The Go Programming Language Specification

The
Go Programming Language Specification
1. 0
2. -Introduction 1
3. -Notation 2
4. -Source code representation 3
1. -Characters 3.1
2. -Letters and digits 3.2
5. -Lexical elements 4
1. -Tokens 4.1
2. -Semicolons 4.2
3. -Identifiers 4.3
4. -Keywords 4.4
5. -Operators and Delimiters 4.5
6. -Integer literals 4.6
7. -Floating-point literals 4.7
8. -Imaginary literals 4.8
9. Rune literals 4.9
10. -String literals 4.10
6. -Constants 5
7. -Variables 6
1. Type-Types 6.1
2. -Method sets 6.2
3. -Boolean types 6.3
4. -Numeric types 6.4
5. -String types 6.5
6. -Array types 6.6
7. -Slice types 6.7
8. -Struct types 6.8
9. -Pointer types 6.9
10. -Function types 6.10
11. -Interface types 6.11
12. -Map types 6.12
13. Channel-Channel types 6.13
14. Type-Properties of types and values 6.14
15. Type-Type identity 6.15
16. -Assignability 6.16
8. -Blocks 7
9. -Declarations and scope 8
1. -Label scopes 8.1
2. -Blank identifier 8.2
3. -Predeclared identifiers 8.3
4. -Exported identifiers 8.4
5. Uniqueness of identifiers 8.5
6. -Constant declarations 8.6
7. Iota-Iota 8.7
8. Type-Type declarations 8.8
9. -Variable declarations 8.9
10. -Short variable declarations 8.10
11. -Function declarations 8.11
12. -Method declarations 8.12
2
The Go Programming Language Specification
10. -Expressions 9
1. -Operands 9.1
2. Qualified identifiers 9.2
3. -Composite literals 9.3
4. Function literals 9.4
5. -Primary expressions 9.5
6. Selectors-Selectors 9.6
7. -Method expressions 9.7
8. -Method values 9.8
9. -Index expressions 9.9
10. -Slice expressions 9.10
11. type-Type assertions 9.11
12. -Calls 9.12
13. -Passing arguments to ... parameters 9.13
14. -Operators 9.14
15. -Arithmetic operators 9.15
16. -Comparison operators 9.16
17. -Logical operators 9.17
18. -Address operators 9.18
19. Receive-Receive operator 9.19
20. -Conversions 9.20
21. -Constant expressions 9.21
22. Order of evaluation 9.22
11. -Statements 10
1. -Terminating statements 10.1
2. -Empty statements 10.2
3. Labeled statements 10.3
4. -Expression statements 10.4
5. Send statements 10.5
6. -IncDec statements 10.6
7. Assignments 10.7
8. if-If statements 10.8
9. switch-Switch statements 10.9
10. for-For statements 10.10
11. go-Go statements 10.11
12. select-Select statements 10.12
13. return-Return statements 10.13
14. break-Break statements 10.14
15. contine-Continue statements 10.15
16. goto-Goto statements 10.16
17. falthrough-Fallthrough statements 10.17
18. defer-Defer statements 10.18
12. Built-in functions 11
1. Close 11.1
2. -Length and capacity 11.2
3. -Allocation 11.3
4. slicemapchannel-Making slices, maps and channels 11.4
5. -Appending to and copying slices 11.5
6. map-Deletion of map elements 11.6
7. -Manipulating complex numbers 11.7
8. panic-Handling panics 11.8
9. Bootstrapping 11.9
13. -Packages 12
3
1. -Source file organization 12.1

2. Package-clause 12.2
3. Import-Import declarations 12.3
4. package-An example package 12.4
14. -Program initialization and execution 13
1. ""-The zero value 13.1
2. package-Package initialization 13.2
3. -Program execution 13.3
15. Error-Errors 14
16. Run-time panics 15
17. -System considerations 16
1. -Package unsafe 16.1
2. Size and alignment guarantees 16.2
4
The-Go-Programming-Language-Specification
Go
fmt.Println("Don't be shy, just try!")
5
-Introduction
Introduction
This is a reference manual for the Go programming language. For more
information and other documents, see golang.org.
Go.golang.org
Go is a general-purpose language designed with systems programming

in mind. It is strongly typed and garbage-collected and has explicit
support for concurrent programming. Programs are constructed from
packages, whose properties allow efficient management of
dependencies. The existing implementations use a traditional
compile/link model to generate executable binaries.
Go.
.,./
.
The grammar is compact and regular, allowing for easy analysis by

automatic tools such as integrated development environments.
,,:.
-Introduction 6
-Notation
Notation
The syntax is specified using Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF):
Production = production_name "=" [ Expression ] "." .

Expression = Alternative { "|" Alternative } .
Alternative = Term { Term } .
Term = production_name | token [ "" token ] | Group | Option | Repetit
Group = "(" Expression ")" .
Option = "[" Expression "]" .
Repetition = "{" Expression "}" .
Productions are expressions constructed from terms and the following operators, in increasing
precedence:
| alternation
() grouping
[] option (0 or 1 times)
{} repetition (0 to n times)
Lower-case production names are used to identify lexical tokens. Non-terminals are in CamelCase.
Lexical tokens are enclosed in double quotes "" or back quotes ``.
The form a b represents the set of characters from a through b as alternatives. The horizontal
ellipsis is also used elsewhere in the spec to informally denote various enumerations or code
snippets that are not further specified. The character (as opposed to the three characters ...) is not a
token of the Go language.
-Notation 7
-Source code representation

Source code representation
Source code is Unicode text encoded in UTF-8. The text is not
canonicalized, so a single accented code point is distinct from the
same character constructed from combining an accent and a letter;
those are treated as two code points. For simplicity, this document
will use the unqualified term character to refer to a Unicode code
point in the source text.
UnicodeUTF-8(UTF-8Unicode).Go
(:Unicode),.
(: \u00e9\u0065\u0301 go,Googl Groups
).,Unicode.
Each code point is distinct; for instance, upper and lower case
letters are different characters.
Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a

compiler may disallow the NUL character (U+0000) in the source text.
:,NUL(U+0000)
Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a

compiler may ignore a UTF-8-encoded byte order mark (U+FEFF) if it
is the first Unicode code point in the source text. A byte order
mark may be disallowed anywhere else in the source.
:,BOM.BOM.
-Source code representation 8

-Characters
Characters
The following terms are used to denote specific Unicode character
classes:
Unicode
newline = /* the Unicode code point U+000A */ .

unicode_char = /* an arbitrary Unicode code point except newline */ .
unicode_letter = /* a Unicode code point classified as "Letter" */ .
unicode_digit = /* a Unicode code point classified as "Decimal Digit" */ .
In [The Unicode Standard 6.3](http://t.cn/zRz14zg), Section 4.5

"General Category" defines a set of character categories. Go treats
those characters in category Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, or Lo as Unicode
letters, and those in category Nd as Unicode digits.
Unicode6.3,4.5 "General Category" .Go

UnicodeUnicode
-Characters 9
-Letters and digits

Letters and digits
The underscore character _ (U+005F) is considered a letter.
(U+005F)
letter = unicode_letter | "_" .

decimal_digit = "0" "9" .
octal_digit = "0" "7" .
hex_digit = "0" "9" | "A" "F" | "a" "f" .
-Letters and digits 10

-Lexical elements
Lexical elements
Comments
Comments serve as program documentation. There are two forms:
Line comments start with the character sequence // and stop at the end of the
General comments start with the character sequence /* and stop with the first
A comment cannot start inside a rune or string literal, or inside a comment. A
//
/ /
....
-Lexical elements 11
-Tokens
Tokens
Tokens form the vocabulary of the Go language. There are four classes: identif
Tokens Go.(,)
,(http://baike.baidu.com/view/1208327.htm)([
](http://baike.baidu.com/view/1208327.htm),go)
Go
-Tokens 12
-Semicolons
Semicolons
The formal grammar uses semicolons ";" as terminators in a number of productio
";"Go
When the input is broken into tokens, a semicolon is automatically inserted in

an identifier
an integer, floating-point, imaginary, rune, or string literal
one of the keywords break, continue, fallthrough, or return
one of the operators and delimiters ++, --, ), ], or }
To allow complex statements to occupy a single line, a semicolon may be omitte
To reflect idiomatic use, code examples in this document elide semicolons usin
-Semicolons 13
-Identifiers
Identifiers
Identifiers name program entities such as variables and types. An identifier i
identifier = letter { letter | unicode_digit } .

a
_x9
ThisVariableIsExported
= { | unicode } .
Some identifiers are predeclared.
-Identifiers 14
-Keywords
Keywords
The following keywords are reserved and may not be used as
identifiers.
break default func interface select

case defer go map struct
chan else goto package switch
const fallthrough if range type
continue for import return var
-Keywords 15
-Operators and Delimiters

Operators and Delimiters
The following character sequences represent operators, delimiters, and other s
token
+ & += &= && == != ( )

- | -= |= || < <= [ ]
* ^ *= ^= <- > >= { }
/ << /= <<= ++ = := , ;
% >> %= >>= -- ! ... . :
&^ &^=
-Operators and Delimiters 16

-Integer literals
Integer literals
An integer literal is a sequence of digits representing an integer constant. A
.0()0x0X()
a-f A-F 1015.
int_lit = decimal_lit | octal_lit | hex_lit .

decimal_lit = ( "1" "9" ) { decimal_digit } .
octal_lit = "0" { octal_digit } .
hex_lit = "0" ( "x" | "X" ) hex_digit { hex_digit } .
42
0600
0xBadFace
170141183460469231731687303715884105727
-Integer literals 17
-Floating-point literals
Floating-point literals
A floating-point literal is a decimal representation of a floating-point const
..
eEshi ji d s fa g d d
f (:.25 2. )(:2 1)
float_lit = decimals "." [ decimals ] [ exponent ] |

decimals exponent |
"." decimals [ exponent ] .
decimals = decimal_digit { decimal_digit } .
exponent = ( "e" | "E" ) [ "+" | "-" ] decimals .
0.
72.40
072.40 // == 72.40
2.71828
1.e+0
6.67428e-11
1E6
.25
.12345E+5
-Floating-point literals 18
-Imaginary literals
...
-Imaginary literals 19
Rune literals
...
Rune literals 20
-String literals
...
-String literals 21
-Constants
...
-Constants 22
-Variables
...
-Variables 23
Type-Types
...
Type-Types 24
-Method sets
...
-Method sets 25
-Boolean types
...
-Boolean types 26
-Numeric types
...
-Numeric types 27
-String types
...
-String types 28
-Array types
...
-Array types 29
-Slice types
...
-Slice types 30
-Struct types
...
-Struct types 31
-Pointer types
...
-Pointer types 32
-Function types
...
-Function types 33
-Interface types
...
-Interface types 34
-Map types
...
-Map types 35
Channel-Channel types
...
Channel-Channel types 36
Type-Properties of types and values

...
Type-Properties of types and values 37

Type-Type identity
...
Type-Type identity 38
-Assignability
...
-Assignability 39
-Blocks
...
-Blocks 40
-Declarations and scope

...
-Declarations and scope 41

-Label scopes
...
-Label scopes 42
-Blank identifier
...
-Blank identifier 43
-Predeclared identifiers
...
-Predeclared identifiers 44
-Exported identifiers
...
-Exported identifiers 45
Uniqueness of identifiers
...
Uniqueness of identifiers 46
-Constant declarations
...
-Constant declarations 47
Iota-Iota
...
Iota-Iota 48
Type-Type declarations
...
Type-Type declarations 49
-Variable declarations
...
-Variable declarations 50
-Short variable declarations

...
-Short variable declarations 51

-Function declarations
...
-Function declarations 52
-Method declarations
...
-Method declarations 53
-Expressions
...
-Expressions 54
-Operands
...
-Operands 55
Qualified identifiers
...
Qualified identifiers 56
-Composite literals
...
-Composite literals 57
Function literals
...
Function literals 58
-Primary expressions
...
-Primary expressions 59
Selectors-Selectors
...
Selectors-Selectors 60
-Method expressions
...
-Method expressions 61
-Method values
...
-Method values 62
-Index expressions
...
-Index expressions 63
-Slice expressions
...
-Slice expressions 64
type-Type assertions
...
type-Type assertions 65
-Calls
...
-Calls 66
-Passing arguments to ...

parameters
...
-Passing arguments to ... parameters 67

-Operators
...
-Operators 68
-Arithmetic operators
...
-Arithmetic operators 69
-Comparison operators
...
-Comparison operators 70
-Logical operators
...
-Logical operators 71
-Address operators
...
-Address operators 72
Receive-Receive operator
...
Receive-Receive operator 73
-Conversions
...
-Conversions 74
-Constant expressions
...
-Constant expressions 75
Order of evaluation
...
Order of evaluation 76
-Statements
...
-Statements 77
-Terminating statements
...
-Terminating statements 78
-Empty statements
...
-Empty statements 79
Labeled statements
...
Labeled statements 80
-Expression statements
...
-Expression statements 81
Send statements
...
Send statements 82
-IncDec statements
...
-IncDec statements 83
Assignments
...
Assignments 84
if-If statements
...
if-If statements 85
switch-Switch statements
...
switch-Switch statements 86
for-For statements
...
for-For statements 87
go-Go statements
...
go-Go statements 88
select-Select statements
...
select-Select statements 89
return-Return statements
...
return-Return statements 90
break-Break statements
...
break-Break statements 91
contine-Continue statements
...
contine-Continue statements 92
goto-Goto statements
...
goto-Goto statements 93
falthrough-Fallthrough statements
...
falthrough-Fallthrough statements 94
defer-Defer statements
...
defer-Defer statements 95
Built-in functions
...
Built-in functions 96
Close
...
Close 97
-Length and capacity

...
-Length and capacity 98

-Allocation
...
-Allocation 99
slicemapchannel-Making slices, maps

and channels
...
slicemapchannel-Making slices, maps and channels 100

-Appending to and copying

slices
...
-Appending to and copying slices 101

map-Deletion of map elements

...
map-Deletion of map elements 102

-Manipulating complex numbers

...
-Manipulating complex numbers 103

panic-Handling panics
...
panic-Handling panics 104

Bootstrapping
...
Bootstrapping 105
-Packages
...
-Packages 106
-Source file organization

...
-Source file organization 107

Package-clause
...
Package-clause 108
Import-Import declarations
...
Import-Import declarations 109

package-An example package

...
package-An example package 110

-Program initialization
and execution
...
-Program initialization and execution 111

""-The zero value

...
""-The zero value 112

package-Package initialization
...
package-Package initialization 113

-Program execution
...
-Program execution 114

Error-Errors
...
Error-Errors 115
Run-time panics
...
Run-time panics 116

-System considerations
...
-System considerations 117

-Package unsafe
...
-Package unsafe 118

Size and alignment guarantees

...
Size and alignment guarantees 119

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The Go Programming Language Specification

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The

Go Programming Language Specification

1. -Source file organization 12.1

fmt.Println("Don't be shy, just try!")

Go is a general-purpose language designed with systems programming

The grammar is compact and regular, allowing for easy analysis by

Production = production_name "=" [ Expression ] "." .

-Source code representation

Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a

Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a

-Source code representation 8

newline = /* the Unicode code point U+000A */ .

In [The Unicode Standard 6.3](http://t.cn/zRz14zg), Section 4.5

Unicode6.3,4.5 "General Category" .Go

-Letters and digits

letter = unicode_letter | "_" .

-Letters and digits 10

When the input is broken into tokens, a semicolon is automatically inserted in

identifier = letter { letter | unicode_digit } .

Some identifiers are predeclared.

break default func interface select

-Operators and Delimiters

+ & += &= && == != ( )

-Operators and Delimiters 16

int_lit = decimal_lit | octal_lit | hex_lit .

float_lit = decimals "." [ decimals ] [ exponent ] |

Type-Properties of types and values

Type-Properties of types and values 37

-Declarations and scope

-Declarations and scope 41

-Short variable declarations

-Short variable declarations 51

-Passing arguments to ...

-Passing arguments to ... parameters 67

-Length and capacity

-Length and capacity 98

slicemapchannel-Making slices, maps

slicemapchannel-Making slices, maps and channels 100

-Appending to and copying

-Appending to and copying slices 101

map-Deletion of map elements

map-Deletion of map elements 102

-Manipulating complex numbers

-Manipulating complex numbers 103

panic-Handling panics 104

-Source file organization

-Source file organization 107

Import-Import declarations 109

package-An example package

package-An example package 110

-Program initialization and execution 111

""-The zero value

""-The zero value 112

package-Package initialization 113

-Program execution 114

Run-time panics 116

-System considerations 117

-Package unsafe 118

Size and alignment guarantees

Size and alignment guarantees 119

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