R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar © Natural / Logical / Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD, MODAL VERBS. MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS MODALITY Modality as a semantic and logical category is commonly defined as the attitude of the speaker towards what he/she is saying (more precisely, towards the propositional content of the utterance), There are linguistic and extralinguistic ways of expressing modality Linguistically, it may be expressed at the phonological level, at the lexical level and at the grammatical level, Modal verbs represent the most prolific way of expressing modality in English, We can say that modal verbs are lexico-grammatical ways of expressing modality. MOOD Mood is one possible manifestation of modality. At the level of expression, it is marked in the verb phrase, so that it counts as a verbal category. Mood indicates the speaker’s evaluation of the event as real (factual), desirable, conditioned, probable, possible, necessary etc., which all fall within the opposition [REAL] or real vs. virtual (or factual vs, non-factual and, syntactically, main vs. subordinate clauses!) ‘Curme’s classical definition of mood: “Moods are the changes in the form of the verb to show the various ways in which the action or state is thought of by the speaker.” In English we find the distinction between = the Indicative Mood, which, theoretically at least, reflects a neutral, objective attitude; the speaker evaluates the event as real (John usually gets up a 7 a.m.) and = the Subjunetive Mood, which indicates that the event is looked upon as hypothetical, desirable, probable, possible, necessary etc.: [ wish I were young again Traditional grammars also consider the Imperative as a mood, expressing orders, commands Jump! Be reasonable. Put on your coat. Romanian grammars of English usually follow the pattern of Romanian grammar and speak of the indicative, the subjunetive, the conditional and the imperative mood, Forms There are sixteen forms (tense-aspect combinations) of the indicative mood (active voice): | Indefinite Progressive Perfect | Perfect Progressive | [workihe works [he is working | he has worked | he has been working [Tie worked Tie was working | he had worked” | he had been working | Future he will work he will be working | he will have hhe will have been I | worked __| working, Future in the Past | he would work | he would be The would have | the would have been | | working worked __| working With regard to the subjunctive one can speak of - the BE subjunctive, also called present or old subjunctive, identical in all its forms with the short infinitive: I be, you be, he be...; I g0, you go, he 20R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar ® Natural / Logica /Sematl Categries ve. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS ~ the WERE subjunctive, also called past subjunctive; in Modern English identical in form with the past tense of the verb: T worked etc.; the forms of the verb TO BE are levelled to WERE:I were, you were, he were; - the perfect subjunctive, identical in form with the past perfect: I had worked ete. Besides these forms, we find frequent references to the “analytic subjunctive” or “subjunctive equivalents” consisting of a modal-auxiliary verb + the main verb, eg, He ordered that everything should be ready in time ~ “analytic subjunctive” (-He ordered that everything be ready in time, where BE is the “synthetic subjunctive”) = present: I should/would work, you would work etc, - perfect: I should/would have worked, you would have worked etc, The imperative uses the base form (infinitive) of the verb: Speak!, Go away! or a construction with let: Let me go! Uses This description of forms is often accompanied by a semantic characterization, for example, 1, The Indicative Mood shows that the speaker considers the action as real 2. The Conditional Mood shows that the speaker considers the action as conditioned or desirable. 3. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the speaker considers the action as a supposed fact, as hypothetical 4. The Imperative Mood denotes an order, a piece of advice, a request. More recent grammars consider that = the conditional can be equated to the analytical subjunctive, and = the imperative, which is identical with other verb forms (most notably with the present of the indicative mood), should be treated as a form of the sentence rather than a form of the verb — the imperative sentence. In the examples, (1) You eat much garlic (2) Do you eat much garlic? (3) Eat much garlic! (4) How much garlic you eat! (1) is a declarative sentence, (2) is interrogative, (3) is imperative and (4) is exclamative (or exclamatory), The only opposition in terms of mood remains that between the indicative and the subjunctive as expressions of the opposition REAL vs. -REAL (VIRTUAL). In the grammar written by Quirk et al (1975) the subjunctive is treated in one page, is, characterised as “not inportant” in contemporary English, being normally replaced by other constructions. The discussion of the three types of the subjunctive according to Quirk et a. lacks consistency in the use of criteria; however, it seems to be useful for the learner of English. They speak of (a) the mandative subjunctive; (b) the formulaic subjunetive; and (©) the were-subjunctive.R, Albu, Semantics and Grammar ® Natural / Logical / Semantic Categories vs Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS (a)The mandative subjunctive ~ has only one form, the base (V) and - _isused in that-clauses. It is productive and is generally present in a subordinate that-clase if the main clause contains an expression of demand, recommendation, insistence, resolution, surprise etc. The typical frame is We demand/ require/ insist/ suggest’ ask/ move that ... This structure is mainly used in American English and is felt as formal in British English. In less formal contexts itis replaced by other constructions, such as /o-infinitive and should + infinitive. Here are a few examples that illustrate that the use of the subjunctive is determined by the semantic content of the main clause and not by the syntactic function of the rhat-clause The boss demanded that everything be ready (British English: should be ready) by 5 o'clock. (Object clause) ‘The boss’s request was that everything be ready by 5 o’clock. (Predicative clause) It was ordered that everything be ready by 5 o’clock. (Subject clause) The boss’s order that everything be ready by 5 o'clock brought panic among the employees. (Attributive clause) (b) The formulaic subjunctive also consists of the base (V) but itis only used in certain expressions that should be learned as a whole, often to express wishes and imprecations, ¢.g., Come what may, we won't give in God bless you! God save the Queen! Long live our ideals! Damn it! Confound these flies! So be it! Be that as it may, Suffice it to say that Heaven forbid that (c)The were-subjunctive - is restricted to one form ~ were hypothetical in meaning, and used in conditional and concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after verbs like wish. In colloquial English, the past tense form was may replace were in the first and second person singular (Exceptions: As it were, If1 were you...) Examples: If were (coll. was) rich, I wouldn’t be happier. He spoke to me as iffthough he were (coll. was) drunk, I wish I were (coll. was) dead. The same meaning is rendered by the past tense form of the other verbs or by using a modal verb (could, might, should) Supposing he proposed to you, would you say “yes”? However drunk he may be, he never loses his balance. T wish T could fly Other grammarians, for example Rodney Huddleston, state that there is no inflectional system of mood in English. The forms of the so-called indicative mood can easily be made to express ‘mood’ by adding modal verbs in front of the verb phrase. Compare He is on his way to Rome ~ He may be on his way to Rome. He is sleeping. ~ Don’t ring him up. He will be sleepingreeset OQ Natural / Logical / Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS: ‘He has arrived. — He must have arrived ‘These constructions prove the existence of an “analytic mood system”, Study this carefilly: MODAL AUXILIARIES. I. Primary/Present/Non-past Forms: can, may, must, have to, will and shall. Il, Secondary/Past Forms: could, might, would, should Some meanings — more common than others. Distinction between meanings — not so clear-cut as their separation in the lists suggests, e.g., No one can see us here. Remember CAN possibility’, ‘ability’, ‘permission’) Differences in frequency: = very frequent: will (‘I), would, can, could = quite frequent: must, should, may, might, have to = infrequent: shall, (ought to, need (Ought to and need are marginal) ‘There are differences in meaning between positive statements and interrogative and negative forms. Meanings - order of frequency CAN a. possibility b. ability c. permission MAY a, possibility b. permission c, quasi-subjunctive uses MUST a. obligation (speaker's authority) b. requirement c. logical necessity = knowledge arrived at by inference or reasoning rather than by direct experience (This use of must normally has no negative or question forms HAVE TO (v. close to must): a. obligation b. requirement c. logical necessity (chiefly coll. AE: There has to be some reason for his absurd behiour) Relations between can, may, must and have to: ; 7 3 set permission! CAN HAVE TO obligation possibility requirement/ May MUST. necessity ‘May and can ~ ‘possibility’. Compare: FACTUAL: The road may be blocked (~ ‘It is possible that the road is blocked’, “Perhaps the road is blocked’) THEORETICAL: The road can be blocked = “It is possible for the road to be blocked’, ‘It is possible to block the road” Discuss: The road can be blocked by police The road may be blocked by flood water ‘This iltness may be fatal This iliness can be fatal. May and can ~ ‘permission’ ~ stylistic difference (Set polite formulae: May J speak to...? How may I help you?) Must and have 10 — ‘obligation’ and ‘requirement”R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar Natural / Logical / Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY, MOOD. MODAL VERBS. Compare: You must save that money to buy a house (‘I'm telling you’) You have to save that money to buy a house (‘This is a financial requirement’) Must and have to — “logical necessity” Compare: Someone must be telling lies Someone has to be telling lies. (This has the uncompromising effect of It’s impossible for everyone to be telling the truth) Notice again that ‘logical necessity’ and ‘possibility’ are inverse concepts: These lines have to be by Shakespeare ~ These lines can't be by anyone but Shakespeare (but “who is not’, ‘other than’) Will — a. ‘prediction/predictability’ b. intention (“intermediate volition’) c. willingness (weak volition’) — this meaning is pariciularly common in second-person requests: will you ‘guys play a game with me? 4, Insistence (‘strong volition’) (rare) Will you ~ a polite substitute for an imperative: Will you please. 2 (When spoken with a falling intonation, will you ... can sound positively impolite: Will you be quiet?) Shall — declining, esp. in AE. restricted linguistic contexts; can be replaced by other constructions - a, Prediction (with first-person subjects, formal equivalent of will) b. Intention (“intermediate volition’) — with first-person subjects; c. Other volitional meanings (with 2" and 3"-person subjects in statements, or with 1"-person subjects in questions) d. Rules and regulations (with 2"*-person or 3"-person subjects) Examples: a. Unless business improves, we shall have no alternative but to close the factory . shall inform you if the situation changes, We shall succeed where others have failed ¢. You shall stay with us as long as you like. Good dog, you shall have a bone when we get home. d._ A player who bids incorrectly shal forfeit fifty points. (Rules of a card game) This hood shall be of scarlet cloth, with a silk lining of the colour of the faculty, (Rules for academic dress.) ? Won/t you...” Would you Modal auxiliaries in questions and if-clauses Compare: You may =*You are permitted to’ You must ~ “You are obliged to” May 1...? = Do you permit me to...?. Must [..? = ‘Do you oblige me to...? Anticipating the attitude of the person being asked “May I ask you a few questions?” “Yes, you may.” “Must I answer your questions?” “I’m afraid you must.’) (However, must is rare in questions. In practice it is more common to use Do J have fo... Similarly, May /.... is less common than Can ...? Shit “Shall I carry your suitcase?” (= Do you want me to carry your suitcase? “Shall we have dinner?” (=Do you agree with my intention to have dinner?) (we = listener + speaker) Ifclauses are in many ways like questions (¢.g., in co-occurring with any, anyone, ever ete. rather than with some, someone, sometimes.) > modal auxiliary usage in if-clausesBA Semanicsand Gamat © Noto Seran grav Ganntealcaer: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS the rules for questions rather than for statements. E. g.,/’Ul have another biscuit, if | may. Go skating if you must, but make sure you wrap up nice and warm. ‘May’in its ‘possibility’ sense does not occur at all in questions. They may be asleep. (statement) but Can’ Could they be asleeop? ~ “Is it possible that they are asleep?’ Need, must, have to Compare: Need you be so strict? (Yes, I'm afraid I must — rare) Do you have to be so strict? (Yes, I'm afraid I do.) (Remember that (1) the auxiliary need does not normally occur in positive statements. But it does occur in some non-question constructions which resemble questions in other ways, eg., in if- clauses: J doubt if we need buy any extra food. (2) Aux. need should be carefully distinguished from the full verb need occurring in the semi-modal construction need + 10 ~ Infinitive (3) A distinction is sometimes felt between do ... have to ~ which can convey habitual meaning — and have ... got fo, which refers more typically to a single present or future occasion.) ‘Must in questions ~ v. rarely and in rather special circumstances, i.e., ~ to express an obligation or requirement imposed by the listener: Why must you leave 0 early? = in questions with ‘positive orientation’, e.g, He: Well, the purse isn’t here, so we'd better look for it at the train station. She: (Why) must it be at the station? \ could have dropped it anywhere, you know. Why must doctors be treated betier than nurses? Complaining type of questions: Need you be so rude? Do you hae to have rice pudding every day? ‘Must you drop ash all over my carpet? Compare: Must you leave so early? Do you have to/ Need you leave so early? ‘The modal auxiliaries and negation Not can have two different effects, according to which auxiliary verb it is combined with: (1) He can’t be serious = Its not possible [that he is serious} (2) He may not he serious. ~ Itis possible [that he is not serious} (3) You don’t have to go yet. ~ You are not required [to go yet} (4) You must not go yet. = You are required [not to go yet]. (1) and (3) ~ auxiliary negation (2) and (4) — main verb negation Note ~a rare case of ‘double negation’; J can’t not fell her about it = an emphatic equivalent of Thave to tell her about it Futher examples of “auxiliary negation” in all senses (discuss the respective senses): You may not go until you've finished your work.R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar ® Natural Lgl Semantic Categoris vs. Grammatical Categotes: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS You can't smoke in here. He can't drive a car. You don't have to pay that fine. Ii doesn't always have to be my fault You needn't pay that fine. Ti needn't always be my fault Further examples of “main verb negation” They may not come if it’s wet. You musin't keep us all waiting. (esp. in AE, instead of He can’t be in:) He must not be in. The lights are out Don 'tworry ~ I won't interfere. The curious equivalence in the negative of auxiliaries which in a positive context have different meanings You may not smoke in here. ~ You musin't smoke in here. (Both are prohibitions, The second —more forcefil) There may not be an answer to every question = There doesn’t have to be an answer to every question (“It’s not necessary that X” = “It’s possible that not-X”) Modal auxiliaries in relation to tense and aspect FUTURE TIME We'll have (o meet again next week. But: We must/can/ may meet again next week. (These true modal auxiliary verbs are unchanged for the expression of future time.) The weather may improve. You must give me all the information you have They can catch the bus right over there. ((Auxiliary + ‘event verb’ -> we generally assume that the event referred to is in the future, even when there is no time adverbial to point in that direction.) ll, ity’, ‘habitual present’) She can cook very (Interpretation: ‘al Discuss (Present or future?): John must be ill. John must arrive any minute now. We have to meet next week. We will have fo meet next week PAST TIME The prisoners might leave camp when they wished ‘The prisoners could leave camp when they wished In those days, a transatlantic voyage could be dangerous. Not many of the tourists could speak French. Children had to behave when I was a boy. Someone had to be the loser. In those early days may parents would lend me the money.R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar "Natural / Logical / Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS “What did she think of the new boss? “I don’t know. She wouldn't fell me.” At the end of the day, I would return to my mother’s house, where she was preparing dinner. (in historical and fictional descriptions of characteristic, habitual behaviours) ‘Compare the statement above to Xwas my benefactor, and would become my guardian for the next decade. Also compare, in a past context: We could leave camp. We were able to leave camp. We might leave camp. We were permitted to leave camp. Which of the following can be said? Iran hard, but couldn't catch the bus. Ivan hard and could catch the bus. Iran hard and was able to catch the bus. ‘Meanings not available in the past tense ‘Must — no past tense. (Occasionally, in indirect speech. They said I must do it) Should is not used as the Past Tense of shall ‘Possibility’ might is not the Past Tense of may. Suggestions for Past Tense translations of may, must and shall: Visitors may ascend the tower for $4 this summer —-» Visitors could ascend the tower for 48 Jast summer. T must confess that his latest novels bore me. me. We shall always be grateful —> We would always be grateful. > had to confess that his latest novels bored (To discuss the homophony — and quasi-synonymy! ~ of Future-in-the-past and conditional forms.) Perfect aspect Compare: In those days voyages could be dangerous (‘past possibility’) The voyage may have been dangerous. ‘the (present) possibility of a past danger") Notice the different paraphrases of may have come in: They may have come already. ~ ‘It is possible that they have come already.” They may have come last year. ~ “It is possible that they came last year.” Perfect and Progressive Aspects The heat may have affected the cables. She may be bluffing. What can have happened? (rare, BE) They can’t be telling the truth! He must have misunderstood you. I must be dreaming. You have to have been in a coma, (rare)R. Albu, Semantics and Grammar Oo Natural /Logieal Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY, MOOD. MODAL VERBS. To speak excellent English, you don’t have to be living in an English-speaking country. They will have read your letter by now. Don’t phone him yet ~ he wuill still be eating his breakfast. Should and ought to as weaker equivalents of must. ‘Compare: John must pay for that broken window: John should pay for that broken window. John has to pay for that broken window. John ought io for that broken window. Our guests must be home by now. Our guests should be home by now. Our guests ought to be home by now. SEMI-MODALS OF CONSTRAINT Scale of intensity: (1) You must get a hair-cut (categorical) (2) You need to get a hetir-cut. (3) You ought to get a hair-cut. (least categorical) Notice the synonymy in My boots need to be cleaned and My boots need a clean He needs to practise more and He needs more practice. Discuss: (Mrs P. to her gardener): The hedges needn't be trimmed this week, John The hedges don’t need to he trimmed this week, John. We needn't have sold the car. We didn't need to sell the car. They've got to decide what to do. ~ They have to decide what to do. (obligation) You've got to be joking ~ You have to be joking (logical necessity) Hotel guests have to check out by 12 noon. Hotel guests have got to check out by 12 noon. OTHER SEMI-MODALS Some of them are idiomatic: be bound 10, be supposed 10, would rather Others are more transparent: be allowed to, be permitted to, be willing to, be able 10, want to - -> wanna) The last thing you want to do is replace the dishwasher. (= ‘you should do”) Civil servants, as the name suggests, are supposed to be servants of the public. They say its supposed to snow by the end of the week. Everyone has these rights and I am bound to respect them Working in the same building, they are bound to meet fairly often. “T've lost my keys.” “Don't worry — someone's bound to find them.” Discuss the difference I've started the job, so I'd better finish it. T've started the job, so I might as well finish itR Albu, Semantics and Grammar Natural Logical / Semantic Categories vs. Grammatical Categories: MODALITY. MOOD. MODAL VERBS © ALBU CAN COULD MAY MIGHT musT SHALL WiLL WOULD SHOULD OUGHT TO NEED DARE USED TO MODAL VERBS DEONTIC Physical or mental (n)ability; capability Permission Prohibition (negative only) Ability (pas!) Permission and request (present, more polite; past, in indirect request); neg, prohibition Reproach* Permission (asked, given, denied) Permission (present, more polite; past, in indirect speech) reproach* ‘Obligation, necessity = HAVE TO (Compare mustn't and needn't) Promise, threat, determination ‘commands, regulative use (especially in legal documents) ‘Asking for instructions, seeking advice (first person, interrogative only) Will, determination, persistence willingness, request (Polite) request Volition Past habit ‘aspect’ use) Moral obligation, duty, desirability (advice)* Moral obligation desirability asking about obligation, necessity (interrogative); absence of obligation, ‘concession (neg.) courage (interrogative and negative only.) former habit or state EPISTEMIC Possibility (in a very realistic sense), supposition Doubt, increduity* (nterrogative znd negative oniy) Possibility (present, hesitant; past, in indirect speech), ‘supposition Possibility” Possibility” (+high degree of doubt) strong likelihood, logical necessity, supposition (on the basis of available evidence; never with NOT)* “Prophetic”, predictability Future and present prediction, supposition; habitual predictability ‘Supposition (indirect speech) Non-factual hypothetical meaning (in main clauses) Likelinood’ (logical necessity’, strong possibilty") ‘by chance’ (in f-clauses) Likelihood* (logical necessity") (didn't need; needn't have) OTHER conditional* (hypothetic ability) subjunctive* conditional” subjunctive simple futurity (frst person only) ‘simple futurity (first person only)” future in the past” ‘conditional* ‘frequentative’ aspect subjunctive subjunctive conditional (first person) ‘aspect’ verb The asterisk (*) = the continuous or perfect forms of the infinitive may follow the modal. ‘Sequence of auxiliaries: modal, perfect have, progressive be, passive be, main verb: He can't have been sleeping all this time. He shouldn't have been told the truth. (in a sequence of auxiliaries, modals come first. The modal may be followed if necessary - by the perfect marker have then by progessive be, passive be and the main verb ~ in this order.)R.Albu, Semantics and Grammar WORKSHEET 11 TIME, TENSE, ASPECT |. Discuss the following (pairs of) sentences with respect to their meaning: 1 a. The man was drowning. b. The man drowned. 4... | read from 10 pm. to 11. p.m. b | was reading from 10 pm. to 11 p.m. 2a When we arrived she made some fresh coffee. b. When we arrived she was making some fresh coffee 3.2 The old man died. b. The old man was dying. 4.2 You have forgotten the moral arguments. b. You are forgetting the moral arguments 5.2. He is a fool. b. He is being a fool. 6.a. Have you had lunch yet? b. Have you already had lunch? 7. a. Have you had breakfast this moming? b. Did you have breekfast this morning? 8.2. | will wat til 5 o'clock. b. | will have written the essay by 5 o'clock. c. I will have written the essay by the time he returns. 9. A man and a women were passing by; the man suddenly turned round and threatened me; he said | had no right... 10.a. Who's been eating my dinner? b. Who's eaten my dinner? 11.2. They've been widening the road. b. They have widened the road 12.2, The beauty contest was taking place the next day. b. The beauty contest was going to take place the next day. c. She sald the beauty contest would take place the next day. 13.a. He was rich when he was young. b. He used to be rich when he was young. 14.2. She's going to have twins. b. She's going to ask for a caesarean operation. Ul, Transtate: 4. De obicei se scoala la 7, dar saptamina aceasta se scoala pe la 9 decarece este in vacant 2. Nuam-chef sé ies in oras in seara asta... Am lucrat in gradina toata ziua 3. Carle astea zac pe podeaua camerei tale de ani de zile. 4. Sunt tare obosit’. Am gatit toatd dimineata. 5. Am gatit mai multe feluti de mincare in dimineata aceasta gi, iat§, mai am timp si pentru un dug. 6. este trei luni se implinese zece ani de cind lucrez aici. 7. Pana mi-a venit rindul, mi-am umplut cosul cu tot ce-mi trebuia: ule, otet, gris, migdale, curmale, stafide. In prezent citesc o biografie. E a treia biografie pe care o citesc luna aceasta, Nu pleca de acasa pina nu-t spel fata, (0. Era 6 dupa-amiaza; Jack era obost pentru ca lucrat din greu toata ziva.. Era si flémind pentru c& ra avut nimic de mincare de la micul dejun. 11. Sper c& vor repara drumul pind ne vom intoarce vara vitoare. 12. "Cum fj place noua ta slujb&?” "Abia am inceput, aga inckt nu prea pot spune. Cind voi fiucrat doug saptimini, am sa te anunt" 18. Spatatorul de geamuri era de fapt unul din membri unei bande de sprgatori de seifuri. Spera o& in timp ce va spala geamutile- sau va pretinde ca le spala - va putea s& arunce o privire la seit. 14. Obignuia s8-si ie 0 2! lberd pe s&ptimina; in Ziua aceea se scula devreme, lua micul dejun in graba ise duoea la ru 48, Cind te mut in casa nous? 46. Vei veni devreme acasé disear&? aoe ©UL. VOICE, Put she following sentences into the passive, using an infinitive construction where passible: 1. Someone seems to have made a terrible mistake. 2. Someone saw him pick up the gun, 3. Itis your duty to make tea at eleven o'clock. (Use suppose) 4, You needn't have done this 5. Wedon't allow smoking. 6, We know that the expedition reached the South Pole in May. 7. Webelieve that he has special knowledge which may be useful to the police. (Use one passive only.) 8. Someone is washing the laundry in the bathroom. 9. Itsa little too loose: you had better ask your tailor to take it in. (One passive.) 10. They shouldn't have told him. 11. You have to see it to believe it. (Two passives.) 12, Itis impossible to do this. (Use can't) 13, He doesn't like people laughing at him. 14. They are to send letters tothe leaders of charitable organizations, 15, Don't touch this switch 16, People have often taken him for his brother. 17. After the goverment had spent 2 milion pounds on the scheme they decided that it was impracticable and gave it up. (Make only the first and the last verbs passive.) 18, They took down the notice. 19. The manufacturers are giving away small plastic toys with each packet of cereal 20. Who wrote it? 21. They say the rocket travelled six thousand miles and landed in the target area. IV. MISCELLANEOUS. Each sentence contains a mistake. Identify the error and rewrite the sentence in the correct way. 1, No sooner had the moon risen that a cloud obscured it from view. 2. Presuming the price of silver would soon raise, investors bought large quantities of the metal. 3. The letter which laid on the desk for so long has disappeared. 4, Because recent studies have shown that obesity can cause a type of diabetes, doctors usually put his diabetic patients on a special diet 5. Unless a patient takes the medicine regularly, he is unlikely to do fast progress. 6. Sleep scientists are still making research on various types of sleep disorders. 7. Candidates for high-level political office are likely to do promises which they cannot keep. 8, A Ford s different than a Cadillac in more than price. 9, Although Jack was the youngest of the two boys, he was clearly more mature than his elder brother. 10, Some great cataclysm appears to have struck the great Mayan cities at the height of its glory. 11. Not only the inflation rate was rising but unemployment, always a spectre since the 1930s, was on the increase. Remarks on “The Sequence of Tenses”Basic Rule Basie Rule I PAST +PAST Basis Rule I PRESENT + ANY TENS DO NOT USE shall, should, will, would in subordinate clauses of time and condition To discuss: What exceptions to rules IT and IIT can you find? “The Present Sphere” ‘Main Clause Subordinate Clause Tknow that he is in Tay have heard that he has been in 1a5i for three days, She will soon find out that he had been in Iasi before getting married, Tell her that he will soon be in lai that in two months’ time he will have completed his training. “The Past Sphere” PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST ‘Jack had spent two hours on the problem when he gave up. (The sequence of events is reflected in the verb tenses. The first event is expressed in the past perfect.) ‘Jack spent tivo hours on the problem before he gave up. (The sequence of events is expressed by the use of the time word before. The past perfect can be used optionally: Jack had spent wo hours on the problem before he gave up) Conditional Clause Sentence Type 1ST) PRESENT FUTURE PRESENT (including PRESENT | IMPERATIVE PERFECT for prior actions) Sentence Type (STD PRESENT CONDITIONAL | PAST ‘Sentence Type II (ST Ill) __| PAST CONDIOTIONAL PAST PERFECT (Clauses of Purpose (Final Clauses) ‘Main Clause — [ Gonnestive Suborlinate Clause of Purpose | so that (ibe commonest) | willean (common) /may{formaly” PRESENT shall(rare) + INFINITIVE PRESENTPERFECT [ia onder that (formal) | may(tormalyshad\rare) + INFINITIVE FUTURE LL that care) IMPERATIVE [in ease (formal PRESENT TENSE ot should + INFINITIVE ess usual) [so that ‘would/could’mightishould + INFINITIVE PAST TENSE in case PAST TENSE or PAST PERFECT | should + INFINITIVE ‘est ormal) should = INFINITIVE ©