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Connections: Rakennustekniikka Olli Ilveskoski 276
Connections: Rakennustekniikka Olli Ilveskoski 276
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Olli Ilveskoski 30.08.2006 rev2 10.01.2007
CONNECTIONS
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIONS
3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
6. ADDITIONAL READING
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ESDEP WG 11
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the ways in which structural connections are made in steel buildings, to
discuss the importance of a proper choice of connection type on both overall
structural behaviour and economics and to present the basic principles of connection
design.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel frame buildings consist of a number of different types of structural elements,
each of which has to be properly attached to the neighbouring parts of the structure.
This will involve the use of several forms of connection. The main classes of
connection are:
ii) To ensure manageable sizes of steelwork for transportation and erection e.g.
columns are normally spliced every two or three storeys.
Connections are important parts of every steel structure. The mechanical properties
of the connections are of great influence on the strength, stiffness and stability of the
whole structure.
The number and the complexity of the connections have a decisive influence on the
time that is necessary for the statical analysis and the production of drawings.
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Production of connections, i.e. cutting, drilling and welding of main members, plates,
cleats and stiffeners, consumes much of the work content in the fabrication shop.
The ease with which the site connections can actually be made is a key factor in
erection.
Thus the selection, design and detailing of the connections in a building frame has a
very significant influence on costs.
2. COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIONS
Connections in steel structures are normally made using welds and/or bolts.
Welds
Although various forms of structural welds are possible, fillet welding of the type
illustrated in Figure 2a is normally to be preferred to butt welding as shown in Figure
2b, since it requires only simple preparation of the parts to be joined, can usually be
accomplished with relatively simple equipment and does not require special skills of
the welder.
Bolts
Depending on the shape of the connection and the location of the bolts, they are
loaded in tension, in shear or in combined tension and shear, see Figures 3 and 4.
To accommodate some mismatch in hole distances and bolt diameters, holes are
normally drilled 2mm in diameter greater than the bolt diameter (clearance holes).
Where displacements due to these clearances are not acceptable, the bolts may be
preloaded to prevent slip. For statically loaded structures, such as buildings,
preloaded bolts should normally be avoided. The special treatment of the contact
surfaces to obtain a high and reliable value for the slip factor and the procedures to
achieve the design preload are expensive.
Other Parts
In addition to bolts and welds, other parts are often also necessary to transfer
forces, e.g. plates and angle cleats. Figure 5 shows some examples in beam-to-
column connections.
3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
For buildings designed to resist essentially static loading, including wind loads, it will
normally be sufficient to design connections to resist forces that primarily act in one
direction only. However, in seismic zones large load reversals may occur. This load
reversal will normally require a different approach to the design of the load-resisting
structure, leading to different forms of connection.
For multi-storey buildings the connections between the main structural elements
may conveniently be classified as:
Beam-to-beam connections
Beam-to-column connections
Column splices
Column bases
Bracing connections.
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This list does not, of course, include connections between the main framework and
other parts of the structure, e.g. beams to floors, attachment of the cladding, etc.
Despite the different geometrical configurations and detailed structural requirements
of the five different types, certain general functional requirements must always be
addressed:
Thus the design of any steelwork connection must simultaneously satisfy the needs
of structural adequacy, an appropriate type of behaviour and practical engineering.
Clearly it will often be possible that different arrangements satisfy each of these
needs to differing degrees. A certain amount of judgement and experience in
deciding the relative importance of the different design criteria is required to decide
which requirement should be given the greatest emphasis in a given situation. Of
course, the designer does not have a completely free choice as he must always
ensure that the connection is able to transmit the required level of loads. His choice
in this respect relates to the exact arrangement selected and, perhaps, to the extent
to which a more easily fabricated connection might provide more strength than is
actually required.
In this respect also the workshop should have an influence on the design. Its
capabilities and equipment should be taken into consideration when detailing
connections. Therefore, the detailing work should be undertaken in consultation with
the workshop.
In order to give an impression of the wide variety of possible designs, the following
descriptions include figures to provide examples of the connection types mentioned
above.
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3.1 Column Splices (Figure 8)
8.1 and 8.2: These are welded splices. Where there are different thicknesses of the
plates, cheaper fillet welds can be used. It should be recalled that welding may not
be the most appropriate connection means for site connections.
8.3: Bolted splice. The vertical forces may be assumed to be transmitted by bearing
and/or through the plates. The plates also serve to transmit bending moments and
shear forces. Where there is unequal thickness of the flanges/webs, intermediate
plates are necessary.
8.4: A frequently used splice connection. Due to the welding in the workshop, the
plates may not be perfectly flat. Normally no subsequent machining is necessary to
flatten these plates.
8.5: Sometimes it is easier to make the beam continuous. To transmit the forces and
for stability reasons, it is necessary to stiffen the beam between the column flanges.
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3.2 Column Bases (Figure 9)
9.1 and 9.2: Thick base plates need no stiffening. Normally this is the cheapest
solution.
10.1: Connection with fin plates welded to the column. The beam is connected single
sided.
10.2: Bolted connection with angle cleats. Cleats may be welded to either member
as an alternative.
10.4: Bolted connection with angle cleats. The horizontal angle cleat provides extra
bearing resistance.
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10.5: For a thick wall of a tube, the plates can be welded directly to the wall without
making a sleeve in the tube to have a continuous plate. For more details involving
tubes, see Lectures 13.
10.6: The stiffness depends largely on the thickness of the end plate on the column
and the thickness of the flange of the beam. The stiffening plates may be omitted in
many cases.
11.6: Bolted end plate connection. It is assumed that another beam is connected on
the other side of the web.
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3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 12)
12.1: Depending on the geometry and the applied forces, stiffeners may or may not
be necessary. This connection has the advantage of cheap fabrication but the
disadvantage that its total construction height is higher than that of the other
designs in Figure 12.
12.2: In this connection there is no need to make a cope as in the connection 12.3.
Therefore it is also a cheap design to fabricate.
12.3: The top flanges are at the same height. The cope makes this design more
costly than the design of 12.2.
12.4: The beam to be connected is higher than the main beam. This design is rather
cheap to fabricate. The hinge will be located where the plate is welded to the web.
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3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 13)
13.1: This design is comparable to the design of 12.1. Of course stiffeners should be
omitted where possible.
13.2: The tensile force in the top flange is transmitted via the flange plate that
crosses the web of the main beam through a sleeve. On the compression side, small
compression parts may be necessary to introduce the compression force.
14.1, 14.2, 14.3: The gusset plates on the top flanges may be a problem when metal
roof or floor decking is used.
14.4, 14.5, 14.6: The channel section in Figure 14.4 is needed as a chord for the
horizontal truss.
15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4: Various possibilities for the connections of bracings.
The costs for a steel structure can be divided into costs for material and costs for
labour as follows:
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Material 20 - 40%
Calculation }
Drawings }
Fabrication } 60 - 80%
Protection }
Erection. }
From this division of costs it can be concluded that a saving of labour costs has
potentially more influence on the overall costs of steel structures than saving on
material.
An influencing factor is the relation between cost per kg steel and cost per man hour.
In the past decades the price of steel has increased considerably less than the price
of labour. This trend, together with developments in fabrication technology, means
that structural designs that were optimal 10 years ago may not be competitive now.
A major part of labour costs has a direct relation to the design and fabrication of
connections. It is often better in design to save labour at the expense of material.
This fact can be illustrated with some simple examples. To estimate the costs, the
following assumptions are made:
In Figure 16 a beam in a braced frame is given. The basis is a design with simple
connections to transmit shear force only. When the "hinges" are replaced by moment
connection as in [B] and [C], then for the beam an IPE 140 can be selected instead
of an IPE 180. However, due to the extra costs for the connections, the alternatives
[B] and [C] are more expensive, especially [B]. The difference with [C] which uses
backing plates to strengthen the column flanges is less. When the same exercise is
carried out for a beam with greater span, e.g. 10m, it is found that alternative C is
the cheapest.
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The balance between moment resistance in the connection and in the beam is
discussed further in Lecture 11.7 on semi-continuous design.
Another example is the base plates illustrated in Figure 9. It can easily be shown that
the thick base plate without stiffeners is the cheapest in nearly all cases.
For the example with the beam-column connections, it should be mentioned that the
alternative A has no welds. This may mean that the flow of material in the
fabricator's shop is simpler as no stop is needed at the welding station.
limit the number of bolt diameters, bolt lengths and bolt grades as far as
possible. Use for instance standard M20 bolts in grade 8.8 (ultimate
strength 800 N/mm2 and proof strength 640 N/mm2), see also Lecture
11.3.
Ensure good access so that welds can be made easily.
Minimise situations where precise fitting is required.
Achieve repetition of standard details.
Provide ease of access for site bolting.
Provide means for supporting the self weight of the piece quickly, so that
the crane can be released.
Achieve ease of adjustment for alignment.
Consider maintenance where necessary.
For more information on these aspects, reference is made to the Lectures in group 3,
on fabrication and Lectures in group 4A on corrosion.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
6. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Boston, R.M. and Pask, J.W. 'Structural Fasteners and their Applications',
BCSA 1978.
2. Interfaces: Connections between Steel and other Materials, Ove Arup and
Partners. Edited by R. G. Ogden, 1994.
3. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., 'Standardized structural connections',
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981, 3rd Ed, 1985.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection types.
Provides design models and some background for the most popular types of:
beams to columns, beam to beam, column splice and column base.
11. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Ed,
1989.
ESDEP WG 11
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To present the general methods for conducting calculations to determine the
strength of butt and fillet welds.
PREREQUISITES:
Lectures 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Buildings
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
SUMMARY:
The bases for the calculation of weld strength are set out. A large part of the lecture
deals with the actual stress distribution and the deformability of fillet and butt welds.
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Some experimental results are presented to show the relevance of the design
formulae.
NOTATION
a throat thickness of weld [mm]
F normal force perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [N]
F shear force in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [N]
F// shear force in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [N]
w correlation factor
1 normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [MPa]
1 shear stress in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [MPa]
2 shear stress in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lecture is to present the basis for weld strength calculation
according to Eurocode 3 [1], to discuss the assumptions on which the methods are
based and to examine the general methods used to determine stresses in welds. In
practice, weld calculations are principally concerned with fillet welds since these
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account for approximately 80% of all structural welds. For this reason the lecture
concentrates on fillet welds and gives less attention to other weld types (butt, slot,
plug).
Eurocode 3 [1] specifies that the filler metal shall have mechanical properties (yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation at failure and minimum Charpy V-
notch energy value) equal to, or better than, the corresponding properties of the
parent material. Therefore, for weld calculation and design, the strength of the
parent material is normally taken as the reference strength.
Although fillet welds are the more important case, butt welds are treated first since
the design requirements are simpler.
A partial penetration tee-butt joint with superimposed fillet welds may be considered
as a full penetration butt weld, if the total throat thickness is greater than the
material thickness and the gap dimension meets certain conditions (Figure 3).
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The load acting on the fillet weld is resolved into load components parallel and
transverse to the longitudinal axis of the weld and normal and transverse to the plan
of its throat (see Figure 6). The corresponding stresses are calculated:
1 = F/al is the normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area.
1 = F/al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, transverse to the weld
axis.
2 = F///al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, parallel to the weld
axis.
The normal stress 2 is not considered because the cross-section of the weld is very
small and has negligible strength in comparison with the strength of the throat area
subjected to the shear stress component 2.
Application of the von Mises criterion to these stress components gives the
equivalent stress eq in the throat area of the weld:
Eurocode 3, Annex M [1] specifies that the fillet weld will be adequate if both the
following conditions are satisfied:
and 1 fu/Mw
where
where
Eurocode 3 specifies that the design resistance for a long weld in a lap joint shall be
multiplied by a reduction factor lw to allow for the effects of non-uniform stress
distribution. If the lap joint is longer than 150a
LW = 1,2 - 1
where
Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of the force transfer.
For fillet welds longer than 1,7 metres connecting transverse stiffeners in plated
members
LW = 1,1 -
where
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules
and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Bresler, B., Lim, T. Y., Scalzi, J. B., Design of steel structures, 2nd Edition, 1968.
6. ADDITIONAL READING
Informative and well illustrated reference manual covering all aspects of welded
design and construction.
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
4. BOLT GRADES
7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
8. BEARING RESISTANCE
9. TENSION RESISTANCE
11.1 Basis
12. REFERENCES
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ESDEP WG 11
OBJECTIVE
To present the basic ideas of the design of connections using ordinary (non-
preloaded) bolts.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on the Design of Bolted Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the geometrical and mechanical properties of ordinary bolts and
describes their behaviour in shear, tension or combined shear and tension.
The effects of the position of the bolts in a connection and of their dimensions on the
potential failure modes are also discussed.
NOTATION
A Area of the shank - nominal area [mm2]
1. INTRODUCTION
The resistance of a bolted connection is normally determined on the basis of the
resistance of the individual fasteners and the connected parts.
The present lecture concentrates on the most common type of bolt, the non-
preloaded bolt, often called an "ordinary bolt". It is popular because of its low cost
both to buy and to install. Connections made with this type of bolt are often referred
to as "bearing-type" so as to distinguish them from the slip resistant connections
that employ preloaded bolts.
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Where a joint loaded in shear is subject to impact or significant vibration, welding or
bolts with locking devices, preloaded bolts or other types of bolt which effectively
prevent movement should be used.
Where slip is not acceptable in a joint subject to reversal of shear load (or for any
other reason), preloaded bolts in a slip-resistant connection, fitted bolts, injection
bolts or other bolts with the same effect should be used, see Lectures 11.3.2 and
11.3.3.
For wind and/or stability bracing, bolts in bearing-type connections may normally be
used.
In the case of moment loading (M) only, the tension part of the load is transmitted
by axial tension in the bolt.
In the case of combined moment (M) and transverse loading (V), the bolts may be
required to transmit a combination of transverse shear and axial tension.
In Figure 3, the bolts A transmit transverse shear, while the bolts B transmit a
combination of shear and tension or shear and compression.
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Bolts that are not preloaded to a predetermined preload, may be called "non-
preloaded bolts" or "ordinary bolts". In case of a shear connection (Figure 1), these
bolts are also called "bearing type" bolts.
The principal action on a bolt in a splice joint of the type shown in Figure 4 is
shearing on its cross-sectional plane caused by bearing between opposing plates in
the joint. The elastic distribution of these bearing stresses and the stresses produced
in the bolt are complex. However, for fully developed plastic conditions, the
distribution of shear stress is effectively uniform so that the shear strength is the
product of the cross-section area of the bolt in the shear plane and the shear
strength of the material.
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If threads are excluded from the shear plane, the shank area may be used.
Otherwise the stress area of the threaded portion should be used. In modern
detailing practice it is common to use the smaller area and not to contrive to exclude
the threads from the shear plane.
The bolt sizes are indicated by the designation M followed by a number multiplied by
another number, for example, M 20 x 60, where the diameter of the shank is 20 mm
and the length of the shank + the threaded part is 60 mm. The M stands for metric.
The length of the bolt should be such that, after allowing for tolerances, the threaded
shank will protrude not less than one thread beyond the nut after tightening and at
least one full thread (in addition to the thread run-out) will remain clear between the
nut and the unthreaded part of the shank.
4. BOLT GRADES
Bolts and nuts are available in steels of minimum tensile strengths up to about 1370
MPa.
The grade of the bolts is indicated by two numbers. The most common grades are
4.6, 5.6, 6.5, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9.
According to Eurocode 3 (2), the design yield stress fyb and the design ultimate
stress fub of the usual bolts are as given in Table 1.
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Table 1: Mechanical properties of bolts
The design yield stress fyb can be derived from the grade by multiplying the first
number by the second number times 10. The design ultimate stress fub is the first
number times 100 (stresses in MPa).
For bearing-type connections, this clearance may cause slip of the plates when they
are loaded.
In the case of alternating loading, this movement may occur at each loading
reversal. Normally, such movement is not permitted.
Except for fitted bolts or where low-clearance or oversize holes are specified, the
nominal clearance in standard holes shall be:
Holes with 2mm nominal clearance may also be specified for M12 and M14 bolts,
provided that the design meets the following requirements:
for bolts of strength grade 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 or 10.9, the design shear
resistance Fv,Rd is taken as 0,85 times the value given in formulae (3) to
(5).
the design shear resistance Fv,Rd (reduced as above if applicable) is not
less than the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd.
Burrs should be removed from holes before assembly except that, where holes are
drilled in one operation through parts clamped together which would not otherwise
be separated after drilling, they need to be separated to remove the burrs.
Figure 5 defines the various diameters of such bolts. the area of the shank that is
used in design formulae is called the shank area A :
A = d2/4 (1)
the area of the threaded part that is used in design formulae is called the stress area
As :
As = d s2 /4 (2)
The stress diameter d s is somewhat larger than the diameter of the core, because of
the fact that a rupture plane always includes at least one thread.
ds is the mean value between the core diameter (dc) and the flank diameter (df) of
the thread; the flank diameter is the mean value between the core diameter and the
nominal diameter (d):
df =
ds =
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The value of As for common bolt diameters is given in Table 2.
db A As
8 50,3 36,6
10 78,5 58,0
12 113 84,3
14 154 115
16 201 157
18 254 192
20 314 245
22 380 303
24 452 353
27 573 459
30 707 561
7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
7.1 Normal Joints
Shearing tests on bolts have shown the shear strength to be about 60% of the
tensile strength. The effective shear strength of bolts in joints is reduced by
secondary bending actions caused by uneven bearing of the plates and by bending of
the bolt due to excessive hole clearance. The reduction increases with the length of
the bolt for a given diameter. It is particularly significant in lap joints with a single
bolt, where the loading tends to straighten out the joint and rotate the bolt as shown
in Figure 6, causing both shear and tension in the bolt and local bending stresses
under the head and the nut. The reduction in shear resistance of a single fastener
may be about 10%. Increasing the length of the joint, i.e. the number of bolts,
reduces the bending and hence the loss of shear resistance.
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The local bending stresses under the head and the nut in the single bolted
connection of Figure 6 may give poor performance in the case of fatigue loading.
The design shear resistance of a bolt (F v.Rd) in normal conditions, per shear plane, is:
(a) For the shear plane passing through the threaded portion of the bolt:
The coefficient 0,5 is the result of a statistical evaluation based on a very large
number of test results. It appears that bolts of these grades are less ductile and that
the rupture occurs suddenly.
(b) For the shear plane passing through the unthreaded portion of the bolt:
Figure 7 shows the distribution of loads between the bolts in a long joint. The loads
transferred through the outer bolts (1 and 9 in the Figure) are greater than those
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through bolts towards the centre of the joint. If the total area of the cover plates
exceeds that of the centre plate the distribution will not be symmetrical, and bolt 1
will transfer more load than any other.
When the fasteners yield, their flexibility increases causing a more uniform sharing of
the load (the broken line in Figure 7). However, for long steelwork joints of normal
proportions this behaviour will be insufficient to produce an equal load distribution.
This the end-bolts will reach their deformation limit and so fail before the remaining
ones have been fully loaded. This will result in progressive failure at an average
shear value per bolt below the single-bolt shear resistance. Tests have confirmed
that joint length, rather than the number of bolts, is the dominant parameter [3].
Where the distance Lj between the centres of the end fasteners in a joint, measured
in the direction of the transfer of force (see Figure 8), is more than 15d, (where d is
the nominal diameter of the bolts) the design shear resistance of all the fasteners
shall be reduced by multiplying it by a reduction factor Lf, given by:
Lf = 1 -
This provision does not apply where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer
over the length of the joint, e.g. the transfer of shear force from the web of a section
to the flange.
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8. BEARING RESISTANCE
Yielding due to pressure between the bolt shank and plate material may result in
excessive deformation of the plate around the bolt hole and possibly some distortion
of the bolt.
The area resisting the bearing pressure is assumed to be the product of the plate
thickness and the nominal bolt diameter.
The distance (e1) of the bolt from the end of the plate must be sufficient to provide
adequate resistance to the shearing-out mode of failure shown in Figure 9, which is
governed by the area of the shear path.
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The presence of threads in the grip does not significantly affect the bearing
resistance but will cause some increase of the deformation.
If the shear resistance is greater than the bearing resistance of the plates, one of the
failure modes shown in Figure 9 will occur. In this case, the deformation capacity of
the connection is very large. The joint has a "ductile" behaviour.
In the other case, when the failure is due to the shearing of the bolts, the
deformation capacity of the connection is very small and the joint has a "brittle"
behaviour.
or 1,0
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This reduction coefficient is necessary, because when the end distance is short, the
capacity of deformation is small.
If the net section of the member is small, net section rupture may govern the failure
load of the connection (Figure 9).
Equation (6) for the design bearing resistance applies only where the edge distance
e2 is not less than 1,5 d o and the spacing p 2 (Figure 12) measured transverse to the
load direction is at least 3,0 do.
If e2 is reduced to 1,2 d o and/or p2 is reduced to 2,4 do, then the bearing resistance
Fb.Rd should be reduced to 2/3 of the value given by Equation (6). For intermediate
values 1,2 do < e2 1,5 do and/or 2,4 do 3 do the value of Fb.Rd may be determined
by linear interpolation.
9. TENSION RESISTANCE
Axial tension resistance of a bolt is based on the stress area As and is given by:
Ft = fu,b . As
Ft = 0,9 . fu,b . As
This action is most easily illustrated in terms of the Tee stub, loaded by a tension
force 2F shown in Figure 10. In the bending of the flanges of the Tee, the bolts act
as a pivot point so that there is a compressive reaction (Q) between the outer edges
of the flanges, which is defined as the Prying Force. The tension induced in the bolts,
for equilibrium, is thus Fb = F + Q.
The prying ratio, Q/F, depends upon the geometry and stiffness of the connected
parts and the bolt stiffness. An estimate of the prying ratio, taking full account of all
the parameters, goes beyond the scope of this lecture. It will be treated in Lecture
11.4.
The interaction between the two forces has been investigated in tests [5] and from
the results it has been found that bolts subject to shear and tensile force must
satisfy the following bi-linear relationship.
1,0
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Thus the full tensile resistance is available for values of shear up to almost 30% of
the shear capacity Fv.Rd as shown in Figure 11. This feature is useful when
considering situations such as that shown in Figure 2 (M and V) or for bolts B in
Figure 3.
The design resistances Fv,Rd and Ft,Rd for shear and tension through the threaded
position are restricted to bolts manufactured in conformity with the ISO Standard [1,
6]. For other items with cut threads, such as holding-down bolts or tie rods
fabricated from round steel bars where the threads are cut by the steelwork
fabricator and not by a specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant values should be
reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0,85.
Due to the particular form of the head of a countersunk bolt (see Figure 12) the
design tension and bearing resistance of such a bolt have to be reduced.
The positioning of the holes shall also be in conformity with the limits of validity for
the rules used to determine the design resistances of the bolts with reference to
Eurocode 3 (2).
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11.2 Connections of plates
The edge distance may be reduced to not less than 1,2 d o provided that the design
bearing resistance is reduced accordingly as given in Section 8.
The edge distance should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling
requirements for an outstanding element. This requirement does not apply to
fasteners interconnecting the components of back-to-back tension members. The
end distance is not affected by this requirement.
The centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners should also not exceed the maximum to
satisfy local buckling requirements for an internal element.
Both of these values may be multiplied by 1,5 in members not exposed to the
weather or other corrosive influences.
Angles connected by a single row of bolts in one leg, see Figure 14, may be treated
as concentrically loaded and the design ultimate resistance of the net section
determined as follows:
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where 2 and 3 are reduction factors dependant on the pitch p1 as given in Table 3.
For intermediate values of p1 the value of may be determined by linear
interpolation,
and Anet is the net section area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by
its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as equal to the net section area of an equivalent
equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg.
12. REFERENCES
[1] ISO 898/1 - International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
[3] Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H., A Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted
and Riveted Joints, 2nd ed, 1987, Wiley.
[5] Shakir-Khalil, H and Ho, C. M., Black Bolts under Combined Tension and Shear,
The Structural Engineer, 57B, No 4 (1979).