1.

Let`s take the divergen e of (1.24).

em = ( F )F + F  F + 1 F  F =
 T      
2    
1 1 1
= J F + F (  F +  F +  F ) = F J (1)
2 2 2
For the rst term we used the rst Maxwell equation (1.16), the se ond
has been split up in the following way:

1 1 1 1
F  F = F  F + F  F = F  F + F  F
2 2 2 2
that is one half of the expression left untou hed, in the other half summa-
tion indi es  and  have been inter hanged and the last equation is just
simultaneous inter hange of the indi es of both F `s resulting in the fa tor
of ( 1)2 by the antisymmetry property. In the third term summation for
 has been performed obviously then summations for  and  have been
hanged to  and  respe tively. Finally the expression in bra kets equals
to zero by the se ond Maxwell equation (1.17) known as the Bian hi iden-
tity and the antisymmetri ity of F was used again to get the right hand
side of (1).
For interpreting (1) let`s integrate it over a spatial hypersurfa e V sepa-
rating the time and the spatial omponents. For  = 0 we have (leaving
the supers ript em):

Z Z Z Z Z
0 T00 d3 x = i Ti 0 d 3 x + F0i Ji d3 x = Ti0 dS + F0i Ji d3 x
V V V V V

T00 is the energy density, thus the hange of the total energy of the system
omes from the energy urrent density Ti0 at the boundary of V and
the part of the (ele tromegneti ) urrent whi h is paralell to the ele tri
eld F0i . If V is innite with boundary only at innity with the natural
assumption of Ti0 j1 = 0 we have only the explained se ond term of the
right hand side. For  = i the equation takes the form:
Z Z Z
0 T0i d3 x = j Tji d3 x + Fi J d3 x =
V Z VZ VZ
= Tji dS + Fi0 J0 d x + Fij Jj d3 x
3
V V V
The explanation is analogous. T0i is the momentum density Tji is the

Fij Jj = (!
J !
momentum urrent density (known as stress tensor), and the momentum
in reases with Fi0 J0 = Ei and B )i .
Aij xi
 x
2. Instead of the matrix j 0 we write down the inverse immediately:

0  1 0 1 10  1
x sin  os  sin  sin  os  r
  A= r sin  sin  r sin  os  0 A   A
y 
 r os  os  r os  sin  r sin  
z 

1
 We save time with the following tri k

2 
4 = x i2 = (A
x0j

1)
(A 1 )ik 0k =
x ij
 (A 1 )ik  2
= (A 1 )ij 0 j 0 k + (AAT )jk1 0j 0k =
0 x 1 x x x

1
T
 AA jk Aij 1 2
= A 1 A  + (AAT ) 1 
x0j x0j ik x0k jk x0j x0k

2  ot    1 2 1 2
= + 2 + 2+ 2 2 2 + 2 2=
r r r  r r sin   r 

where AAT will be diagonal and only the se ond term in the big paren-
thesis requires onsiderable amount of work. So this gives the onvenient
form for the S hrodinger equation so as to al ulate the spe trum.

h 2 e2
( 4
2m polar r
) (r; ; ) = (r; ; )

3. The dierential equation is a trivial step from formula (3.8) in the le ture
notes.
L( + d ) = L( ) + L_ ( )d = L( ) + L L( )d
That is
L_ ( ) = L L( )
with 0 1
0 0 0 ig1( )
L = B
B 0 0 0 ig2( ) C
C d
 0 0 0 ig2( ) A
ig1( ) ig2( ) ig3 ( ) 0
Integration after separating the variables yields:

L( ) = exp(L)
whi h is easily summed for !g ( ) pointing in the z-dire tion it gives formula
(3.9).

4. From the referen e frame of the Earth the proper time of the annonball
v2
to the rst non-trivial order in 2 is:

Z 2v0 =g r Z 2v0 =g Z 2v0 =g
v2 v2 (v0 gt)2
= 1
2
dt ' (1
2 2
)dt = (1
2 2
)dt = (2)
0 0 0
g2 t02 0
Z v0 =g
2v0 v02 v02
= (1 )dt = (1 ) = t(1 )
v0 =g 2 2 g 6 2 6 2
Repeating the al ulation for the proper time of the Earth from the moving
grid of the annonball is identi al to the one above if we ignore possible
gravitational ee ts:
v02
t =  (1 )
6 2
2
 expressing  negle ting higher orders of v02 = 2 we get:
v2
 = t(1 + 02 ) (3)
6
whi h leads to the twin paradox when omparing it to (2).In fa t the
last result is orre t sin e the freefalling annonball does not feel any
gravitation. However the rst al ulation has to be modied by taking
into a ount the ee t of the gravitational potential when writing down
the the lo k speed of the annonball as noted in the exer ise Pluging ba k
2 to the formulae the al ulation is as follows:
Z 2v0 =g r Z 2v0 =g
v2 g 2v0 v02 g
= ( 1 2 + 2 z )dt ' (1 2 )+ 2 zdt =
0 g 6 0
Z 2v0 =g g
2v0 v02 g2 2v0 v02 v02
( 2)+
g 6 2
(v 0 t
2
t )dt ' g
(1 +
6 2 3 2
)=
0
v
= t(1 + 02 )
6
whi h agrees with (3) and shows the somewhat unexpe ted result, that is
the freefalling observer in fa t older than the one feeling gravitational for e.
The usual formulation of the twin paradox leads to the opposite answer,
when one takes his ra ket a elerates to a high velo ity and omes ba k
to the Earth, one is in deed yonger than his twin brother on the Earth,
however he was not freely falling along his journey, while the annonball
was.
5.
r
h G
LP = =1:616  10 35 m
3
r
h G
TP = = 5:391  10 44s
5
r
h
MP = = 2:177  10 8kg
G
6. For e balan e gives us
 
GmN 1
= mN ! 2 r
r2 2
A ording to Bohr quantization the separation radius must satisfy:

1 2
2mN ! r = nh
2
From these two equations, the separation is:

2n2 h2
r=
GmN
The lowest energy level is the n = 1 level, in this level the radius is
6  1022m = 6  106 light years!

3
7. We know that
Ei = iFi4
1
Bi = "ijk Fjk
2
For ?F these be ome

1 1
i ? Fi4 = i "i4jk Fjk = "ijk Fjk = iBi
2 2

1 1 1 1
" ? F = " " F = " (" F + " F ) =
2 ijk jk 2 ijk 2 jk  4 ijk jk4l 4l jkl4 l4
1 1
= 2"ijk "jkl Fl4 = 2
2il Fl4 = Fi4 = iEi
4 4
The latin letters run from 1..3, the antisymmetri ity of F has been used
and the identity "ijk "jkl = 2il . Note that the fa tor of i entered be ause
of the form (1.13) of F ompatible with the purely imaginary time om-
ponents of ve tors.
The Bian hi identity (1.17):

 F +  F  +  F = 0 (4)

is equivalent with

 ? F  12 "  F = 0 (5)

Clearly, for xed  and dierent (; ; ;  ) in (5), all the ombinations of
(; ;  ) appears in the sum for the F term twi e; the odd permutations
with the same sign and the even ones with the opposite sign. Again by
the antysimmetri ity of F , this gives twi e (4). For dierent (; ; ) in
(4) one term is zero and the other two are equal with dierent sign again
by antisymmetry. So we an write the free spa e Maxwell`s equations in
the form:

 F = 0 (6)

 ? F = 0 (7)

We need the property of the operator ?:

? ? F = F
whi h follows from the rst part ( Ei ! iBi ! i( iEi ) = Ei , similarly
for Bi ). Thus staring F in (6) and (7) inter hanges the equations. Due
to linearity we an also take arbitrary linear ombination of F and ?F , it
will also be solution.

8. Ind dimensions an n index antisymmetri tensor has as many omponents

as many dierent n-tuple we an form of d dierent numbers with
 the re-
d
stri tion that they all have to be dierent. The solution is
n =

4
 d(d 1)
:::
(d n+1) .
n! For the symmetri ase the equivalent ombinatori-
al question is: How many dierent ways an we distribute less or pre-
isely n balls into d 1 dierent boxes. The reason is that one inde-
pendent omponent of a fully symmetri n tensor in d dimensions is
hara terized by the numbers of 1s, 2s,...,(d-1)s appearing among
the indi es regardless their distribution among the indi es (ds are xed
 the rest of the indi es should take the value of d.
sin e The solution

is
d+n 1 = (d+n 1)(dn+! n 2)
:::
d sin e there are (d + n 1)! per-
n
mutations of the boxes and balls together to be devided by the irrelevant
permutations of the boxes by themselves (d 1)! and the balls n!.
In one hand writing down the transformation of an obje t of the type
T  T gives a quantity whi h is not symmetri or antisymmetri in gen-
eral, on the other hand identifying a supers ript index with a subs ript
index makes no sense (they do not represent any intrinsi oordinate in-
dependent quantity), they live in dierent spa e.

9.

K  v = A B  v = (B
v)A
The equation is a ovariant one, it shows that ontra ting our tensor with
any ove tor gives a ontrave tor pointing to the same dire tion ( A ). So
it is a ne essary ondition. It is also su ient, sin e pi king ^ 
up A

K  v(0) for a xed v(0) (whi h does not give identi ally zero Ab ) we an
K  v whi h
dene B by its ontra tions with arbitrary ove tors B v 
 
Ab
makes sense as the ve tor in the numerator is proportional to the ve tor
in the denominator.

10. In a general oordinate system eqn. (5.3) holds Consider the transforma-
tion :u ! w (u). We write down (5.3) for the oordinates w while on
the other hand _ is a ontrave tor, thus substituting (5.3) into the equa-

tion  (w ) = w ; _ (u) for both the oordinates u and w and plugging
_     
in the transformation rules for the quantities in (5.3) orresponding to the
w oordinates we get:
d 
w;; u_    + w;  (u) +  (w)w; u_ w  (u) =
d  
d 
w;  (u) +  (u)u_    (u)
d
d   
The term ontaining d  (u) appears on both sides, u_  is ontra ted in
all the rest of the terms, so renaming the indi es appropriately and after
rearrangement we get:
 
u_    w;; +  (w)w ; w; w;  (u) = 0
for arbitrary urve u( ) and arbitrary ve tor eld   along that urve, so
the bra ket must vanishes whi h is pre isely the transformation (5.5) if
multiplied by u; :
 
u w;; +  (w)w ; w; =  (u)

5
 The se ond part of the exer ise is straightforward, one has to onsider
two su essive transformations y ! x(y) and x ! u(x) resulting in the
transformation y ! u(x(y)). Plugging in the the formula for (x(y))
in the pla e of (x) in (5.5) identifying the onsequen es of the hain
  
y x = y = y  (u)
x; (u)y (x) = x
rule for dierentiation:  u u ; and for
identifying the se ond derivative:

y;; (u) = y;; (x)x; (u)x; (u) + y; (x)x;;(u)

whi h omes from applying the hain rule twi e, (5.5) is obtained for
y ! u(y).
11. Reparametrizing eqn. (5.8) using the hain rule twi e:

dx () dx () d

=
d0 d d0
 
d2 x () d2 x () d 2 dx d2 
= +
d02 d2 d0 d d02
0
we immediately get eqn. (5.8a) with ( ) =
d2  .
2 d0
12. Applying the rules of the transformation of a ove tor (for getting D A
) then that of a two-index otensor (for getting D D A ) we obtain the
following:

D D A = D ( A  A )=  A   A   A
          
 (  A ) +    A +
  A
  
The rst, the se ond, the fth member of the sum, the third plus the
  A
   part of the fourth are symmetri with respe t to the inter hange
of  and  (On the a ount of the Yang`s theorem for partial derivatives,
and torsionfree onne tion). Therefore after antisymmetrizing so as to
write down (5.31) we get:

 A (   +  + 
R  )A
         
whi h oin ide with (5.27) for any torsionfree onne tion.

13. We need to show that De  )v jP depends only on the value of v at

(D
point P . This is true sin e (D De  )v = (D De  )v due to the fa t
that the Leibniz rule and (5.17) hold for both ovariant derivatives. (To
be more elaborate one should take the D De  a ting on v v where
the latter vanishes at P but dierent from zero in general and show that
the result is zero everywhere.) Sin e one has the equation

 
D D  = De  De   C 
symmetri ity in lower indi es follows from the requirement of D D
D D vanishing on s alar elds for both ovariant derivatives. Using the
expli it form (5.9) we nd

0 = (D D D D ) =          +    =
 
= (   ) 
 a

that is  has to be symmetri in its lower indi es.

6
  jP = 01
14. In the frame where 
 =  
D R 
     
Considering the symmetrization in (; ; ) one easily he ks that ea h
 term will appear antisymmetrized in the omplete sum and we get
identi ally zero whi h asserts the proof of the Bian hi identity.

 jP
15. (5.26) is lear again in the oordinate system where  vanishes. (Note,
that (anti)symmetri ity is an invariant property). (5.29) in the same o-
ordinate system is also straightforward as ea h index in the derivative
appears twi e and with dierent sign and the order of the other two in-

di es does not matter sin e  is symmetri in the lower indi es.

16. We have antisymmetry in the rst pair of indi es and the last pair of indi es
R . d(d 1)
of There are thus 2 andidates for index pairs both for the
rst and the last pair. Additional symmetry property for ex hanging the
rst pair with the last leads us to
  
1 d(d 1) d(d 1)
+1 (8)
2 2 d
. The more di ult part is to determine how many more omponents
(5.29) makes dependent. From now on, dierent Greek letters mean dif-
ferent values. Writing the permutations out symboli ly and using the
antisymmetri properties:

() (5.29): 0 = ()+()+( ) = () ()+0 

0
( ) (5.29): 0 = ( ) + () + ( ) = ( ) ( ) +
00
( ) We state that (5.29) is not sensitive for permuting the four in-
di es, that is we have one equation for all four tuples regardless
the order of the indi es in it.

(a) Writing (5.29) if any of the last three indi es are inter hanged leads
obviously to (5.29) for the original order as the odd permutations
of the last three indi es oin ide with the evens on the a ount of
antisymmetry.

(b) Inter hanging any of the last three indi es with the rst gives 1
times (5.29) for the original order sin e say we inter hanged  and 
then we mat h (; ; ; ) with (; ; ; ); (; ; ; ) with (v; ; ; ) et .,
and the reason we do not have to worry about not getting always the
1 times the mat hed tuple (a ording to the symmetry properties)
is that in the inter hanged equation we have only odd permutations
of the indi es.
1 Note that the vanishing of the totally (anti)symmetri part of an arbitrary subset of indi es
(of the same kind) of a tensor is an invariant statement sin e the oordinate transformations
leave (anti)symmetry and the matrix 0 invariant.

7
  
Hen e we need to subtra t the number of dierent four tuples
d from
4
(8), whi h leads to

  
1 d(d 1) d(d 1) d(d 1)(d 2)(d 3)
+1 =
2 2 d 4
8
d2 (d2 1) < 1 d=2
= 6 d=3
12 :
20 d = 4

17. Consider (5.3) multiplied with x ; :

x ; e (u) = x; x;  (x) + x ; (9)

This form may suggest a guess for a oordinate transformation of the form
(We want to make vanish at point P whi h orresponds to the origin in
oordinate u ):
1
x = u + A u u
2
with A being symmetri in its lower indi es. Plugging it into (9) one
nds:

( + A  u )e (u) = ( + A u )( + A u )  (x) + A 

Setting u = 0 we obtain:
e
 (u) =  + A
Choosing A  =
we set the ane onne tion to zero at point P .

g is a symmetri matrix, that an always be diagonalized, and one always
obtains (in the physi al ase) three eigenvalues of the same sign and one

opposite to the others. x ! p "() x

2 Res aling them one by one with
jj
with "() = 1 and "(i) = 1 we get the Minkowski form of g . Sin e the

performed oordinate transformation is linear,  remains zero a ording
to its above tranformation properties.
It is lear that  = 0 if and only if  = 0.
2  =  g +  g  g
Writing down the fully symmetri part we nd

2 [ = 2(  +   +  ) =  g +  g +  g
whi h enables us to express the derivative of the metri :  g = [
 that is the derivatives of the metri vanish as long as the ane on-
ne tion does.
The transformations are the linear transformations whi h leave the Minkowski
2 The signature doesn`t ip on a onne ted manifold whi h is proven in dierential geom-
etry by showing the existan e of a smooth orthonormal set of basisve tors on a su iently
small neighbourhood of any point. Nevertheless, in general it does not ome from any set of
oordinates!

8
 metri invariant, that is the Lorentz group SO(1; 3).
Let`s write down the Taylor expansion of the metri for a neighbourhood
of a point P
1
g (x +
x) = g (x) +  g (x)
x +   g (x)
x
x =
2
1
 +   g (0)x x
2
where the last line we plugged in all the input of a geodesi oordinate
system veried above.

18. The metri is

0 1
1 3
2 3
4
12
3


13
13 13
13
13
C
g = B
 3 4
13
13
1
134 2
4 12 A
13 13
12 3 4 12 1 13 12
2
13 13 13 13
Its determinant is zero, therefore (at least) one oordinate is not indepen-
dent.Throwing away the z oordinate we get :
 2
3 4
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 dx + dy
13 13
The determinant an be al ulated again, it is nonzero. It is not di ult to
nd a oordinate transformation whi h gives the Eu lidean metri ds2 =
d 2 + d2 :
 
12 3 4
= x+ y
5 13 13
 
13 4 3
= x+ y
5 13 13
19. One an he k the statemants expli itly. The s alar produ t of an arbi-
trary ve tor v - proje ted a ording to the exer ise - with u gives:
(g + "u u )v u = uv(1 "u2 )
whi h vanishes for the timelike and for the spa elike ase.
IfP is a proje tion operator orthogonal to a null ve tor k (For example
one may he k that g
w  k
w k is one with arbitrary ve tor w whi h is not
  2
orthogonal to k ), then so is P + k k sin e k k v k = (kv )(k ) = 0

sin e k is null.

20. The embedded metri in the oordinates r and  an be al ulated dire tly
1
from the relations for the stereographi proje tion pluging in  = r os 
2
and  = r sin :

r2 1 2r os  2r sin 
x0 = 2 ; x1 = 2 ; x2 = 2
r +1 r +1 r +1
The partial derivatives read:

  !
r x0 r x1 r x2 4r 2(1 r2 ) os  2(1 r2 ) sin 
= ( +1)2
r2 (r2 +1)2 (r2 +1)2
 x0  x1  x2 0 2r sin 
r2 +1
2r os 
r2 +1

9
and this in deed leads to

4 4r2
grr = (r xa )2 = 2 ; g  = ; gr = gr = 0
(r + 1)2 (r2 + 1)2
whi h is another way of saying that the line element is

4
ds2 = 2 (dr2 + r2 d2 ):
(r + 1)2

NP

Y X
O

Let us see if the given formulae for xa ( i ) agree with the geometri pi ture,
it is really the stereographi proje tion. We take a general point P on the
0 1 2
sphere (x ; x ; x ) and see how to determine them from the point ( ;  )
1 2
whi h is the interse tion of the straight line and the plane x = 0 where
0
the line is determined by the North Pole (Np from now on) and P . The
gure shows the plane determined by the straight line linking Np with
P and its proje tion to the plane x0 = 0. We denote the distan es of
the gure OY by l and OX by L. The oordinates of X o the plane are
p p
( 1 ;  2 ). It is lear that l = (x1 )2 + (x2 )2 and L = ( 1 )2 + ( 2 )2 .
From similarity of the triangles NpOX and P Y X :

L l
x0 =
L
and we also know that   1 = 2 =
x 1 x 2 l
  L .  is easily determined by the
0 2 1 2 2 2
equation (x ) + (x ) + (x ) = 1 :

2
= 2
L +1
The form of the inverse is simple now sin e x = 1
0  we immediately
get:
xi
i = ; i = 1; 2: (10)
1 x0
The other oordinate pat h an be the stereographi proje tion from the
South Pole, whi h is given by multiplying the formula for x0 with 1

10
 orresponding to the stereographi proje tion to the North Pole and those
for xa ; a = 1; 2 remain the same. The oordinate transformation relating
the two pat hes are also easy sin e (10) for the South Pole proje tion diers
also only in the sign of x0 and one plugs the form of x0 ( ) straightly to the
i ( i )
Sp 1 2
whi h is made independent of x and x . The result
expression Np
is the so alled inversion :

i
Np
i =
Sp 1 2 2 )2 ; i = 1; 2
(Np ) + (Np
whi h we may have already suspe ted from the geometri pi ture.
We prove the statement in the hint. Let us write down the Euler-Lagrange
equations for the system:

1
L(x ; x_  ; t) = g (x)x_  x_ 
2

1
 L =  g x_  x_ 
2
d L d 
 = (g x_ ) =  g x_  x_  +g x_

dt  x_ dt
The Euler-Lagrange equations after using the tri k

 g x_  x_  = 1=2 (g x_  x_  +  g x_  x_  );
that is inter hanging the summation index in half of the expression, reads

d L L 1
0= = g x + ( g +  g  g )x_  x_ 
dt  x_  x 2
whi h is pre isely the geodesi equation (in lower index) therefore we may
use it for reading the Christoel symbols o from the term quadrati in
x_  . We need to write down the Lagrangian now for our ase:

4(r_2 + r2 _ 2 )
L=
(1 + r2 )2
whi h gives

r 2r r r(r2 1)
rr = r = rr = 0 r
 =
1 + r2 1 + r2
2 _ _ 2 respe tively
reading o the oe ients of the terms ontaining r_ ; r_ ;
of the r omponent of the Euler-Lagrange equation. Doing the same for
the  omponent we get:

1 r2

rr =  = 0; 
r = r = :
r(1 + r2 )
The urve r(u) = tan u2 ;  = onstant is geodesi as it an either be expli -

itly he ked by substituting it into the geodesi equation, but sin e rr = 0
the  omponent of the equation is identi ally zero whi h garanties that

11
 the geodesi equation for a generi parametrisation x_  r x_  = (x)x_ 
(not the ane! ) is surely satised.
For omputing the paralell transport of a ve tor from the point with oor-
diantes (R; i ) to (R; f ) along the urve r = onstant we have to solve
the dierential equation
x_  D v = 0
We may parametrize the urve in the following way : (u) = i + (f
i )u; u 2 [0; 1: The expli it for of the dierential equations are:
v_ r + r (f i )v = 0
v_  + r (f i )vr = 0
be ause r_ = 0  _ = f i and other possible terms in the summation
an el be ause the orresponding ` s are zero. So the nonzero `s depend
only on r whi h is onstant along the urve; we are given the dierential
equation for the harmoni os illator

v_ r + 1 v_  = 0
v_  + 2 v_ r = 0
the detailed solution of whi h is known or to be solved by the reader.
The only nontrivial geodesi equation is

R(R2 1) 2
 =0
1 + R2
whi h is satised with R = 1.
The surfa e integral is the following al ulation
Z 2 Z R
pgdrd = Z R 8r
= 4 
Z
R d(1 + r2 )
=
0 0 0 (1 + r2 )2 0 (1 + r2 )2

4 R 4R2
=
1 + r 2 0 1 + R 2
The omplete sphere is ara terized by  2 [0; 2 r 2 [0; 1 (apart from
one single point whi h does not matter on erning the integral) Taking the
limit R ! 1 we get for the surfa e 4 as was expe ted from the sphere
with the embedding metri .

21.

re  v =  v e
 v
1 

e
 =2 g  (
2 g ) +  (
2 g) +  (
2 g ) =
2

 + 1 (  
+  
g  g 
)

     
where the fa tor
drops out of the terms  g +  g  g (that is
when the partial derivative a ts on g ) whi h gives pre isely  . So the

tensor C an be read o now:

 v =r v
C re  v =  v  v  v + e =
    
1 
( 
+  
g g 
)v

 

12
 Su ien y is easy, sin e multiplying the metri with a number means
that the norm ( g v v ) of a ve tor v will be a positive number
times the original norm, thus the ausal stru ture (that is the norm
being positive, negative or zero orresponding to spa elike, timelike
and null ve tor, respe tively) is preserved.
It is also ne essary, be ause: Consider a point P and the metri in
the geodesi oordinate system with g (P ) =  : Take the ve tors
E() =  that is pre isely that orthonormal set in whi h the metri
  E
E(0)
is Minkowski. The null ve tors (i) is supposed to be null
also with respe t to g .
e The norm of the timelike ve tor should be
negative by assumption with respe t to g
e .

 E = e
0 > ge E(0)   g
(0) g 0 0 = e00 (11)

  E  )(E   E  ) = e
0 = ge (E(0) g00 + geii  2gei0
(i) (0) (i)
whi h means
gei0 = ge0i = 0
and
gii
e = ge00 : (12)

ve tor E
   p 6 j)
Finally the nullity of the
(0) + (E(i) + E(j ) )= 2 (i=
gives for g :
e
ge ge
0 = eg00 + ii + jj + geij = egij
2 2
sin e the spatial diagonal omponents are all equal to ge00 by (12).
Hen e
g
e = diag( a; a; a; :::; a) = ag
with a = ge00 whi h is positive by (11)
 We an write expli itly the equation of the geodesi not in the ane
parametrization.

dx  dx dx  dx dx

+  =  (13)
d x d d d d
whi h oin ides with (5.8a) of the le ture notes and a ording to
exer ise 11. we an take a parametrisation where d2 0 =d02 =  and
the right hand side of (13) drops out.

 Null geodesi s have null tangent whose norm is zero even after mul-
tiplying it (the metri ) with a number.


= eg D
ge De  De 
e g De  (s
s 1 
+
s  ) =
e   (
s ) = e
ge (s(s 1)
s 2 

+ s
s 1  
+ s
s 1 D 
+
+s
s 1 
 +
s D  ) ge C  (s
s 1 
+
s  ) =
 
s 2  s 3 
=
g D D +
((2s + d 2)g  
+ s D  ) +

s 4 s(s + d 3) g  

13
 The denition of the ( onformally) transformed quantities (with the
tilde) are given in the exer ise. Both the original and the transformed
ovariant derivatives a ts the same way (namely as ordinary deriva-
tives) when a ting on a s alar; these give the rst ve terms in the
rst equality. When De  a ts on a ve tor it a ts as given in rst part
of this exer ise, the tensor
 emerges. One plugs in its expli it
C
expression and nally olle ts the terms whi h has
on the same
power then one obtains the last equality, where d is the dimension of
the spa e emerging from g g
 =  = d. Therefore the Klein Gor-

don equation (with zero mass) is onformally invariant if all terms
vanishes in the last equation but the rst: s must be hosen to be
zero and d = 2 is the only possibility.
 For the Maxwell equations we are led to the following expression
(with some intermediate steps omitted):

De  Fe = eg De  Fe =

s 2 g D F + (d 4 + s)
s 3 g F 

and
De [ Fe =
s D[ F + s
s 1 D[
F
indi es in the bra kets [ are totally symmetrized. The
where the
3
requirement for onformal invarian e is

d 4+s=0 =) d = 4
s=0
that is the Maxwell equations are onformally invariant in four di-
mensions with zero onformal dimension if the eld strength.

 The transformed equation for the symmetri stress-energy tensor af-

ter expressing all terms expli itly and olle ting the same powers of

as above :
De  Te =
s D T  +
s 1 ((s + d 2)T  D
g T D
)
where the last terms vanises only if

s= d+2
and T = 0. Thus onformal invarian e holds. Thus the stress-energy
tensor of a onformal invariant eld must be tra eless (sin e the on-
servation equation should hold for the transformed quantities too).

22. Sin e g is dimensionless [ = [g = [R = [ 2 g = m 2 .

One needs to use the Newtonian limit of general relativity, whi h is dened
by

(a) g =  + h where h is small.

(b) h is slowly varying: 0 h  0.
( ) The derivatives i h are of the order h .
3 For the denition see exer ise 8.

14
(d) Parti les move slowly u = ( ; 0; 0; 0).
(e) T00   is the only nonzero omponent of the stress-energy tensor
(therefore T =  holds as well, urrent densities and tidal for es
vanish in the Newtonian limit.

d2 xi = 1 i h00
The geodesi equation then redu es to
dt2 2 thus the gravi-
tational potential is  = h00 =2. Due to ( ) only the   terms remains
in the Riemann tensor in the Newtonian limit; for the zeroth omponent
of the Ri i tensor only the rst term survives R00 = i i00 =
h00 =2.
Taking the tra e of the Einstein equation we get R = 4 T where we
use the shorthand notation  =
8G . Plugging it ba k to Einstein`s
4
equation for the 00 omponent yields:

1

 (2 T )( 1 + 2) = T
2
2
where still O (h ) terms may be present. Setting rst  = 0 we get
 =
1 T (3 ) where it is lear that the se ond term an be dropped sin e T
2
should be already of order  ( h00 ) in our approximation. Thus putting
ba k  onsidering the term

g00
0 = (14)

( 1+2)
as ontribution to the energy density and noti ing again that in

the se ond term will be negligible:
 
3 

 =  + (15)
2 
One then needs to solve the Lapla ian equation for the se ond term taking
spheri al symmetry into a ount:

2   2 1  2

radial  = + = (r) = 
r r r2 r r2
whi h admits the general solution


r = r3 + r +
6
 is an irrelevant additive onstant of the potential for = GM from
the requirement to reprodu e the Newtonian potential (whi h is the rst
(sour e) term in (15). So the potential is

 GM
 = r2
6 r
Let`s restri t the value of  from the requirement that in the solar system
the potential is des ribed well by the Newtonian part; that osmologi al
part should not ex eed its value within the radius of the Pluto:

j 6 rP2 luto j < rGM

P luto
jj < 6rGM
3
 = 4:2  10 35 m 2
P luto

15
 Finally the va uum energy density (14) orresponding to  is
 2 2 kg
0 = = 2:25  10 6 3  2
8G m
where the number is the mass density; it is mu h bigger than the observed
mass density of the universe. , if not zero, seems to be extremely small.
23. The formula
 = R + D 
Re 
   D  (16)

omes from formula (5.27) by plugging in  !  +  and keeping

  
only the O ( ) terms. Then one plugs in the expression for the variation
of the onne tion:

1
 = g (D g + D g D g )
2
into (16), uses the fa t the the D g = 0 and arrives immediately at
formula (8.7) of the le ture notes:

 = R + 1 ( g  D D g +D D g  +D D g  D D g  )
Re = Re             
2

where g = g
 g .

24. We shall use the identity given in the hint. Let us also use the shorthand
g = det(g )
p
( g) = p1 g = 2p1 g exp T r (log(g )) = 2pg g T r log(g ) =
2 g
pg pg pg
= 
T r(g g ) = g g = g g

2 2 2
We used the mentioned identity in the se ond eqation. Note that T r is
just the ordinary tra e of a matrix and also log A = A
1 A. In the last
equality we use

0 = (g g ) = g g + g g :

The identity
exp T rA = det exp A
is still to be proven. Suppose A is in an upper triangular form. Then

Y X
det exp A = exp Aii = exp Aii = exp T rA
i i
sin e any power of a matrix A of upper triangual form is of the same form
so is exp A then.
25. The variation of the a tion is
Z   Z
L L L
S = d4 x  +   +  x + (d4 x)L
   x

16
 The last term is the variation of the integration measure due to the o-
ordinate hange. In the se ond term we perform the usual integration by
part:
Z Z    
L L L
d4 x   = d4 x    
V   V    
We need to determine the Ja obian for the transformation x ! x + x
  
 0     
to the rst order in x . x =x =  +  (x )=x When al ulating
the determinant of this expression the nondiagonal elements are all of rst
order, thus we have to onsider (from the sum

det M = (1=24) " " M M M M

for the determinant of the matrix M ) only at least three 1s (of four)
diagonal terms in a generi member of the above sum, but then we have no
other hoi e for the forth term than the remaining diagonal one. Therefore
  
 x0 
(d4 x) =    1 d4 x =  x d4 x
x
So rearranging slightly our terms for the variation and taking into a ount,
that ( L)x + L x =  (Lx ) :
Z      
L L L
S = d4 x   + Lx +  
    
whi h is the desired form of the variation with the divergen e of the
Noether urrent
L
F =  + Lx (17)
 
and the equations of motion multiplied with .
The Noether urrent for translation of the free s alar eld is easily deter-
mined by substituting the Lagrangian into (17)

1

L= ()2 + m2 2
2
  
The variation of the oordinate x = a where a is innitesimal onstant
displa ement. Note also that

0 (x 0 ) = (x0  x ) = (x0  )  (x0  )a  (x0  ) + (x0  )

that is the orresponding variation of the eld is  =  a . We an
now write down the expression for the urrent

1

F a =    a ()2 + m2 2 a
2
where we separated the innitesimal parameter. The urrent is thus the
stress-energy tensor as expe ted
4

1

T =    ()2 + m2 2 g
2
4 The sign dieren e from the formula in the le ture notes arises only due to the dierent
onventions for dening the stress energy by Hilbert`s pres ription via the variation of the
a tion with respe t to the variation of the metri and by identifying it with the Nother
urrent asso iated to translational symmetry.

17
 Regarding the urrents see exer ise 1.

26. The ovariant derivative for a two low index tensor reads D F =  F
F F : Now the deviation from the at spa e Bian hi identity
   
F + F + F + F + F + F where the
is:      
terms an be mat hed as (1.-4., 2.-5., 3.-6.); they vanish sin e F is an-
tisymmetri . Sin e the ordinary and the ovariant form of the Bian hi
identity are thus equivalent in one oordinate system, the ovariant form
is valid and meaningful in urved spa e.
For the se ond part we wish to prove for a quantity A whi h is either an
antisymmetri upper index tensor or a ontrave tor

p1 g  p gAf g
 
D Af g = (18)

We start working out both sides:

 1
 Af g +  Af g +  A =  Af g ( g)Af g
2g 
Subtra ting the ordinary derivative from both sides and noti ing that the
third term on the right hand side is identi ally zero sin e is symmetri
and A is antisymmetri , we get:
1
 A  f g
( g)Af g
=
 2g 
Now we rename the indi es so as to omit A from the equation and rewrite
the derivative on the right hand side. The result is:

 1
 =  log( g) (19)
2
Writing down the left hand side expli itly in terms of the metri one
observes that the last two terms an el and one is lead to:

 1
 = g  g (20)
2
Now as a last step we use the statement of the hint in exer ise 24 for a
generi matrix
5 :

 log det A =  tr log A = tr(A 1  A) = A1  A :

Now substituting g in the pla e of A we nd the desired equation equating
the right hand side of (20) and (19)
6 So (18) holds for F  and dierenti-
ating it again gives identi ally zero due to the the symmetry of   and
the antisymmetry of F
 .

0 =   (
p gF  ) =  (p gJ  )

whi h is formula (10.14) of the le ture notes.
5 Here we use the logarithm of that equation with exp A !A substitution.
6 The minus sign does not matter: symboli ly (log f )0 = (log f )0 = f 0 =f: Of ourse only
the positive term makes sense.

18
27. A ording to the hint all we need to do is Lorenz-transforming ba k from
the rest frame stress-energy tensor to the inertial frame. The nonzero
omponents after the Lorentz transformation are (our velo ity parameter
is v then):
T 00 = 0 2 T x0 = T 0x = 0 2 v T xx = 0 v2 2
p
where = 1 v2 :
A ording to the hint we have exa tly the same formulae as above using
 instead of x and v = ar. We need to relate 0 now to the olle tion of
parti les. Let us write down the total energy of the parti les:

T 00 2drdz = Nm
with N being the number m the mass of parti les. In the ontinuum
approximation 0 is therefore:

Nm(r a)(z )
0 =
2a
Reexpressing the result to the re tangular oordinates a ording to x=
r os  y = r sin  we nd
p
Nm( x2 + y2 a)(z )
T  =
2a


0 1
1 v sin  v os  0


B
B v sin  v2 sin2  v2 sin  os  0 C
C
 v os  v2 sin  os  v2 os2  0A
0 0 0 0
If we have an additional ring rotating in the opposite dire tion then the
stress-energy is the same as above with the sign of v reversed. In the sum
terms linear in v disappear; terms quadrati in v are doubled. In polar
oordinates the nonzero omponents are

1 Nm(r a)(z )
T 00 = 2 T  = :
v a
The ontinuity equation refers to the onservation of energy, but sin e
we do not deal with a losed system, it simply does not hold. We need
to en ounter the for es whi h make the non-inertial motion possible for
a losed system to be given in whi h energy is onserved; the asso iated
T  is divergen efree (  T  ).
28. In the previous problem we saw that for parti les with four-velo ity u ,
T   u u : =
For an isotropi olle tion with u (1; v!
n ) we have
T  =  < u u >  is a positive onstant and the average is
where
taken over the orientations of !
n . By symmetry, o-diagonal omponents
average to zero

T 0i = T i0 =  2 v < ni >= 0 T ij =  2v2 < ni nj >= 0 i 6= 0:

19
 To evaluate the diagonal spatial omponents note that < nx nx >=<
ny ny >=< nz nz > and that < nxnx >+< ny ny > + < nz nz >= 1
so
i i
that < n n >= 1=3,
 2v2
T ij = :
3
Ea h moving parti le has energy m so the density of mass energy must
be
m N = T 00 =  2 < 1 >=  2
whi h gives us the value of . The nonzero omponents again are

m Nv2
T 00 = m N T ij = ij :
3
For photons v ! , m ! h . For old dust v = 0 so T 00 = mN is the
only nonvanishing omponent.

29. In the rest frame of the uid u = (1; !

0 ) so that
T 00 = pg ( + p)u u
Sin e this is a tensor equation whi h is true in one frame, it must be true
in general.

30. If O1 is freefalling it follows a geodesi . The only nontrivial geodesi

equation is the one for r
r t_2 + r _ 2 =0
tt 

whi h gives after plugging in the onne tions and using _ t_ = d=dt = !
=
gives a relation between ! and R:
m
!2 = 3 (21)
R
The possible values of ! - with any power of the ro ket engine - are re-
stri ted by the fa t, that the observer follows a timeslike urve ds2 < 0:
 
2m
1 dt2 + r2 d2 < 0
r
whi h gives
s 
1 2m
!< 1 (22)
R R
and, after plugging in (21) for obtaining the possible radii for freefalling
motion:
R > 3m:
To nd the maximal j!j one has to solve d!max
2 (R)=dR = 0 where !max
is the value of ! whi h makes (22) equality. The only solution is

R = 4m

20
 That is sin e !(R) > 0; !2 (2m) = !(1) = 0 really the maximum is
p
2
!Max =
8m
whi h may be approa hed (but not rea hed as orresponding to the speed
of light) by a strong ro ket engine. M is apitalized in the subs ript in
the previous formula indi ating that it is the absolute maximum (not de-
pending on R ).
The last question may be reformulated by asking what the ratio of
3 =
2
of dieren es in proper time between emitting two photons for O2 and re-
ieving them for O3 sin e the period T of radiation of a given frequen y is
the wavelength. The situation is stati the oordinate interval
t1 =
t2
for both observers and
 
2m
d 2 = 1 dt2
r
sin e they are not moving. Therefore
s
0
2 1 2m=L
= = :

1 1 2m=R
31. We an start o with formula (12.18) u00 + u = M=J 2 + 3Mu2 of the
le ture notes, we are not dealing with ir ular orbit now. The expansion
goes exa tly like for the null ase:

u = A os  + v:
The equation for v reads
M 3
v00 + v = 2 + MA2 (1 + os 2):
J 2
The solution is

M
u = A os  + 2 + MA2 (2 os2 ):
J
The rest of the al ulation amounts to solving 1=r  u = 0 for os , ex-
panding the the solution around =2 as M is onsidered a small parameter
0
in our ase. Substituting r = 1=A at the end and writing down that the
dee tion angle is twi e the deviation of  from =2 as is the deviation be-
tween the ingoing and the outgoing parti le; very mu h like in the le ture
notes but with the onstant M=J 2 term present. The result reads:
 
4M r02

grav = 1+ 2
r0 2J
We may slightly rewrite this expression by J
2 = L2 =m2 = ( E 2 +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m )r0 =m = r0 v =(1 v ) , (where L is the angular momentum7 and
v2 is the velo ity of the parti le at innity):
 
2M 1 + v2

grav = (23)
r0 v2
7 The nonzero z omponent Mxy of the angular momentum M = x p x p an be
shown to be equal mr0 v= withv being the velo ity of the parti le at innity.

21
 p
The equation for the harge around a nu leus is with the abbreviation
= 1 v2 :
d Ze2
mv = mr!2 (24)
dt r2
2 2 2
and L = m r ! and E = m Ze =r onstants of the motion. Rewriting
2
(24) with the help of them and using the tri k d=dt = (L=m r )d=d leads
to for u = 1=r
 
00 Z 2 e4 Ze2E
u + 1 u =
L2 L2
where u is the the funtion of . This is solved by
p 
os 1 Z 2 e4 =L2  Ze2E
u= + 2
r0 L Z 2 e4
whi h for large L redu es to
1 Ze2E
u= os  + 2
r0 L
The dee tion angle an now be determined as above:
p
2r0 Ze2E 2Ze2 1 v2

em = = : (25)
L2 mr0 v2
(25) and (23) dier due to the dieren e in the tensor nature of gravity
and the ve tor nature of ele tromagnetism. The elds Lorentz transform
dierently and this indu es a dierent dependen e of the dee tion on v
when v is not small.
The bending of the traje tory of the nonrelativisti parti le in the grav-
itational potential of a star is obtained by substituting mM in the pla e
of
p Ze2 in (25) and omitting the square root as in real units it reads
1 v2 = 2 = 1 in our ase. The result is
2M

nonrel = 2
r0 v
whi h is 1=2 times the result for the photon in appropriate units. (Note we
used G = 1 in the exer ise.) This an also be determined from the general
integral of the traje tory of a parti le moving in a potential GmM=r:
32.
00
From the general equation r = p=(1 + e os ) for te ellipse u + u = 1=p =
2
M=J (from (12.18) onsidering the leading order of the right hand side
2
whi h provides the ellipse). p = a(1 " ) also holds between the parameter
p , great axis a and ex entri ity " of the ellipse. We know that M = Gm
and therefore
 
  m3 2 2  s 2 m2
M 2=J 2 = [G2 kg2 =[J 2 = kg =
kg s2 m2 s2
thus in order to obtain dimensionless quantity we should put 2 in the
denominator whi h is the unique way the re over real units. So

M2 M mG
 = 6 2 = 6 2 = 6 :
J p a(1 "2) 2

22
33. For the ro ket ship to be moving along a timelike worldline its four-velo ity
must satisfy:

    1
2M _2 2M
1 = g u u = 1 t + 1 r_2 + r2 _2 + r2 sin2 _ 2
r r
where dot means dierentiation with respe t to proper time  . Inside the
horizon all of these terms are positive ex ept the se ond so

  1
2M
1 r_2 < 1
r
We also know that r_ < 0 inside the horizon from the Kruskal oordinates
0 < dt=2M = dx=x dy=y , for inside of the bla k hole x > 0 , dx > 0
, thus 0 < dx=x + dy=y = dr=2M (1 2M=r) from whi h dr < 0 follows.
Thus r
2M
dr < d 1
r
and

Z 0   1
2M 2
max = 1 dr =
2M r
p  r 0
r2 2M r + M ar os 1 
 = M
M 2M
Q being the harge
34. The solution will be identi al to the ele tri ase with
of the magneti monopole and E (r) = F12 = F21 the magneti eld
sin e the Maxwell a tion without sour e 1=4F F  is invariant under
the transformation
8
F ! ?F

1 1
?F ? F  = E E  F  F = (    )F  F =
4 2
1
(F F F F ) = F F
2
9 by antisymmetry and therefore the orresponding stress energy tensor

S
T = 2 Max
g
remains identi al if expressed in the same variable. Let`s see how the al-
ulation mat h the ele tri ase. The eld strength should have the form
F32 = F23 = F = b (that is pointing to the radial dire tion);
p the rest of
the omponents are zero. Now the rst Maxwell eqution  ( gF  ) = 0
p gF g g ) =  br2 sin pAB ) = 0
gives:

 (  
r4 sin2 
8 See exer ise 7. for the denition.
9 Note that E  = " =
p
g and E
p g"
 = in urved spa e.

23
 that is the b has the form
b = sin ^b(r):
The se ond equation 1=2 (
p gE  F ) = 0 leads to

r (F ) = r b = 0
that is
q
b= sin 
4
with q a onstant. Now we write down the stress energy tensor similarly
to the ele tri ase:

Ab2 Aq2
T00 = =
2r4 sin2  322 r4
Bb 2 Bq2
T11 = 2 =
2r4 sin  322 r4
b2 q2
T22 = 2 =
2
2r sin  322 r2
b2 2 2
q sin 
T33 = 2 =
2r 322r2
These pre isely oin ide with (13.9-13.12) of the le ture notes for the ele -
tri ase. From this point the al ulation is identi al yielding (13.19) for
the uknowns A and B
2M q2 1
A=1 + B= :
r 4r2 A
The physi al magneti eld is

p p
1 q AB q
B^ (r) = F01 = F  = g"0123 F23 g22 g33 = 2 =
2 01 4r 4r2
whi h is spheri ally symmetri and shows after integration that q is the
magneti harge.
10

35. The Chrystoel symbols are most easily determined via the Lagrangian
prin iple, that yield the geodesi equations
11 .

1 1
L = u_ v_ + L2 e2 x_ 2 + L2 e 2 y_ 2
2 2
(a) The Euler Lagrange for this Lagrangian read:

v + Le2 (L0 + L 0 )x_ 2 + Le 2 (L0 L 0 )y_ 2 = 0

L2e2 x + 2Le2 (L0 + L 0 )u_ x_ = 0
L e 2 y + 2Le 2 (L0 L 0 )u_ y_
2 = 0
u = 0
10 B = g
11 the rest of the b`s represent fun tions related to the magneti eld. This one
above is the real physi al measurable eld.
11 See exer ise 20. for the details.

24
 for the oordinates u; x; y and v, respe tively. One an read o the
onne tion:

vLe2 (L0 + L 0 )
xx =
vLe 2 (L0 L 0 )
yy =
L0
x =
xu = x
ux + 0
L
y = y = L
0
yu uy 0
L
and the rest are zero.

(b) The nontrivial geodesi equations are (observing that t_ = u_ + v_ )

u = 0
v = 0
sin e
u
 =0 for all values for  6= 0 for indi es
and  and
v

yy and xx x_ = y_ = 0 for the given urve, the quadrati
but sin e
term vanishes. Thus u _ = v_ 1 = k onstant satises the geodesi
2 2
equations and it is obvioulsly timelike. ds =d = 1.
( )

 = 
R = R   +    
   
u u
All -s depend on only but  are zero hen e the rst term is

zero. The third term also gives no ontribution sin e  is nonzero
only with  = u, but it is ontra ted with u whi h is zero. Doing
the sum now in the surviving two terms we get nenzero only for uu
omponents:
 00 
L
Ruu = u xux u yuy ( xux )2 ( yuy )2 = 2 +  02
L
(d) The Einstein equation for  (u) = u is the one of the harmoni os il-
lator
L00 = L;
with the solution (mat hing the ontinuity assumptions with L(0) =
1:
L(u) = os u = os(t z )
whi h means propagation of the wave in the z dire tion with 1 (speed
of light), that is parti les at z = z0 will feel its ee t only at t = z0 .
In general spatial distan es we measure are

d2 = gij  i  j = (ij + hij ) i  j = ij i j

where the latter oordinates are dened as

1 i k
i =  i h
2 k

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 and O(h2 ) terms are negle ted. Take now a ring of (say) dust in the
z = z0 plane. The distan e we measure after t = 0 are now
x = Le2  x = e 2(t z0 ) os(t z0 ) x
y = Le 2  y = e2(t z0 ) os(t z0 ) y
Hen e the ring spreads out in the x, shrinks in the y dire tion with
an exponential rate and an additional os illating fa tor.

(e) Spatial distan e in the z dire tion is gzz ( z )2 = ( z )2 whi h is a

onstant so the wave is in deed ee ts only transversal distan es.

(f ) This point is a straightforward al ulation for a handful of nontrivial

Riemann tensor omponents, and is left for the reader.`

26