Professional Documents
Culture Documents
i
ii
iii
. - 3
. Michelson-Morley 5
.
9
. 10
. Twin Paradox 12
. 18
. - 19
. 20
. 27
. 29
. 30
. Doppler 36
. 40
. 41
. 42
.
44
51
54
. 62
. Planck 68
.
77
. 83
. ? 85
. X 85
. Compton 89
. 95
iv
. 101
. - 106
. 107
. 110
.
111
. 113
. Bohr 116
. 118
. 122
. 125
. 127
129
132
.
140
. 141
. Heisenberg 147
. 155
. Schrdinger - 156
. Schrdinger 159
. 163
. 166
. 174
. 178
184
186
. 192
. Schrdinger 194
. 199
. 205
. 208
v
. X 212
. 217
. Fluorescence Photorescence 221
. 222
. (Holography) 228
229
232
. 238
. 244
. (van der Waals) 248
. 253
. 264
. Fermi 267
.
275
. 279
. 282
. 286
289
292
301
The Re
elativity
-
Michelson-M
M Morley
-
-
(Lorentz)
( )
Doppler
Isaac Newton (-)
Newton
(Special Relativity) Albert Einstein (-
)
Classical Physics
(Quantum Mechanics)
Albert Einstein
(physical universe)
. - (GALILEAN-NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY)
Einstein
(inertial reference frame)
inertial
frame of reference inertial reference frame
1
Concepts of Modern Physics
Arthur Beiser
Tata
McGraw-Hill
?
Maxwell 3
10 m. s
(ether)
c
cv
(
)
.
v c+v
c v
(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2
. v c
(a) c + v (b)
cv (c) (c
2
v 2 )1/ 2
(
)
.
c + v
-
-
. MICHELSON-MORLEY
(Michelson Morley)
3 10 m/s
10 (3 10 m/s)
Albertt A. Miche
elson
E
Edward W
W. Morle
ey
interferom
meter
Michelson
M
Michelson
M Morleyy
(ether wind)
Michelson
interferom
meter Arm 2
M
-
c v
M c + v
M c
M M
Telescop
pe
on-Morley
Michelso
.
Michelsson-Morleyy
(ether
( hyp
pothesis)
3 10 m. s
Albert Einstein
A
Albert Einsstein (1879
9-1955)
Ulm
E
Einstein
Einstein
E
Einstein
Michelson Morley
Michelson-Morley
ether
(ether hypothesis)
M M M M L
M M c v M c + v
/
/
L L 2Lc 2L v2 1
t1 = + = = (1 2 ) (.)
c v c + v c2 v2 c c
M M
-
(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2
L /(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2
2L
t2 = (.)
(c v2 )1/ 2
2
2L v 2 1 v 2 1/ 2
t = t1 t2 = (1 ) (1 ) (.)
c c2 c2
v / c << 1
2 2
1 1 1
v / c = x
2 2
Lv2
t = t1 t2 = (.)
c3
3 10 m/s
Michelson Morley 11 m
11 m 3 10 m/s
7.3 10 s
3 10 m/s
5.5 10 m
/
5.5 10 Hz
.
1.8 10 s
. H
7.3 10 s Michelson Morley
ether
ether
.
(POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL
THEORY OF RELATIVITY)
Einstein
The laws of Physics have the same form in all inertial reference frames.
The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of
reference.
10
Einstein (special theory of relativity)
Einstein
(general theory of relativity)
()
3 10 m/s
Michelson-Morley
Einstein
. (SIMULTANEITY)
Albert Einstein
11
12
(b)
Einstein
!
( )
13
( )
(proper time)
( )
v
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) LASER
(
)
LASER (
)
t p
LASER c
LASER
distance traveled 2d
t p = = (.)
speed c
2 2
.
(a) (b) (
)
14
LASER
v
LASER
vt
t
2
LASER
laser
ct vt
2 2
= +d
2
2 2
2d 2d
t = 2 2 =
c v v2
c 1
c2
2d
t p =
c
t p 1
t = = t p = (.)
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
t
t p
t f t p
(time dilation)
3.0 s
0.95c ?
0.95c
0.95c
3.0 s
15
1 1
t = t p = t p = t p
(0.95c) 2
1 0.902
1
c2
= (3.2)(3.0 s) = 9.6 s
30 m/s
5 h
5 h
5 h
= (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 1/ 2
1 1 1
1 10
1 3 10 m/s
1
3 10 m/s
1 1 ; 1
1
1 10 1 10 1 5.0 10
2
1
t = t p = (1 + 5.0 1015 )(5.0 h) = 5.0 h+2.5 1014 h=5.0 h+0.09 ns
0.09 ns
Twin Paradox Twin
Paradox ()
16
Speedo Goslo
Speedo
20
0.95
Speedo 0.95
Goslo
42 62 Speedo
13
?
?
Goslo
Speedo
Speedo
Goslo
. Twin Paradox
(GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)
17
GPS (global
positioning system receiver)
(atomic clock)
GPS
15 GPS
GPS 4 km/s
GPS
1
10
GPS 4000 m/s:
1
1
1
4 10 m/s
1
3 10 m/s
1
1 1.8 10
1 1 1
1 1
18
1
1 1.8 10 1 9 10
2
1 9 10 1 10
1 10
1000
. (LENGTH CONTRACTION)
(proper length)
L = Lp 1 v2 / c2 (.)
L p
v
L = L p 1 v 2 / c 2 L
L p
(
)
19
120.0 m
20.0 m
0.99c
?
v 2 1/2 (0.99c) 2
L = Lp (1 2 ) = (120.0 m) 1 = 17 m
c c2
20.0 m
30 m/s
4.3 m
30 m/s ?
v2 1/2 1 v2
L = Lp (1 2 ) Lp (1 2 )
c 2c
2.2x10-14 m
. - (FOUR-DIMENTIONAL SPACE-TIME)
0.65 7: 00
7: 15
20
15
20
20 cm
15 cm
(Galilean Transformation Equations)
(inertial frame)
( )
Principle of Galilean Relativity
The laws of mechanics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference.
21
(a) (b)
.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(inertial system)
( x, y, z, t )
22
S S . S
xx ' S
S S
t = 0
S
- ( x, y, z, t )
S ( x' , y ' , z ' , t ' )
S
S
S S
-
(Galilean Space-Time Transform Equations)
dx
dt S
S dx ' dt
dx ' = dx vdt S v
x ' = x vt
y' = y
(.)
z'= z
t'=t
.
P
S S' S'
S
S ( dt = dt ' )
dx' dx
'
= v u ' x = ux v (.)
dt dt
23
u ' x u x
x S S' (
u
v
)
LOREN
NTZ (Loren
ntz Transfo
ormation Eq
quations)
v 0
Lore
entz
S
S
Hend
drik A. Lo
orentz (
-)
Einstein
E
Loren
ntz
Lo
orentz
t ' = t
Lorentzz
t'
S t
x
Lorentz
z
x ' = ( x vt )
y'= y
(.)
z'= z
v
t ' = (t 2 x)
c
.
Lorentz
Albert Einstein
n
v v
x = ( x '+ vt ')
y = y'
z = z'
v
t = (t '+ 2 x ')
c
24
Lorentz
Lorentz
Lorentz
v
u 'x
dx '
u'x =
dt '
dx ' = (dx vdt )
v
dt ' = (dt dx)
c2
dx
v
dx ' dx vdt dt
ux =
'
= =
dt ' dt v dx 1 v dx
c2 c 2 dt
dx
ux
dt
ux v
u'x = (.)
uv
1 x2
c
y z
uy uz
u' y = u ' z = (.)
ux v uv
(1 2 ) (1 x2 )
c c
u ' y u ' z v
Lorentz
25
ux v c u ' x ux v
ux = c
v
c (1 )
cv c = c
u '
x = =
cv v
1 2 1
c c
ux u ' x v v ux u ' x :
u 'x + v
ux = (.)
u 'xv
1+ 2
c
0.75c
0.85c
v = 0.75c ( )
ux = 0.85c
ux v 0.85c 0.75c
u'x = = = 0.977c
uxv ( 0.85c )(0.75c)
1 2 1
c c2
c
c
c
0.80c
26
0.70c
?
v = 0.80c
u 'x = 0.70c ux
0.70 0.80
0.96
. 0.70 0.80
1 1
c
?
: c
0.60
0.60
( )
0.60
2
. . .
. . 0.88 0.60 1
.
1.2 ()
27
. (RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM)
()
- p
- p m v v
mv
p= = mv
v2 (.)
1 2
c
v m v
= (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 1/2
mv
v c
F p
dp
F= (.)
dt
9.111031 kg
0.75c
v = 0.75c
me v (9.11 1031 kg)(0.75 3.00 108 m/s)
p= = = 3.10 10 22 kg.m/s
2 2
v (0.75c )
1 1
c2 c2
28
()
pclassical = mev = 2.05 1022 kg.m/s
50%
(Relativistic Mass)
(rest mass)
(relativistic mass)
(.)
( ) 1
. . . . .
/
29
1 /
1 /
1 / /
1 /
1 / /
(.)
/
1
Milkey Way
30
( )
( 0) (
|
1
31
1 / 1
1 1
1
1
1
(.)
(.)
1 (.)
(.)
(.)
32
(.)
( Einstein )
/ (.)
c
2
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (mc 2 )2 (.)
p = 0 E = ER = mc2
(photon)
E = pc (.)
v = 0.25c
(eV)
0.511 MeV
me c 2 0.511 MeV
E= = = 1.03(0.511 MeV)=0.528 MeV
2
v (0.25c ) 2
1 2 1
c c2
3%
:
. (eV)
33
.
?
mp c2
E = 3m p c = 2
v2
1 2
c
1
3=
v2
1 2
c
1 v2 8
= 1 2
v= c = 2.83108 m/s
9 c 3
(eV)
.
K = E m p c 2 = 3m p c 2 m p c 2 = 2m p c 2 m p c 2 = 938 MeV
K = 1880 MeV
.
E = 3m p c 2
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (m p c 2 ) 2 = (3m p c 2 ) 2
p 2 c 2 = 9( m p c 2 ) 2 ( m p c 2 ) 2 = 8( m p c 2 ) 2
mpc2 (938 MeV)
p= 8 = 8
c c
= 2650 MeV/c
1.0 kg 0.6
2.5 kg
34
1.4 kW
()
?
1.5 10 m
1.4 kW. m
1 /
35
/ 1
1 1 | | 1
1 1
1
1 / 2
1 1
1
2 2
1.4
1.2
1.0
1
/
0.8
2
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.6
0
/
.
1.005 0.10
0.10 3 10 m/s
0.10
36
Doppler
Doppler
Doppler
1+ v / c
fobs = f source (.)
1V / c
c =
v = (+ -
)
V = (+ -
)
Doppler
37
Doppler
Dopp
pler
f source
:
1/
/ 1 /
1 / (.)
1 / 1 / 1 / 1 /
1 / 1 / 1 / 1 /
/ /
/ / (.)
38
:
/
/ /
/ /
(.)
Doppler
( 5.60 10 Hz )
( 4.80 10 Hz) Doppler
1 1 km/h
80 km/h
?
1 /
1 /
5.60 4.80
3.00 10
5.60 4.80
39
radar (radio detection and ranging)
(radio communication) Doppler
Doppler radar
(earth satellites)
!
Doppler (tool)
(spectral lines)
Doppler (Doppler shift)
()
(red shifts)
Hubble
Big
Bang
() Hydra 6.12 10 m/s
500 nm
?
/ /
40
1 /
1 /
6.12 10 m/s 0.204 500 nm
.
500 615 nm
.
(shift) 115 nm
2.9
1 /
1 / 1 /
mv
p =
v2
1
c2
m2v 2c 2
p 2c2 = (.)
v2
1 2
c
m 2 c 4 m 2 v 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 (1 v 2 / c 2 )
E pc = 2 2 2
2
= 2
= (mc 2 ) 2
v v
1 2 1 2
c c
?
?
41
p = mv
2
v
1
c2
E 2 = (mc2 )2 + p 2c2 0
0
0
0/0 0/0
E 2 = (mc2 )2 + p 2c2
0
()
(eV):
(eV) 1 eV
1
1eV 1.602 10 C 1.000 V 1.602 10 J
(
) (
)
Albert Einstein
42
Einstein
(Correspondance Principle)
0.10 0.10
1%
0.10
.
(ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM)
!
Albert Einstein
()
(relativistic effect)
10
(relativistically invariant)
a
b
43
1 /
I
(a)
II
I
iI
(b) I
II
II
iII
I
(c)
2 II
I
(d)
2 II
?
II
I II
( c)
II 2
II
44
II
I II
2
( d )
I
II
I
.
(THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY)
Einstein
(gravitation) (inertial property)
(Gravitational property) Fg = mg g
(Inertial property) F = ma i
(gravitational mass)
(inertial mass) ( mg = mi )
45
?
Albert Einstein
(general theory of relativity)
Einstein
. (a) (b)
. (a) (b)
(
)
46
Einstein
( )
laser
6000km
1 cm (
)
Einstein
1.
2.
.
Albert Einstein
47
Gamma
20 m
Albert Einstein
(principle of equivalence)
(Gravity and Light)
.
0.005 1.6 km
48
1 mile
(.) Einstein
(.) Quasar
100
49
(gravitational lensing)
quasars quasar
(massive object)
(gravity)
(black
holes)
. perihelion
(gravitational waves)
50
Pulsar Pulsar
Pulsar (binary system) 59
(ms) Pulsar (pulsar ) (orbital
period) 8
relativity
spiral
( )
51
1
1
(
)
( )
3 10 m/s
52
Lorentz
Lorentz
x ' = ( x vt )
y'= y
z'= z
v
t ' = (t 2 x)
c
0.10
(Milkey way)
1
-
1
1
53
54
. 2000 kg 20.0 m/s
1500 kg
10.0 m/s
. 20.0 m/s
40.0 m/s
)
)
)
. 1 m
0.500 m?
.
?
. 0.500
75.0 1
?
0.99 ?
55
0.350
. 1000 km/h 1
1 ?
. 0.950
.
4.42 Alpha Centauri
.
4.20 )
? )
Alpha Centauri ?
. 300 m 0.750 s
. 1.01?
.
20 m
19.0 m
) ? ) ? )
?
Lorentz:
. 0.75
0.95 ?
56
. 0.75
. 2.00 m
30 () 0.995
. Klingon 0.800
0.900
Klingon 0.100
Klingon ?
. ) 0.010
) 0.500 ) 0.900
.
/
.
() ) ?
) ?
. 90.0 m/s
? ( ( / )
.
0.500 0.900 0.900 0.990
57
. 0.95c ) )
)
.
) )
. 73 10 W
450 nm
3
solar cell
33%
solar cell
4
. 0.65
0.85
. 14000
.
180 000 kg
35 0.70
?
0.70
?
.
0.85
58
. 6.0 ( 1 =
)
2.50
)
(
)
?
. 20
.
?
. 0.100 MeV
1
1
1
.
1.2 10 m/s 2.4 10 m/s?
MeV/c
.
S
0.24
S
0.95
0.5 10 m ) ? )
? )
59
km/s ? )
0.24 0.5 10 m
0.95
.
0.800
Tau Ceti 12
Tau Ceti )
?
? )
Tau Ceti
? ?
.
)
) )
0 0
t ?
60
. ()
( )
?
Early Quatum Theory and Models of the Atom
Planck
Compton
-
Bohr
de Broglie
62
( Albert Einstein)
Max Planck
Schrdinger Heisenberg
. (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)
Faraday Maxwell
(
)
Maxwell
2.998 10 m/s (.)
63
(electric permittivity)
(magnetic permeability)
Maxwell
Protozoans
(Hz)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
(K)
1K 100K 10, 000K 10 Million K
. ()
390 750 nm
(ultraviolet) 10 400 nm
( http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/everyone/radio-astronomy)
Heinrich Hertz
Maxwell
Hertz
(detector)
64
Hertz
(reflected)
(refracted) (diffracted)
4.3
10 Hz 7.5 10 Hz
"
amplitude
(wave variable)
65
1
(destructive interference)
(.)
.
( ) ( )
a b
. a b
(
1
)
66
Thomas Young
(a pair of slits)
( .)
Young
Maxwell
.
Young
, ,2
, ,
67
Jame
es Clerk Max
xwell
Jame
es Clerk Maxwell
M (
-
)
Michael Faraday
Cambridge
C e (Cambrid
dge Univerrsity)
(ph
hysics off
color vis
ision)
M
Maxwell
(ringgs of Saturn
rn)
Maxw
xwell
Farada
ay
Maxwellll
"On
n
Fa
Faraday's Lines o
of Force
e"
Maxwelll
Cam
mbridge
Kingss
C
College
(Maxw
wells Eq
quations)
M
Maxwell
M
Maxwell
Heinricch Hertz
Maxwell
(viscosity)
y)
68
Maxwell Boltzmann
Maxwell
(treatise)
Maxwell
Cambridge Cavendish
Laboratory
Henry Cavendish Maxwell
Albert Einstein
Maxwell
Albert Einstein
Newton Galileo
. Planck (PLANCKS
QUANTUM HYPOTHESIS AND BLACKBODY RADIATION)
.
(
)
(
) 6000 K .
()
69
1000 K
2.90 10 m. K (.)
Hz
nm
500 nm
500 nm Wein
2.90 10 m. K 2.90 10 m. K
6000 K
500 10 m
70
32500 K
?
Wein
2.90 10 m. K 2.90 10 m. K
89.2 nm
32500 K
UV
(ultraviolet)
(
)
Planck
Maxwell
W.
Wein () Lord Rayleigh ()
Rayleigh
J. Jeans
Rayleigh-Jeans
71
,
(K)
Boltzman
Planck
Planck
6.626 10 J. s (.)
, ,
Max Planck
-
(quantum number)
quantum
discrete amount
countineuous
-
72
(infrared IR)
UV
UV
(thermal equilibrium)
(.)
73
( )
Planck
2 1 (.)
,
1
,
(solid angle)
Planck ( 6.626 10 J. s)
3 10 m/s
Boltzmann ( 1.381 10 J. K )
Kelvins K
StefanBoltzmann:
(.)
(
0 Kelvin
5.67 10 W. m . K Stefan-Boltzmann
74
(IR)
2
Stefan-Boltzmann
2m
( )
33
28 20
100 W
9 MJ
2000 kcal ( ) (basal metabolic rate)
40 35 kcal/ m . h
1700 kcal 2 m
50% 70%
Wein
(peak wavelength)
2.898 10 K. nm
9500 nm
305 K
9500 nm
Doppler
Doppler
2
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body)
75
1
1 cos
1
Intensity
4000 K
3000 K
2000 K
1 2 3 4
-6
Wavelength in micron (1 micron =10 m)
.
(.)
Boltzmann 1.381 10 J/K
76
B
Boltzmann
Ra
ayleigh-Jeans
( ) 0 (.))
Ma
ax Planck
Max Planck
P
Kiel
K
Munic
ich
Berlin
n
Municch
Professo
or
Kie
el
Kirchhoff
Berlin (University
ty of Berlilin)
(quan
ntum of action)
a (
Planck )
(spectrral distribu
bution)
Nobel
(q
quantized nature of
energy)
Planckk
Nobe
bel :
Pla
lanck
77
Erwin Nazis
.
(PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT
AND PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT)
Albert
Einstein
Max Planck
Einstein
1
packets quanta
Planck
Maxwell
Einstein
Albert Einstein
78
.
C
A
C
C
C A
C A
A
( ) A
(stopping potential retarding
potential) A
A
e
A
V
.
Albert Einstein
79
(.)
-
(cutoff frequency)
(work function)
Einstein
(.)
( 3.00 10 m/s)
(.)
(.)
80
(.)
(eV)
Cesium Cs 1.9
Potassium K 2.2
Sodium Na 2.3
Lithium Li 2.5
Calcium Ca 3.2
Copper Cu 4.7
Silver Ag 4.7
Platinum Pt 6.4
300 nm
2.3 eV
6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m. s
300 10 m
6.63 10 J
6.63 10 J 4.14 eV
10 J
1.60
1 eV
81
1eV 1.60 10 J =
= 4.14 eV 2.3 eV 1.84 eV
(cutoff wavelength)
(eV) (J)
10 J
2.3 eV 2.3 eV 1.60 3.68 10 J
1 eV
. J. . .
5.401 10 m = 540 nm
. J
7.68 10 m. s
350 nm
1.00 W/m )
) 0.50
1.00 cm ?
)
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
1 eV 2.2 eV
350 10 m 1.6 10 J
3.5 eV 2.2 eV
1.3 eV
)
Joules 5.68 10 J
/ 1.00 W/ m 1.00 10 m
1.76 10 1
5.68 10 J/photon
82
Burglar
(photocell) ( .)
(
)
UV IR
(
)
(soundtrack)
(photocell)
(smoke detector)
(photographic light)
absorption spectrophotometers
(film sound track)
(.)
(modulation)
photocell detector
(vacuum-tube)
photocell (semiconductor)
photodiode
83
450 nm ()
450 nm, 6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
4.4 10 J 2.8 eV
45 10 m
3 10 m/s (relativistic
particle)
/ 1
(
)
(.)
(.)
(.)
10
100 W
84
) 500 nm )
)
6.626 10 J. s
1.3 10 kg. m/s
500 10 m
) 10
0
1
0 10 s 10 kg. m. s 10 N
1
( )
(CO2) (carbohydrate)
(O2) 670 nm
( 650 700 nm )
?
4.9 eV
( (4.9 eV)
9 ( ) )
17 eV
4.9 eV
29%
17 eV
85
. ?
390 750 nm
()
(
)
Compton
()
. X (X-RAYS)
X ( X)
X 0.01 10 nm 3 10 Hz
3 10 Hz 120 eV 120 keV
86
?
? (inverse
photoelectric effect)
Planck Einstein Wilhelm Rntgen
X
X
X
bremsstrahlung
X (diffraction)
(diffraction grating)
X
0.01 nm 10 nm
X
Gamma X
87
R
ntgen
professor Wrrzburg
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(targett)
V
V
.
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.
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(.) (target)
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target
bremsstrahlung
X X
.
V. m (.)
. X
(accelerating potential) X
(.)
.
.
Duane Hunt (.)
89
, , Planck,
() (accelerating potential)
X
Duane-Hunt
X
X
(accelerating potential) 50, 000 V
.
V. m
1.24 10 V. m
2.48 10 m 0.0248 nm
5.00 10 V
3.00 10 m/s
1.21 10 Hz
2.48 10 m
Einstein
/ /
/
Einstein Arthur Holly Compton (-) Peter
Debye Einstein
X ( )
X
X
/ Compton
90
.
X Compton
( )
Recoilingelectron
Scatteredphoton
. X Compton Compton X
. Compton
Compton X
90
Rotating crystal 0
spectrometer
135
45
Ionization
Chamber
X
. Compton Compton
(0, 45, 90, 135)
91
rotating crystal
spectrometer (target)
Ionization chamber
X
0.071 nm
Compton Compton
1 cos (.)
0.00243 nm (.)
(.)
Compton
(recoilling electron)
(.)
92
Compton
cos cos
(.)
0 sin sin
Compton
X
1 cos (.)
Compton ?
1
1
1
93
1
=
+
1
1
1
cos
cos
1
sin
0 sin
1
1 cos
Arthurr Holly Com
mpton
Arthur Holly
H Comp
pton (
-)
)
Ohio
Co
ollege of Wooster
W
(Bachelor
( ce)
of Science
Prince
eton (Prin
inceton Universisty)
U )
Washington
W n
(W
Washington
on Universitity) St.
S Louis
X
Chica
cago
Com
mpton
(Cosmic
ic ray)
(
)
Gamma
94
Compton
Rumford (Rumford Gold Medal)
(American Academy of Arts and Sciences)
Radiological Society Franklin
Franklin (Franklin Institute)
Compton
Compton
Berkley
X 10 pm
)
X 45 )
X )
) 1 cos 1 cos
1 cos
45 10 pm 10 m
) 1 cos 2 180
2
2 10.0 pm 4.9 pm 14.9 pm
)
1 1
1 1 1
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
10.0 m 14.9 m 10
95
X 0.20 nm
X 45
X X
Compton (fraction of energy lost by
photon in the collision) ( = /
0.200710 nm 0.00354
. 700 nm
. X 0.200 nm
60 ) Compton (Compton shift)
) Compton
!
1.
2.
3.
( Compton)
( )
96
4.
.
() ( Compton)
()
(positron) (positively charged
electron)
( ) ( .)
Electron
Photon
Nucl
+ Positron
-
(.)
( (
0.51 MeV
1.02 MeV
1.2 pm
(cosmic rays)
97
:
(.)
1.02 MeV
0.51 MeV
2
-
cos
cos
/
2 cos
2 cos
2 cos
/ 1 cos 1 2
2
(Photon Absorption)
X
.
98
Compton
Compton (Compton Scattering)
1 MeV
X Gamma
Compton
Compton
. X Compton
1.02 MeV
(crossover energy)
4 MeV 10 MeV
Compton
X
(cross-sectional area) /
:
99
X Gamma
1
Compton
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
1
Compton
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
. Compton
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 Compton
0510152025
Compton
X
100
/
I
ln
I
( )
(.)
2.0 MeV
4.9 m )
10 cm )
1 ?
). :
4.9 m 0.10 m 0.49
/
.
e 0.61
61
10 cm
).
I
100
I
ln ln 100
0.94 m
4.9 m
) -
? )
101
1MeV 10 eV 1.6 10 J
-
)
6.63 10 J. s 3.0 10 m. s
1.2 10 m
1.64 10 J
Gamma ( X )
( ) -
(.)
102
= +
1 (.)
Pound Rebka Harvard
22.5 m
7.3 10 Hz 22.5 m
103
9.8 m/s 22.5 m 7.3 10 Hz
1.8 Hz
3.0 10 m/s
(.)
104
/
(.)
1 (.)
Gravitational red shift
(.)
1
105
(Black Holes)
/ 1?
(black hole)
( )
/ Schwarzschild
(.)
. ?
event horizon
quasar
quasars
quasars
106
qu
uasar
Milky Way
qua
asar
100
(swallow
w)
quasa
ars
Milky
M Way
W
.
Quassars
quasa
ar ?
Milkyy Way
Milky Wa
ay
.
-
(WAVE
E-PARTICL
LE
DUALITY AND THE
E PRINCIP
PLE OF CO
OMPLEMENTARITY)
Compton
C
Young
g
107
Niels Bohr (-)
. ( )
Planck
(
) ( 0.1 )
de Broglie
()
de Broglie
(.)
108
1
Louis de
e Broglie
Louis de Broglie
B (-
)
Maurice
de Brog
glie
Bo
ohr
Erw
win Schr
dinger
de Broglie
B
de
d
Broglie
de Brog
glie )
46 g 30 m. s )
10 m. s
) 1
6.626 10
0 J. s
4.8 10
0 m
46 10 kg 30 m/s
) 9.1 1
10 kg
6.626 100 J. s
7.3 1
10 m
9.1 10 kg 10 m/ss
109
5.3 10 m
de
e
Broglie
1.000 fm 10 m
0.938 GeV
:
4.136 10 eV. s 2.998 10 m. s
1.240 10 eV
1.000 10 m
1
1.555 0.9
938 GeV
0.617 GeeV 617 MeV
M
()
.
de oglie
Bro
Condensing
X 100
1 keV
()
.
de Brroglie
?
?
eyyepiece
?
J. J. Thomson
T
.
110
(
)
Bertrand Russel
(a logical construction)
. (ELECTRON MICROSCOPES)
.
(transmission electron microscope)
(scanning electron
microscope)
.
10 V
0.004 nm
111
0.1 0.5 nm
10
(a) (b)
. Escherichia coli (a) transmission
electron microscope (b) scanning electron microscope
. Rutherford
112
Rutherford
. alpha
Rutherford
10 m
( )
. Rutherford
99.9%
113
Milky Way .
.
Rutherford
10 m
10 m
. Rutherford
. (ATOMIC
SPECTRA: KEY TO THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM)
(discharge tube)
(discrete)
(spectroscope) (spectrometer)
(continuous spectrum)
.
114
(absorption
spectrum) (. (c))
UV IR
UV IR
. (a) (b)
(c)
(a) (b)
. (a) (b)
115
(Spectral Series):
J. J. Balmer
. Balmer
364.6nm
656.3nm
. Balmer H H H H
(.)
UV IR
. Lyman Balmer Paschen
656.3 nm H
H 486.3 nm
Balmer
116
3, 4, 5, nm
IR
Paschen 4, 5, 6,
Brackett 5, 6, 7, (.)
Pfund 6, 7, 8,
(.)
Niels Bohr de
Broglie
de Broglie
117
de Broglie
5.3 10 m
6.626 10 J. s
4 3.1416 8.85 10 C /N. m 9.1 10 kg 5.3 10 m
9.1 10 kg 1.6 10
33 10 m
2 33 10 m
(.)
de Broglie
de Broglie
2
2 1,2,3,
(quantum number)
4
2
(.)
1, 2, 3,
118
(.)
de Broglie
. de Broglie
.
(ENERGY LEVELS AND SPECTRA)
(.)
1,2,3, (.)
1 2.18 10 J 13.6 eV
1
(atomic electron)
119
(ground state)
, , ,
(excited states)
0
-
. 2, 3, 5
(ionization energy)
0
13.6 eV 13.6 eV
1 1
120
1, 3 13.6J
1 1
13.6 eV 12.1 eV
3 1
Rydberg )
Bohr 0.0100 mm )
) 1.00 10 m
1.00 10 m
435
5.29 10 m
)
13.6 eV
7.19 10 eV
435
Rydberg
()
()
- =
(.)
1 1 1 1
121
(.)
(.)
( )
( )
( )
Lyman 2, 3, 4,
Balmer 3, 4, 5,
Paschen 4, 5, 6,
Brackett 5, 6, 7,
Pfund 6, 7, 8,
122
Rydberg
9.109 10 kg 1.602 10 C
8 8.854 10 C /N. m 2.998 10 m/s 6.626 10 J. s
1.097 10 m
Rydberg Bohr
Balmer
Balmer 2
3
1 1 1 1 1
0.139
2 3
1 1
6.56 10 m 656 nm
0.139 0.139 1.097 10 m
. (CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE)
123
(.)
electron speed
orbit circumstance 2 2 4
2 2
8 (.)
) Bohr 1
2 )
2 1 )
10 s
(Bohr orbit)
1.00 10 s 2?
)
2 2
8
2 2.18 10 s
2 6.58 10
1 6.63 10 J. s
2
0.823 10
2 8
)
1 1
2.18 10 J 1 1
2.88 10 Hz
6.63 10 J. s 1 2
)
124
1 1
( 1,2,3,
1 1 2
2 2
1
2,3,4,
2
300
10,000 0.01
Bohr Correspondence Principle
1,2,3,
2
de Broglie /
2
(integration number)
125
. (NUCLEAR MOTION)
()
()
(.)
1
8
0.99945
Hydrogen
Nucleus
Centerofmass
Axis
(positronium)
(.)
2 2
126
Rydberg
(muon) (unstable) 207
(
(muonic atom) )
Bohr )
(ionization energy)
) 207 1826
207 1826
186
207 1826
Bohr 1
5.29 10 m
2.85 10 m
186
) 1 13.6 eV
127
. (ATOMIC EXCITATION)
?
(joint kinetic energy)
10 s ()
121.7 nm
2 1
2
.
( )
( )
128
(absorption spectrum)
(transitions)
Photonof Spectrum
Wavelength
Originofemissionspectra
Photonof Spectrum
Wavelength
Originofemissionspectra
Franck-Hertz
James Franck Gustav Hertz ( Heinrich Hertz)
Franck Hertz
Grid
I
129
Planck
Planck
Albert Einstein
Compton
Compton
Compton
X Compton
Compton Compton
Compton 0.00243 nm
130
( )
de
Broglie
(
Einstein)
Pound Rebka
Harvard
Rutherford
131
(line spectra)
Bohr )
occupy
(discrete values) )
)
)
( ) 1
13.6 eV
1
13.6eV
132
Planck
.
460 nm ?
.
273 K 4.2 K
. Planck
. (peak wavelength)
( )
37
.
?
?
. 700nm
. FM 1 kW 880kHz
. FM 104.1 MHz
?
. 410 nm 750 nm
?
.
6.20 10 m
.
4.8 10 J ?
. 700 MeV
133
.
1.0 10 J
600 nm?
. 2.30 nm
1.5 eV
. 1.1 10 Hz
)
(
1.5 10 Hz
.
200 nm ?
. 400 nm
2.50 eV )
)
Compton:
. X 1.1
10 kg. m/s
. 10 MeV?
. X 55.8 pm
46 X Compton
. X 1.5 10 Hz
1.2 10 Hz
Compton
. X 100 keV
90 keV?
.
Compton
40
134
.
(recoiling particle)
. Compton 0.160 nm
) )
.
1.00 MeV
. 2.000 MeV
.
Compton 60 - (Hint:
Compton
)
. 2.0 10 kg 7.0 10 m
(gravitational red shift)
500 nm
. 500 nm
(6.4 10 m)
. Schwarzschild 5.98 10 kg
135
. 0.23 kg
0.10 m/s
. (1.67 10 kg)
8.5 10 m/s
.
0.21 nm?
. 0.98
de Broglie
. de Broglie 6 10 m
.
)20 eV ) 200 eV ) 2 keV
. de Broglie
33,000 V
?
5 cm?
Bohr
. Rydberg Bohr
1.0974 10 m
. 0.98 de Broglie
. 75 W 3%
550 nm
(
4.0 mm )
136
.
?
. (microwave oven)
12.2 cm 860 W
. 1350 W/m
550 m
. 633 nm
6.5 nN
?
. Big Bang
(cosmic microwave)
2.7 K
. 2
( 1)
. Rydberg 273
. Rydberb
273?
. X 0.200 nm
45 X
. Zn 4.31 eV ) Zn
) Zn
Zn )
137
5.50 eV Zn
. Compton
B
. (inonizing
radiation) 10.0 eV
138
.
)
) / )
Quantum Mechanics
(Double Slit)
Heisenberg
Schrdinger -
Schrdinger
(Free particle; plane wave and wave packet)
()
Solvay
(): A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, Ed. Herzen, Th. De Donder, E.
Schrdinger, E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R. H. Fowler, L. Brillouin,
(): P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W. L. Bragg, H. A. Kramers, P. A. M. Dirac, A. H. Compton,
L. de Brouglie, M. Born, N. Bohr
(): I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Mme Curie, H. A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch. E.
Guye, C. T. R. Wilson, O. W. Richardson
140
Bohr
( )
Bohr
Bohr
Bohr
-
Bohr
de Broglie
Erwin Schrdinger (-) Werner Heisenberg (-
)
.
(QUANTUM MECHANICS: A NEW
THEORY)
141
(Correspondence Principle)
( 0.1 )
. Double-Slit
(THE WAVE FUNCTION AND ITS INTERPRETATION; THE DOUBLE-SLIT
EXPERIMENT)
( )
( )
( )
()
de Broglie ( )
142
( psi
)
-
(.)
(.)
(.)
(
)
143
Max Born
n (-
)
| |
| |
(
)
| |
| |
| |
Max Born
Ma
ax Born
Breslau
(Professor)
( )
Gustavv Born
Margarettte ne Kauffmann
K n
S
Silesian
Max orn
Bo
Knig Wilhelm'ss
Gymna
asium
Breslau
B
Breslau (
Rosan
nes
ma
atrix calcu
ulus) Heidelberg
rg Zu
urich (
Hu
urwitz
) G
Gttingen
K
Klein, Hilb
bert, Min
nkowski, Run
nge
S
Schwarzsch
hild
Voigt
V
(Prize of the Phi
hilosophicall Faculty ) Gttingen
n
(stability of elasticc
144
Born Cambridge
Larmor J.J Thomson Breslau -
Lummer Pringsheim
Minkowski Gttingen
Minkowski
Minkowski
Gttingen
(relativistic electron)
Michelson Chicago
Michelson (Michelson grating
spectrograph)
Born (Professor)
Max Planck Berlin
(German Armed Forces)
Dynamik der Kristallgitter Dynamics of Crystal Lattices
Gttingen
Born
Frankfurt-on-Main
Otto Stern
145
Pauli, Heisenberg,
Jordan, Fermi, Dirac, Hund, Hylleraas, Weisskopf, Oppenheimer, Joseph Mayer
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
Heisenberg Jordan ( )
Cambridge
Stokes
Infeld
- Born
Bangalore
Sir C.V. Raman
Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy Edinburgh
Bad Pyrmont
Max Born
fellowship
Gttingen, Moscow, Berlin, Bangalore, Bucharest, Edinburgh,
London, Lima, Dublin, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Washington Boston
Bristol,
Bordeaux, Oxford, Freiburg/Breisgau, Edinburgh, Oslo, Brussels Universities,
Humboldt University Berlin Stuttgart
Stokes Cambridge Max Planck Medaille der
Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft ( German Physical
Society) Hughes Medal Royal Society, London,
Hugo Grotius Medal MacDougall-Brisbane Prize
Gunning-Victoria Jubilee Prize Royal Society Edinburgh
Gttingen
146
Gran
nd Cross of
o Merit witth Star of the
t Order of
o Merit off the Germa
man
Federal Republic
R
Hedwig,
He ne
e Ehrenbe
erg
1
Max
M Born
(Double-S
Slit
Interferen
nce Experim
ment for Ellectons):
Thomas
Yo
oung
.
?
()
| |
| |
1
www.nobelprize.org
147
( )
| |
-
1 mm
mm
148
()
(
)
(
)
-
/
149
Heisenberg
150
Heisenb
berg
milian
Maxim Munich
h
Munich
h
Sommerfe
feld, Weiin, Pring
gsheim
Rosen
nthal
--
gen
Goting Max Bor
orn,
Francck Hililbert
Munich
Max Born
Gottin
ngen
vvenia lege
end
Rocckeffeler Niel Bo
ohr
Copenhe
hegen
Gottingen
n
Copenheg
gen
Niell Bohr
(Professo
or)
Le
eipzig
Berrlin
Kais
iser Wilhelm
lm
Gottin
ngen
Max Planc
nck
Heis
isenberg
Cambridg
ge
151
- (Gifford Lectures) St. Andrews
Heisenberg Max
Munich
Planck
Munich
(Professor) Munich
Max Planck
Heisenberg
(allotropic form) Heisenberg
Niel Bohr
Heisenberg
Heisenberg
Plasma (thermonuclear)
152
(unified field theory of elementary particle)
Heisenberg
Brouxelles
Karlsruhe Budapest
Order of Merit of Bavaria Grand Cross for Federal
Services with Star ( ) Fellow Royal Society of London
Knight of the Order of Merit ( )
Gottingen, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Sweden, Rumania, Norway,
Spain, The Netherlands, Rome (Pontificial), the German Akademie der
Naturforscher Leopoldina (Halle), the Accademia dei Lincei (Rome) American
Academy of Sciences -
(German Research Council)
Alexander von Humboldt
Heisenberg Elisabeth
Schumacher Munich2
(position measurement)
(.)
2
www.nobelprize.org
153
/
(.)
(.)
(.)
Heisenberg
( )
(h-bar)
. J.
1.055 10 J. s (.)
.
(.)
(.)
154
Planck
( )
1.10 10 m. s
0.10%
( 0.0010
)
9.1 10 kg 1.10
10 m. s 1.00 10 kg. m. s
0.10%
1.0 10 kg. m. s
1.055 10 J. s
1.1 10 m
1.0 10 kg. m. s
110 nm
1000
150 g
42 1 m. s
( 1 m. s
Heisenberg)
155
150 g 1 m. s
1.055 10 J. s
7 10 m
0.15 kg. m. s
.
(PHILOSOPHIC IMPLICATIONS; PROBABILITY VERSUS DETERMINISM)
(
)
(double-slit
experiment)
156
Heisenberg
(
)
. Schrdinger - (THE
SCHRDINGER EQUATION-TIME INDEPENDENT FORM)
Schrdinger
Schrdinger
157
Schrdinger
( psi)
, , , ,
Schrdinger
Schrdinger
sin
2 /
de Broglie
2 (.)
158
(.)
(.)
/2
(.)
2 2
(.)
2
Schrdinger
( 0.1 )
( )
, ,
Schrdinger Schrdinger
(
) 1 (100
) | |
| |
(.)
159
| | (.)
| | | | 1 (.)
(normalized condition)
. Schrdinger (TIME-DEPENDENT
SCHRDINGER EQUATION)
Schrdinger
, ,
, (.)
Schrdinger
1
0 Schrdinger
Schrdinger
, (.)
Schrdinger
160
1 1
2 (.)
1 (.)
2
(.)
(.)
2
Schrdinger
Schrdinger Schrdinger
(.)
1 (.)
(.)
(.)
ln
(.)
, (.)
161
Schrdinge
S er
,
,
|
|
( )
| | 1 (.)
| | 1
| , | | | (.
Erwin
n Schrdinge
er
Erwin
n Schrdin
nger
Vienna
Rudol
olf Schrdin
nger Alexander
A B
Bauer
Vi
Vienna
Erw
win
Bavar
arian
Vienna
Schrdinger
Sc r
Gym
mnasium
Vie
enna
Fritz Hasenhrl
H
162
Boltzmann Schrdinger
eigenalue
Franz Exner
K. W. F. Kohlrausch
Max
Wien Stuttgart ( ) Breslau
( ) Zurich ( von Laue)
Schrdinger
Zurich
Hermann Weyl Peter Debye
(specific
heat) (
Boltzmann)
( Kohlrausch
Exner Helmhotz)
Schrdinger
Bohr
eigenvalue
Dirac
Schrdinger Berlin
Planck
Hitler ()
fellowship Oxford
Princeton
Graz
163
Oxford
Ghent
Dublin
Dublin
Schrdinger
Einstein
( What is Life? )
Vienna
Annemarie Bertel
3
Schrdinger 0
3
Schrdinger
Le Prix Nobel
Nobel Foundation
Schrdinger
164
(.)
2 (.)
0
sin cos
0 (
)
2
(.)
. (a) (b)
6.3 eV 0
a) b) 0
sin )
a)
165
. J.
. . V . J/ V
4.9 10 m 0.49 nm
b)
2
1.28 10 m
(
)
.
(PARTICLE IN AN
INFINITELY DEEP SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL (A RIGID BODY))
Schrdinger
(rigid)
(infinitely deep
square well potential) () .
0, 0
, 0
166
0 0 Schrdinger
sin
0
0
0
0 0 0 (.)
0 sin 0 cos 1
0 0 sin 0 cos 0 0
.
(
) sin
( 0 )
0 sin (.)
0 | | 0
sin 0
0, , 2 , 3 , 0, , 2 , 3 ,
1,2,3, ( )
(.)
167
1,2,3, (.)
8
2
4 (.)
9
(.)
0
(zero-point energy)
( 0 K )
/
( )
()
Heisenberg
sin (
/
sin
(.)
1 sin
168
0
0
sin (.)
.
1,2,3,10
. | |
1,2,3,10
. 1,2,3, 10
. 1,2,3 10
169
.
1.00 10 m
(
) .
2 1
.
6.626 10 J. s
6.03 10 J
8 8 9.11 10 kg 1.00 10 m
10 J
6.03 37.7 eV
1.60 10 J/eV
2 37.7 eV 151 eV
3 37.7 eV 339 eV
.
151 eV 38 eV 113 eV 1.81 10 J
(
)
11.0 nm
3 1
170
sin
1 | | sin
0 0
sin 1 cos 2
1 sin 1 cos 2
2
1
1 sin
2 2 0 2
(regid box)
1.00 10 m
1.0 10 m
( 0.50 10 m)?
| |
sin
171
2
| | sin
2 0.50 10 m
sin 1.0 10 m 0.02
1.00 10 m 1.00 10 m
2%
1.0 10 m 1%
1.00 10 m 2%
1%
2%
0 /4
| |
| | 0
.
.
1 2
sin
0 /4
172
( /4 )
sin 1 cos 2
/ /
2
| | sin
1
1 cos 2
1 1 /4
sin 2
2 0
1 1
0.091
4 2
0.091 9.1%
9.1% 1/4
25%
(most likely and
average positions) 1.00 10 m
2 . ?
?
.
| | .
| |
. 2 sin
2 2
| | sin
| |
0
2 2 2 2
| | 2 sin cos
173
( 0, , 2 ,
( , , 0,
, , , 2
.
. ( sin 1 cos 2 ):
2 2 1 4
| | sin 1 cos
1 4 4
sin cos
2 4 16 0 2
| |
2
10 kg
0.1 mm . .
1 mm 100s
0
. 1 2 /
.
. 1 /8
2 6.6 10 J. s
3 10 m/s
4 2 2 10 kg 10 m
174
. 10 m/1
100 s 10 m/s
1 1
10 kg 10 m/ss 0.5 10 J
2 2
8 0.5
5 10 J 8 10 kg 10 m
3 10
6.6
626 10 J. s
( 3 10 3 1
10 1)
1 eV
.
(FINIT
TE POTEN
NTIAL WEL
LL)
.
(finite
( potential well)
.
II
Schrrdinger
0
II
II sin cos 0
0
.
I III Schrdin
nger
2
175
2 (.)
0
(
)
Schrdinger
0
(.)
I,III (.)
I
(
)
III
I 0
III
I III
. (a)
176
I II I II
0
(.)
II III
II III
0
sin 0 cos 0
cos 0 sin 0
, , ,
| | 1
.(a)
.(b)
| |
( / )
( )
.(b)
(uncertainity
principle)
(.)
177
~ /
.
/2 II 0
0 (.)
I III
0 (.)
6.0 eV
4.5 eV 10.0 nm
178
0
( )
()
() .(a)
(b) .
Schrdinger
. (a)
(b)
( )
0 0
| |
(tunneling)
179
(barrier penetration)
(
)
(transmission coefficient) (reflection
coefficient) 0.03 0.97 100
3 97
1
0
(.)
( 1)
.
(b)
50 eV
70 eV a. 1.0 nm b. 0.10 nm
180
eV J
.
10 J
70 eV 50 eV 1.6 3.2 10 J
1 eV
2 9.11 10 kg 3.2 10 J
2 2 1.0 10 m 46
1.055 10 J. s
1 10
1% 0.1 nm
1 10 1 nm
10
10
(tunneling)
-
(b)
(
181
. ( ) ( )
1/
(Coulomb barrier)
(
182
)
1 10
(tunnel
diode)
183
(resolution)
0.1 nm 10 nm 10 nm
184
Schrdinger Heisenberg
Heisenberg
-
Heisenberg
( /2
| |
(normalized)
| | 1
Schrdinger:
Schrdinger
sin cos /
185
(rigid
box) Schrdinger
sin
2 8
Heisenberg
Schrdinger
186
. 0.030 eV
0.60 mm
1.0 m?
( )
. 3.0 g
150 m/s
3.0 mm
1.0 cm?
. 10 s
(eV)
.
2.6 10 m
.
10ns
500 nm /
/
. 12s
5.5 keV
. 12 g 180 m/s )
)
187
0.65 cm ()
. 95m/s
0.085%
. (muon) (
105.7 MeV/c ) eV/c 2.20 s
. 2
10 s 1 )
2 )
(transition) )
nm
. 3.50 keV
1%?
. ()
/2
(
)
188
Schrdinger
. Schrdinger , ,
, ,
. , Schrdinger
, cos , sin
de Broglie
/
. sin 2.0 10
) )
) )
. ) )
3.0 10 m/s
.
( 2 cos 2 sin 2 )
sin sin
2 / 2 / ( t 0.05s t 0.15 s
189
.
0.20 nm
.
de Broglie
.
E 9.0 eV
. 4 1
340 nm
.
610 nm
.
2.0 nm
. 180 eV
56 eV 0 0.50 nm
) ) )
. 4 5
.
0( 0)
)
)
0, 0 ,
190
. 0.16 nm
2.0 keV
1% ?
.
2 ()
? ) ) )
)
)
?
Quantum Mechanics of Atoms
Schrdinger
X
Fluorescence Phosporescence
(Holography)
( )
()
192
Bohr
Bohr
. (QUANTUM-MECHANICAL
VIEWS OF ATOMS)
Bohr
()
Bohr Bohr
Bohr
( )
Schrdinger
1
(.)
Bohr
| |
.
193
. | |
Bohr ( )
( )
.
( )
194
. Schrdinger (HYDROGEN
ATOM: SCHRDINGER EQUATION AND QUANTUM NUMBERS)
()
Schrdinger
(H)
1
4 (.)
Schrdinger
1 (.)
2 4
/ , / / ,
Schrdinger H
, ,
Schrdinger
Schrdinger
.
Bohr
Bohr
195
13.6eV
1,2,3, ,
Bohr
1. Bohr
(principle quantum number) 1
196
Zeeman
.
. 2 ( 6 )
.
3, 2
4.
(spin quantum number)
+1/2 -1/2
Schrdinger
, ,
Schrdinger
P. A. M Dirac Dirac
197
(Fine structure)
Fine structure
(spin-orbit interaction)
1/2
1 (.)
(.)
(spin up, spin down)
(.)
. S
198
(principle) 1,2,3, ,
0,1,2, , 1
(orbital) , 1,
, 0, ,
, ,
(spin) 1/2 1/2
3
3
3, 2,1,0 2,
2, 1, 0, 1, 2 5
( ) 2
2 5 10 1 1, 0, 1
1/2 1/2
6 0 0
2 2 1/2 1/2
10 6 2 18
199
) )
Bohr 13.6eV/
) 3
13.6 eV
1.51 eV
3
) 0
1 0
1 1 1 1 1.49 10 J. s
1 2 2 1 6
Schrdinger
13.6 eV
1
(.)
200
1, 0 0
1/2 1/2
| | (.)
(normalized)
| | 1
| |
(.)
.
4
4
4
| | | | 4
201
4 | | (.)
4 (.)
.
Bohr
. 1, 0
Bohr
()
(most probable distance)
4 0
8 8 0
202
()
8 8 0
Bohr
Bohr
0 2
| | 4
1 1 4
2
2 2 0
( ; 2 /
4)
2 :
1 4
2 2
2 0
1 4
1
2 0
203
0 4
8 4 1 0.76
76%
2 24%
2
(normalized) ( 0 ) | | 1
2 0 Schrdinger
2 (.)
. (a) .(b)
1
4 | | 2
8
5
(most probable value) 2
0
2 0 1, 0
. (a) 2 0 (b)
2 0
204
2 1
1 1
32
(.)
64
( 1)
. 2, 1
. 2 1
. 2, 1
1,0 1
Schrdinger
?
205
1/3
| | | | | | (.)
, ,
()
Bohr
206
Bohr
Wolfgang Pauli (-)
Pauli (Pauli exclusion principle)
( , , ) Pauli
(helium)
1 ( 1/2 )
( 1/2 )
Pauli
1
.
207
(
) ( )
. .
( 1) 1
Pauli 2, 0
2, 1
.
, , , 3, 1, 1, 1/2
11
.
.
( 1/2 1/2 )
(1/2, 3/2 )
(fermions)
208
Enrico Fermi
(statistical theory)
( 1, 2, 3,) meson
bosons ( Satyendranath Bose)
.
( )
He, Li Na 2 1
Mendeleev
.
(synthetic elements)
(liquids or melt at close to room temperature)
(solid) (gases) (Alkali metals)
(Alkali Earth metals) (Transition metals)
209
. Mendeleev
(shell) 1
2
3
( 4 )
. 0
1 2 3
, , , , . .. , ,
sharp, principle, diffuse fundamental
Pauli
2
1 (
1
210
.
Mendeleev
211
1 ) .
2 2
1
2
2, 1, 0, 1, 2
( 1/2 1/2)
2 5 10
.
.
1 2 2 3
?
). 1 2 2 3 ). 1 2 2 3 3 4
). 1 2 2 2 ?
).
()
( 3 )
212
).
3 4
).
2 2
3
(gallium)
31
UV IR
1
50 50 2500
Lyman
( 100 nm ) 10
10 nm
X
. X X 50kV
X
metal target X
213
X
.
target
target X
target
X
.
( 1)
2 ( ) ( 1)
( ) 3 ( )
1
. 1/ X
Moseley
X
X
214
2 1 ( )
1
1 H. G. J. Moseley (-)
1/
.
X
2 1 42
Bohr ( )
1 41
Bohr
1 1 1 1
8
2 1
1 1 1
1.097 10 m 41 1.38 10 m
1 4
1
0.072 nm
1.38 10 m
(0.071)
6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m.
17 keV
7.2 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV
215
X 66.3 keV
X
(.)
(
1 )
2
Bohr 1 (
)
2 1
10.2 eV 1
1
1 10 eV
66.3 6.50 10
1 10.2 eV
1 6500 81 82
X .
target
target
( 99) X
target (.)
bremsstrahlung
( (braking radiation))
(.)
216
. Bremsstrahlung
target
X
bremsstrahlung
( 0)
(.)
X
X X 50 kV
target
50 keV X
6.626 10 J. s 3.0 10 m. s
2.5 10 m 0.025 nm
1.6 10 C 5.0 10 V
217
. (MAGNETIC DIPOLE
MOMENT; TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM)
Bohr
Bohr
1
2
1
2
(.)
Bohr
1
2
2
218
(.)
2
Bohr magneton
9.27 10 J/T
Stern-Gerlach g
Stern-Gerlach (
)
(collimator)
( . )
/
. Stern-Gerlach
219
Stern
Gerlach (
)
( 0
0 1 1, 0, 1
Stern-Gerlach
1
2 2
(.)
(g-factor)
(gyromagnetic ratio) 2 2.0023
() 1
1 (.)
220
1
2
1
2
1 s 0 1/2
2 1 3/2
, 1, ,
(spectroscopic notation)
(spectroscopic notation)
( )
2 / 2, 1, 3/2 2 /
221
UV
fluorescence
fluorescence
. Fluorescence
UV
UV
photoresence
10 s photorescence
(metastable)
photorescence
( )
222
. (LASERS)
(
)
(
)
10 s
.
( ,
(. b)
(stimulated emission)
Light Amplification for Stimulated Emission Radiation
223
(natural population)
Boltzmann (Boltzmann
distribution) Boltzmann (Boltzmann factor)
(.)
(.)
(inverted population)
()
. (a)
(b)
(metastable state)
224
(ruby
laser) Al2O3
Cr Cr
(laser pumping)
550nm 2.2eV
225
3 10 s
( 10 s )
(metastable state)
(inverted population)
1.8eV 694.3nm (
ruby-red light)
-
He 85% Ne 15%
He
( )
20.61 eV
20.66 eV He
Ne He
Ne (
Ne) (0.05 eV)
Ne
(Cr)
. 2.2eV
()
226
(semiconductor diode laser) junction laser
CD DVD
(chemical laser)
(dye-laser)
(CO2 gas laser)
(rare-earth solid-state laster) Nd YAG laser
(pulsed-laser)
()
He Ne He
.
Ne
227
bar-code (
) CD DVD
bar-code
CD DVD
CD DVD
500
( 500 rpm )
(b)
( 200 rpm)
. (a) CD DVD
0
1
228
.
(HOLOGRAPHY)
holography
. (a)
( )
. (a)
(b)
229
Schrdinger
1
4
Bohr
, ,
1. (principle quantum number)
1, 2, 3,
Bohr
2. (orbital quantum number)
1
3. (magnetic quantum number)
4.
(spin quantum number) 1/2
1/2
1
1 1/2 1/2
Zeeman
230
(selection rule) 1
forbidden transition
0 0
() | |
4 | |
Pauli (Pauli Principle of Exclusion)
, ,
( ) ( )
, , , ,
1
1 2 2
Mendeleev
(
)
Mendeleev
231
X
target X X
target
target
.
2.0023
Stern-Gerlach
Fluorescene UV
Photorescent
(Laser)
Holograms
232
. 7 ?
. 6 3 ?
.
5?
. 4 ,
?
.
5, 3
. 7 ).
). ). (orbital angular momentum)
).
. 5 ,
?
. 5d
). fine structure ?
.
6.84 10 J. s 2.11 10 J. s
,
. (normalized)
. ) ) | | )
1.5
. 2, 0 ) ) | |
) 4
233
. )
Bohr
32% )
2
.
) 50% ) 90% ) 99%
. )
1.1 fm )
(muon) 207
| | | | 4
. 2
(normalized)
. 2, 1
1 1 1
4 | | | | | |
2 2 3
.
0.99 1.01
. 2, 0
4
5
. 3, 0
1 2 2
1
27 3 27
234
) )
.
8
. )
6 ) 13
. 6, 4?
. 2
. 1 6
.
Bohr
( 1)
( 92 )
.
Bohr 5.36 eV
X:
. X
32.5 kV
. X
1240
nm
235
. 2
1 26
. Bohr
3 1 ( 42)
0.063nm
. ( , , , )
(1, 0, 0, 1/2) (1, 0, 0, 1/2)
1 2.5T
. 1.0T
)
)
)
?
. Stern-Gerlach Ag
780 m/s / 1.8 10 T
5.0 cm )
) -factor 1
?
. 5
, ,
?
. ) 4 ) 4
) 3 )
.
0.5 mW
3.0 mm )
236
)
15 W 2.0 m
. He Ne
.
45
Molecules and Solids
(van der Waals)
Fermi
Integrated Circuits
.
(BONDING IN MOLECULES)
H
( )
( 1 )
( )
( )
1/2 1/2 1 0
239
1
1
.
. ()
( 1): (a) (b) | |
. ( 0):
(a) (b) | |
H
0
( 1/2
1/2 )
240
. .
(less well localized)
H (entity)
(bond energy) (binding energy)
(dissociation energy)
4.5eV
241
( NaCl )
(.)
. | | Na NaCl
( Na Cl )
?
11 10
(.)
10 11
1
12 17
( 1 2 2 3 ) 12
3
2
3
242
doughnut (doughnut-shaped) z
.
. 10
1
. 17 12
3
doughnut
5
243
. 0
.
5 17
12
5 1
Cl
.
H , O Cl
()
244
.
( 1 2 2 )
doughnut z
4
( +1e)
. (POTENTIAL-ENERGY
DIAGRAMS FOR MOLECULES)
1
4
245
(1/4 9.0 10 N. m /C
. (a)
( )
.
(b)
. H r
( 0
) 4.5eV 0.74nm
()
.
246
0
4.5eV 0.74nm
1( )
.
()
(activation energy)
247
. .
(H O) O H
H O
H O
O H
(activation energy)
. ATP ADP P
NaCl Na Cl
(activation energy)
ATP (adenosine trisophate)
248
( P )
.
(ATP ADP
P )
(activation energy) eV
.
(van der Waals) (WEAK (van der Waals) BONDS)
2 5 eV
( )
0.0 4 0.3 eV
.
- (dipole-dipole bonds)
-
(dipole-induced dipole bonds)
(van der Waals)
249
van der Waals
.
van der Waals 1/
. C O H N (
DNA nucleotides bases cytosine guanine)
. (a) DNA
(b)
cytosine (C) guanine (G) DNA
()
H N
C O
- (.)
250
251
( 300 K) 0.04 eV
20
.
DNA
A, C, G T
(genetic code)
DNA
messenger-RNA ( m RNA )
DNA
m RNA
DNA T (Thynime)
(U) . (a)
C m RNA DNA A
T DNA
C
m RNA
252
m RNA
ribosome ribosome
transfer- RNA ( t RNA ) t RNA
t RNA
t- RNA
t RNA (anticodon)
m RNA ( G C A U )
m RNA
t RNA (ribosome)
t RNA
(
.)
( ) t RNA
-
m RNA
t RNA
m RNA DNA
253
. (MOLECULAR SPECTRA)
1 10 eV
(
)
(10
10 eV)
.
. (a)
(b)
254
1
2 2
1 0, 1, 2, ,
(rotational angular
momentum quantum number)
(.)
1
0, 1, 2,
2 2
(selection rule)
1 1
2 2
(.)
255
2, 3, 4,
. ( )
( eV)
1.39 10 kg. m
(.)
256
1 0
CO 2.60mm ( )
) CO )
CO ( ) )
257
)
/
1( )
6.63 10 J. s
4 4 3.00 10 m/s
1.46 10 kg. m
12.0 16.0
1.66 10 kg 1.14 10 kg
28.0
6.86u
1.46 10 kg. m
1.13 10 m 0.113 nm
1.14 10 kg
) / 1/
2 1 1.30 mm
3 2 0.87 mm
4 3 0.65 mm
/ 4.8 10 eV, 9.5 10 eV, 1.4 10 eV
1.9 10 eV
258
. . .
.
(restoring force)
(.)
( )
. H (simple harmonic
oscillator SHO) SHO | | | | 0.50eV
( SHO 0 U 0 )
Schrdinger SHO
1
0,1,2, , (.)
2
(vibrational quantum
number) ( 0)
(zero-point energy)
259
, .
(selection rule)
(.)
SHO
10 100
( 10 m
260
) .
)
)
1 1 27
1.0 u 1.66 10 kg
2 2
0.83 10 kg
0.83 10 kg
2 2 3.0 10 m. s 2300 nm
550 N. m
2300 nm ) )
/
0
261
J eV
) 0
1 1
0.27 eV
2 2
1 1
.
( )
.
1 1
1 1 (.a)
0,1,2, ,
1
1
1,2,3, , (.b)
1
262
1
1
.
X
(.) .
1
263
1 .
HCl
. HCl 1
1
. Cl
HCl
HCl
.
.
(.)
.
0.0025 eV
264
(.)
6.626 10 J. s/2
2.8 10 kg. m
0.0025 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
1.0 u 35 u
1.66 10 kg/u 1.6 10 kg
36 u
2.8 10 kg. m
1.3 10 m
1.6 10 kg
.
(BONDING IN SOLIDS)
(solid-state physics)
(condensed-matter physics)
(lattice) .
(face-centered)
NaCl
(face-centered) . Na Cl
265
( )
( NaCl)
. (a) (b)
(face-centered) (c)
NaCl . Na
Cl
Na Cl
. NaCl
Na Na
Cl
266
1
4
Madelung Na Cl
6
Madelung 1.75 NaCl
/
1 (.)
4
(.)
1 1
1
4
(energy (per ion) needed to take the solid apart into
separated ions, one by one)
1
3eV (5 10eV)
267
(metallic)
. Fermi (FREE-ELECTRON
THEORY OF METALS; FERMI ENERGY)
268
1cm 5.0 5.5 eV
10
Maxwell
4
( )
/
/ (.)
5.0 5.5 eV
1cm
g(E)
N ( )
1 cm 10 m 0.50 eV
5.25 eV
269
82 9.1 10 kg
5.25 1.6 10 J/eV
6.63 10 J. s
8 10
1.0cm
. 0K F Fermi
(.)
?
0 K
( 0 )
Fermi-Dirac
( , , )
Fermi-Dirac
fermions
Fermi
( ))
270
( ) 2 (.)
0 K
Fermi
.
(.)
(.)
3 (.)
F
8
3
F
(.)
5
F 7.0 eV 4.2 eV
( 0.04 eV)
0 F
F
0?
Boltzmann
Fermi-Dirac ( Fermi)
1
(.)
F / 1
271
F Fermi
. 0 K 1200 K
0 ( )
F /
. F
F
1 F
0
0 F
.
.
Fermi [ 1]
1200 K Fermi
. T
F (.) 0.50
F 50%
/ /
82 (.)
F
1
. Fermi-Dirac 0 K () 1200 K
() 1
0.50 F F 50%
272
.
1200 K
0 K
Fermi Fermi
0 K 1200 K
1200 K
0.1 eV Fermi
eV
.
1200 K
273
) Fermi )
) Fermi ( Fermi)
/ (.)
(.)
/ /
82 F
/
82 2 /
F
3
3
F
8
/
[ 22 2]
8.4 10 m
) Fermi
6.63 10 J. s 3 8.4 10 m 1
F 7.0 eV
8 9.1 10 kg 1.6 10 J/eV
) .
3
F 4.2 eV
5
) 0 (
)
274
3
2
Boltzmann 300K
3 1
1.38 10 J/K 300 K 0.039 eV
2 1.6 10 J/eV
100
4.2 eV
275
.
0
(
13.6 eV )
Schrdinger
(bands)
Fermi
.
(BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS)
1 (
) . (a)
1 2
(c)
. 1 , 2 2
3
276
3
3
2
3
3
. 1s 2s (a) (
) ) )
. (Na)
3
3 3
277
5 10 eV (300 K)
( 3 0.04 eV
5eV
( )
(semiconductor)
. )
) )
1 eV
(resistivity)
(holes)
278
. ) )
)
(c)
345nm
()
345 nm ( )
345 nm
6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m. s
3.6 eV
345 10 m 1.60 10 J. eV
Fermi-Dirac
10
( 300 K) ) 1.1 eV )
5 eV
279
0 Fermi
F
) 1.1 eV
F 0.55 eV
0.026 eV
F 0.55 eV
21
0.026 eV
1 1
10
F
1
1 10
1 1
. 10
. 1
10
( 10 10 10 ) 10 10 10
10
. (SEMICONDUCTOR AND
DOPING)
( Si ) ( Ge )
280
1 10 10
(. b)
. a)
b)
( )
1 10
1 10 10
( -type
semiconductor)
(Ga)
Ga
281
Ga
(.)
. p Ga Si a) Ga
b) Si
Ga Si
.
n
0.05 eV Si (
Ge) 0.04 eV
300 K
282
(donor level) p
(. b)
(acceptor level)
.
(SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES)
chip
.
(a) (b)
( junction
diode)
283
( 0.3 V Ge 0.6 V Si
)
p
(. b)
[ ]
-.
4.0 V
15 mA
?
.
0.7 V 15 mA
284
4.0 V 0.7 V 3.3 V
3.3 V
220
1.5 10 A
.
Zener
Zener
Zener
()
. a
. b
. a
R
. b
C
285
RC
. c
. (a) (b)
R
. (a) (
)
(b) (c)
(light-emitting diode
LED)
286
LED
LED
()
DVD
LED
LED
LED solid-state lighting
(solar cells)
(photodiodes)
-
(particle detector)
.
(TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS)
. a collector, base
emitter
. b emitter
287
. CE
collector emitter C
base base bias voltage BE BE
emitter base base
( 1 m
chip) collector
. (a) (b)
C collector emitter
base ( B ) B C
base
C
C
. () B B ( ),
288
( B )
base
collector
collector base
B C
10 100
collector base
off on (
1) (gate)
chip
integrated circuit
289
( van der Waals)
( 10 eV 10 eV )
1
0, 1, 2,
2 2
1
0,1,2, ,
2
290
(vibrational quantum
number)
1
1
0K
Fermi F
F 0 K
(300 K)
Fermi-Dirac
1
F / 1
F Fermi
(conduction band)
( )
( 5 10 eV)
( )
0.04 eV
1eV
291
0 1 IC
chip
292
. ) N )
HCl ) Fe?
. CaCl
. H ?
.
?
. H
Pauli
.
?
. ?
. ?
. ?
. KCl
K Cl
0.28 nm 1.0e
. KCl 4.43 eV
0.28 nm
293
. H
0.074 nm 33%
.
kcal
eV
kcal eV ? KCl
( 4.43 eV) kcal ?
. /
. ) KCl ) ) HCl
.
2 1
. / N 2.48 10 eV
N
. LiH
(equilibrium separation)
0.16 nm
. H 0.074 nm
) 1
0 ) 2 1 ) 3 2
294
. CO 6.421 10 Hz )
)
. Li Br
1.7 10 Hz
. NaCl
(successive wavelengths)
23.1 mm , 11.6 mm
7.71 mm
. )
H ( ) )
295
( H )
( )
( )
/
/
/ )
. NaCl 1.75 , 8
0.28 nm
296
(
)]
. Na Cl NaCl 0.24 nm
Na
.
1.00 cm 0.985 F F 5.48 eV
. 7.00 eV 7.05 eV
1.00 cm
. Fermi Fermi
0.97 10 kg/m
. Fermi 11.63 eV )
3
F
8
)
2.70 10 kg/m
27.0
.
T 0 K F
1,2,3,
8
297
[ ( )
2 /
]
. Fermi
. ) (T=293 K) Fermi
1
F / 1
0.12 eV Fermi
? ) 0.12 eV
Fermi )
()
.
( 1.14 eV)
.
0.72 eV
. 0.72 eV
(detector)
730 keV
?
298
. LED
1.6 eV?
. LED 680 nm
( )
.
860
12 mA?
( , )
.
150 2.0 V
.
0
. Zener
2.80 k 130 V
12 V
120 mA
18.0 k
130 V ?
299
245 V
?
. 120 V
35
. 120 V 60 Hz
28
35 F ) )
0.10 F ?
. C
75
B
B 3.8 k 7.8 k )
)
300
( )
.
B,
C E B C 0
301