Additional Course Material: Computer Basics

AMIE(I) STUDY CIRCLE(REGD.
)
COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS
A Focused Approach
Additional Course Material

Computer Basics
Number System & Boolean Algebra

JK FLIP FLOP
As discussed earlier, in SR flip flop, the input combination S = R =1 is not allowed because
its output is uncertain. This uncertainty may cause problems in a digital system. So, we need
a one bit memory cell which has its outputs well defined for all possible input combinations.
One such device is JK flip flop with inputs J and K. Also, let this flip flop have the same truth
table as the SR flip flop except for the condition when J = K = 1. Since Q n +1 = Qn ,1,0 are
already occurring in the truth table of the SR flip flop, let Q n +1 = Q n for the new condition (J
= K = 1). Following table gives the combined truth table of SR/JK flip flops.
Combined truth table of SR/JK flip flops
J K Qn Qn+1 S R Comment
0 0 0 0 0 0/1 Inactive state
0 0 1 1 1/0 0 Qn+1 = Qn
0 1 0 0 0 0/1 Reset state
0 1 1 0 0 1 Qn+1 = 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 Set state
1 0 1 1 1/0 0 Qn+1 = 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 Toggle state
1 1 1 0 0 1 Qn+1 = Qn
The K- maps with S and R as outputs, and taking J, K and Qn as inputs are shown below.
S = J.Qn
JK
00 01 11 10
Qn
0 0 0 1 1
1 x 0 0 x
R = K.Q n
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A Focused Approach
JK
00 01 11 10
Qn
0 x x 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
Thus we have a simple way of designing a JK flip flop from the SR flip flop. The circuit
corresponding to K maps given earlier is drawn below.
This circuit can be simplified to following circuit.
Truth table of above JK flip flop is given below:

J K Q n+1
0 0 Qn
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 Qn
Race Around Condition

The solution that we found in the JK flip flop, for the condition when both the inputs of the
flip flop are high, is not perfect. For the level triggered JK flip flop of above figure, consider
the case when J = K = 1, Qn = 0 and a clock pulse occurs. After a propagation delay of
t(<<tp, the pulse width) equal to the delay time of two NAND gates, the output will toggle
to Q n = 1. Since this is feedback to the inputs, the output can toggle back to Qn =0 after
another delay of t, if the clock is still high.
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A Focused Approach
Thus, as long as the clock pulse is present, the output will toggle at every t seconds. This is
called race around condition.
Removing race around condition
Making propagation delay t > tp
Passing outputs Qn and Qn through delay lines before feeding them back to input
Use a JK master slave flip flop
JK MASTER SLAVE FLIP FLOP

This flip flop is made of two SR flip flops. The output of the first, called the master flip flop,
is given to the inputs of the second, called the slave flip flop. The output of the slave is
feedback to the inputs of the master. The master is triggered by a positive clock pulse and the
slave is triggered by a negative clock pulse, obtained by inverting the clock pulse applied to
the master. The circuit of MS flip flop is shown below.
JK master-slave flip flop

When the clock is HIGH(CK = 1, Pr = 1, Cr = 1), the master is enables, while the slave is
disabled as CK = 0 ). So, the master functions like a JK flip flop and its output appears at the
input (S,R) of the slave. Since CK is LOW, the slave is inactive. Thus Q remains unchanged
for the duration of the clock pulse tp.
When the clock goes LOW, the slave functions like an SR flip flop and its output changes to
QM, which also appears at the input of the master. Since the clock is LOW, the master is
inactive so that QM( and so S and R) remains unchanged as long as the clock remains LOW.
Thus, when the clock is HIGH, QM changes according to JK flip flop logic and it is
transferred to Q when the clock goes LOW(negative edge transition). This eliminates the race
around condition as the output remains constant for the duration of one clock pulse.
The truth table of this flip flop is shown below.
Truth table of MS JK flip flop
Pr Cr CK J K Qn+1 States
0 0 x x x ? Not desired
0 1 x x x 1 Preset
A Focused Approach
1 0 x x x 0 Clear
1 1 x 0 0 Qn Inactive
1 1 0 1 0 Zero
1 1 1 0 1 One
1 1 1 1 Qn Toggle
D FLIP FLOP
Truth table of D flip flop
In a D flip flop the output follows the input whenever the D Qn+1
flip flop is triggered. This can be achieved by means of a
0 0
JK/SR flip flop. A D flip using JK/SR flip flop along with
its truth table is shown below. 1 1
D flip flop from JK flip flop D flip flop from SR flip flop
Here the output follows the input, when the flip flop is triggered. If the flip flop is edge
triggered the output is the same as the input, but is delayed by one clock pulse. Owing to this
property, the D flip flop is used as a delay device. Its function is illustrated by following
waveform.
T FLIP FLOP
A T flip flop can be realized by JK flip flop. T flip flop using JK flip flop along with truth
table is given below.
T flip flop
Truth table of T flip flop
T J K Qn+1
A Focused Approach
0 0 0 Qn
1 1 1 Qn
T flip flops are widely used as toggle switches.
Informatics
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
This is the language used for file transfer from computer to computer across the
WWW. An anonymous FTP is a file transfer between locations that does not require
users to identify themselves with a password or log-in. An anonymous FTP is not
secure, because it can be accessed by any other user of the WWW.
File Transfer Protocol. The protocol used on the Internet for exchanging files. FTP
uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP is most commonly
used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server
(eg, uploading a Web page file to a server)
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
In the field of telecommunications, a communic ations protocol is the set of standard rules
for data representation, signaling, authentication, and error detection required to send
information over a communications channel. An example of a simple communications
protocol adapted to voice communication is the case of a radio dispatcher talking to mobile
stations. The communication protocols for digital computer network communication have
many features intended to ensure reliable interchange of data over an imperfect
communication channel. Communication protocol is basically following certain rules so that
the system works properly.
Network protocol design principles

Systems engineering principles have been applied to create a set of common network
protocol design principles. These principles include effectiveness, reliability, and resiliency.
Effectiveness. Needs to be specified in such a way, that engineers, designers, and in some
cases software developers can implement and/or use it. In human-machine systems, its design
needs to facilitate routine usage by humans. Protocol layering accomplishes these objectives
by dividing the protocol design into a number of smaller parts, each of which performs
closely related sub-tasks, and interacts with other layers of the protocol only in a small
number of well-defined ways.
Protocol layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a
combinatorial explosion of cases, keeping each design relatively simple. The implementation
of a sub-task on one layer can make assumptions about the behavior and services offered by
the layers beneath it. Thus, layering enables a "mix-and-match" of protocols that permit
familiar protocols to be adapted to unusual circumstances.
A Focused Approach
For an example that involves computing, consider an email protocol like the Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP). An SMTP client can send messages to any server that conforms to
SMTP's specification. Actual applications can be (for example) an aircraft with an SMTP
server receiving messages from a ground controller over a radio-based internet link. Any
SMTP client can correctly interact with any SMTP server, because they both conform to the
same protocol specification, RFC2821.
This paragraph informally provides some examples of layers, some required functionalities,
and some protocols that implement them, all from the realm of computing protocols.
At the lowest level, bits are encoded in electrical, light or radio signals by the Physical
layer. Some examples include RS-232, SONET, and WiFi.
A somewhat higher Data link layer such as the point-to-point protocol (PPP) may
detect errors and configure the transmission system.
An even higher protocol may perform network functions. One very common protocol
is the Internet protocol (IP), which implements addressing for large set of protocols. A
common associated protocol is the Transmission control protocol (TCP) which
implements error detection and correction (by retransmission). TCP and IP are often
paired, giving rise to the familiar acronym TCP/IP.
A layer in charge of presentation might describe how to encode text (ie: ASCII, or
Unicode).
An application protocol like SMTP, may (among other things) describe how to
inquire about electronic mail messages.
These different tasks show why there's a need for a software architecture or reference model
that systematically places each task into context.
The reference model usually used for protocol layering is the OSI seven layer model, which
can be applied to any protocol, not just the OSI protocols of the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). In particular, the Internet Protocol can be analysed using the OSI
model.
Reliability
Assuring reliability of data transmission involves error detection and correction, or some
means of requesting retransmission. It is a truism that communication media are always
faulty. The conventional measure of quality is the number of failed bits per bits transmitted.
This has the wonderful feature of being a dimensionless figure of merit that can be compared
across any speed or type of communication media.
In telephony, links with bit error rates (BER) of 10-4 or more are regarded as faulty (they
interfere with telephone conversations), while links with a BER of 10-5 or more should be
dealt with by routine maintenance (they can be heard).
Data transmission requires bit error rates below 10-12. Computer operations are so frequent
that larger error rates would affect operations of customers like banks and stock exchanges.
A Focused Approach
Since most transmissions use networks with telephonic error rates, the errors caused by these
networks must be detected and then corrected .
Communications systems detect errors by transmitting a summary of the data with the data.
In TCP (the internet's Transmission Control Protocol), the sum of the data bytes of packet is
sent in each packet's header. Simple arithmetic sums do not detect out-of-order data, or
cancelling errors. A bit-wise binary polynomial, a cyclic redundancy check, can detect these
errors and more, but is slightly more expensive to calculate.
Communication systems correct errors by selectively resending bad parts of a message. For
example, in TCP when a checksum is bad, the packet is discarded. When a packet is lost, the
receiver acknowledges all of the packets up to, but not including the failed packet.
Eventually, the sender sees that too much time has elapsed without an acknowledgement, so
it resends all of the packets that have not been acknowledged. At the same time, the sender
backs off its rate of sending, in case the packet loss was caused by saturation of the path
between sender and receiver. (Note: this is an over-simplification: see TCP and congestion
collapse for more detail)
In general, the performance of TCP is severely degraded in conditions of high packet loss
(more than 0.1%), due to the need to resend packets repeatedly. For this reason, TCP/IP
connections are typically either run on highly reliable fiber networks, or over a lower-level
protocol with added error-detection and correction features (such as modem links with ARQ).
These connections typically have uncorrected bit error rates of 10-9 to 10-12, ensuring high
TCP/IP performance.
Resiliency
Resiliency addresses a form of network failure known as topological failure in which a
communications link is cut, or degrades below usable quality. Most modern communication
protocols periodically send messages to test a link. In phones, a framing bit is sent every 24
bits on T1 lines. In phone systems, when "sync is lost", fail-safe mechanisms reroute the
signals around the failing equipment.
In packet switched networks, the equivalent functions are performed using router update
messages to detect loss of connectivity.
Standards organisations
Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communications, and the IEEE,
or the ISO organizations for other types. The ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols
and formats for the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The ITU-R handles protocols
and formats for radio communications. As the PSTN. radio systems, and Internet converge,
the different sets of standards are also being driven towards technological convergence.
Protocol families
A number of major protocol stacks or families exist, including the following:
Open standards:
A Focused Approach
Internet protocol suite
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)
Proprietary standards:
AppleTalk
DECnet
IPX/SPX
SMB
Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
Distributed Systems Architecture (DSA)
ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the computer-to-computer exchange of structured
information, by agreed message standards, from one computer application to another by
electronic means and with a minimum of human intervention. In common usage, EDI is
understood to mean specific interchange methods agreed upon by national or international
standards bodies for the transfer of business transaction data, with one typical application
being the automated purchase of goods and services.
Despite being relatively unheralded, in this era of technologies such as XMLservices, the
Internet and the World Wide Web, EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of
electronic commerce transactions in the world.
Standards
In 2002, the IETF published RFC 3335, offering a standardized, secure method of
transferring EDI data via e-mail. On July 12th, 2005, an IETF working group ratified
RFC4130 for MIME-based HTTP EDIINT transfers, and is preparing similar documents for
FTP transfers.
EDI documents contain the same data that would normally be found in a paper document
used for the same organizational function. For example an EDI 940 ship-from-warehouse
order is used by a manufacturer to tell a warehouse to ship product to a retailer. It typically
has a ship to address, bill to address, a list of product numbers (usually a UPC code) and
quantities. It may have other information if the parties agree to include it. However, EDI is
not confined to just business data related to trade but encompasses all fields such as medicine
(patient records, laboratory results..), transport (container and modal information...),
engineering and construction, etc.
There are two major sets of EDI standards. UN/EDIFACT is the only international standard
(in fact, a United Nations recommendation) and is predominant in all areas outside of North
America. ANSI ASC X12 (X12)is popular in North America and used worldwide.
A Focused Approach
These standards prescribe the formats, character sets, and data elements used in the exchange
of documents and forms, such as purchase orders (called "ORDERS" in UN/EDIFACT and
an "850" in X12) and invoices.
The standard says which pieces of information are mandatory for a particular document,
which pieces are optional and give the rules for the structure of the document. The standards
are like building codes. Just as two kitchens can be built "to code" but look completely
different, two EDI documents can follow the same standard and contain different sets of
information. For example a food company may indicate a particular product expiration date
while a clothing manufacturer would choose to send color and size information.
Organizations that send or receive documents from each other are referred to as "trading
partners" in EDI terminology. The trading partners agree on the specific information to be
transmitted and how it should be used. This is done in human readable specifications (also
called specs or spec sheets). While the standards are analogous to building codes the
specifications are analogous to blue prints. (The specification may also be called a mapping
but the term mapping is typically reserved for specific machine readable instructions given to
the translation software.) Larger companies have existing specification sheets and are usually
unwilling to negotiate. Often in a large company these sheets will be written to be used by
different branches or divisions and therefore will contain information not needed for a
particular exchange.
Service providers, such as GXS, provide global platforms to connect and integrate "trading
partners" around-the-world. They provide integration platforms, such as GXS Trading Grid,
that make the exchange of EDI (or XML) documents transparent and easy between diverse
constituents.
CLIENT SERVER TECHNOLOGY

Client/server technology is the computer architecture used in almost all automated library
systems now being offered to libraries. The simple definition is:
Client/server is a computer architecture that divides functions into client (requestor) and
server (provider) subsystems, with standard communication methods (such as TCP/IP and
z39.50) to facilitate the sharing of information between them.
A network architecture in which each computer or process on the network is either a client or
a server. Servers are powerful computers or processes dedic ated to managing disk drives (file
servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers ). Clients are PCs or
workstations on which users run applications. Clients rely on servers for resources, such as
files, devices, and even processing power.
Advantages of Client Server Technology

This type of technology enhances performance, where the server can execute some of the
processes almost on behalf of the client. The server generally will have more resources at its
disposal than the client does, for example, more memory and perhaps more hard disk space.
Therefore it makes sense that the server does some of the required processing along with the
A Focused Approach
client, and thereby there are now two processors dealing with a part of that application - we'll
come to come examples shortly.
The next reason why client server technology is exceptionally well supported in the
Unix/Linux environment is because of scalability .
scalability is a crucial factor because as our networks grow in size, increasing the number of
available work-stations, we will need some means of scaling our architecture to handle an
increased volume of traffic, perhaps an increased number of clients. So from a scalability
perspective, if we put 10 clients on a network and we put 1000 clients on a network, there
will be a significant performance difference.
Client server technology allows us to scale these networks up to relatively large client
networking farms.
The idea behind client server is that the shared responsibility can be shuffled around, for
example, we could choose to run certain applications on specific clients and other
applications on other clients.
Interoperability is a key factor of why client server technology is so good. An example of the
good use of interoperability is that you may have had a DEC server, a Dec VAX for example,
running X 11, the X Windows system. On the client side you have a Unix machine and so the
X-server, because it was a standard protocol, could offer it 's services to the Unix
workstation.
Characteris tics Of A Client/Server Architecture

Among the characteristics of a client/server architecture are the following:
The client and server can be distinguished from one another by the differences in
tasks they perform
The client and server usually operate on different computer platforms
Either the client or server may be upgraded without affecting the other. Clients may
connect to one or more servers; servers may connect to multiple clients concurrently
Clients always initiate the dialogue by requesting a service.
In client/server the PC-based client communicates with the server as a computer. In
client/server the client controls part of the activity. A client PC almost always does the
following in a client/server environment: screen handling, menu or command interpretation,
data entry, help processing, and error recovery.
An example of one client communicating with several different servers is a PC-based client
which can access a library's own automated library system, a CD-ROM server, the automated
library system of another library, or a remote online reference service.
While a client usually is configured on a PC and a server on a supermicro, mini, or a
mainframe computer; a single machine can act as both client and server on a network. For
example, two automated library systems in different libraries that are linked for resource
A Focused Approach
sharing are functioning as clients when requesting information, and as servers when
providing it.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer program (or more typically, a suite
of them) designed to manage a database (a large set of structured data), and run operations on
the data requested by numerous clients. Typical examples of DBMS use include accounting,
human resources and customer support systems. Originally found only in large organizations
with the computer hardware needed to support large data sets, DBMSs have more recently
emerged as a fairly standard part of any company back office.
The following are examples of database applications:
computerized library systems
automated teller machines
flight reservation systems
computerized parts inventory systems
DBMS's are found at the heart of most database applications. Sometimes DBMSs are built
around a private multitasking kernel with built-in networking support although nowadays
these functions are left to the operating system.
A database management system (DBMS) is a system, usually automated and computerized,
for the management of any collection of compatible, and ideally normalized, data.
A database application is computer software written to manage the data of a particular
application or problem.
From a technical standpoint, DBMSs can differ widely. The terms relational, network, flat,
and hierarchical all refer to the way a DBMS organizes information internally. The internal
organization can affect how quickly and flexibly you can extract information.
Requests for information from a database are made in the form of a query, which is a stylized
question. For example, the query
SELECT ALL WHERE NAME = "SMITH" AND AGE > 35
requests all records in which the NAME field is SMITH and the AGE field is greater than 35.
The set of rules for constructing queries is known as a query language. Different DBMSs
support different query languages, although there is a semi-standardized query language
called SQL (structured query language). Sophisticated languages for managing database
systems are called fourth -generation languages, or 4GLs for short.
The information from a database can be presented in a variety of formats. Most DBMSs
include a report writer program that enables you to output data in the form of a report. Many
DBMSs also include a graphics component that enables you to output information in the form
of graphs and charts.
A Focused Approach
Features of DBMS
A typical DBMS has the following features:
Provides a way to structure data as records, tables, or objects
Accepts data input from operators and stores that data for later retrieval
Provides query languages for searching, sorting, reporting, and other "decision
support" activities that help users correlate and make sense of collected data
Provides multi-user access to data, along with security features that prevent some
users from viewing and/or changing certain types of information
Provides data integrity features that prevent more than one user from accessing and
changing the same information simultaneously
Provides a data dictionary (metadata) that describes the structure of the database,
related files, and record information
Most DBMS systems are client/server based and operate over networks. The DBMS is an
engine that typically runs on a powerful server or cluster of servers, in a SAN (storage area
network) environment or mainframe with a high-performance channel to a large data store.
The DBMS accepts requests from clients that may require sorting and extracting data. Once
the server has processed the request, it returns the information to the client.
There are a variety of back-end database systems, clients, and methods of access. Database
middleware products are designed to provide a middle layer of software that hides the
differences among databases. ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), originally designed by
Microsoft, has been one of the most popular middleware products.
The common language for accessing most database systems is SQL (Structured Query
Language). Z39.50 is an open ANSI standard that allows database searching and information
retrieval among networked systems.
Metadata is information that describes data in a database. A raw data file would appear as a
mass of letters, numbers, and symbols; but by knowing the format and structure of how that
data is stored, you can display the data as records, fields, attributes, and elements with
specific rules and properties (i.e., some fields are locked or the data is displayed a certain
way). A metadata file provides this knowledge. Recall the Mars spacecraft that burned up in
Mars orbit. The company that built the spacecraft was working with acceleration data in
English units of pounds of force. NASA entered the data into a computer that assumed metric
units called Newton. This was a tragic metadata error, in which the description of the data
was misinterpreted.
Most databases are operational databases, meaning that data going into the database is used in
real time to support the ongoing activities of a business. A point-of-sale business accounting
system is an example. As items are sold, the inventory database is updated and the inventory
information is made available to the sales staff. The invoicing, order entry, and related
systems are also updated.
A Focused Approach
Data analysts use OLAP (online analytical processing) systems to analyze database
information in order to find trends or make business decisions. A data warehouse is a large-
scale OLAP and/or data mining system that is specifically designed to extract, summarize,
combine, clean up, and process information from a number of data sources-such as the
operational databases, legacy (historical) databases, and online subscription databases-for the
purpose of analysis. Metadata is especially important in this environment.
C Programming
WORKING WITH ARRAYS
In a computer program we use data for processing sometimes we require a large amount of
data for processing. Then it is a little bit difficult to declare so many variable in a program for
example: storage of 100 number require declaration for 100 integer variables.
One solution of such problem is the use of loop. Suppose loop start from 1 and continue to
100. Only one variable is used in this case for loop. But the problem arises due to variable
nature. Whenever a new value is given to the variable the previous value is removed from the
memory. After the complete execution of loop in the variable hold only the last value. so it is
not possible to see all 100 number stored by loop in the same variable.
The array is the useful data type for this purpose. The array is group of various data items of
same type sharing same name and present in continuous memory locations. The array can
hold all the values for reuse because array contains many variables of same name and same
data type. The complete set of values is referred to as an array and the individual value as
array element.
The array can be of any primary data type as integer character or float. The array of character
is called string and of float and integer as array. The use of array for storing large amount of
data one of type makes the program easy and deficient and also solves the problem of many
variable declarations. We can use the values stored as array-element again and again for
different manipulations till the completion of programs.
The arrays are of following their types based on the dimensions for data storing:
(i) One dimensional arrays
(ii) Two dimensional arrays
(iii) Multi dimensional arrays
One-dimensional Arrays
The list of data items have only variable name but differentiated by a subscripts number
because we can not have multiple variable of same name in a c-program. Single subscripts
number differentiates the subscript number acts as the identification number for multiple data
items and so the one dimensional array variable are called as single subscripts variable. The
subscript number of array-data-items is started from zero and x and be a positive integer
A Focused Approach
number. For example when we have can integer array named X for 10 integer variable these
variable are named as - X [0], X [1]X [9].
Declaration of Array. Array is also a variable. So it is to be declared in the program before
its use. Every array has a data type and number of that array for its declaration. The general
format for array decoration is as follows.
datatype arrayname [arraysize];
The data refers to the data type required for array such as char, int or float etc. the array name
is the variable name to be given to all data items of the array. The array size indicates the
number of data items required for the array. This size is to be mentioned within brackets [].
All the data items of array are declared continuously in memory location horizontal or
vertically.
For example:
int num[10]
In this declaration an array of integer type is declared with 10 data items having their name as
num. Their subscript number starts from 0 and ranges upto 9.
This array can store maximum 10 integer constants in the variable named num [0], num [1],
num [2]num[9]. The item of array occupies the space in memory as the data type of array
needs. In the above num is declared as int type.
We can declare the of any other data type also like-
char name [25];
float rate [12];
Initialization of Array. The array elements can be initialized by constant data values in a C-
program, if required, there several formats for assigning the initial data values to an array.
For example :
int num[5]={2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
int num [ ]= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
Both the initialization states that integer array num is declared and some data values are put
in these variables using list of values, the number of values must be equal to the array size
specified. But we can skip the array size specification because initialization at the time of
declaration specify the array size. If we do not store any data value in the array elements by
initialization, then these array elements are assumed to contain the garbage data value.
Here, we have used two types of array initialization. We see that the size of array is optional
if we initialize the array with declaration.
The another method of array initialization is the subscript method and involves the
assignment of values to the array elements individually as shown below-
Int num[5];
A Focused Approach
Num[0] = 2;
Num[1]=4;
Num[2]= 6;
Num[3]= 8;
Num[4]=10;
Data Input and Data-Output with Arrays . In an array, the data-input is performed by
scanf() function and data-output is produced by print() function similar to other variables.
Let us take an example to describe data-input and output with array. Suppose we want to
store 5 integer number by using array and display them as output after storage. The following
example program ode will describe this problem.
Example
Store 5 integer numbers in array and show them as output.
Solution
/* Input-Output with Array */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conioh.>
main()
{
int x[5];
printf(\n Enter five numbers:);
scanf(%d%d%d%d%d, &x[0], &x[1], &x[2], &x[3], &x[4]);
printf(\n the numbers stored in Array :\n);
printf(\n%d\n%d\n%d\n%d\n%\n%d, x[0], x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4]);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter five numbers : 12 13 14 15 16
The numbers stored in Array :
12
13
14
15
A Focused Approach
16
Example
Print sum of 10 input numbers.
Solution
/* Sum of any 10 numbers */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int arr[10], i, sum;
clrscr();
sum=0;
printf(\n Enter 10 numbers :\n);
for(i=0; i<=9; i++);
scanf(%d, &arr[[i]);
for(i=0; i<=9; i++)
sum=sum+x[i];
printf(\n Sum = %d, sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter 10 numbers :
2
4
6
8
1
3
5
7
9
A Focused Approach
4
Sum = 49
Searching Within Array. Searching means find a specific datavalue within the array
elements. Several searching methods are provided by C-language like linear search, binary
search.
Linear search allows to search an elements in linearly that means starting from zero
to the last array element. But this type of search takes a large amount of time.
Binary search is useful for saving because maximum number of time taken is lesser
than linear search.
Example
Input n number in an array and search a number using linear search method .
Solution
/* Linear search */
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a[20], n, num, i, flag;
clrscr();
flag=0;
start :
printf(\enter the size required for array:);
scan f (%,&n);
if (n>20)
{
printf(\n size required for array size );
printf(\n enter the size from 1 to 20 ! );
go to start;
}
printf(\n enter %d number for array \n ,n);
for (i=0; i<=n-1; i++)
scanf(%d, &a[i]);
print f( \n enter the number to search : );
A Focused Approach
scanf(%d,& num);
printf(\n now searching starts );
for(i=0; i<=n-1; i++);
{
if(a[i]==num)
{
printf(\n%d is found at %d position !,num, i+1);
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(f==0)
printf(\n% d is not in entire array !);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the size required for array : 35
Size required is out of array size.
Enter the size required for array : 5
Enter 5 number for array
15
25
30
35
Enter the number to search : 25
Now searching starts
25 is found at 3 position !
In this program, we have used goto statement for bound-checking the array size during the
input. Now the numbers entered in this program will not exceed the size of 20 numbers. The
flag is a variable used to evaluate true or false. Firstly, its value is taken as zero. When the
search is successful the value of flag variable is turned to one. This value of flag variable is
evaluated for unsuccessful or successful search.
The another type of search is binary search which requires an already stored list of numbers.
The technique used for binary search differs from linear search because in this method search
A Focused Approach
starts from middle array element not from the first array element. If the search-element is
found at middle position in array then the search process is stopped, otherwise the search
continues to the left or right of middle element for lesser or greater value element than middle
element respectively.
Example
Program for binary search in an array

/* Binary search */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int arr[2], n, i, beg, end, mid, num;
clrscr();
start;
printf(\n enter array size required : m);
scanf(%d.&n);
if (n>20)
{
printf(\n enter %d number in ascending order ,n);
printf(\n);
for(I=0; i<=1; i++)
scanf(%d, &arr[i]);
prinf(\n enter number to search in array : );
scanf(%d, & num);
beg =0
end =n - 1
mid=(beg + end)/2;
{
while(num<arr[mid] && beg <=end)
{
if (num<arr[mid]}
end=mid - 1;
A Focused Approach
else
beg=mid + 1;
mid=(beg+end)/2;
}
printf(\n %d is found at %d! num, mid+1);
else
printf(\n%d is not found in entire array ! num);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter array size required : 5
Enter 5 numbers in ascending order
12
15
27
35
42
Enter number to search in array :15
15 is found at 2 !
In this program, the search of a number is controlled by a loop. The loop continues till the
search-number is not found at mid position or the array element terminated. The number to be
searched is given as 15. The search starts from middle array element which is 27. The search
is unsuccessful. Now the search number (15) is smaller than middle number (27). So search is
continued to the left of middle array element. Now new mid element is 15 and the search
element is also 15, so the search is successful. This process continues further is the search
becomes unsuccessful.
Sorting the Array. Sorting is the process to organize the data either in ascending order or
descending order. The array can hold many data items of similar type at a time so we can
arrange these data items either in ascending order or descending order like a sorted list. There
are several sorting processes developed to sort a list of detail-items like selection sort, bubble
sort etc. we will discuss the process of selection sort here for sorting a list of numbers.
Selection Sort Process. The selection sort process uses the technology to select the
minimum number from a list and place to the beginning of list ascending or
descending order sorting respectively. We can describe the actual process taken place
in selection sort ascending order by following example :
A Focused Approach
Let us take an array of 10 numbers as follows :
int 22 56 33 80 78 46 25 65 35 12
x[10]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
int x 22 56 33 80 78 46 25 65 35 12
After Step 12 56 33 80 78 46 25 65 35 22
1
After Step 12 22 33 80 78 46 25 65 35 56
2
After Step 12 22 33 80 78 46 25 65 35 56
3
After Step 12 22 25 33 78 46 80 65 35 56
4
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 80 65 78 56
5
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 80 65 78 56
6
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 56 65 78 80
7
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 56 65 78 80
8
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 56 65 78 80
9
A Focused Approach
After Step 12 22 25 33 35 46 56 65 78 80
10
In the selection sort process for ascending order sorting, the step-1 shows the selection of
minimum number (12) from entire array and its replacement with the zero subscript array
element (22). In step-2, the minimum number is selected out from the array except zero
subscript element and its replacement is performed with subscript one array element x[1].
This process continues till the complete sorting of array. The minimum numbers are push
down side to the array.
Example
Sort the list of number in ascending order by using selection sort method.
Solution
/* Selection sort process */

# include <stdio. h>
# include <conio. h>
main()
{
int x[20], n, min, p, temp;
clrscr();
start:
printf(\n Enter Array Size Required:);
if (n>20)
{
printf(\n Out of Range. \n Enter from 1 to 20 ! \n );
goto start;
}
printf(\ Enter %d Number to sort :\n);
for(i=0; i<=n-1; i++)
scanf( %.&x[i]);
printf(\n Now sort process starts \n);
for(i=0; i<=1; i++)
{
pos=i;
A Focused Approach
min=x[i];
for(p=i+1;p<=n-1; p++)
{
if(xp[p])
{
min=x[p];
pos=p;
}
}
temp=x[i];
x[i]=x[pos];p
x[pos]=temp;
}
printf(\n Sorted Array in Ascending Order : \n);
for(I=0; i<=n-1; i++);
printf(\n%d,x[i]);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter array size required: 10
Enter10 numbers to sort :
22
56
33
80
78
46
25
65
35
12
Now sort process starts-
A Focused Approach
Sorted Array in Ascending Order :
12
22
25
33
35
46
56
65
78
80
Programming in C++
Example
Write a C++ program to take a valu e from the user and print the square of it, unless it is
more than 120. The message I cannot square numbers" should appear if the user types too
large a number.
Solution
// progif.cpp
// Prints the square of the input value if the input value is less than 180
#include <iostream.h>
fit main(}
{
int num, square;
cout << "\n\n";
cout << "What number do you want to see the square of? ";
cin >>num;
if(num< 120)
{
square = num * num;
cout << The square of <<num<<is<<square;
}
A Focused Approach
if (num>=120)
{
cout << \n*** Square is not allowed for;
cout << numbers over 120***;
cout <<\nRun this program again and try;
cout <<a smaller value;
}
cout << \n Thank you for requesting squares;
return 0;
}
Example
Write a C++ program to generate a Fibonacci serie s upto n.
Solution
// Generate Fibonacci series upto n

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
int main( )
{
int n, i, a, b, c;
cout <<"Enter how many terms \n";
cin >> n;
a = 0;
a = 1;
cout <<"Required series is \n";
cout << "\n" << a << "\n << b;
for (i = 2; i <= n; i++)
{
c = a + b;
cout <<"\n" << c;
a = b;
b = c;
A Focused Approach
}
getch( );
return 0;
}
Output :
Enter how many terms
8
Required series is
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
Example
Write a C++ program to find factorial of a given number using do while.
Solution
// Find factorial of given number.

int main( )
{
int n, fact = 1, i = 1;
cout << "Enter a number" << endl;
cin >> n;
do
{
fact = fact * i;
i++;
}
A Focused Approach
while (i < = n);
cout << "Factorial =" << fact;
}
Output :
Enter a number
3
Factorial = 6
Example
Write a C++ program to find square root of numbers. The process stops when number 7777
is entered.
Solution
# include <math.h>
int main( )
{
int i, n, neg = 0;
float r;
cout << "Enter 7777 to stop \n";
for (i = 1; i < = 100; i++)
{
cout << "\n Enter number" ;
cin >> n;
if (n = = 7777)
break;
if (n < 0)
{
cout << "Number is negative \n";
neg ++;
continue;
}
r = sqrt (n);
cout << "\n square root = " << r;
A Focused Approach
}
cout << "\n Total negative number = " << neg;
return 0;
}
Output :
Enter 7777 to stop
Enter number 25
Square root = 5.0
Enter number 14
Number is negative
Enter number 80
Square root = 8.9442
Enter number 7777
Total negative number = 1
OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

Object Oriented Programming is an approach that provides a way of modularization of
programs by creating partitioned memory area for both data and functions that can be used as
templates for creating copies of such modules.
The fundamental concept behind object oriented programming is to combine into a single
unit both data and functions that operate on the data. Such a unit is called an Object. An
Object is a self contained unit or modules of data and code. All data and procedures related
to the object are defined within it. Therefore, procedures are tied to the data. A message
identifying a method to execute is passed to the object.
The advantages of OOP fall into two broad categories increased programming productivity
and decreased costs. Some classes and objects may be reused in other applications. Re-used
code would have already been tested, so it should need little testing when used in a new
program.
OOP Terminology and Characteristics

There are following basic concepts underlying OOP.
Objects
Classes
Data Abstraction and Encapsulation
Inheritance
Polymorphism
A Focused Approach
Objects and Classes. Class describes the data and its behaviour or functionality. Objects are
said to be members of classes. For example, Fruit is a class and apple is an object. The basic
features of Fruit are common to all fruits. Therefore apple which is an object of class
Fruit inherits these properties. The apple can then be assigned individual characteristics like
colour, size, etc.
A class is a key concept of C++. A class, when declared in a C++ program, does not occupy
space in memory. On the other hand, an object is a physical identifiable identity with some
characteristics. An object is a type of data which is self-contained unit containing data, codes
and the member functions which operate on data. The object may be a place, person or any
other thing. Each object have a different identity. For example, two students can be treated as
similar objects, since their function is same, i.e., learning, but one may be science student and
the other an art student.
Class is a user defined data type. Classes provide data hiding, guaranteed initialization of
data, implicit type conversion for user defined types, user controlled memory management
and a mechanism for overloaded operators.
Relation between Class and Object
We know that a class can have number of objects each comprising data and function of that
class. The data of an object can be accessed only by the functions associated with that object.
However, functions of one object can access the function of other object.
Consider the following statement :
int num1, num2, num3;
num1, num2, num3 are three variables of type int. Similarly, we can define many objects of
the same class.
Inheritance . Inheritance is the capability to define a new class in terms of an existing (base)
class. The new class is known as derived class. The principle here is that each subclass shares
common characteristics with the class from which it has been derived. In addition to the
characteristics shared with other members of the class, each subclass has its own particular
characteristics.
The concept of inheritance provide an important extension to the idea of reusability. Once a
class has been written, created and debugged, it can be distributed to other programmers for
use in their own programs. A programmer can take an existing class and without modifying
it, add additional features and capabilities to it. This is done by deriving a new class from the
existing one. The new class will inherit the capabilities of the old one, but it is free to add
new features to its own. An already existing class can therefore be reused to define a new
class, reducing programming effort. Data members and member functions of the base class
can be inherited by the derived class. Private member of the base class can not be inherited.
Polymorphism. The polymorphism is an important concept of object oriented programming
(OOP). It is a Greek term, means the ability to take more than one form. It refers to the fact
that a single operation can have different behaviour in different objects. In other words,
A Focused Approach
different object react differently to the same message. For example, consider the operation of
addition for two numbers, addition should generate the sum. In a programming language that
support OOP, we should be able to express the operation of addition by a single operator,
say, +. We can use the expression x + y to denote the sum of x and y for many different
types of x and y, i.e., for integers, floating point numbers and complex numbers. We can also
define the + operation for two string to mean the concatenation of the string.
Polymorphism plays an important role in allowing objects having different internal structure
to share the same external interface. Therefore, a general class of operations may be accessed
in the same manner even though specific actions associated with each operation may differ.
Benefits Of OOP
The main advantages of object oriented programming are :
Simplicity : Software object model real-world objects, so the complexity is reduced

and the program structure is very clear.
It is possible to make minor changes in the data representation or the procedures in an
object oriented program. Changes inside a class do not affect any other part of the
program, since the only public interface that the external world has to a class is
through the use of methods.
The principle of data hiding helps the programmer to build secure programs that can
not be invoked by code in other parts of the program.
Object oriented system can be easily upgraded from small to large systems.
Message passing techniques for communications between objects makes the interface
descriptions with external systems much simpler.
Adding new features or responding to changing operating environments can be solved
by introducing few new objects and modifying some existing ones.
Objects can be reused in different programs.

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AMIE(I) STUDY CIRCLE(REGD.

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