implies a process
created a patron-client relationship of neo-colonialism in which ultimately the
between the state, and others affected affluent countries will dominate.
by its decision (particularly the weaker Both the views take extreme
section). The new model insists that the positions. Globalisation is a process in
state must make maximum investment which effective integration of economies
in education and health. These are basic takes place through exchange of ideas,
requirements without which there information, technologies, goods and
cannot be equality of opportunity services. It is a product of the
essential for a fair justice in society. It is technological revolution in recent years
also being felt that the state must ensure and implies faster movement of capital,
that economic development does not goods and services as a result of increase
play havoc with our environment. In fact, in speed of communication. The essence
it is the duty of the state to provide basic of globalisation is connectivity.
safety net to all its citizens. Integration can have several dimensions
Against the above backdrop, a third social, cultural, political and economic.
view of state-activity has recently come There are apprehensions about
into prominence. This view has grown as globalisation. Most of the apprehensions
a result of globalisation on one hand and flow from the prospect of cultural and
frustration of workers with the welfare social integration endangering local
economy on the other. There is also a customs and traditions. But in todays
movement towards integration of world there is no escape from it because
economy of developing countries with the the impact of economic integration of
world economy. It is believed that market capital and finance, goods and services
economy can stimulate economic growth as a result of changes in technology, is
much better than what is possible under all pervading.
either welfare or socialist model. It is Here it will not be out of place to
argued that acceleration in the rate of mention that globalisation is not new
economic growth can reduce poverty by factor. It started much earlier. During
trickle down effect. It would also lead to 1870 to 1940, there was rapid integration
better political managements. of economics, in terms of trade. It was in
the inter-war period that tariff barriers
GLOBALISATION were created by states to protect local
industries. However, the pace of
As mentioned above, in recent years technology in recent years again
there is going on a process of accelerated interaction between states. In
globalisation; and this has affected the fact, most economists are of the view that
nature of state activity. international trade is in general beneficial
to all, including the developing countries. In any case, since globalisation is
For instance, the inflow of foreign capital linked to changes in technology, it is
has made a significant impact on East inevitable. The developing states can
Asian Economies. derive maximum benefit only by
If developing countries really want to negotiating as hard as they can in the
reap full benefit from the process of fields of environment, labour standards
globalisation, the states in these countries and protection of indigenous knowledge
will have to gear themselves up for and products. They will have to
different roles. They will have to ensure strengthen their patent regimes. But
that their economies reach full potential. more than that the state will have to
They are also required to regulate inflow ensure rapid economic development at
or outflow of foreign exchange so that home to be able to compete
sudden fluctuations do not create crisis internationally. For instance, while in the
in economy as it did in East Asian field of information technology, transfer
Economies recently. of skill would mean migration of
The process of globalisation has information experts, India will have to
given rise to the World Trade ensure that the advantage it has
Organisation (WTO) entrusted withthe continues, and is not undermined.
responsibility of evolving an appropriate Globalisation also makes it incumbent
framework of free and fair economic on the state to provide safety to the poor
transactions. While the developed and weaker sections of society by
countries have pleaded for free trade, they investing more in education, health and
have not always been fair in the sense environment. This will surely strengthen
that their trade barriers remain higher on equity at home and ability of the local
many products. For instance, in some of industry and production to compete
the developed countries major food abroad. Indeed, the states are
products have tariff barriers exceeding increasingly required to provide a human
100 per cent. face to the entire process of globalisation.
EXERCISES
normative approaches, and are value- 2. They advocate a new method. They
laden. Critics feel that value-laden insist upon survey research.
approach becomes too idealistic and 3. Their method is inter-disciplinary.
utopian, and therefore, it becomes It means they largely borrow from
impracticable. Science deals with facts the various disciplines of social and
and not with values. The protagonists of natural sciences.
modern approach, therefore, insist on the The central assumption of the
use of scientific method to explain matters behavioural approach is, to quote
relating to Politics. Scientific approach is Eulan, the root is man, Institutions
marked by an empirical investigation of only provide the framework in which
the relevant data. It uses the scientific political actors, (i.e. individuals), play
methodof observation, quantification, their respective roles, and it is this
generalisation and integration. interplay of political actors which
The modern approach finds its best determines the framework.
manifestation in behaviouralism. It The behavioural approach indeed
believes that observing the outward helps to provide us greater insight into
behaviour of political actors and political political process and how ordinarily
institutions, and analysing their behaviour individuals participate in it. But, while
by scientific method can acquire the it helps us to understand public
knowledge of political system. It draws opinion, pressure groups and elections
heavily upon sociological and and quantifies the results of our study,
psychological approaches. A leading it leaves us poorer when it comes to the
German sociologist, Max Weber has study of institutions or processes, which
treated sociology as the basis of politics. cannot be easily quantified. In a sense,
Similarly, those subscribing to both behavioural and institutional
psychological approach try to study and approaches represent two extremes.
explain political institutions and
phenomenon through psychological laws. (b) System analysis approach
The tools of psycho-analysis, they say, can
Input-Output and Structural-
be used to the study of political behaviour.
Functional approach
The behavioural revolution emerged
in the USA in the second quarter of the Systems analysis is one of the major
twentieth century. The main protagonists aspect of behavioural approach.
of behavioural approach are Charles Behaviouralists study Political system
Merriam, Heinz Eulav, Robert Dahl, and not the state. System is defined as
Lasswell, David Easton and Almond. the set of elements interacting with each
Some of the main characteristics of other. A political analyst tries to know,
Behavioural approach are: (1) The function of the political system,
1. They study politics by focussing (2) The structure of the political
attention on the Individual system, and
and Group behaviour and on (3) Under which conditions the system
political processes. works.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATVE POLITICS: TRADITIONAL AND MODERN 63
To know the above the system which any political system must perform
analysts use two types of approaches: if it is to survive. It examines the question
(1) Input-Output, and of survival and efficiency of institutions
(2) Structural-Functional in the context of political system as a
whole. The leading exponents of this
Input-Output approach approach are Almond and Powell who
have emphasised that the three
This approach is popularised by David
functions viz. political recruitment,
Easton. In his construction of an input-
political socialisation and political
output framework, Easton was
communication are concerned with the
influenced by the new communications
maintenance of the system. They have
sciences. Here the idea is that a political
also observed that these functions lead
system has feedback mechanisms, which
to the convertibility of demands
are capable of transmitting information
into policy making and policy
of a positive or a negative kind. Through
implementation. According to them,
feedback two types of input go to the
demands should be converted into
political system demand and support.
authoritative decisions and policies.
If there are too many demands that go to
The functional approach is an
the system and the government is unable
important attempt to broaden the
to cope with them, the system breaks
conceptual base of comparative politics.
down. But, if the people support its rules,
It provides a culture free approach to
the system survives and becomes stable.
comparative politics as it seeks to
Eastons analysis of the working of the
understand politics in terms of factors,
political system is dynamic, whereas
which provide stability and efficiency.
Almonds analysis is static.
However, it has been criticised to be too
conservative an approach. It is argued
The Structural-Functional approach that it ignores the fact of conflict and
It is a response to the failure of change in political life, specially in the
the institutional approach. The context of the developing countries. In
Institutional approach studies these countries, because of the
comparative politics in terms of study of prevalence of perpetual poverty, people
institutions such as legislature, executive are consequently interested in the
and judiciary. Its assumptions are that process of change rather than stability.
these institutions are more or less stable This can hardly be accommodated in the
with fixed boundaries. This analysis, it is functionalist framework.
argued, is not adequate in explaining
situations, which are constantly in a (c) Marxist approach
process of change, especially in the world It will not be out of place here for you to
of developing countries. Since know about the Marxist approach,
institutional arrangements in these which is basically different from both
countries are fluid, the important issue traditional and modern approaches.
is to identify certain political functions Marxism provides a powerful historical
64 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 10
Political Socialisation, Political Participation
and Political Development
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 11
Modes of Representation
EXERCISES
sections indeed believed that economic humanity did not have to live in
inequality was not only inevitable but conditions of poverty and squalor. State
also positively good for all concerned. was required to bring about conditions
In the second phase, this doctrine in which there were chances of equal
was modified in the later half of the development of all. Ranade favoured the
nineteenth century by thinkers like J.S. idea that the state must redistribute
Mill and T.H. Green. They believed that wealth in society by providing equality
the interests of the individuals were tied of opportunity and prospects of full
to social interests. They linked up the employment to all.
idea of the individual good to the This new version of liberalism rightly
common good. Green recognised the emphasised that whenever the
existence of people who enjoyed less individual found social experience
liberty than was enjoyed by slaves in frustrating, one had a right to expect
the ancient world. It was noticed that that the state would come to its rescue.
the rich were becoming richer and the Society must provide opportunities not
poor proportionately poorer. As a result merely for increase of wealth but also
of Industrial Revolution, monopolistic for development of total human
tendencies began to emerge. Control personality. The concept of welfare state
over economic life appeared to be is a product of this line of thinking. In
passing into the hands of a few 1930s, Roosevelt initiated New Deal
economically powerful persons. Programmes on similar lines. The
Both Mill and Green, and Ranade governments were expected to ensure
in our own country, realised that each the end of domination by a property
individual was entitled to equal owning bourgeoisie and maximise
opportunity. All of them moved to and individual opportunity. They discarded
fro between the individual and the the concept of free market as a
community. Green insisted that guarantee of economic efficiency. The
individual freedom and fulfilment were invisible hand may have importance
attainable only through society. There in a system of equal competition but it
is a work of moral liberation, pleaded did not have much relevance to an
Green, which society, through its economic system in which there was
various agencies is constantly carrying grave inequality. The decisions of a very
on for the individual. These liberals small number of business houses
pleaded that the problem of affected the life pattern of all
distribution demanded an active individuals.
interference of the state in the economic The welfare state thus tried to make
life of society. The state was a education widely available. It regulated
community of communities. It was hours and work, wages and working
expected to enforce standards of conditions of labour, tried to curb
cleanliness and health. It was expected employment of children in factories and
to ensure that large masses of monopolistic tendencies in economy. It
84 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 13
Socialism
does not ensure the selection of the best. capitalism as immoral because it
The children of the rich have condones and even glorifies greed and
opportunities which are often denied to avarice.
those of the poor who thus start life The terms Socialism and
with initial disadvantage. Such a Communism are often used
condition of inequality is dangerous to interchangeably. That is largely
the stability of the state. Such inequality because of the powerful influence of
destroys initiative and is therefore Karl Marx and yet one must distinguish
inhuman. between the two because communism
has become distinct ideology with a
(d) Ideal of Service certain set of mixed doctrines, whereas
Socialism emphasises the responsibility socialism still remains largely a
of all citizens to the common good or tendency, a label for a wide variety of
general welfare. It protests against the doctoring. Communism in a sense is
harsh materialism and individualism of also a variety of socialism. We will
classical liberals. A capitalist society discuss it in detail in the next chapter.
produces ugly conditions. It insists on Suffice is to say that communism, as
too much specialisation. It deprives the articulated by Marx, is based on a
artisan of his pride in his work. In the certain view of what human history will
feudal period the craftsman used to be, whereas socialism is more a moral
make a complete thing all by himself. It imperative; it deals with, what it ought
used to be a matter of joy for him to to be. Socialists are also aware of the
find a reflection of his creative potential within capitalist
endeavours in it. But now man has been arrangements towards the greater
reduced to the status of a cog in the equality. They all reject the dictum of
machine. Instead of producing a the dictatorship of the proletariat. For
complete thing, he only produces a them, the revolution is not inevitable or
small pan of it. He may not even know necessary. Gradualism is the
where the part he has produced would watchword of democratic socialism.
fit in. He becomes no more than a link Necessary and relevant reforms can be
in chain of production. But he is further made within the existing democratic
condemned to live in slums or to be framework.
condemned to stand in the market for Further, Marxism pinned its faith in
weeks or months with the hope that his a violent revolution. Marx did concede
labour will be needed. He feels the possibility of a peaceful change in
disgusted under these conditions of countries like Great Britain. But, on the
modern industry. The worker ceases to whole, he thought that overthrow of the
be a human being. It is this feature of capitalist system would not be possible
the capitalist society against which without violence because no ruling
Marx, Ruskin, Morris, Laski and class gives-up power on its own.
Gandhi spoke. Gandhi denounced Democratic socialism, on the other
90 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 14
Marxism
society, the bourgeoisie. and finally the any property but are much larger in
classless society of the future. This will number and yet, are perpetually
be the culmination of human progress exploited by the bourgeoisie. In course
and lead to mans complete of time, the conflict becomes intense
emancipation from exploitation of man because the workers live below the
by man. Thus, with change in mode of subsistence level. They are unable to
production, social framework itself buy goods, which the industrial system
changed in the process and a new social produces.
formation comes into existence. It is The state at a particular time is in
objectively rated to be superior to the the hands of the economically dominant
earlier social formation because it class. Political power is the function of
brings relations of production in line economic power. As economic power
with change in forces of production. shuffles from feudal class to the
bourgeoisie, the system of kingship
(iii) Class Struggle gives way to the representative
Marx emphasises the existence of a democracy which is controlled by
permanent condition of social conflict entrepreneurs. The ideology of divine
between economic classes (haves and right of kings gives place to modern
have-nots). The changes in technology liberalism. The ideology is used to
and specialisation of functions lead to consolidate the domination of the
differences in status, wealth and dominant class on the structure of
political power. New economic classes power, specially law, police and judicial
emerge. Some own means of apparatus. The state becomes an
production, others live by them. Very instrument in the hands of the
soon there is an inevitable conflict economically dominant class to exploit
between these two antagonistic classes. the working class.
Marx and Engels wrote in the
(iv) Critique of Capitalism
Communist Manifesto All hitherto
history is the history of class struggles. The most enduring part of what Marx
The conflict is there because those, who wrote, specially in Das Capital was his
own the means of production, exploit critique of capitalism. Any other writer
the workers poor economic conditions in its moral fervour and systematic
to their own advantage. They give analysis has not surpassed it. He
minimum possible wages to the argued that the basic contradiction in
workers and extract maximum the capitalist system is that while, on
possible labour. In the capitalist society, the one hand, it increases
the society comes to be divided into two interdependence of works as a result of
antagonistic classes, viz. bourgeoisie the development of factory system, on
or those who own property and the the other, it leads to concentration of
proletariat or those who do not own economic power in the hands of private
MARXISM 95
interests of society. The state alone while workers were capable of trade
provides a framework for better and union consciousness, they did not have
organised living. It alone reconciles our the urge to develop a revolutionary
claims and counter-claims. In any agency helping them to have it. In the
efficiently functioning system, the absence of the agency all that the
particular interest must be limited by workers wanted was an increase in
some consideration of public good. wages through the mechanism of
Without it the system would tradeunion activity. The revolutionary
disintegrate. The regulation of special consciousness could only be brought
interest is one of the most important about by a class of professional
functions of the state activity. In fact, revolutionaries, the avant garde who
Marxism did not have a theory of state. operate from without. The class of
Lenin had to invent one in order to professional revolutionaries would find
create a framework of order in Russia. its expression in the party. He, therefore,
Indeed, capitalist system was bad substituted active intervention of a
enough. And it was only with the help highly disciplined party for objective
of political power that it could be forces of Marxian history.
changed, modified or replaced. It is the Lenin also tried to explain why
state, alone which can stand for the socialist revolution, as Marx had
general good. A capitalist state might predicted, had failed to materialise in
be replaced by a proletarian one, but the West. In 1916 Lenin published
all the same we do require a state in the Imperialism: The Highest Stage of
sense of machinery entrusted with the Capitalism in which he argued that
task of coordination in society. monopoly capitalism inevitably leads to
national and international cartels of
LENIN AND MAO trusts and monopolies. He was
convinced that the basic tendency of the
The country where the first Marxist capitalist system was the same. What
revolution took place was Russia and had happened to obscure this was the
the ideological leader was V.I. Lenin fact of acquisition of colonies by the rich
(1870-1924). In a pamphlet what is to countries. These countries brought raw
be done? (1902), Lenin repudiated the materials from their colonies and sold
doctrine of the inevitable decline of finished products to them. This had led
capitalism. Marx had believed that to internationalisation of surplus
changes in economic system would value and increasing prosperity of the
automatically lead to changes in the capitalists. The capitalists tried to share
super-structure of society and politics. their spoils with workers of their
He had declared that while handmill respective countries by giving them
gives us a feudal society, the steel mill increasing concessions in working
gives us a capitalist one. Lenin did not conditions and more wages. This was
accept this doctrine. According to him, an outcome of their concern for their
98 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
own safety. These concessions had growth of 8 per cent. But the state of
produced a petty bourgeoisie illusion revolutionary idea did not last long.
among workers. It had created a false Both Russia and China like all societies
consciousness among labour leaders which preceded them, developed their
who had turned themselves into labour own ruling classes obsessed with power
aristocracy, corrupted by high wages towards greater bureaucratisation and
paid to them from the outcome of the party control. Both bureaucracy and
exploitation of colonies. They developed party tried to secure to themselves
vested interests in the maintenance of certain privileges and since there is a
the status quo. fusion of party and the state, the former
Lenin prophesied that revolution has complete control over society. Stalin
was most likely to occur in Russia, abolished even intra party discussions
which was the weakest link in the and reserved the final right of
capitalist chain. interpretation to himself. Once the
In China Mao Ze Dong was largely ideology was institutionalised it was
responsible for the revolution. He ritualised and tended to be identified
created peasant-based armies. Once in with status quo.
power, he tried to bring about basic People have begun to realise that
industrialisation and increase in while the goals of communism had an
agricultural production through element of nobility about them, the
collectivisation. Marx had seen system as a whole failed to create an
communism coming in the wake of institutional mechanism against the
advanced capitalism. Mao saw misuse of power. Power in itself is not
communism essentially as bad. In fact, in certain situations it can
communisation of productive process be a source of positive good. Problems
and elimination of private property. He of poverty sometimes require active
tried to combine Marxism with specific, state intervention. But in the absence
natural characteristics of China. His of proper safeguards in the form of a
emphasis was on politicisation rather proper system of accountability, the
than professionalisation. leaders or the party and bureaucracy
assume the sole right of decision-
TENSION IN CONTEMPORARY making, settling all problems in the
name of the people, and in some cases,
MARXISM
even in opposition to them. Every attack
Marxism in Russia was able to create a on freedom is baptised in the name of
framework necessary for the ideology or class.
achievement of a modern state of a As a result, the Communist
different nature. It was able to bring Movement drifted towards a decline,
about necessary changes in the age-old which was discernible for the first time
pattern of society and create an when a rift between the Russian and
industrial system leading to national Chinese communists came on surface.
MARXISM 99
Soon after 1960, problems began to itself. With the decline of the Soviet
emanate and unpopular situations Union the communist/socialist system
arose in the communist socialist collapsed in the European countries
countries of Eastern and Central one after another. The economy of all
Europe. On the other hand, during the these countries was in a shattered
seventies, trend towards Euro- condition. In Russia, the prices of
communism led by the Communist consumer goods registered a 350 fold
Party of Italy adopted a reconciliatory shoot up and ninety per cent of the
attitude supporting parliamentary people were thrown below the poverty
institutions and reforms rather than line. Therefore, a change in the political
revolution. Rapid changes took place system brought in its train a quick
in Eastern Europe, as well as in China transformation in economy. Changing
and Russia. trends in the forces of marketism,
In China, movements for a larger openness in economies and shifting
democracy were launched in 1979 and emphasis on privatisation were
1986. In June 1989 several agitators increasingly visible. Even in the
were shot dead at the Tiananmen Communist/Socialist China, there are
Square during a students rally. In the clear indications of liberalism and
Soviet Union reform movement initiated openness in economy. These
by Mikhail Gorbachev marked the developments have compelled the
beginning of the end of the communist Marxists to give a deeper thought on
movement not only in Europe but the organisation of social relations. Now
almost the world over. Ultimately in a question is being raised whether
December 1991, the Soviet Union was Marxism has been a dogma for the
disintegrated. The disintegration of the liberation of mankind. Its relevance as
Soviet Union did not mean the an alternative ideology before the world
disintegration of the Marxist ideology is no more unquestioned.
EXERCISES
1. Define Marxism.
2. Explain the theory of Historical Materialism.
3. Is Marxism relevant today?
4. Discuss Lenins contribution to Marxism.
5. Write short notes on:
(i) Dialectical Materialism;
(ii) Theory of class struggle;
(iii) Classless society.
100 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
CHAPTER 15
Fascism
infallible. It cannot be disputed. Hence, example, the employer was the leader
representative democracy has no place of the factory and the workers his
in a Fascist system. It must be replaced followers. It is for this reason that
by the government of the leader and communists hated fascists. They
others appointed by the leader. The thought the equation of the employer
leader alone can provide corrective to the leader and workers to the
measures to what is happening in followers in the German Labour Code
society. Fascists called their leader was nothing but a smoke screen to hide
Duce and the Nazis Fuhrer. the totalitarian designs of the
capitalists. For them fascism was the
THE DOCTRINE last desperate attempt of capitalism to
save itself, it was not so much
It is a doctrine, which believes that the capitalism in decay as capitalism
state is not subject to any moral laws. fighting for life. Fascism adopted a clever
The state is the supreme custodian of posture. It dissolved all working class
morality itself. It is the supreme organisations. It also limited the
community. Mussolini is always right
initiative of the employers. It accepted
was one of the maxims of the party,
capitalism and yet stressed its
whose motto was To Believe, To Obey,
subordination to the ideal of welfare
To Fight. In this, slogan, Fascism
state. Hitler declared that it was the
virtually identified itself with an
duty of the state to see that capital
important element of Christianity. It
remains the servant of the nation. Both
considered religion as the manifestation
of the deepest in man. It sought to tried to advance their own idea of
defend and protect it. This view largely corporate state. Based on Hegels
explains the cordial relations Mussolini concept of three classes the
had with the Pope. Extreme Nazism tried agricultural, the industrial and the
to create a state church but did not universal or governing, Mussolini
succeed much. argued that these classes were not
Fascism rejected democracy based antagonistic in the Marxian sense but
on the rule of the majority. It denied that were complementary to each other. Each
numbers alone can govern by means class was accepted by the state as
of periodical consultation. The having the right to pursue its own
receptivity of the masses is very limited, welfare. Labour must do its job, the
their intelligence is small. The principle employers theirs. The third element,
of equality is replaced by the principle that is party, must govern both. Both
of one man leadership or the workers and capitalists are subservient
Nietzschean doctrine of the superman. to it. It was hoped that such a state
The pattern of democracy is that of a would abolish class conflict and create
pyramid balanced on its apex. harmony.
This principle is supposed to apply The doctrine of political and moral
to all branches of life. In industry, for supremacy of the state meant the rise
FASCISM 103
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 16
Gandhism
and did more than anyone else for the VIEWS ON DEMOCRACY
improvement of their status.
Gandhi also did not like the In Hind Swaraj (1909), Gandhi had
political democracy as it prevailed in taken an extremely negative view of the
the West. He dismissed liberal value or role of the institutions of
democracy as a fish market in which modern civilisation, namely, the
people compete for their self-interest. parliament, law-courts, the police, the
He of course believed that the military, machinery, hospitals,
government ought to be based on the railways, etc. These institutions of
consent of the people but he, hated to modern civilisation, he said, were
see the state as the rule of the selfish divorced from morality, whereas, by
individuals. According to him, contrast, the tendency of Indian
democracy, as practised in Britain, civilisation is to elevate the moral
was bad because it believed in being. Accordingly, in place of the
counting heads. Those who used institutions of modern, western
51per cent votes ruled. He wanted that civilisation, he put forward an
in a democracy the weakest should alternative ideal of real home
have the same opportunity as the ruleviz, self-rule and self-control by
strongest. He complained that the individuals in accordance with the
democracy had come to mean party spiritual values of truth and non-
rule, or to be more exact, rule in the violence.
hands of the Prime Minister who often However, within a year of his active
lacks honesty of purpose. In it, he held involvement in mobilising the Indian
that each party thrives on bargains masses into the freedom struggle,
regardless of their consequences Gandhi made a partial revision of his
for all. earlier views on the institutions of
His reaction against the industrial modern civilisation. That revision was
civilisation, which he detested as due not only to his active involvement
immoral, had also a pragmatic in the freedom struggle but also to the
reason. Ours is a predominantly rural criticisms which many political
society. Most people depend on thinkers and political leaders had
agriculture. He thought that the made of Gandhis booklet. At any rate,
introduction of labour-saving devices within about a year of his final return
in such a society would play havoc to India from South Africa in 1915,
with life of the people. However, with Gandhi came to adopt a rather positive
advancing age his opposition to attitude toward the institutions of
technology decreased. He began to modern life, including the parliament,
welcome any technology which did law-courts, machinery, railways and
not increase unemployment and hospitals. Rather than dismissing
destroy village craft and the simplicity them outright as he had done in his
of village life. Hind Swaraj, he now reluctantly
108 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
included them in what he called his him, while the west prized brute force,
pardonable programme for the the ancient Indian society glorified kings
attainment of parliamentary swaraj . who considered their own swords as
As to the organisational features of inferior to the sword of ethic.
parliamentary swaraj, Gandhi He postulated a non-violent state
preferred it to be a village-based, based on the willing consent of the
decentralised set-up, in which all but people and representing the near
the lowest level of government was to unanimity in society. He was convinced
be indirectly elected by the immediately that if India was to evolve along non-
lower level. This decentralised, village- violent lines, it would have to
based model of parliamentary/ decentralise power because
democratic swaraj was not the model centralisation as a system is
that was favoured by the Congress and inconsistent with a non-violent
adopted by the Indian Constitution. structure of society. He was not only
The Constitution, however, does against centralisation of political power
incorporate some so-called Gandhian but was also against the centralization
institutions such as the village of economic power. He was against
panchayats. Moreover, the personal and industries based on large-scale
civil liberties as well as the democratic production and later large-scale
rights components of the liberal- control. In a centralised state, Gandhi
democratic political philosophy of the thought, there was bound to be a
Constitution are basic to Gandhis own conflict between the rich and the poor.
moral-political philosophy. Decentralisation, on the other hand,
would make people responsible and
FREEDOM AND THE STATE non-violent. It would foster feelings of
co-operation.
Gandhi looked upon an increase in the Gandhis ideal state would be
power of the state with the greatest fear. completely self-regulated. In such a
All increase in the power of the state, state, he thought, everyone would be
according to him, was detrimental to his own ruler. He will rule himself in
individuality. For him the state such a manner that he will never be a
represented violence in a concentrated hindrance to his neighbour. It is for this
form. He said: The individual has a reason that he admired Ramrajya
soul, but the state is a soulless machine, which personified the idea of self-help,
it can never be weaned from violence to sacrifice, and discipline. He even
which it owes its existence. He too regarded Abu Baker and Hazrat Uman
believed in Swaraj as a condition in like Rama. But he was quite aware that
which the individual would be complete it was not possible to create such a state
master of himself. He often contrasted in the immediate future. One of the
spiritual dominance of Indian society obstacles were inequalities in which
with political dominance of the West. For few roll in riches and the masses do not
GANDHISM 109
get even enough to eat. Therefore, he puts in certain amount of labour with
conceded that in the present a conscious productive aim . He
circumstances coercion could be used believed that one should not eat even a
in extreme cases. But he was convinced single meal without doing some labour.
that a state is good in which people are He thought that such an attitude would
governed the least. foster economic independence, which in
He thought the village Republics turn will make us fearless and increase
working in terms of panchayats would the national character.
develop the spontaneous energies of the He totally, repudiated property. He
people while training them in co- always thought that property was an
operative action. He, therefore, pleaded obstacle in the realisation of God. After
that panchayats should be given full a theft he quoted a verse of Premchand
powers. Every village had to be self- to Gangabehari: It is a blessing that
sustained and capable of managing its chains have broken, it will be easier for
own affairs. Gandhi praised this system me to find Shri Gopal. Gandhi was,
because in it everyone knows his wants however, conscious that such a position
and also realises that no one should was impractical. He, therefore, declared
want anything that others cannot have that if property is lawfully acquired,
with equal labour. He summed up his it is entitled to protection.
society thus: 1n this structure It is in this context that he called
composed of innumerable villages, there upon the Capitalists and Zamindars to
will be ever widening, never ascending become trustees. He argued that they
circles. Life will not be a pyramid with should regard tenants and workers as
the apex sustained by the bottom But co-proprietors. The zamindar should
it will be an oceanic circle whose centre hold his Zamindari or industry in trust
will be the individual always ready to for them. He admitted that absolute
perish for the circle of villages, till at last trusteeship was unattainable. But he
the whole becomes one life composed was convinced that if we strive for it we
of individuals. He further said that the would go a long way in realizing a better
outermost circumference will, not wield state of equality on earth than by any
power to crush the inner circle but will other method. For him change of heart
give strength to all within and derive its was the answer.
own strength from it. How about state ownership? Isnt
it better than private ownership?
FREEDOM AND ECONOMIC Gandhi admitted that it was better but
he rejected it on the grounds of
ORGANISATION
violence. He was convinced that if the
Like Marx he put emphasis on labour. state suppressed capitalism by
He believed it to be the real wealth violence, it will be caught in the coils of
which gives rise to money. He thought, violence itself, and will fail to develop
The real owner of wealth is one who non-violence at any time. But if the
110 POLITICAL SCIENCE : KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 17
Humanism
EXERCISES
1. What is Humanism?
2. Explain M.N.Roys idea on Humanism.
3. Explain the following in relation to Humanism:
(i) Materialism;
(ii) Individualism;
(iii) Democratism.
117
Glossary
Bourgeoisie: A French term signifying citizen class. The term is frequently used by
Marxist socialists to denote the class of proprietors (other than
agricultural), capitalists, manufacturers, merchants, persons with a business of
their own and members of liberal professions as opposed to the proletariat who
live only by selling their labour.
Ethnocratic: Evaluating other races and cultures by criteria specific to ones own.
Elite: Denotes a group of persons who hold positions of eminence in society. The
term is also used to refer to leaders in different fields, e.g. political elite.
Fabian Socialism: Originated in 1887 under the auspices of the Fabian Society. It
proposed the use of existing party and parliamentary machinery for accomplishing
practical reforms gradually leading to the elimination of poverty and establishment
of community ownership of means of production and land.
Human Rights: Human rights are modern and secular version of natural rights.
Human beings are entitled to these rights by virtue of being human. These rights
are universal in the sense that they belong to all humans and not only to members
of any particular state, race, religion, gender or other group.
Proletariat: In ancient Rome the propertyless class which served the state by
producing children proles. However, the most prevalent usage refers to the one
developed by Marx. In this sense proletariat includes those in industry, agriculture
and intellectual posts who live by the sale of their labour, as opposed to the capitalist
bourgeoisie.
Trade Union: An association of wage earners of workers for the purpose of improving
their conditions and protecting their interests.