80509 LINEAR DIGITAL FILTERING | 1) Synthesis of IIR filters by transforming an analog filter to its digital equivalent using the bilinear transformation 2) Basic types of classical analog and digital filters 3) Synthesis of highpass, bandpass, and bandstop digital filters based on transforming a lowpass digital filter into the desired one using a proper transformation. @ What to read for the examination ?: 1) How to use the bilinear transformation for mapping an analog filter into its digital equivalent (the overall synthesis procedure) 2) Basic types of classical filters: design formulas only for Butterworth lowpass analog filters. 3) Basic idea of using digital lowpass-to-lowpass, lowpass- to-highpass, lowpass-to-bandpass, and lowpass-to-band- stop transformationsDESIGN OF CLASSICAL IIR FILTERS e Traditionally, the synthesis of infinite impulse response (IIR) lowpass digital filters is accomplished by trans- forming an analog filter to its digital equivalent. e The two basic ways to perform the desired transfor- mation is to use the bilinear transformation or the impulse-invariant technique. ¢ The design of highpass, bandpass, and bandstop filters is usually performed by applying a proper transforma- tion converting a lowpass filter into the desired one. e In this cource, we concentrate on e Synthesis of lowpass classical digital filters obtain- able from an analog prototype filter through the bilinear transformation (the best technique). e Syntesis of highpass, bandpass, and bandstop filters based on transforming a lowpass digital filter into the desired one using a proper transformation. e It should be pointed out that there exist several more general sophisticated design techniques di- rectly in the z-plane (to be considered in the course “Digital Linear Filtering II”)2 Organization of This Chapter 1) 2) 3) 4) First, the squared-magnitude functions of the four ba- sic classical analog lowpass filter types are considered. For each type, the formulas are given for determining the poles and zeros of the filter as well as the scaling constant. Second, it is shown how the analog lowpass filter can be converted to its digital equivalent with the aid of the bilinear transformation. Illustrative examples are included showing how to actually perform the synthesis for given digital filter criteria. Third, it is shown how to convert a lowpass filter to another lowpass, highpass, bandpass, or bandstop filter with the aid of transformations. Finally, a general-purpose matlab file for designing classical digital filters is introduced in Appendix A. The design of digital filters is convenient to perform with the aid of analog filters since there exist rather simple formulas for finding the poles, zeros, and the scaling constant for these filters. e The purpose is not to study analog filters in details.-3 They are used just as a convenient intermediate tool for finding a proper digital filter. If you are interested in the details, you are encouraged to find a textbook on analog filters. The historical reason for this is the fact that when people started designing IIR digital filters, the theory of analog filters was well-known. What was left was to find a transformation to map the analog filter to the corresponding digital filter. The proper transformation is the bilinear transformation. It should be pointed out that the similar formulas can be derived directly in the z-plane. The next duty for the lecturer.Analog Lowpass Filters Under Consideration Transfer function of an analog filter is of the form M M O(s) S cys® Ay II — Zt) 8 k=0 k=l Ai,(s) = = ——_.. (9) - 53 (0 TN i+ So ds" II — Pr) k=1 k=1 In order to guarantee the filter stability, the poles p, = ox + jQx must lie in the left-half s-plane, that is, the real parts of the px’s (the a’) must be less than zero. Furthermore, for an analog filter to be realizable, it is required that M < N and the coefficients cy and dx are real. The squared-magnitude function of the filter with transfer function given by the above equation can be expressed in the following forms: |Ha(i)? = Has) Hal—8)}5 = joy = Hel 42) Ha(—92) M (2?)* _cumetim 2 Bu(@) SEEK 7 stay UDR) ye EM k=1 (2a)where M En(Q?) = Sex (02)* (2b) and i Fy(@) = 14 > f.(a?)*. (2c) k=1 Alternatively, if |Ha(jQ)|? is known, then H,(s)H,(—s) is obtained from the above squared-magnitude func- tion using the substitution Q = s/j giving M ex(-s*)* H,(s)H,(—s) —CWECS) _ _ io “D(s)D(-s) ON (s)D(—s) 1430 fils?) (3) k=l _ Eu(-s°) Fy(—s?). Ifthe stable H,(s) has the poles [roots of D(s)] at py = ox + JQ, then the corresponding unstable transfer function H,(—s) has poles [roots of D(—s)] at p, = —o, + JQ lying on the right-half s-plane. Therefore, the poles of H,(s) can be found by first locating the roots of Fy(—s?) and then selecting those roots which lie on the left-half s-plane. For the classical analog filters with M > 1, M is even-6 and Ey,(°) is always factorizable as M/2 Exe(Q?) = €0 TTI? - 237, (4) k=1 so that M/2 Eu(—s?) = e9 [J [-s* = 94. (5) k=1 e This means that both H,(s) and H,(—s) contain com- plex conjugate zero pairs on the imaginary axis at the points +jQ, for k =1,2,...,M/2. At these frequency points, the squared-magnitude function becomes zero. e Note that for analog filters, the imaginary axis s = jQ (analog frequency domain) plays the same role as the unit circle z = e (digital frequency domain) for digital filters.EXAMPLE |H.(jQ)/* is given by |Ha(JQ)P = 1/[1 + P(O?)4. Using the substitution Q = s/j gives Hels)Hla(—s) = FAS} of. + 2), (s)D(-s) The 28 roots of 1 + €?(—s?)!4 = 0 are located at ES ann 2h-Y/28)) = 1,9,...14 and x 1 jn{-1/2+(2k-1)/(28) Be = ane" F¥2+Qk-D/28) & = 1,2,...14 The roots p, (p,) for k = 1,2,...,14 are on the left-half (right-half) s-plane. The stable transfer function is then 14 H,(s) = an Hy = [| (—px). IIs -p) kt k=1 The above selection of Hp guarantees that |H.(j9)|? achieves the value of unity at Q = 0. The next transparency shows the poles of both H,(s) and H,(—s) as well as the amplitude response of H,(s) for 2 = 10°7/19 — 1 = 0.047128548.-8 14th-Order Butterworth Analog Filter with 2, = 1, 2, = 1.8944272, A, = 0.2 dB, and A, > 60 dB 14th-order Butterworth filter with Ap=0.2 OK x x os x x 4 *lSthe pole of Has) *is the pole of H_a(-s) Imaginary part x x Radius of the cicle is . ‘lepsilon(1/14) E -05 x x x * x x a Koy ye 15 4 -05 0 05 1 15 Real part “4th-order Butterworth fiter with Ap=0.2 °c : = 8 = -50 3 2 -100) £ -150l, 5 10 10 ‘Angular frequency Omega Amplitude in dB & 1 Angular frequency OmegaNormalized Specifications for an Analog Lowpass filter e The figure below gives tranditional specifications for the squared-magnitude function of an analog lowpass filter in the case where the passband edge is normalized to be located at OQ, = 1. e For historical reasons, it is required that in the pass- band 0 <2 < Q, =1 |H,(jQ)|? stays within 1 and (+e). e In the stopband Q, < 2 < 00, |Ha(jQ)|? is less than or equal to 1/A?.10- DETERMINATION OF & AND A? FROM SPECIFICATIONS IN DESIBELS e Usually, the criteria are given as follows: —Ay < 10 logyo |Ha(JQ)|? < 0 forO ~ 2 logy) Qs (10) e By analytic continuation (jQ = s), equation (8) can be extended to the complex s-domain, giving H,(8)Ha(—s) (11) “T+ es" e The poles of the stable H,(s) are the left-half plane roots of 1 + e2(—s?)” = 0, whereas the poles of the unstable H,(—s) are the right-half plane roots of 1+ e(—s?)" =0. e The N poles of the stable H,(s) are given by ie ye ane L/2+h-N/2N) p= 19...N. (12) or Pk=O~n+ 52, k=1,2,...N, (13a) where 1 (one) mn n(2k— 4 ob = aw cos(5 + 7m) (136) 1. ym r(2k—1) % = ay sin(5 + oN) (13)are For above design, the passband criteria are just met, whereas ait 202N (14a) or a Ag = 10 logy)(1 + 02%). (14) These values are in most cases larger than the specified values A? and A,. All the poles of H,(s) lie on a circle of radius 1/e!/ centered at the origin of the s-plane. The pole with largest imaginary part appears at angle 7/2 + 7/(2N) relative to the positive real axis. The other poles ap- pear at angular increments of 7/N. This is exemplified in transparency 8. The transfer function for which |H,(j0)|?> = 1 or #A,(0) = 1 is then H,(s) = 2, (15a) N [[(s-»%) k=1 where My = [[(-»»). (158) ket All the N zeros are lying at infinity. e For the very original Butterworth filters, €2 = 1 so that |Ha(jQ,)|? = 1/2 and A, = 3 dB.EXAMPLE e Later on, when designing digital filters with the aid of analog classical filters, we end up with the following specifications: A, =0.2 dB, A,>60dB, , = 1.8944272. e Using the formulas described above, we obtain @ = 1040/1 _ 1 = 10°2/10 _ 1 — 0.047238748, AZ = 1048/19 — 4950/10 — 495 and ' > N > logyg[(A* — 1)/e"}/[2 - logyo 25) = 18.202340 > N=14. e The fourteen poles are located at —0.12487140 + j1.10826429, —0.36835261 + 71.05269129, —0.59336309 + 70.94433195, —0.78861987 + j0.78861987, —0.94433195 + 70.59336309, —1.05269129 + 70.36835261, and —1.10826429 + 70.12487140, whereas Ay = 4.60636100, and Ay = 10 logyy(1 + 292") = 64.4267e The pole-plot for this filter (those given by x) as well as the amplitude response are shown in transparency 8 (all the zeros are lying at the infinity (not visible)).CHEBYSHEV FILTERS OR CHEBYSHEV TYPE I FILTERS e The squared-magnitude function of this filter of order N is given by 1 |Ha(GQ)? = 1+ eR)’ (16a) where (N cos") iO] <1 _ J cos(NV cos ; < Tw(@) = eve cosh *Q) |Q|>1 (166) is the Nth-degree Chebyshev polynomial. e In the normalized passband 0 < 2 < Q, = 1, this func- tion alternatingly achieves the values of 1 and 1/(1+e?) at N +1 points such that |H,(j,)|? = 1/(1 + &). For N even, |Ha(j0)/? = 1/(1 + €?) and for N odd, |H,(j0)|? = 1 (equiripple passband). e At infinity, the value of |H,(j9)|? is zero and the first 2N — 1 derivatives are zero (maximally flat stop- band) (see the figure shown below). 1H, (iQ)? Nodd la, Gayl? Neven18- TRANSFER FUNCTION e In order to meet the criteria of the previous trans- parency, it is required that 1 Lo yy cosh VC = 1/4} < 14+ T2(Q,) — A? = cosh !(Q,) , (16a) where cosh™! a can be evaluated from cosh™! x = In(x + V2? — 1). (16b) e Like for Butterworth filters, the transfer function is of the form H,(s) = 2, (17a) [[(- k=l where N TI»), N odd Hy=¢ N (176) 1/(1 +e) [[ (2), N even. k=I e It can be shown (for details see a textbook on analog filters) that the poles H,(s) are located at Pr= K+ 902%, k=1,2,...N, (18a) where elie (2 = 1)r 2 NON on = - (186)19~ —atyt (Qk -1)r OQ, = 5 C05 naan (18¢) and rT l4¢vVi4e," ies Gee Bee (18d) € These poles are on an ellipse centered about the ori- gin in the s-plane. The ellipse has minor-axis length ar and major-axis length a and is given by the equation 2 2 1% + 1% il, (19) g-wtyY +7") For details see transparency 21, which gives the poles of H,(s) by x and the poles of H,(—s) by astrisk. Like for Butterworth filters, all the zeros are located at infinity. Futhermore, the squared-magnitude function of the above filter just meets the passband criteria, whereas & = 14 2T2(Q,) (20a) or As = 1logio[1 + PTH(Q)], (206) which are in most cases larger than the specified values of A? and Ag.~ 20 EXAMPLE e We again consider the specifications: A, =0.2dB, A, >60dB, 0, = 1.8944272. e Like for Butterworth filters, «2? = 0.047238748 and A? = 10°, whereas N > cosh7!{y/[(A? = 1)/2]}/ cosh7*(5) = 7.2808916 = N=8. e The eight poles are located at —0.05514327 + 71.01921190, —0.15703476 + 70.86404612, —0.23501912 + 70.57733716, and —0.27722396 + j0.20273385, whereas Ig = 0.035987195. e The pole-plot for this filter (those given by x) as well as the amplitude response are shown in the next trans- parency (all the zeros are lying at the infinity (not vis- ible)). e For this filter, A, = 67.8310 dB.a1- Eighth-Order Chebyshev Analog Filter with 2, = 1, Q, = 1.8944272, A, = 0.2 dB, and A, > 60 dB &th-order Chebyshev filter with Ap=0.2 1 xx * 0.8} xis the pole of H_a(s) is the pole of H_a(-s) Imaginary part x x 0 Real part ‘8th-order Chebyshev filter with Ap=0.2 50) Amplitude in dB Angular frequency Omega a 10° 107 ‘Angular frequency Omega22~ INVERSE CHEBYSHEV FILTERS OR CHEBY- SHEV TYPE IT FILTERS e The squared-magnitude function of this filter of order N is given by |Ha(i)/? = , (21) © 1+ (A? = 1)/[Tw(O,/2)" e Like for Butterworth filters, this function achieves the value of unity at 2 = 0 with the first 2N —1 derivatives being zero at this point (maximally flat passband). e In the stopband 2, < 2 < ov, |H,(jM)| alternat- ingly achieves the values of 1/A? and zero at N +1 points such that |H(jQ,)|?> = 1/A?. For N even, |Ha(joo)|? = 1/A? and for N odd, |Ha(joo)|? = 0 (equiripple stopband) (sce the figure below). lH, (jal? Nodd lH, (jal? Neven p---}------------s5= 23- TRANSFER FUNCTION e Like for Chebyshev filters, in order to satisfy 1/[1 + (A? = 1)/[Tw(Q5/Qp)]?] > 1/(1 +e), it is required that Ne cosh /{(4? = 1)/e]} (22) cosh!(Q,) e The transfer function is of the form N N Ho IIs ~ »)/T[s —pr), Neven H(s)=4 RT, Hy TT (s~ <)/[](s—p), N oda k=1 k=1 (23a) where N N [G/T N even Mayet kt (230) [[(-»)/ T] (2), N oda. k=1 k=1 e The zeros are located at 2 = FSR VON ay" k=1,2,---,.N. (24) e Note that if N is odd, then for k = (N +1)/2, the zero lies at the infinity (numerator order is N — 1).—24 e The poles are located at Pe =n +I%, K=1,2%...,N, (25a) where Qa; = b OK a me BR (251 ) =58 Q. = 25c Obra me with 1 (2k — 1) Y=? k= Ve =_ sino 25 aK sin[ aN ] (25d) yty! _(@k-1)r = ee (em Be Br 3g sl ar | (25e) and rN y=(A+VA?-1). (25f) e In this case, the poles do not lie on a simple geomet- ric figure as they do for Butterworth and Chebyshev filters. e Note that the above formulas for Chebyshev and in- verse Chebyshev filters have been constructed such that the Chebyshev filter just meets the passband cri- teria, whereas the inverse Chebyshev filter just meets the stopband criteria. e If it is desired that the inverse Chebyshev filter just meets the given passband criteria, then then the de- sired result is achieved by evaluating A? according to equation (20a).EXAMPLE e We again consider the specifications: Ap =0.2 dB, A, >60dB, , = 1.8944272. Like for Chebyshev filters, €? = 0.047238748 and A? = 10°, whereas N > cosh "{\/[(A? — 1)/e]}/ cosh7'(Q,) = 7.2808916 > N=8. e Knowing the fact that the Chebyshev and inverse Chebyshev filter mee + the same amplitude criteria, our filter can be forced to have A, = 0.2 dB by selecting A, = 67.8310 dB, giving A? = 6068718.6. The eight poles of the resulting filter are located at —0.18212766 + j1.16381690, —0.57926246 + 71.10192829, —1.03855485 + j0.88204869, and —1.42446611 + 70.36015085. The eight zeros are located at +71.93154121, tL j2.27840821, +73.40987886,26 and +79.71051342, whereas Ho = 0.00036795086. e The following transparency gives the pole-zero plot as well as the amplitude response for this filter.-27 Eighth-Order Inverse Chebyshev Analog Filter with 2, = 1, 2, = 1.8944272, A, = 0.2 dB, and A, > 60 dB ° 8 ot ‘ ° ke? 8 zd E E-2 8 ° 4 “6 | 3 -10) 2 -10 5 oO 5 10 Real pan Amplitude in dB 28 & ‘8th-order inverse Chebyshev filter with Ap=0.2 and Omegas=1.8944 8th-order inverse Chebyshev filter with Ap=0.2 and Omegas=1.8944 107 10° 10! ‘Angular frequency Omega 238 Amplitude in dB S 1 ‘Angular frequency Omega28- ELLIPTIC (CAUER) FILTERS e Like for Chebyshev filters, in the normalized passband 0 logyg(16D)/logy9(1/q) ViFe+y Vire-1 1 (Nes ay al (27a) (27b) (27c) (27d) (27e) Q7f) (279)pan rg (— 1) mg" sinh{(2m + 1)A] | 1+2>21(-1)™q™ cosh[2mA] (27h) (1 + kaG)(1 + 49/k) (271) 2g so (1) 7g") sin{(2m + 1)]Jru/N] 1+ 250%_.(-1)"q” cos[2map/N] 7 (27)) where i, Nodd B {Pap Neven? @=b2-a7 Tk) 00 = Go/ VI: (271) (1 — k07)(1 — 03/k) (27m) 1 Aoi = ro (27n) (Vi)? + (Q3W)? OE 270 Boi KL + 6302) (270) 260V; li = ay (27) _ J % TTi=1[Boi/ Aoi), for N odd a { Tea TTizi[Boi/Aoi], for N even. (274) e In practice, three or four terms in the series of equa- tions (27h) and (27j) are sufficient. e The passband criteria are just met, whereas the result- ing minimum stopband attenuation is Ay = 10 logyo{e?/(16q™) + 1). (27r)EXAMPLE e We again consider the specifications: A, =0.2 dB, A, >60dB, 0, = 1.8944272. e < = 0.047238748 and A? = 10°, whereas k = 1/0, = 0.527864, k’ = \/1 — k? = 0.8493289 go = (1/2)(1 — Vk) /(1 + Vk’) = 0.0204022 = qo + 2g) + 15q§ + 15094° = 0.0204022 D = (A? —1)/e? = 21218562 N 2 logy(16D)/logyo(1/¢) = 5.046816 = N=6. e The six poles of our filter are located at —0.08205619 + 71.03019607, —0.25402886 + 70.79507992, and —0.39500663 + 70.30821324. e The six zeros are located at +71.95117116, +)2.57623214, and +j6.79458015, whereas Hy = 0.00015647808and As; = 76.1109. e The next transparency shows the pole-zero plot and the amplitude response for this filter.33 Sixth-Order Elliptic Analog Filter with 0, = 1 Qs = 1.8944272, A, = 0.2 dB, and A, > 60 dB ’ 6th-order elliptic iter with Ap=0.2 and Omegas=1.8944 a 6 i 6 2 3 E of e | £ % 4 a -al ° J ae 2 4 6 Real part 6th-order elliptic filter with Ap=0.2 and Omegas=1.8944 ‘Amplitude in dB Angular frequency Omega Amplitude in dB é of 1 ‘Angular frequency Omega 334 BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION ¢ The most efficient and popular analog-to-digial trans- formation is the bilinear transformation. e It transforms H,(s) to its digital equivalent H(z) via the relation H(z) = Hol) 5 = e(z — 1)/(z +1): (23) e Here, c can be selected arbitrarily. e Alternatively, H,(s) can be obtained from H(z) via the relation Hz) =H(2)\,—(14s/e)/(1—s/cy (24) e The transformation s = c(z—1)/(z+1) is a one-to-one mapping between the s-plane and the z-plane and has the following desired properties: e The left-half s-plane is mapped to the interior of the unit circle = A stable H,(s) is mapped into a stable H(z). e The right-half s-plane (unstable region for poles) is mapped to the exterior of the unit circle (unstable region for poles). e The imaginary axis s = jQ is mapped to the z- plane unit circle z = e/” > The analog frequency domain (imaginary axis) maps onto the digital fre- quency domain (unit circle), albeit, as we shall see, nonlinearly.-35- RELATIONS BETWEEN THE s- AND z-PLANES Y, s-Plane 2z-Plane Image of s=jQ Image of left half-plane ¢ Substituting z = e!” into equation (23) results in, after some manipulations, H(e!”) = Hy(jetan(w/2)). (25) ¢ Alternatively substituting z = e/ and s = jQ into s =c(z—1)/(z+1) we end up with the realtions Q = ctan(w/2) (26) or w = 2arctan(Q/c). (27) e s = 0 and s = oo are mapped to z = 1 and z = —1, respectively.—36- DIGITAL FILTER DESIGN USING THE BI- LINEAR TRANSFORMATION e The following figure exemplifies the design process, where the bandedges of the digital filter, w, and ws, as well as allowable passband and stopband variations are specified. e Here, the design of the digital filter is converted to that |H(e)| of the analog filter for which the required passband and stopband variations are the same. 3 w37 SYNTHESIS PROCEDURE Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Determine c such that w, is mapped to Q, = 1. The condition for cis Q, = 1 = ctan(w,/2), giving oe (28) Determine Q, = ctan(w,/2). Determine ¢? and A? from the passband and stop- band ripples A, and A, using equation (7). Select the analog filter type (Butterworth, Cheby- shev, inverse Chebyshev, or elliptic) and syn- thesize the minimum-order filter transfer func- tion H,(s) whose squared-magnitude resonse stays within the limits unity and 1/(1 +?) in the pass- band 0 < Q < 1 the limits zero and 1/A? in the stopband 2, < Q < c. The desired digital filter is then A(z) = Hals)i5 = e(z-1)f(z+ 1) 29)8 In practice, the desired H(z) can be conveniently gen- erated by first determining the poles and zeros of the digital filter using the relation z = (1+ s/c)/(1— s/c) to each pole and zero of the analog filter. This gives the poles and zeros of the digital filter, denoted by 6, and a, for k = 1,2,---, N, respectively. The resulting H(z) is then N N H(z) = ko [](1- ane) /T]G- &e2)). (80) k=l k=1 The constamt kp can be then determined from the con- dition that H(1) = 1 (|H(e*)| = 1 at w = 0) for But- terworth and inverse Chebyshev filters as well as for Chebyshev filters and elliptic filters for N even. For N odd, H(1) = 1/V1+€? for Chebyshev filters and elliptic filters. Note that the zero at infinity (N zeros for Butter- worth and Chebyshev filters and one zero for inverse Chebyshev and elliptic filters for N odd) are mapped toz=-l.39 - ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE e It is desired to synthesize a Butterworth, Chebyshev, inverse Chebyshev, and an elliptic filter such that the sampling frequency is F, = 10 kHz, the minimum pass- band ripple A, = 0.2 dB in the passband 0 < f < 2 kHz and the minimum stopband attenuation is A, = 60 dB in the stopband 3kHz < f <5 kHz= F,/2. Step 1 w and the ‘real’ frequency are related via w = 2nf/Fs so that in terms of w the passband and stopband edges are w, = 0.47 and w, = 0.67, respectively. Step 2 w, = 0.47 is mapped to Q, = 1 in the bilin- ear transformation by selecting c = cot(w,/2) = 1.3763819. Then, Q, = ctan(w,/2) = 1.8944272. Step 3 Applying equations (7a) and (7b) gives 2 = 104/19 _ 1 = 0.0471285 and A? = 1049/19 = 108 Step 4 These are the same criteria we considered previ- ously for all the four classical analog filter types. All what is left is to apply the bilinear transfor- mation.40- BUTTERWORTH FILTER e By applying the substitution z = (1+ s/c)/(1 — s/c) with c = 1.3763819 to the poles of the anaolg filter given in transparency 15, we end up with the following fourteen z-plane pole locations: 0.89585800erp(+j0.433121817) 0.7152600leap(+j0.429702197) 0.56158624exp(+j0.421939757) 0.42686164erp(+j0.407317997) 0.30642203exp(+j0.379346827) 0.19959206exp(+j0.318418707) 0.11888906eaxp(+j0.154722697) 1 e All the fourteen zeros of the analog filter lying at in- finity are mapped to z = —1. e This filter can be implemented in following the cascade form (see the next transparency) R - i 1+ agiz + az ‘| = Eo Gove + ane 1 M(2) = ko Ih bye! — bz (31) ¢ Combining complex-conjugate pole pairs, seven (R = 7) second-order denominator sections become 1 — 0.210236982"! + 0.01413460z~? 1 — 0.21556526271 + 0.03983699z~?