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    Kern - Process Heat Transfer PDF

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    ' PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER BY DONALD Q. KERN D. Q. Kern Asvocials, and Lecturer in Chemical Engineering (Case Institute of Teebnology McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, ‘Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co-Singapore for manaficure and expor. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill, 12345678920 S1P98765 Copyigh, 1950, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, All sight exeed Nope “sh publentn may be repalacel aed fh a seer, in iy form or by any meine, eeonis mechani, photocopying, Scoring, or others, whut the por wien permission of the poster, When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-085353-3 ‘To my wife NATALIE W. KERN for her real help PREFACE It is the object of this text to provide fundamental instruction in hesit ‘transfer while employing the methods and language of industry. ‘This treatment of the subject has evolved from course given at the Poly- ‘technie Institute of Brooklyn over « period of years. ‘The possibilities ‘of collegiate inetruction patterned after the requirements of the practicing process engineer were suggested and encouraged by Dr. Donald F. ‘Othmer, Head of the Department of Chemical Engineering. The inclu- sion of ‘he practical aspects of the subject as an integral part of the pedagogy was intended to serve as a supplement rather than a eubstitute for @ strong foundation in engineering fundamentals. These points of ‘view have been retained throughout the writing of the book. ‘To provide the rounded group of heat-transfer tools required in process: engineering it has been necessary to present a number of emapirical ealculs- tion methods which have not previously appeared in the engineering literature. Considerable thoughit has been given to these methods, and the author bas discussed them with numerous engineers before accepting and including them in the text. It has been a further desire that all the calculations appesring in the text shall have been performed by an ‘expetienced engineer in a conventional manner. On several occasions the author has enlisted the aid of experienced colleagues, and their assistance is acknowledged in the text. Tn presenting several of the methods some degree of securacy has been sacrificed to permit the broader application of Tt became apparent. in the early stages of writing this book that it could readily become too large for convenient use, and this has affected the plan of the book in several important respects. A portion of the material ‘hich is included in eonventional texts is rarely if ever applied in tho solu- ‘ion of run-of-the-mill engineering problems. Such material, as familiar and accepted as it may be, has been omitted ynless it qualified as impor- tant fundamental information. Socondly, it was not possible to allocate ‘space for making bibliographic comparisons and evaluations and a; the sqine time present industrial practice. Where no mention has been made of a recent contribution to the literature no slight was intended. Most of the literature references cited cover methods on which the author hhas obtained additional information from industriel application. vit PREFACE ‘The author has been inffuenced in his own professional development. by ‘the excellent books of Prof. W. H. McAdams, Dr. Alfred:Schsck, and others, and it is felt that their infuenco should be acknowledged separately in addition to their incidence in the text as bibliography. For aseistance with the manuscript indebtedness is expressed to Thomas. Hi. Miley, Jobn Blissrd, and John A. Jost, former associates at the Foster ‘Wheeler Corporation. For checking the numerical caleulations credit is due to Krishnabhai Desai and Narendra R. Bhow, graduate students at the Polytechnic Institute. For suggestions which led to the inclusion or exctusion of certain material thanks are due Norman E. Anderson, Charles Bliss, Dr. John F, Middleton, Edward L. Pfeiffer, Oliver N. Prescott, Everett N. Sieder, Dr. George E. Tat, and to Joseph Meisler for assistance with the proof. ‘The Tubular Exobanger Manufscturens Association has been most generous in granting permission for the repro- Guction of a nuraber of the graphs contained inits Standard. Thanks sre also extended to Richard L. Cawood, President, and Arthur E. Kepler, ‘Vivo-President, for their personal asnistance and for the cooperation of ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. Donarp Q. Knan New Your, N.Y. ‘Apri, 1980 CONTENTS, & ceee 6 a) oe : ces 85 © Counterfow: Doube-pie Rxchangors ee M2 7. 12 Pacallel-counterfiow: Shell-nd-Tube Exchangers, 12 Flow Arrangements for Increased Heat Recovery 15: 9, Games a 190 _ 20: Slreamline low and Free Convection eee 2M Calenlations for Process Conditions... | sees m Condensation of Single Vapors. 252 Condensation of Mixed Vapore eae as 14. Evaporation . Serene 35 453 W8. Vaporisers, Braporatory, and Rebolles. sss 16. Extended Surfaces... . ee 1, Direotoontact Transfer: Coding Towers tee 3B, Batch and Unsteady State Process 18, Furnace Caleutstions see ‘20. Additional Applications . .: 21. The Control of Tempersture and Related Process Variables... . | | Avemom or Caucuamon Dara... ce OL ‘Avrnon Tipex. foes eer ‘Sunsnor Iypex. . be cee seeeae - 88 INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Tubular 24 cooler (3.5° API oll-water) ‘Tubular exchangers in series (noetone-aootio ‘Tubular gas afteroooler (amumonia gas-wetet) . ‘Tubular gat intercooler (COr-water vapor-wator) ‘Tubular streamline fow heater (erade oil-steam) ‘Tabula fre convection beater (onene-rean) Core tube heater (gas oll-stonin) . . . - ‘Tank bester (aniine-steam) . . . ‘Tubular exchanger (straw ofl-naphtha) | ‘Tubular 48 exchanger (ean oil-rich oil). ‘Tubular cooler (NaOH solution-water) - ‘Tabular heater (alcohol-ateats). ‘Tubular spit-fow cooler (Bue gas-water) . . Jaskated vessel (aqueous solution-stexr) ‘Tbe coil (equeous solution-steam). ‘Pipe eoil cooler (aurry-water) .. 5» ‘Trombone coaler (60x gar-water) ‘AMesoaphri cooler acket waterrater. HeURTSESRBEE SEER ERAS EESE ‘Sarfaco condenser (turbine exhaust stesm-wate:). . ‘Condenser, horizontal (hydrocarbon mixture-water). ‘Condenser, horizontal (steam, CO, micture-water) . ‘Condenser, horisontal (hydrocarbon mixture, ga, sain-water) - ‘Braronsvons (Tumut) geeggeuesy sii INDEX 70 THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS Process mtiple eflest evaporator. 389 ‘Beat tranaformer evaporator. 300 Salt water distiller . 303 Cane sugar multiple oft evaporator 48 Paper pulp waste liquor mulipl effect evaporator . Lae CCauotie soda multiple ect forced circulation evsparator 437 CHAPTER 1 ‘Thermooomprossion cane Muga evaporator laa Varonmona Exctanomna (Tessa) PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Vaporizer, forced circulation (butane-stenm) Ao4 ‘Heat Transfer. The science of thermodynamics deals with the quanti- ‘bolls thyrocarbons-atean SL as Fe ee cntal oophtia-ge ot big tative transitions and rearrangements of energy asheat in bodiesof matter, ‘Thermoryphon reboiler, vertical (butane-stenin} 485 Heat transfer is the science which deale with the rates of exchange of heat on tbetween hot and cold bodies called the source and receiver, When a Exrewpw Sonracts . pound of water is vaporized or condensed, the energy change in cither “ied rune). ws process is identical, “The rates at which either process oan be made to “Tranevervo fin crosflow cooler (air-water). 356 progress with an independent source or receiver, however, are inherently ‘ery difernt, | Vaporzaton is generally a much more rap phenom=- Duusor Cowsace Teaxteen woe yon than ‘Cooling tower requirement. of 05 ‘Heat Theories. The study of heat transfer would be greatly enhanced Oe ee we S008 by asound understanding of the nature of hest. Yet this is an advantage ‘Gae cooler (oltrogen-wster) ous which is not readily available to students of heat transfer or thermo- ‘Gas cooler, approsimate solution (aitrogen-watet) a0 dynamics because so many manifestations of hest have been discovered Rantans Hesrens ‘that no simple theory covers them all. Laws which may apply to mass Tube stil ee es 5 TO ‘transitions may be inapplicable to molecular or atomic transitions, and Direct fed vente ! : 708 those which are applicable at low temperatures may not apply at high temperatures. For the purpotes of enginooring it is necessary to under- take the study with basic.information on but a few of the many phe- nomena, ‘The phases of a single substance, solid, liquid, and gasoous, are associated with its energy content. In the solid phase the molecules or atoms are close together, giving it rigidity. In the liquid phase eufficient ‘thermal energy is presont to extend the distance of adjacent molecules such that rigidity is lost. Tn the gas phase the presence of additionsl thermal energy has resulted in a relatively complete separation of the atoms or moleoules so that they may wander anywhere in a confined space. It is also recognized that, whenever a change of phase occurs outside the eritieal region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition. For the same substance in its different phases the various thermal properties have different orders of magnitude. As an example, the spe- ‘if heat, per unit mass is very low for solids, high for liguids, and usually intermediate for gases. Similarly in any body absorbing or losing heat, special consideration must be given whether the change is one of sensible or latent heat or both. Still furthor, itis also known that a hot source is 1 2 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER ‘eapeble of such great subatomic excitement that it emita energy without sreet contact withthe receiver, and this the underlying principle Gf rodiation. Each type of chango exhibits ite own peculiarities. ‘Mechanisms of Float Transfer. ‘There are threo distinct ways in which heat may paes from a source to a receiver, although most engincering applications are combinations of two or three. ‘These are conduction, ration rearduction i the tranafer of haut through fied mati ej ax pees in temmparature through the wall aud Fas. 11, Heat flow through » wall, of ‘and z is the thickness of the wall in the direotion of heat Bow, the quantity of heat flow d@ is given by ag= va(= 2) Btufhr ay ‘The torm —di/de ia called the temperature gradient and bas a sign if the temperature has been assumed higher at the face of the wall where 2 = 0 and lower at the faco where x = X. In othor words, the instantaneous quantity of heat transfer is proportional to the area and temperature difference dt, which drives the heat through the wall of thickness de. ‘The proportionality constant & is peculiar to conductive ‘ea euler anit knowns the tharmal condi, is erated experimentally and is basically defined by Eq. (1-1). thermal eon- cae ot wide range of numerical values depending Convection. Convection is the transfer of heat between relatively hot ‘and cold portions of « fluid by mixing. Suppote a can of liquid were PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER 3 placed over # hot flame, ‘The Liquid at the bottom of the can becomes heated and lese dense than before owing to its thermal expansion. ‘The liquid adjacent to the bottom is alto less dense than the ecld upper portion and rises through it, transferring its heat by mixing as it rises, The ‘transfer of heot from the hot liquid st the bottom af the can to the remainder is natural or free convection. Hf any other agitation occurs, such as thst produced by a stirrer, it is forced convection. This type of hheat transfer may be described in an equation which imitates tho form of the conduction equation and is given by dQ = ha dt 2) ‘The proportionality constant his term which is influenced by the nature of the fluid and the nature of the agitation and must be evaluated oxpari- mentally. It is called the heatranafer coeflcient. When Eq. (1.2) ‘written in integrated form, Q == AA A, itis called Newton’slaw of cooling, Radiation. Redistion involves the transfer of radiant energy from a souree to @ receiver. When radiation iames from a source to a receiver, part of tho energy is absorbed by the receiver and part reflected by it. Based on the second law of thermodynamics Boltsmann established that ‘the rate at which » source gives off heat is Aandi tt a3) ‘This is known as the fourth-power Isw in which 7’is the absolute tempera~ ture. ¢ is a dimensional constant, but «is a factor peculiar to radiation and is called the emienivity. ‘The emissivity, like the thermal conduo- tivity & or the heat-transfer coefficient #, must also be determined experimentally. Process Heat Transfer. Heat tranafer has beon described as the study of the rates at which heat in exchanged between heat sources and receivers ‘usually treated indopendestly. Process hea! transfer deals with the rales of heat exchange as they oocur in the hest-transfer equipment of the engineering and chemical processes. This spproach brings to betler focus the importance of the temperature difference between the source and receiver, which is, after all, the driving force whereby the trandfer of heat is accomplished. A typical problem of process heat transfer is concerned with the quantities of heats to be transferred, the rates st ‘which they may be transferred because of the natures of the bodies, the driving potential, the extent and arrangement of the surface separating ‘he source and receiver, and the amount of mechanical energy which may ‘be expended to facilitate the transfer. Since heat transfer involves an exchange in a aystem, tho loss of heat by the one body will equal the heat absorbed by another within the confines of the same system. 4 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Jn the chapters which follow ‘studies will iret be made ofithe three individual heat-transfer phenomena anil Inter of the way in which their combination with simultaneous source and receiver influences,an appa ratus a8 8 whole. A large number of the examples which follow have bbeon selected from closely related processes to permit gradual oom- patisons. ‘This should not be construed as limiting the broadness of the underlying principles. “Many ofthe Mlustrations and problems in the euetodiog chapters refer to iquida derived from petrolcum. This is quite reasonable, since petroleum refining ig « major jndustry, petroleum producta are an important fuel fr the power industry, and petto- eum derivatives are the stasting poi for many ayatheses inthe chemical industry. ‘Petroleum inn mixture of» groxt many chemical compounds. Some ean be nolated rather readily, and the names of common hydrvenrbons present in petroleum may be ented on fig 7in Use Appondis. But more Irequoatly hare ino eed to obtain pure crmpounda, since the ultimkts use of a mixture of rolted compounds wil secve as well, Thus iubricating oil is & mixturo of several compounds of high molecular weight, all of which are suitable lubricants. Similarly, gasoline which will ultimately bo burned willbe compased of a number of volatile eembusible compounds, Both of ‘these common petroloum products were present in the crude oil when it came from ‘the ground or were formed by subsequent reaction and separated iby distiation. ‘When dealt with in = proonmtor marketed ae mixture, thete product ae called fac- tions or ets. ‘They are given common maacs or denote the refinery operation by which they were produced, and their specific gravitiea mre defined by a scale established by the American Petrolecim Institute and termed eter degrees APTor *API. The API is related to the epee gravity by eapre MIS API penorOr 1315 aay Being snixiazes of compound the petroleum frestiens do not boil isothermally like pureliquide but have being ranges. Atatmoephers pressure tholowest temperature Ht which a liquid stata to boli HleatiGod na the iil boiling point, TBP, *F. list of the coraon petroleum fractions derived from crude oil is given below: PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 5 A mothod of defining the chemical character of petroleum and correlating the properties of mixtures waa introduced by Wateaa, Nelson, and Murphy. ‘They observed that, when a crude oil of uniform ditilting behavior is distilled into mazrow tai the cab rote the abst avtoge btn pal he spout gravities of tho cuita is @ constanh or points 0 the 1 K os shore Ki ~ characterization factor Pa = average boiling point, *R > epecie gravity ab 6700" NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 1 Hag rants rac vidual hoa-tranforcoeficent, Btu (hr Gharacterisntion factor soar) ‘Thermal conductivity, Bu (ay) (1/0 Hest fow, Bia/or nee Specie gravity, dimensontom 2 Abin aeags bag yenperatar, perature in general, Distance, ft A constant, Bta/tis) 0B) Brninivity, dimensionless Wateon, K.M., R, F, Neloon, and G. B. Ta. ee ‘Murphy, Ind. Sng, Chem., 26, 880 (1938 Tee Bat Ommee CHAPTER 2 CONDUCTION ‘The Thermal Conductivity. The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over a century ago and are generally attributed to Fourier. In numerous systems involving flow auch as heat flow, fluid flow, or electricity flow, it haa been observed that the flow quantity is directly proportional to a driving potential nd inversely proportional to the resistances applying to the system, or * “q Potential Flow « ay flow are neceesarily present. resistance to heat flow and Eq, (2.1) may be exprested by Flow = conductance X potential 2.2) ‘Tomske Haq, (2.2) an equality the conductance mnst be evalusted in such a way that both sideo will bo dimensionally and numerically coerect. ‘Suppose a measured quantity of hekt Q’ Btu baa been trammitted by a al lanka se» eamered Sta ater hr tha meso temperature difference At °F. Rewriting E. (2.2) @ =F = conductance * Bt Biufhr + as) and the conductance has the dimensions of Btn/(hr)(°F). ‘The eanduct- ance is 2 measured property of the entire wall, although it has also bean found experimentally that the flow of heat is influenced independently by the thickness and the srea of the wall. If itis desired to design a wall Yo ave certain hest-flow characteristics, the conductance obtained above 6 conpucrion 7 is not useful, being applicable only to the expetimental wall. To enable a broader use of experimental information, it has become conventional to report the conductance only when all the dimensions are referred to unit values, When the conductance is reported for a quantity of material 1 ft thick with heat-flow area 1 ft, time unit 1 hr, and temperature difer- ence Y'P, it is called the thermal conductivity 2. ‘The relationship betmeen the thermal conductivity and the conduetsnce of an entire wall of thickness and ares A is then ven by Conductance = kf and N N \ anrtan * aay where k has the dimensions QLIA At or Btu/(he)(t? of Bow srea)((¥ of differ- ence)/ (ft of wall thickneas),) of the thermal conductivity of nonmetal solids is shown in Fig. 2.1. Tt consists of an electtical ing plate, two ideatiod eat S specimens through which heat 7i@- 21. Guarded condustivty apparntos passes, and two water jackets which remove 2 In the motrie eystem it is ual to report the thermal sondustivity a8 (omncC/em, te calle) *. rof experimental methods will be found rh concen! ght trey OK, fod Foe. Chew 25, 482 (1623); 98, Od (1036); $8, 976 (1941); 87, 196 (1545). Bolland, 3. . Melita, Trane. Faraday Soe, 38 1816 (1997), Feed pean Met rn Boe, 8, 1916 (1887). Hutchimon, 8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER ‘suziliary heater is:adjusted until no temperature differences exist between, the specimens and adjecont pointe in‘the guard ring. Observations are made when éhe heat input and ghe temperatures om both faces of each speoimon remain steady, Sincothalf of the measured electrical heat input to-the plate flows ‘through: each specimen and the temperature difference and dimensions of the specimen areknown, & can be computed direetly from Eq. (2.4). Liquids and Gases. ‘There is greater difficulty in determining the conductivities of liquids and gases. If the heat flows through a thick layer of liquid or gas, it causes free can- ection snd the conductivity is decep- tively high. To reduce convection it is necessary to us very thin films and small temperature differences with attendant, errors of measurement. A method appli- cable to viscous fluids consists of a bare electric wire pessing through a horizontal ‘tube filled with test liquid. ‘The tube is Hiyindee immersed in a constent-temperature bath. Tho resistance of the wire is calibrated against its temperature. Fora given rate of heat input and for the temperature of ‘Fro, 2.2, sonductivity 0- the wire obtained from resistance messure- ments the conductivity can be calculated by suitable equations, A more exastsmethod, however, is that of Bridg- man and Smith,* consisting of a very thin fuid annulus between two copper cylinders immersed in 2 constent-temperature bath as shown in Fig. 2.2. Heat supplied to the inner oylinder by a resistance wire fows through the film to the outer cylinder, where it is removed by the bath, ‘This apparatus, through the use of a reservoir, assures that the annulus is full of liquid and is adaptable-to gases, ‘The film is 344 in. thick, and the temperature diflerence is kept very small. Influence of Temperature and Pressure on. ‘The thermal conduotivi- ties of solids aro greater than those of liquids, which in turn are greater than thooe of gases. It is easier to tranamit heat through a solid than liquid and through a iquid thane gas. Somosolids, such aa motals, have high thermal conductivities and sre called conductors. Others have low conductivities and aro poor conductorsof heat. ‘These are netidators. In experimental determinations of the typo described above the thermal conductivity as been. assumed independent of the temperature at any point in the test material. ‘The reported values of i aro consequently 1 Smith, J. ¥, D, Ind. Bag. Chen., 28, 1246 (1080), Trans, ASME, 68, 719 (1836). conDUcTION 9 ‘the averages for the entire specimen, snd the error introduced by this aiscumption can be estimated by an examination of Tables 2 to § in the Appendix. ‘The conductivities of solids may either increase or decrease ‘with temperature and in some instances may even reverse their rate of change from s docroase to an increase. For the most practical prob- Jems there is no need to introducs a correction for the variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature. However, the vatiation can usually be expressed by the simple linear equation E=kotat where ko is the conductivity at OF and 7 is a constant denoting the change in the conductivity per degree change in temperature. ‘The con- duotivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature, although water is « notable exception. For all the common gases and vapors ‘thore is an increase with increasing temperature, Sutherland" deduoed ‘sn equation from the kinetie theory which is applicable to the variation of the conduetivity of gases with temperature be kg REO Te where Ct = Sutherland constant 1 = absolute temperature of the gas, °R ker = conductivity of the gas at 32°F The influence of pressure on the conductivities of solide and liquids appears to be negtigible, and the reported data on gases are too inexact owing to the effects of free convection and radiation to permit generaliza- tion. From the kinetio theory of gases it can be concluded that the influence of pressure should be small except where a very low vacuum is encountered, Contact Resistance. One of the factors which causes error in the deter mination of the thermal conductivity is the nature of the bond formed between the heat source and the fuid or solid specimen which contacts it and transmits heat. If a solid receivos heat by contacting a roli, it is almost impossible to exclude the presence of air or other fluid from the contact, Even when a liquid contacts a metal, the presence of minute pits or surface roughness may permanently trap infinitesimal bubbles of air, and it will be seen presently that these may eause considerable error. Derivation of a General Conduction Equation. In Tie. (2.1) to (2.4) ‘picture of heat conduction was obtained from an unqualified observation of the relation between heat flow, potential, and resistence. Tt is now feasible to develop an equation which will have the broadest applicability 1 Butherland, W., Phil. Mop., 86, 807 (1808), CF 10 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER and from which other equations may be deduced for special applications, ‘Equation (2.4) may be written in differential form @oraaZ (2.5) In this statemont & is the only property of the matter and it is assumed ‘40 be independent of the other variables. Referring to Fig. 2.8, an ele- ‘either of the first two oases as being more general, a storage or depletion term dQ can be defined as the difference between the heat entering and ‘the heat leaving or ae’ = at - 404 26 ‘According to Eq. (2.5) the heat entering on the left ince may be given by 98, = a ay ae(- 2 @ may vary with both time and position in : ae) fhe cube. ‘The variation of — 2 a5 J) only is ~ 22Y22). over the lista de from x to = + de id > Qs the tata change inthe tom perature gradient will be — 20120) ae or —- Fide, Then at = the gradient is = %, and at « + ds the temperature gradient is eA y ae CONDUCTION Mu

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