Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

11 METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Review Questions
11.1 Name the two basic categories of casting processes?
Answer. The two categories are: (1) expendable mold processes, and (2) permanent mold processes.
11.2 There are various types of patterns used in sand casting. What is the difference between a split
pattern and a match-plate pattern?
Answer. A split pattern is a pattern that consists of two pieces; a match-plate pattern consists of the
two split patterns attached to opposite sides of a plate.
11.3 What is a chaplet?
Answer. Chaplets are metal supports of various designs used to hold the core in place in the sand
mold.
11.4 What properties determine the quality of a sand mold for sand casting?
Answer. The usual properties are (1) strength - ability to maintain shape in the face of the flowing
metal, (2) permeability - ability of the mold to allow hot air and gases to escape from the cavity, (3)
thermal stability - ability to resist cracking and buckling when in contact with the molten metal, (4)
collapsibility - ability of the mold to give way during shrinkage of the solidified casting, and (5)
reusability - can the sand be reused to make other molds?
11.5 What is the Antioch process?
Answer. The Antioch process refers to the making of the mold. The mold is 50% sand and 50%
plaster heated in an autoclave and then dried. This mold has greater permeability than a plaster
mold.
11.6 What is the difference between vacuum permanent-mold casting and vacuum molding?
Answer. Vacuum permanent-mold casting is a form of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw molten metal into the cavity. Vacuum molding is sand casting in which the sand mold
is held together by vacuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder.
11.7 What are the most common metals used in die casting?
Answer. Common die-casting metals include zinc, tin, lead, aluminum, brass, and magnesium.
11.8 Which die casting machines usually have a higher production rate, cold-chamber or hot-chamber,
and why?
Answer. Hot-chamber machines are faster because cold- chamber die casting machines require
molten metal to be ladled into the chamber from an external source.
11.9 What is flash in die casting?
Answer. Flash is a thin portion of metal at the exterior of a casting that results from molten metal
being squeezed into the spaces between the die halves of the mold at the parting line, or into the
clearances around the cores and ejector pins.
11.10 What is the difference between true centrifugal casting and semicentrifugal casting?
Answer. In true centrifugal casting, a tubular mold is used and a tubular part is produced. In
semicentrifugal casting, the shape is solid; an example is a railway wheel. The mold is rotated so

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

that centrifugal force is used to distribute the molten metal to the exterior of the mold so that the
density of the final metal is greater at the outer sections.
11.11 What is a cupola?
Answer. A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base.
Cupolas are used for melting cast irons.
11.12 What are some of the operations required in sand casting after the casting is removed from the mold?
Answer. The operations include (1) trimming, in which the sprues, runners, risers, and flash are
removed, (2) core removal, (3) surface cleaning, (4) inspection, (5) repair if needed, (6) heat
treatment, and (7) machining.
11.13 What are some of the general defects encountered in casting processes? Name and briefly describe
three.
Answer. General defects include: (1) misruns, in which the casting solidifies before filling the mold
cavity; (2) cold shuts, in which two portions of metal flow together but there is lack of fusion at the
joint; (3) cold shots, where solid globules of cast metal become entrapped in the casting; (4)
shrinkage cavity, which is a depression on the casting surface or an internal void in the casting
caused by solidification shrinkage; (5) microporosity, which is a network of small voids throughout
the casting caused by localized solidification shrinkage; and (6) hot tearing, which is a crack in the
casting caused by a mold that does not yield to the metal during the early stages of solidification
shrinkage.
11.14 (Video) What is the composition of green sand in the green-sand molding process?
Answer: The sand is composed of silica sand, clay, and water.
11.15 (Video) What are the advantages and disadvantages of sand casting over investment casting?
Answer: Sand casting provides low production cost for a wide variety of metals, shapes and
sizes. The size of the casting is unlimited. The disadvantage is the surface finish an dimensional
control are not very good.
11.16 (Video) Explain the difference between horizontal and vertical die casting machines. Which is
more popular?
Answer: The direction in the machine indicates the direction which the metal is injected.
Horizontal is injected from the side and vertical from the top. Horizontal is the most common
type used in industry.
11.17 (Video) Why are aluminum and copper alloys unsuitable for use in hot chamber die casting?
Answer: Molten aluminum and copper alloys attack the metal pot used to hold the shot for the
next casting. Over time, they would chemically attack and erode the die casting feeding
mechanism.
11.18 (Video) According to the die casting video, what materials are most common for die casting dies?
Answer: Common materials for die casting dies are hot-work tool steels, mold steels, maraging
steels, and refractory metals such as tungsten alloys or molybdenum alloys.
Multiple Choice Quiz
There is a total of 27 correct answers in the following multiple choice questions (some questions have
multiple answers that are correct). To attain a perfect score on the quiz, all correct answers must be given.
Each correct answer is worth 1 point. Each omitted answer or wrong answer reduces the score by 1 point,
and each additional answer beyond the correct number of answers reduces the score by 1 point. Percentage
score on the quiz is based on the total number of correct answers.
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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

11.1 Which one of the following casting processes is the most widely used: (a) centrifugal casting, (b) die
casting, (c) investment casting, (d) sand casting, or (e) shell casting?
Answer. (d).
11.2 In sand casting, the volumetric size of the pattern is (a) bigger than, (b) the same size as, or (c)
smaller than the cast part?
Answer. (a).
11.3 Silica sand has which one of the following compositions: (a) Al2O3, (b) SiO, (c) SiO2, or (d) SiSO4?
Answer. (c).
11.4 For which one of the following reasons is a green mold named: (a) green is the color of the mold, (b)
moisture is contained in the mold, (c) mold is cured, or (d) mold is dry?
Answer. (b).
11.5 Given that Wm = weight of the molten metal displaced by a core and Wc = weight of the core, the
buoyancy force is which one of the following: (a) downward force = Wm + Wc, (b) downward force =
Wm - Wc, (c) upward force = Wm + Wc, or (d) upward force = Wm - Wc?
Answer. (d).
11.6 Which of the following casting processes are expendable mold operations (four correct answers): (a)
centrifugal casting, (b) die casting, (c) investment casting, (d) low pressure casting, (e) sand casting,
(f) shell molding, (g) slush casting, and (h) vacuum molding?
Answer. (c), (e), (f), and (h).
11.7 Shell molding is best described by which one of the following: (a) casting operation in which the
molten metal has been poured out after a thin shell has been solidified in the mold, (b) casting
process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand binded by a thermosetting resin, (c) sand casting
operation in which the pattern is a shell rather than a solid form, or (d) casting operation used to
make artificial sea shells?
Answer. (b).
11.8 Investment casting is also known by which one of the following names: (a) fast-payback molding,
(b) full-mold process, (c) lost-foam process, (d) lost pattern process, or (e) lost-wax process?
Answer. (e).
11.9 In plaster mold casting, the mold is made of which one of the following materials: (a) Al2O3, (b)
CaSO4-H2O, (c) SiC, or (d) SiO2?
Answer. (b).
11.10 Which of the following qualifies as a precision casting process (two correct answers): (a) ingot
casting, (b) investment casting, (c) plaster mold casting, (d) sand casting, and (c) shell molding?
Answer. (b) and (c).
11.11 Which of the following casting processes are permanent mold operations (three correct answers): (a)
centrifugal casting, (b) die casting, (c) expanded polystyrene process, (d) sand casting, (e) shell
molding, (f) slush casting, and (g) vacuum molding.
Answer. (a), (b), and (f).
11.12 Which of the following metals would typically be used in die casting (three best answers): (a)
aluminum, (b) cast iron, (c) steel, (d) tin, (e) tungsten, and (f) zinc?

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

Answer. (a), (d), and (f).

11.13 Which of the following are advantages of die casting over sand casting (four best answers): (a) better
surface finish, (b) closer tolerances, (c) higher melting temperature metals, (d) higher production
rates, (e) larger parts can be cast, and (f) mold can be reused?
Answer. (a), (b), (d), and (f).
11.14 Cupolas are furnaces used to melt which of the following metals (one best answer): (a) aluminum,
(b) cast iron, (c) steel, or (d) zinc?
Answer. (b).
11.15 A misrun is which one of the following defects in casting: (a) globules of metal becoming entrapped
in the casting, (b) metal is not properly poured into the downsprue, (c) metal solidifies before filling
the cavity, (d) microporosity, and (e) "pipe" formation?
Answer. (c).
11.16 Which one of the following casting metals is most important commercially: (a) aluminum and its
alloys, (b) bronze, (c) cast iron, (d) cast steel, or (e) zinc alloys?
Answer. (c).

Problems
Buoyancy Force
11.1 An aluminum-copper alloy casting is made in a sand mold using a sand core that weighs 20 kg.
Determine the buoyancy force in Newtons tending to lift the core during pouring.
Solution: Core volume V = 20/1605.4 = 0.01246 m3
Weight of displaced Al-Cu W = 35.17 kg
Difference = (35.17 - 20) x 9.815 = 149 N
11.2 A sand core located inside a mold cavity has a volume of 157.0 in3. It is used in the casting of a cast
iron pump housing. Determine the buoyancy force that will tend to lift the core during pouring.
Solution: From Table 13.1, density of cast iron = 0.26 lb/in3
Fb = Wm - Wc
Wc = 157(0.058) = 9.106 lb
Wm = 157(0.26) = 40.82 lb
Fb = 40.82 - 9.11 = 31.71 lb
11.3 Caplets are used to support a sand core inside a sand mold cavity. The design of the caplets and the
manner in which they are placed in the mold cavity surface allows each caplet to sustain a force of
10 lbs. Several caplets are located beneath the core to support it before pouring; and several other
caplets are placed above the core to resist the buoyancy force during pouring. If the volume of the
core = 325 in.3, and the metal poured is brass, determine the minimum number of caplets that should
be placed (a) beneath the core, and (b) above the core.
Solution: From Table 13.1, density of brass = 0.313 lb/in3.
(a) Wc = 325(0.058) = 18.85 lb
At least 2 caplets are required beneath to resist the weight of the core. Probably 3 or 4 caplets
would be better to achieve stability.
(b) Wm = 325(.313) = 101.73 lb
Fb = 101.73 - 18.85 = 82.88 lb
A total of 9 caplets are required above the core to resist the buoyancy force.

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

11.4 A sand core used to form the internal surfaces of a steel casting experiences a buoyancy force of 23
kg. The volume of the mold cavity forming the outside surface of the casting = 5000 cm3. What is
the weight of the final casting? Ignore considerations of shrinkage.
Solution: Sand density = 1.6 g/cm3, steel casting density = 7.82 g/cm3
Fb = Wm - Wc = 7.82V - 1.6V = 6.22V = 23 kg = 23,000 g V = 3698 cm3.
3
Cavity volume V = 5000 cm
Volume of casting V = 5000 - 3698 = 1302 cm3.
Weight of the final casting W = 1302(7.82) = 10,184 g = 10.184 kg
Centrifugal Casting
11.5 A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation will be used to make copper tubing. The lengths will
be 1.5 m with outside diameter = 15.0 cm, and inside diameter = 12.5 cm. If the rotational speed of
the pipe = 1000 rev/min, determine the G-factor.
Solution: From Eq. (11.4), GF = R(N/30)2/g = 7.5((1000)/30)2/981 = 83.8
11.6 A true centrifugal casting operation is to be performed in a horizontal configuration to make cast
iron pipe sections. The sections will have a length = 42.0 in, outside diameter = 8.0 in, and wall
thickness = 0.50 in. If the rotational speed of the pipe = 500 rev/min, determine the G-factor. Is the
operation likely to be successful?
Solution: Using outside wall of casting, R = 0.5(8)/12 = 0.333 ft.
v = RN/30 = (0.333)(500)/30 = 17.45 ft/sec.
GF = v2/Rg = (17.45)2/(0.333 x 32.2) = 28.38
Since the G-factor is less than 60, the rotational speed is not sufficient, and the operation is likely
to be unsuccessful.
11.7 A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make brass bushings with the following
dimensions: length = 10 cm, outside diameter = 15 cm, and inside diameter = 12 cm. (a) Determine
the required rotational speed in order to obtain a G-factor of 70. (b) When operating at this speed,
what is the centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) imposed by the molten metal on the inside wall of
the mold?
Solution: (a) Using the outside wall diameter of the casting, which is equal to the inside wall
diameter of the mold, D = 15 cm
N = (30/)(2g x 70/15).5 = 913.7 rev/min.
(b) Use 1.0 cm of mold wall length as basis of area calculations.
Area of this length of mold wall A = DoL = (15 cm)(1 cm) = 15 cm2 = 15(10-4) m2
Volume of cast metal V = (Ro2 - Ri2)(1.0) = ((7.5)2 - (6)2)(1.0) = 63.62 cm3
Mass m = (8.62g/cm3)(63.62 cm3) = 548.4 g = 0.5484 kg
v = RN/30 Use mean radius R = (7.5 + 6.0)/2 = 6.75 cm
v = (6.75)(913.7)/30 = 645.86 cm/s = 6.4585 m/s
Centrifugal force per square meter on mold wall = Fc/A where Fc = mv2/R
Fc = (0.5484 kg)(6.4586 m/s)2/(6.75 x 10-2 m) = 338.9 kg-m/s2
Given that 1 N = 9.81 kg-m/s2, Fc = 338.9/9.81 = 34.55 N
Fc/A = (34.55 N)/(15 x 10-4 m2) = 0.7331(104) N/m2 = 7331 Pa
11.8 True centrifugal casting operation is performed horizontally to make large diameter copper tube
sections. The tubes have a length = 1.0 m, diameter = 0.25 m, and wall thickness = 15 mm. (a) If the
rotational speed of the pipe = 700 rev/min, determine the G-factor on the molten metal. (b) Is the
rotational speed sufficient to avoid "rain?" (c) What volume of molten metal must be poured into the
mold to make the casting if solidification shrinkage and contraction after solidification are
considered?
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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

Solution: (a) GF = v2/Rg g = 9.8 m/s2

v = RN/30 = (.125)(700)/30 = 9.163 m/s
GF = (9.163)2/(0.125 x 9.8) = 68.54
(b) G-factor is sufficient for a successful casting operation.
(c) Volume of final product after solidification and cooling is
V = (0.252 - (0.25-.03)2) x 1.0/4 = 0.25(0.252 - 0.222) = 0.011074 m3
From Table 12.1, solidification shrinkage = 4.9% and solid thermal contraction = 7.5% for
copper. Taking these factors into account,
Volume of molten metal V = 0.011074/(1 - 0.049)(1 - 0.075) = 0.01259 m3
11.9 If a true centrifugal casting operation were to be performed in a space station circling the Earth, how
would weightlessness affect the process?
Solution: The mass of molten metal would be unaffected by the absence of gravity, but its weight
would be zero. Thus, in the G-factor equation (GF = v2/Rg), GF would theoretically go to infinity
if g = 0. Thus, it should be possible to force the metal against the walls of the mold in centrifugal
casting without the nuisance of raining inside the cavity. However, this all assumes that the
metal is inside the mold and rotating with it. In the absence of gravity, there would be a problem in
pouring the molten metal into the mold cavity and getting it to adhere to the mold wall as the mold
begins to rotate. With no gravity the liquid metal would not be forced against the lower surface of
the mold to initiate the centrifugal action.
11.10 A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make aluminum rings with the following
dimensions: length = 5 cm, outside diameter = 65 cm, and inside diameter = 60 cm. (a) Determine
the rotational speed that will provide a G-factor = 60. (b) Suppose that the ring were made out of
steel instead of aluminum. If the rotational speed computed in part (a) were used in the steel casting
operation, determine the G-factor and (c) centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) on the mold wall.
(d) Would this rotational speed result in a successful operation?
Solution: (a) Use inside diameter of mold in Eq. (11.5), D = Do = 65 cm. Use g = 981 cm/s2,
N = 30(2g x GF/D).5/ = 30(2 x 981 x 60/65).5/ = 406.4 rev/min.
(b) Rotational speed would be the same as in part (a) because mass does not enter the computation
of rotational speed. N = 406.4 rev/min
(c) Use 5 cm ring length as basis of area calculations.
Area of this length of mold wall A = DoL = (65 cm)(5 cm) = 1021 cm2 = 0.1021 m2
Volume of cast metal V = (Ro2 - Ri2)(L) = ((65/2)2 - (60/2)2)(5.0) = 2454.4 cm3
Density of steel = 7.87 g/cm3
Mass m = (7.87g/cm3)(2454.4 cm3) = 19,315.9 g = 19.316 kg
v = RN/30 Use mean radius R = (65 + 60)/4 = 31.25 cm = 0.3125 m
v = (31.25)(406.4)/30 = 1329.9 cm/s = 13.299 m/s
Centrifugal force per square meter on mold wall = Fc/A where Fc = mv2/R
Fc = (19.316 kg)(13.299 m/s)2/(0.3125 m) = 10,932.1 kg-m/s2
Given that 1 N = 9.81 kg-m/s2, Fc = 10,932.1/9.81 = 1114.4 N
Fc/A = (1114.4 N)/(0.1021 m2) = 10,914.7 N/m2 = 10,914.7 Pa
(d) The G-factor of 60 would probably result in a successful casting operation.
11.11 For the steel ring of preceding Problem 11.10(b), determine the volume of molten metal that must be
poured into the mold, given that the liquid shrinkage is 0.5 percent, and the solidification shrinkage
and solid contraction after freezing can be determined from Table 10.1.
Solution: Volume of final casting V = (Ro2 - Ri2)L = (32.52 - 302)(5) = 2454.4 cm3

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

Given that the molten metal shrinkage = 0.5%, and from Table 10.1, the solidification shrinkage
for steel = 3% and the solid contraction during cooling = 7.2%, the total volumetric contraction is
1 - (1-0.005)(1-0.03)(1-0.072) = 1 - 0.8957 = 0.1043
The required starting volume of molten metal V = 2454.4/(0.8957) = 2740.2 cm3
11.12 A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make lead pipe for chemical plants. The pipe
has length = 0.5 m, outside diameter = 70 mm, and wall thickness = 6.0 mm. Determine the
rotational speed that will provide a G-factor = 60.
Solution: D = 70 mm = 0.07 m. g = 9.8 m/s2
N = 30(2g x GF/D).5/ = 30(2 x 9.8 x 60/.07).5/ = 1237.7 rev/min.
11.13 A vertical true centrifugal casting process is used to make tube sections with length = 10.0 in and
outside diameter = 6.0 in. The inside diameter of the tube = 5.5 in at the top and 5.0 in at the bottom.
At what speed must the tube be rotated during the operation in order to achieve these specifications?
Solution: Use Eq. (11.6) to make the computation of N: N = (30/)(2gL/(Rt2-Rb2).5
L = 10 in = 0.8333 ft
Rt = 5.5/2 = 2.75 in = 0.22917 ft
Rb = 5.0/2 = 2.50 in = 0.20833 ft
N = (30/)(2 x 32.2 x .8333/(0.229172 - 0.208332).5 = 9.5493(5888).5 = 732.7 rev/min
11.14 A vertical true centrifugal casting process is used to produce bushings that are 200 mm long and 200
mm in outside diameter. If the rotational speed during solidification is 500 rpm, determine the inside
diameter at the top of the bushing if the inside diameter at the bottom is 150 mm.
Solution: L = 200 mm = 0.2 m. Rb = 150/2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m.
N = (30/)(2gL/(Rt2-Rb2).5 = (30/)(2 x 9.8 x 0.2/(Rt2 - 0.0752)).5
N = (30/)(3.92/(Rt2 - 0.005625)).5 = 500 rev/min
(3.92/(Rt2- 0.005625)).5 = 500/30 = 52.36
3.92/(Rt2-.005625) = (52.36)2 = 2741.56
Rt2-.005625 = 3.92/2741.56 = 0.00143
Rt2 = .005625 + 0.001430 = 0.007055
Rt = (0.007055).5 = .08399 m = 83.99 mm.
Dt = 2(83.99) = 167.98 mm.
11.15 A vertical true centrifugal casting process is used to cast brass tubing that is 15.0 in long and whose
outside diameter = 8.0 in. If the speed of rotation during solidification is 1000 rpm, determine the
inside diameters at the top and bottom of the tubing if the total weight of the final casting = 75.0 lbs.
Solution: For brass, density = 0.313 lb/in3 (Table 11.1).
Volume of casting V = 75.0/.313 = 239.6 in3
Assume the inside wall of the casting is straight from top to bottom (an approximation of the
parabolic shape). The average inside radius Ri = (Rt + Rb)/2
Volume V = (Ro2 - Ri2)L = (4.02 - Ri2)(15.0) = 239.6 in3
(4.02 - Ri2) = 239.6/15 = 5.085
Ri2 = 16.0 - 5.085 = 10.915 in2 Ri = 3.304 in
Let Rt = Ri + y = 3.304 + y and Rb = Ri - y = 3.304 - y, where y = one-half the difference between Rt
and Rb.
N = (30/)(2gL/(Rt2-Rb2).5 = (30/)(2 x 32.2 x 12 x 15/((3.304+y)2-(3.304-y)2)).5
Given N = 1000, thus
1000/30 = (11592/((3.304+y)2-(3.304-y)2)).5
((3.304+y)2-(3.304-y)2).5 = 30(11592).5/1000 = 1.02814
(3.3042 + 6.608y + y2 - (3.3042 - 6.608y + y2)).5 = 1.02814
(3.3042 + 6.608y + y2 - 3.3042 + 6.608y - y2).5 = 1.02814
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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3/e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2007

(2 x 6.608y).5 = (13.216y).5 = 1.02814

3.635 (y).5 = 1.02814 y = .080 in.
Rt = 3.304 + 0.080 = 3.384 in. Dt = 6.768 in.
Rb = 3.304 - 0.080 = 3.224 in. Db = 6.448 in.
Defects and Design Considerations
11.16 The housing for a certain machinery product is made of two components, both aluminum castings.
The larger component has the shape of a dish sink and the second component is a flat cover that is
attached to the first component to create an enclosed space for the machinery parts. Sand casting is
used to produce the two castings, both of which are plagued by defects in the form of misruns and
cold shuts. The foreman complains that the parts are too thin, and that is the reason for the defects.
However, it is known that the same components are cast successfully in other foundries. What other
explanation can be given for the defects?
Solution: Misruns and cold shuts result from low fluidity. One possible reason for the defects in
this case is that the thickness of the casting cross sections is too small. However, given that the
casting of these parts is successfully accomplished at other foundries, two other possible
explanations are (1) the pouring temperature is too low, and (2) the pouring operation is performed
too slowly.
11.17 A large steel sand casting shows the characteristic signs of penetration defect - a surface consisting
of a mixture of sand and metal. (a) What steps can be taken to correct the defect? (b) What other
possible defects might result from taking each of these steps?
Solution: (a) What are the possible corrective steps? (1) Reduce pouring temperature. (2) Increase
the packing of the mold sand to resist penetration. (3) Treat the mold cavity surface to make it
harder.
(b) What possible defects might result from each of these steps? In the case of step (1), the risk is
for cold shuts and misruns. Steps (2) and (3) would reduce permeability of the sand, thus
increasing the risk of sand blows and pin holes.

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