oe DIFFERENTIAL ca & INTEGRAL CALCULUS VOLUME II DIFFERENTIAL & INTEGRAL CALCULUS F R. COURANT BLACKIEDIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS by R. COURANT Vowume I In this volume Professor Courant dis- ‘cusses the more advanced parts of the Calculus, such as the theory of functions of several variables and multiple integrals, in a masterly manner, attractive and at the same time reasonably rigorous. Chap- fers on Calculus of Variations and Com- plex Variable have been specially written for the English edition. Print in Gre Brain From BLACKIE’S List ‘The Mathematical Discoveries of Newton. By H. W. Turnbull, MA, RS. 6s, 6d, net. The Absolute Differential Calculus. (Cal- clus of ‘Tensors.) By ‘Tullio Levi-Civit Professor of Rational Mechanics in the Uni versity of Rome, Fellow of R. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. Edited by Dr. Enrico Persico, Authorized translation by Miss M. Long, late scholar of Girton College, Cam- bridge. 730s. net. ‘Theory and Application of Infinite Series. By Dr. Konrad Knopp, Professor of Mathe- matics in the University of Tubingen, ‘Second Edition, 50s. net. ‘The Calculus of Observations. A Treatise on Numerical. Mathematics, By E. T. Whittaker, LL.D. ScD, PRS; and George Robinson, M.A., BSc. Fourth Edition. 355. net. A Simplified Presentation of Einstein’s Unified Field Equations. By Tullio Levi-Civita. Authorized translation by Joha Dougall, M.A., D.Sc, F.RSE, 3s. met. Mathematical Notes. By C. F. G. ‘MacDermott, M.A. Intended to help in th preparation and revision for such examina tions as ‘Mathematics for Science” at “A” level, the Qualifying Examination for the Mechanical Sciences ‘Tripos, “ Higher “Mathematics” for the Services Examination, etc. 38. 6d. Examples in Applied Mathematics. By F, W. Kellaway. For students at the G.CE, Advanced Level and O.N.C., &c. ‘Second Bdition 7s. 6d. net.DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUSBLACKIE & SON LIMITED 16/8 Witt TV Street, Canine Crm Lavon, WiC "7 Sanbope Sree GUAssow BLACKIE & SON (INDIA) LIMITED ‘ols Pore Suet, Bown BLACKIE & SON (CANADA) LIMITEDDIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS BY R. COURANT ‘rofestor of Mathexutica in New York Universicy ‘TRANSLATED BY E. J. McSHANE Professor of Mathematica in the University of Virginia VOLUME II BLACKIE & SON LIMITED LONDON AND GLASGOWion pba 2996 ‘Reprinted S997, 1940 94%, 1948 med), 2948.14 3045. 967 28a 900, 90.1981 8a 1055, 1080) roadie, fy. BBE ee soakenen, 95 ces 2998 ‘Printed in Ort Britain by Blache Son i, GlasgoePREFACE ‘Tho present volume contains tho more advanced parts of the differential and integral calculus, dealing mainly with functions of several variables, As in Volume I, I have sought to make definitions and methods follow naturally from intuitive ideas and to emphasize their physical interpretations—aims which are not at all incompatible with rigour. I would impress on readers new to the subject, oven more than I did in the preface to Volume I, that they are not expected to read book like this conseoutively. ‘Those who wish to get a rapid grip of the most essential matters should begin with Chapter II, and noxt pass on to Chapter IV; only then should they fill in the gaps by reading Chapter IIT and the appendices to the various chapters. It is by no means necessary that they should study Chapter I systematically in advance. ‘The English edition differs from the German in many details, and contains a good desl of additional matter. In particular, the chapter on differential equations has been greatly extended. Chapters on the calculus of variations and on functions of a ‘complex variable have been added, as well as.» supplement on real numbers. Thave again to express my very cordial thanks to my German publisher, Julius Springer, for his generous attitude in con- senting to the publication of the English edition. I have also to thank Blackie & Son, Ltd., and their staff, especially Miss ‘W. M. Deans, for co-operating with me and my assistants and relieving me of a considerable amount of proof reading. Finally,vi PREFACE I must express my gratitude to the friends and colleagues who have assisted me in preparing the manuscript for the press, Treading the proofs, and collecting the examples; in the first place to Dr. Fritz John, now of the University of Kentucky, and to ‘Miss Margaret Kennedy, Newnham College, Cambridge, and also to Dr, Schénberg, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa, R. COURANT. New Rocurutz, New Your. ‘March, 1936.CONTENTS Cuarre 1 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 1, Rectangular Co-ordinates and Veetors- 4 2 The Ame fw rang, he Vote of Teen, he Yetor ‘Multiplication of Veotors = - 2 8. Simple Toor on Dtominanta of the Sond and Thin Order =~ » 4, Afine Transformations and the Multiplication of Determinanta - 27 (Onarren I FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES AND ‘THEIR, DERIVATIVES 1. The Concept of Funotion in the Caso of Several Variables =~ 2 Continuity = = = = = 2 ee 3, The Derivatives of « Function - = 44. The Total Diflerntal of » Punotion nd ita Geometrical Meaning 5 Fustions of Wunctions (Compound Function) an the Into- duction of New Independent Variables - 6. Tho Mean Valoe Thor sn Tayl's There for Fuston of Several Variables - = =~ ao 11. The Application of Veotor Methods - = + + + + Ss sere ee APPENDIX 1. Tho Prinsiple of the Point of Accumlation in Sorel Dinen sions and ita Applications ~~ : 2. The Concoptof Limit for Functions of Several Variables = R Homogeneous Funetiont’= = = = = == “ 95, 101 108CONTENTS Cuarram IIT DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS OF THE ‘DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1. Implicit Bunotions == foe 2, Curve and Surin in Implicit Form > : 2: Spies of Festus, rvnoratons, a Mapas 4 Applications ~~ 5. Belin of Carve, Heil of Sra, and thes Hartge 6. Maxima nd Minima = APPENDIX 1, Suffolent Conditions for Extreme Values - 9 - = ++ 2, Singular Pointe of Plane Curves = - = = = = = 8, Singular Points of Surfaces - 4 Guerin Intern Bun? aod Tagrngy Reprostation of ‘the Motion of a Biuid = si . 6. Tangential Repreceatation of a Cheol Curve 7} + Carre IV MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 1. Ordinary Integrala as Funotions of a Parameter = 2, he tga ef Cantino Pension ovr» Repo th Pane or of Space 3. Reduction of the Mltiplo Integral to Repeated Single Integrals 4 Trunaformation of Mall Intagral 5, Improper Integrals = = 6. Geometrical Applications = = + 17. Physical Applications == = = SESESB APPENDIX 1, The Rxistenos of the Multiple Integral - 2 General Formula for the Area (or Volume) of « Region bounded by Sagmena of Stright Tine or Plane Aree (Gali Formula), The Polar Planimeter =~ 5 {. Volumes and Aress in Space of any Namber of Dimensions 4 Improper Intgrls ws Functions of « Parameter = + 5, The Fourier Integral = 7 ore 6. The Bnlerian Integrals (Gamma Function) aoa Page Mm 12 133 159 169 183 aeeee~ CONTENTS: 11. Differentiation and Integration to Fractional Order. Abel Integral Equation - = a 8, Note on the Dlnition ofthe Aree of a Curved Surfs > Curren V INTEGRATION OVER REGIONS IN SEVERAL ‘DIMENSIONS: 1, Line Integrala = E Comecion betwee Lin Tntorls and Double Integra in tho Plane. (The Integral Theorems of Gauss, Stokes, and Green) 3 Tatarpretation and Applications of the Integral Theorems for ‘the Plane zi 4, Surface Integrals - © Gann’ Theorem and Green's Theres in Space 6. Stokes's Theorem in Space = 4th Coneron been Dentin ad Totton for Soveral Variables a . APPENDIX 1. Remarks on Gauss's Theorem and Stokee's Theorem = + = 2. Repreeentation of « Source-free Vector Field as Curl + = Cuarrm VI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1. The Diwontial Bquatins of the Motion of « Parte in Thre Dimensions : 2, Ramps on tho Mechanios of Parislo = 8 Further Example of Diferetial Equations 4. Linear Diflerential Equations = - 5. General Remarks on Differential Equations 6. The Potential of Attracting Charges = : 4, Farther Example of Partial Diflerental Equations + (Caarrm VII CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS 1. Introduction = Peeenar 2 Es Dental Brain he Sit Case 560 6 £8 ix 2 ge23 397 88 ‘ 20 438 450 403 gesCONTENTS Cuarren VII FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE 1. Introduction 2 Franti of tae Theory of Puntos of Cm Vs” 3. The Intogration of Analytic Functions 4. Couchy’s Formula and its Applications - 5. Applications to Complex Integration (Contour Integration) 6. Many-valued Functions and Analytic Extension ‘Miscellanoous Examples SUPPLEMENT Real Nambers and the Conoopt of Limit - Summary of Important Theorems and Formule, ‘Answers and Hints - Index BEERS RY 569 887 8sCHAPTER I Preliminary Remarks on Analytical Geometry and Vector Analysis N [in the intorpretation and application of the mathematical facts which {form the main subjeot of this second volume itis often convenient to wae ‘the simple fundamental conospta of analytical geometry and vector tanalyuis, Hence, oven though many reeders will already have a certain knowledge of these subject t sems advisable to summarize their elements ine brief introductory chapter. ‘Thio chapter, howover, need not be studied ‘before the rest of the book is read; the reader is advised: to refer to the facte ‘collected here only when be finds the ‘heed of them in stadying the Iter parte ‘of the book. 1, Reoranautan Co-onpntaras axp Vectors 1, Co-ordinate: Axes. ‘To fix « point in» plane oF in space, ‘sia well known, wo generally make uae of e rectangular co-ordinate ystan. In ‘tho plane we take two. perpendicular lines the warta and the y-axis in space veo take thro mutually perpendicular lines, the z-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis, Taking the same unit of length on cash azia, we amign to each point of the plane an s-co-ordinate fmol e yooerdinate in the uraal way, or to cach point in space an ‘eco-ordinate, s y-co-ordinate, and » 2-co-ordinate (fig. 1). Conversely, ‘to every set of values (=, y) or (2: y, #) there corresponds just one point cof the plane, or of space, as tho case may be; © point i completely determined by ita co-ordinates. ‘Using the theorem of Pythagoras we find that the distance between two points (i) a0d (ay my) given by ra VRPT2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. hilo the distance between the points with co-ordinates (2 yy #4) and Yo 4) is reVE— PG We ‘In setting up a system of rectangular axce we must pay attention to the orientation of the co-ordinate system. ‘in Vol. I, Chap. V, §2 (p. 268) we distinguished betwoun positive and y iz Ol ¥ le, Right-handed ayitem of eres Fig. 2—Leftsanded wate of ex negative sense of rotation in the plane. The rotation through 90° which ‘brings the postive z-axis of a plane co-ordinate eystem into the position of ‘the positive y-axis in the shortest way defines a sense of rotation. According ‘an this sense of rotation ie positive or negative, we aay that the eystam of ‘axes is right-handed or left-handed (ct. gs. 2 and 8). Tt confined to the plane. A similar distinction occurs with co-ordinate aystems 2 2 t Tr ‘Rg. 4—Righe-baded ser Fie, 4 Leland sxe in gpace. For if ono imagines oneself standing on the zy-plane with one’s hhend in the direction of the positive z-axis, it is possible to distinguish ‘two types of co-ordinate eystem by means of the apparent orientation of the oo-crdinato system in the ay-plane. If this aystem is right-handed the feystem in space ia slo anid to be right-handed, otherwise left-handed (C4-figs. 4 and 6). right-handed gystem corresponds to an ordinary right- handed screw; for if we make the 2y-plane rotate about the z-axis (in the senso presorbed by ite orientation) and simultaneously give it» motion ‘of translation along the postive 2-exs, the combined motion is obviously4 CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS 3 that of a right-handed sorew, Similarly, a left-handed system corresponds toa left-handed sorew. No rigid motion in three dimensions can transform ‘left-handed system into a right-handed system, in what follows we shall always use right-handed systems of axes, ‘We may also assign an orientation to a system of threo arbitrary axes passing through one point, provided these axes do not all lie in one plane, just as we have done here for a system of rectangular axes. 2, Directions and Vectors. Formule for Transforming Axes. ‘An oriented lino 7 in space or in a plane, that is, @ line traversed in a definite sense, represents a direction; every oriented line that can be made to coincide with the line 1 in position and senso by displacement paral to yy itself represents the samo direction. Tt t is customary to specify a direction rela- tive to a co-ordinate system by drawing ‘an oriented halfline in the given dirco- tion, starting from the origin of the coordinate system, and on this half- = line taking the point with co-ordinates Fig, 6—The angie which «straight (6 Bs y) which is at unit distance from ‘ne makes with the anes the origin, ‘The numbers « 8, y are called the direction cosines of the direction. ‘They are the cosines of the three angles 8, 8, 8; which the oriented line 7 makes with the positive axis, yraxis, and eaxia* (¢f. ig. 6); by the distance formula, they satisfy the relation ne Uf we restrict ourselves to the zy-plane, a direetion can be speciiod by the angles 8,, 3, which the oriented line 1 having this direction and passing throogh the origin forms with the positive z-exis and y-axis; or by the direotion cosines «= co88,, 8 = co28, which satisfy the equation of Bho A lineaegment of given length and given direction we shall call a vedior; more epecifcally, a bound tector if the initial point is fixed in space, tand a free vector if the position of the initial point is immaterial. Tn the following pages, and indeed throughout most of tho book, we shall omit the adjectives free and bound, and if nothing is said to the contrary we shall always take the vectors to be frve veotors. We denote vectors by heavy type, eg. a, 8, c, x, A. Two free vectors are said to be equal if cone of them can be made to coincide with the other by displacement parallel to iteelf, We sometimes call the length of a vector ita absolute ‘value and denote it by | a |. *'The angle which ono oriented line forme with another may always be ‘taken aa being between 0 and 1 for io what follows only the cosines of such ‘angles will be considered.4 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. 1 from the initial and final pointe of «vector @ we drop perpen ical on an orinted line L wo obtain an oriented segment on T core- sponding to the veclr. If the orientation of this segment isthe samme as that of hwo eal ie length the component of © in the dretion ofl ifthe crientaions are opposite, wo oall tho negative Gf th length ofthe eogment the component of © fn te direction fl. Tho oomponent of on the direction off we denote by mf 8 is tho angle botmeen the direction of v and that off (et fig. 7) mo alaye a —wjasd—tb % Fie. 7-—Projection of « vector A veotor v of length 1 is called & unit vector. Its component in a diostion fia equal to the cosine ofthe angle between nd &. The components of vector v in the directions of the threo axes of 1 co-ordinate aystam are denoted. by tu ty ow If we transfer the initial pont of 0 tothe origin, we see that VirF I a By azo the direction cosines ofthe diction of, then salele w= lele a= | ele A free vector is completely determined by ita components vy ty ty ‘An equation | 088, between two vectors ia therefore equivalent to the three ordinary equations yw 4 ey ‘There are two diferent reasons why the use of vectors ie natural and ar(b+e)=(arb)re Fig. —Commatative hw of vector Fig, o—Associtive law of rector sation ‘aaiion advantageous, Firstly, many geometrical concepts, and a still greater ‘number of physical concepts, such as force, velocity, acceleration, &c. immediately reveal themselves as veotora indopendent of the particular co-ordinate system. Secondly, we oan set up simple rules for calculatingq CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS 5 swith veotors analogous to the rules for calculating with ordinary numbers; bby means of these many arguments can be developed in « simple way, independently of the particular co-ordinate system chosen. We begin by defining the sum of the two vectors a and 5. For this ‘purpooe wo displace the vootor & parallel to itself until its initial point coincides with the final point of a. Then the initial point of @ and the final point of & determine a now vector c (see fig. 8) whose initial point is the initial point of @ and whose final point is the final point of 6, We call o the sum of a and & and write atone For this additive process the commuative law a+b and the aswociatice law at(b+e)—(a+ bomatb+e obviously bold aaa glance at fig. 8 and 9 shows ‘From the definition of vector addition wo at once obtain the“ projec tion theorem": the component ofthe eum of 20 or more vectors ina direction 1 ia equal tothe eum of the components of the individual eetore in that direc. tion, that i, (4 dye at by {in partionlar, the components of @ + Bin th directions of th coordinate a ate yy tat by tat De ‘To forma the sum of tro vectors we accordingly havo the following simple rule. The components ofthe um are gual to the ouma ofthe core ‘ponding components ofthe nammands. ‘Brory point P with co-ordinate (25 yy 2) may be determined by the patton veto fom th origin to P, whose componente in the directions of fhe axes are just the co-ordinates of the point P. We take threo unit ‘ecto in the directions of the thee axe, , in the s-diretion, e i the Jaivetion, oy in the =lvotion, If tho veotor 9 haa the componente fy ty ty then v= met Het ee Wo call 2, = t18y) P= they By = vyey the vector components of B. ‘Using the projection theorem stated above, we easily obtain the frans- formation formule which determine (2, , ’), the co-ordinates of a given ‘point P with respoct to the axes Ox’, Or/, O2' in terms of (2, y, 2), ita co- frdinates with respect to another set * of axes Oz, Oy, Or which bas the ‘same origin as the first ect and may bo obtained from it by rotation. Tho ‘threo new axes form angles with the three old axes whose cosines may be ‘1 js to be noted that in accordance with the convention adopted on 1p. 8 both systema of axes aro to be right-handed,6 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [CuaP. expressed by tho following scheme, where for example 7, isthe cosine of the angle between the a-axis and the s-axis: lelyle lal ele ¥ || Bel Ye ¥ [eal Bale rom P we drop peepeniicuars to the axes Ox, Oy, O, thei feet being Py, Py Ps (ch fig. 1, ps1), Tho weotor from 0 to P ia then equal to {i sum of the vectors from 0 to Py from 0 to Pp and from O to Py. The direotion cosines of tho 2”-axia relative to the axes Or, Oy, O: are ay Pr thove of the y-axis ay By te and those of the z-axis ay By tx BY the projection theorem we know thet 2’, which is the component of the vector GP in the direction of the 2/-axis, must bo equal to the sum of the com: ponents of OP,, OP, OP in the direction of the axis, 60 that em ae But 1, {or aye is the component of « in the direction of the 2-axis, and soon. Carrying out similar arguments for yf and 2, we obtain the transformation formals wm me + By + yt ona + ba + ne vm ag + by tre eae tag tat v= Be’ + Ba + Be Bane tie +e ‘Since the components of # bound vector 0 in the directions of the axes are expreased by the formule aaa ey =m Ms =a ty in which (21, Yu %) are the co-ordinates of the initial point and (2, Ya 4) the co-ordinates of the final point of , it follows that the same trans- formation formule hold for the components of the vector as for the co-ordinates: and conversely ef = ayn + Bie ty tf = ath + Batt Yah ty gt + Bata + Yo 8. Scalar Multiplication of Vectors. Following conventions like those for the addition of vootors, we now define the product of a vector v by a number c: if v has the componentaq CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS 7 ty ty em then co ia the vector with components cry ery ¢vy. ‘This de- finition agresa with that of vector addition, for v + 0= 20, 0+ 0+ 0 ‘= 30, and so on. If¢ > 0, cv has tho somo direction as v, and is of length @| |; if < 0, the direotion of co is opposite to the direotion of w, and ita length ia (—¢)| |. I e= 0, wo s00 that co is the zero vector with the components 0, 0, 0. ‘We can also define the product of two vectors + and 0, where this “multi- plication ” of weotors satis rales of ealeulation which are in part similar ‘to those of ordinary multiplication. ‘There are two diffrent kinds of vector multiplication. We begin with scalar multiplication, which ia the simpler and the more important for our purposes. ‘By the scalar product wv of the vecors 1 and 0 we mean the product of their absolute values and the covine of the angle 8 between their directions: 14|] 2] 0088, ‘The scalar product, therefore, is simply the component of one of the ‘veotors in the direction of the other multiplied by the length of the seoond ‘vootor. ‘From the projection theorem the distributive Jaw for multiplication, (6 ow w+ ow, {follows at once, while the commutative av, is an immediate consequence of the definition ‘On the other han, there isan easential diference between the scalar product of two vectors and the ordinary product of two number, for the Droducl can vanish although neither factor tanishes. 1 the lengths of ve and 0 are nol zero the product 10 vanishes if, and only if, the to vera 1 and v are perpendicular to one another. “a order to exprem the scalar product in terms of the componenta of the two veotors, wo take both the vestors 1 and 0 with initial pointe at the origin, Wo denote their vector componenta by ty ata, and 4, Dy, Og respectively, no that m= 14, + my -+ te and Vem Oy + Oy} By In the equation wo = (14+ m+ 14)(0, + t+ 0) wo can expand the product on the right in socordanoo with the rules of calculation which ‘wo have just established; if we notice that the product 405 84,0 #0, teaey ts0s, and m0, Vans ocaute the factors are pecpendicular to one Aotier, we obtain 0 — 14,24-+ 4404+ sty. Now the factors on the Fight have the sume direction, oo that by deinition +40, — ty, Boy There ty ty ty And ty Hy vy are the componente of and v soxpoctively, Bence tee + Mh ‘This equation could have been takon as the definition of the scalar product, ‘and is an important role for calculating the scalar product of two veotors * Often called tho inner produc.8 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. ssiven in terms of their components. In particular, if we take + and v a8 unit vectors with direction cosines ay, ay cs and By fy By Fespectively, ‘the scalar product i equal to the cosine of the angle between x and 0, ‘which in accordingly given by the formula Br + OaBe + oBe The physical meaning of the scalar product is exemplified by the faat proved in elementary physics, that a force f which moves a parts of unit ‘nas through the divoted distance doos work amounting to fe. con8 4. The Equations of the Straight Line and of the Plane. Let a straight line in the zy-plane or & plane in ays-space be given. Jn onder to find their equations we erect & perpendicular to the line (oF x fp Pig. 19.—The equation ot « traght He the plane) and specify a definite “ positive direotion along the normal”, pperpendioular to the line (or it docs not matter whioh of the two [possible directions is taken as positive (cf. ig. 10). ‘The veotor with unit Tength and the direction of the positive normal we denote by st, ‘The points of the line (or plane) are characterized by the property that the position ‘vector 2 from the origin to them has constant projection p on the direc tion of the normal; in other words, the scalar product of this position ‘vector and the normal voctor # ia constant. If a (oF a By 7) are the = 2. For if we caleulte a, say, from 2, = 29+ ary, and mbt stitote thi value, «= (e, — %)/tvin the equation 2 = 29+ a, we obtain the expression given above. Let a straight line be given by Bm mya Y= b aaa tye We now es to find the equation ofthe plane which passe through the point (és Yo %) and in perpendicular to ths ine. Since the direction cosines of ‘he normal to this plane are a, B, , the canonical form of the required equation ia et yt PaO, and since the point (z» Yq %) lies on the plane Bm amy + By + Yee ‘The equation of the plane through (zy yy. %) perpendicular to the line with dirootion cosines 2, B, y is therefore ae — 2) + BY — Ye) + Ye — Be) = In the same way, the equation of a straight line in the 2y-plane which passes through the point (zp y) and is perpendicular to the line with Airection cosines a, fi ale — =) + Bly ~ w4) = 0. “Later we shall need a formula for 3, the angle Between two plance given by the equations ae + fy be —p =O. wet By t ye— w=.12 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. ‘Since the angle between the planet ia equal to the anglo between their ‘normal veotors, tho soalar product of these vectors is coa8, wo that, 008 8 = aa’ + BBE vy’. In the same way, for the anglo 8 between the two straight lines a+ py— p= Onda’ + By—p'=0 fn the zy-plane we have 08 3 = aa’ BB Exarenns 1. Provo that the quantities a, a, of axos, satisfy the relations eat hPa t re 0 att Bt tn erst Bib tree = 0, Gat + Bat + Ys yay + Bab t+ Yets= 0 eat + Bat + Ye 2, Ifaand b are two vectors with initial point O and final points A end B, then the vector with O as intial point and the point dividing 4 in the ratio 0:1—0 as final point is given by (= Ga + 06. 13. The centre of mass of the vertioes of a tetrahedron PQRS may be defined as the point dividing MS in the ratio 1:3, where Mf is the centro cof maas of the triangle PQR. Show thet this definition is independent of ‘the order in which the vertices are taken and that it agrees with the general definition of the centre of mass (Vol. I, . 288). 4, If in the tetrahedron PQRS the centres of the edges PQ, RS, PR, QS, PS, QR are denoted by A, 4’, B, B', O, O” respectively, then the lines Ad’, BB’, OO all pass through the centre of masa and bisect one another there, +ty (P: 6) defining « rotation 5. Let Py «-y Py bo m arbitrary partslos in space, with maases ‘my, My +8 my Teapestvely. Lat G be their centre of muss and let Bu «os fe denote the veotors with initial point G and final pointe Pe eees Py Prove that mips t Maps toes + aba 0 2. Tam Anna ov 4 Tuancre, Tae Vouume or A TETRAHEDRON, ‘ram Vucror Muyrucation or Vecrors 1, The Area of a Triangle. Im onder to caloulate the arce of a triangle in the 2y-plane we imogine it moved parallel to iteelf until one of ite vertices ia at the origin; let the other two vertices be Py(2y ys) and Py(zp ya) (cf. fg. 12). We write down,q VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 3 the oquation of the line joining P, to the origin in ite oanonical form — = at y= Vatu Var hhence for the distance J of the point P, from this line we have (except perhaps for sign) the expression 7 wae Vives Va Since the length of the segment OP, ia Va: y a ol z Fig. 12—To lntrate the method for ‘Fig. 12-—Determination of th sign ofthe {ding the area ofa angle ‘er of tangle ‘area of the triangle, which i the product of the “hase” OP, and the ‘altitude A, is given (except perhaps for sign) by the expression 24 = 2 Hate ‘Thia expression can be cither positive or negative; it changes sign if wwe interchange P, and Py. We now make the following assertion. ‘The expression A has a positive or negative ealue according as the sense in which the vertices OP,P, are traversed ia the same as the sense of the rotation associated with the co-ordinate azes, or not. Tnstead of proving the fact by ‘more detailed investigation of the argument given above, which is quite {eaaible, we prefer to prove it by the following method. We rotate the tri- ‘angle OP,P, about the origin O until P, lies on the positive z-axis, (The ‘ease in which 0, Py, P, li on line, 90 that A = 4(2yy4 — 24%) = 0, can be ‘omitted.) This rotation leaves the value of A unaltered. After the rotation 'P, has the co-ordinates 2’ > 0, y;’= 0, and the co-ordinates of the new Pyare 2; and yy The area of the triangle is now lowe Anjan, ‘and therefore hae the same sign as yy ‘The sign of ys, however, is the same as the sign of the sense in which the vertices OP,P, are traversed (cf. ig. 18). Our statement is thus proved.14 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cxar, For the expression 247, — ayy. which gives twice tho area with ita proper sign, it is customary to introduce the symbolic notation am ann ana |%% which we call a tuo-rowad determinant, or determinant of the second order. If no vertex of the triangle is at the origin of the co-ordinate system, .. if th three vertioes are (zy Yah (Hi Ya) (Zw Ys) by moving the axes parallel to themselves we obtain the formula at Ie —% mm 2lu— me wv for tho area of the triangle, 2. Veetor Multiplication of two Vectors. in addition to the scalar product of two veotors we have the important ‘concept of the weclor product® The ‘eotor product {48} of the vootory a ‘od i defined ae follows (ct. fg. 14: We measure off a and 6 from a {ab} point O. Then @ and 6 are two sides Of parallelogram in space. ‘The veotor product [a8] = in a vector whose length io numerically equal to the ares of the parallelogram and whose dizoo- tion is perpendioula to the plane of the parallelogram, the sso of direction boeing auch that the rotation from a to and c= [a8) isright-handed. (That % fs, if we look at the plane from the taveaor prota oftmo final Point of the vector , wo see the Fi 14 mated» "shortest rotation from the direction of @ to that of & aa a positive rotation.) If and & lie in the same straight line, we must have {a] = 0, sinoo tho area of the parallelogram is zero, Rules of Calculation for the Vector Product. (1) 1a % O and 6 + 0, then [a6] = Oiif, and only if, aand & have the same direction or opposite directions. "For then, and only then, the area of the parallelogram with a and 2 1s desis equal to zaro, (2) The equation [a6] = —[6a] holds. f Ofen called the outer prafuc oter notations in un fort are aX by aneq VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 15 ‘This follows at once from the definition of (a6). (8) If and b are real numbers, then [aa0} ~ ab[ad}. For the parallelogram with sides aa and 66 has an ares ab times as great ae that of the parallelogram with sides @ and 6 and lies in the same plane as the latter. (4) The distributive law holds: [a{b + )] = {a8} + [ae}, (0 + )a] = [0a] + (ea). We shall prove the first of those formulie; the seoond follows from it ‘when rule (2) is applied. We shall now give a geometrical construction for the vector pro- uct [25] which will demonstrate the truth of the distributive law directly. ‘Lot £ be tho plane perpendicular to a through the point O. Wo project B B 5 @ oO A ig. 15-~To show that fa} = (08 {5 orthogonally on F, thus obtaining a veotor 6 (of. fig. 15). ‘Then [a6'] = {a8}, for in the first place the parallelogram with sides @ and & has the ‘samo bose and the same altitude as the parallelogram with sides and 2; and in the second plage the directions of (46) and [a6] are the same, since @, 3, 8’ ie in one plane and tho sense of rotation from a to 2 is the ‘samo as that from @ to 6. Since the veotors @ and & are sides of a rect- ‘angle, the length of (a8’] = [a8] is the product |@|| 8°]. If, therefore, wwe increase the length of 2” in the ratio |a| 1, we obtain a vector 6” which has the same length as [a6']. But [a6] =[a8'] ia perpen. Gicular to both @ and &, so that we obtain (a6} = [ad’] from 8” by & rotation through 90° about the line a. ‘The sense of this rotation must be positive when looked at from the fnal point of a. Such s rotation we shall call a positive rolation about the vector @ aa azis. ‘We ean therefore form [a8] in the following way: project ® orthogon- ally on the plane B, lengthen it in the ratio| |: 1, and rotate it positively through 90° about the vootor a. ‘To prove that (a(6 + c)] = [28] + [ac] we proceed as follows: & and ¢ are the sides OB, 00 of a parallelogram OBDO, whose dingonal OD in the sum 5+. Wo now perform the three operations of projection, Tongthening, and rotation on the whole parallelogram OBDC instead of on the individual vestore 6, 0, 8-4 ¢ we thus obtain a parallelogram OB,D,0, whoee siden OB;, 00, aro the vectors [28] and [ac] and whove16 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. Aiagonsl is tho product (a(4 + c)]. From this the equation [a6] + {ac} = [ad + o)] clearly follows (cf. fg. 16) ig. 16 —Dietibtive lw for the vector product of two vets and & (5) Let a and & be given by their components along the axes, ay dy dy and by, by, by respectively. What is the expression for the veotor product [26] in terms of the vector componentat ‘We express a by the gum of its vector components in the directions of the axes. If 4, ey 64 aro tho unit vootors in the directions of the axes, then = He, + ey + O5ey and similarly bm beer + bres + bye. By the distributive law we obtain [28] = (ayes) (yesN] + [aren (bees) + e303) yea) + Lletaea) (bve3)] + £0404) ea)] + (axes) (bt (ese) (Ove) + [ases) ees)] + [lases) bread), which by rales (1) and (3) may also be written [ab] = above] + above) + ahleved + abileyes)+ adhlese,] + aphferes) Now from the definition of vootor product it follows that [ese] = —Lesedh Hence ese] = —[eves, ¢s= (e011 = —[eres} [ab] = (adds — agbdey + (0abs — axbsdon + (abs — ado ‘The components of the veotor product (a8] = ¢ are therefore4q VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 9 ay [a olga ele Tin physica we use the veotor product of two vectors to represent moment. A foroe facting at the final point of the position vector 2 has the ‘moment [/2] about the origin. 3, The Volume of a ‘Tetrahedron. Wo consider a tetrahedron (ef. Sg. 17) whose vertices are the origin and threo other points Py, Py Py with eo-ondinates (2 Ys #1 (tp Yo #) & > Fig. 17-—Determinton ofthe volume of «tetrahedron (ee vo 24) reepectively. ‘To express the volume of this tetrahedron in terms of the co-ordinates of ita vertices we proceed as follows. The vectors x, = OP, and x,— OP, aro sides of triangle whose area is half the length of the veotor product [%,:}- ‘This vestor product has the direotion of the perpendicular from P, to the plane of tho triangle OPyPy; A, the length of thia perpendicular (the altitude of the tetrahedron), is therefore given by the soslar product of tho vostor x,= OP, and the unit vector in the direotion of (2,4 for bin equal to tho component of OP, in the direction of [-z,%. Since the absolute value of (2% is twico the area A of the triangle OP,P,, and since the volume V of the tetrahedron is equal to 44h, we have V=t((mda Or, sine the componente of (a5) ar given br rah feak fe ah [va eal velwwe can write (8 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. a aly glam tuft Blea a al ‘This also hold fo the case in which 0, Py, Ps ie-on straight line; in ‘his cat, iia true, tho dizeotion of [=] is indotorminate, x0 that ean no longer be regarded es the component of OP, in the direction of (2) Dut nevertheless A = 0, 80 that Y= 0, and this follows aso from the above ‘expression for V, sino in this esse all the components of [23] vanish, ‘Here again the volume of the tetrahedron is given with a dente sgn, 8 the ares of the triangle was on p. 18; end we can show that the sign is positive ifthe three axes OP,, OP, ,OP, taken in that order form a system af the same type (right-handed or left-handed, as the ease may be) as the fo-orlinato axes, and negative if the two syitoms are of opposite typo. For in the fit cago the angle 8 between [=] and 2 lice fa the interval 08 <5, and in the second case in the interval F <8 << x, a8 follows immediately from the definition of (2, and V is equal to [Lea] |x| 0088. ‘The expresion al +m nal” # afen[s | aalt la cccuring in our formulm may be express more brely by the symbol fan a te te lew which wo call a three-rowed determinant, or determinant of the third onder. ‘Writing out the two-rowed determinants in full, wo see that hom hte za Ua te alata — Bayes + BN — Evan + Bete — Ee ‘Tost as in the case of the triangle, we find that the volume of the tetra- Ihedron with vertices (ey toy Hs (Ein Vis 4 Cn Yo al (Ha Yor #4) 8 Bom WO A Bo oh As Hm Whe Hm Bxaseuns * 1, What is the distance of the point P( jy Yo %) from the straight line I given by aaattb yodtd ematst ‘Tho more dificult examplos are indicated by an asterisk.q VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 9 2*, Find the shortest distance between two straight lines J end in space, given by the equations zmatto yadtd ond reetts 8. Show that the plane through the threo points (zi &s (8: Yo Ha (ey Yo #4) a given by noe mov Ane moe moy Bo e/=O Boe woe A 4. In 8 uniform rotation let (a, 6, 7) be the direction cosines of the exis of rotation, which passes through the origin, and « the engular velocity. Find the velocity of the point (zy. 2). 5. Prove Lagrange’s identity [91 leeiy = (a9, 6. The area ofa convex polygon with the vertices Psy th) Pty sas ‘Palsu Ua) i given by half th abwolute value of ssl |e slag fet th tel” dye wl Yat Yn + 3, Some THeoReMs oN DeveRMINANTS OF THE SECOND np Taiap ORDER 1, Laws of Formation and Principal Properties. ‘The determinants of the second and third order oceurring in the cal culation of the ares of « triangle and the volumo of a tetrahedron, together with their genoralization, the determinant of the nth order, or nerseed deter. ‘inant, aro very important in thst they enable formal calculations in all branches of mathematica to be expressed in compact form. Here wo shall develop the propertics of determinants of the second and third order, those of higher order we shall neod but seldom. It may, however, be pointed out that all the principal theorems may be generslized at once for determinants with any number of rows. For the theory of theeo we ‘must refer the reader to books on algebra and determinanta.* By their definitions (pp. 14, 18) the determinants ete je 8) ana fae a jg h Ct, og. H. W. Turnbull, The Phoory of Determinants, Matrices, and In- variants (Blackie & Son, Ltd, 1929)20 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. tro expreesions formed in a definite way from their elements a,b, o, d and 4, , 6 dy 6 §, 9, b, k respectively. ‘The horizontal Lines of elements (such a d, ¢, f in our example) aro called rows and the vertical lines (euch as 64, 8) azo called columns. ‘Wo need not epend any time in discussing the formation of the two- rowed determinant lt 8) ad — be. je al For the three-rowed determinant we give the “diagonal rule” which exhibita the symmetrical way in which tho determinant is formed: a Wo repeat the frst two columns after the third and then form the product of each triad of numbers in the diagonal lines, multiply the pro- Gucts associated with ines slanting downwards and to the right by +1, the others by —1, and add, In this way we obtain fe pect Met a ob] 7 fh ake We shall now prove several theorems on determinants: (2) If the rows and columns of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the determinant is unaltered. That is, la bi_|a ec le aj |b af ede} [a a of ae sl=|b eal owe le f kl ‘This follows immediately from the sbove expressions for the determinants, 12) If tco rowe (or theo columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the sign of the determinant iv alterel, that ia, the determinant is multiplied by iin virtue of (1) this need only be proved for the columns, and it can ‘be verified at once by the law of formation of the determinant given above,q DETERMINANTS an (8) In sostion 2 (p. 18) we introduced three-rowed determinants by the equations ah aay me 2 alle al ha a[% Blan Using (2), we write Uhis in the form mh ath |= im te ‘then in the determinanta on the right the elements aro in the same order ‘as on the left, If we interchange the last two rows and then write down ‘the same equation, using (2), we obtain: Ahm hm A th % ‘and similarly hm 5 4m alaale ts ‘We call theso three equations the expansion in terms of the elements of the third row, the eooond row, and the first row respectively. By interchanging ‘columns and rove, which according to (1) does not alter the value of the determinant, we obtain the expansion by columns, Ana [m | nA hm | +4 vs we oh a + 2 al ams lila im aw zal ofS tals tleele ft mh ‘An immediate consequence of this is the following theorem: (A) If all the elements of one row (or column) are multiplied by a number f the value ofthe determinant is multiplied by p- ‘From (2) and (4) we deduce the following: (8) If the elements of to rows (or to columna) are proportional, tha if every clement of one row (or column) isthe product of the corresponding22 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. clement in the other row (or column) and the same factor ¢, then the de- terminant is equal to zero ‘For according to (4) we can write the factor outside the determinant. If wo then interchange the equal rows, the value of the determinant is ‘unchanged, but by (2) it should change sign. Hence its value is zoro. Tn particular, s determinant in which one row or column consists entirely of zeros has the value zero, as also follows from the definition of a determinant. (0) The eum of to determinants, having the axme number of rowe, which differ only in the elements of one row (or column) is equal to the determinant which coincides with them in the rows (or columns) common to the two de- terminants and in the one remaining row (or column) has the sums of the corresponding elements of the two non-identical rows (or columns). For example: abel ja mel ja btme ade slela a sald eta ff a hktl |o pl |g hep & For if we expand in terms of the rows (or columns) in question, which in our example consist of the eloments 8, ¢, A and m, m, p respectively, and ‘add, we obtain the expression somlp deermly ltca-ole Gh ( ‘which clearly is just the expansion of the determinant a btm e detn fs o hte in terms of the column B4+-m, etm, k++ p. ‘This proves the stato. ment. ‘Similar statements hold for two-rowed determinants, (1) If t each element of a row (or column) of a determinant we add the ame mile of the corresponding element of another row (or column), the tale of the determinant is unchanged. By (6) the new determinant is the sum of the original determinant and f determinant which has two proportional rows (or columns); by (5) this second determinant is zero.* ‘tho rale for expansion in torms of rows or oolumns may be extended to define determinants of the fourth nnd higher order: Given a system of Nxtoon ‘uumbere aye ay ahh G32) ae de for example, we define a determinant of the fourth ondar by the expreasionq DETERMINANTS 23 ‘The following examples illustrate how the above theorems are applied ‘to the evaluation of determinants. We have ja 0 Oo! 0 © 0|— ack ook as we can prove by the dingonal rule. A determinant in which the elements in the so-called principal diagonal alone differ from zero is equal to the product of these elements, ‘Braluation of a determinant: aoa 1-1 a= 200 11d -bo1d (second row added to the first) en aoa 1-1. =a. 4. Another example is tee) pos #} poe # Ly vf=|0 ys woal= 0 ye yaa veal lice | lore aoa 1f we now expand this in terms ofthe fist colimn we obtain — Lyte wre CoS |-w-9 eal, Phe|-0-9@-296-y, 2. Application to Linear Equations. Determinants are of fundamental importance in the theory of linear equations, In order to solve the two equations ast by= A, et dy=B, for # and y, we multiply the frst equation by ¢ and the second by a. and eC ale a dl -blea a al eae & dl alah oh waal ‘laa & md a tnd similarly we can introduce detorminanta of the fith, sith, ..., nth onder {in svcceasion. Tt turas aut thet in all ewential properties theas agree with the ‘determinants of two or threo rows. Dsterminanta of moro than threo rows, however, cannot be expended by the “diagonal rulo”. "We shall not consider farther dotala here.24 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. ‘subtract the second from the first; then we multiply the first equation by and the second by b and subtract. We thus obtain (be — ay = Ae — Ba (ad — bo) = Ad — Bb, or eb o|4 8) gle bale 4 *le al"|B alt Yc allo B 1 we astome thatthe determinant a eal in dierent from zero, these equations at once give the ection 45) led Ba e 3| “fa op ia oy ea) le a wtih can be verdod by ebetituton T, however, tho determina ot eS) ait he anne ad Ir | would lead to a contradiction if ether of the determinanta 4 2 | were diferent from zero, If, however, Ba ‘our formule tell us nothing about the solution. We therefore obtain the fact, which is particularly important for our ‘Purposes, that a system of equations of the above form, whose determinant is ‘different from zero, aboays has a wnique solution. If our system of equations is homogeneous, that is, if A= B= 0, our calculations lead to the solution 2 = 0, y = 0, provided that ‘For throo equations with three unknowns, ar} ly to = A, debate = 2B, wthyt+h=, Sneddon da on cen. We muy the it ation [¢ LL ah wind by =| fe aid ty [ sxe by [CL te and by 8 heed | 6 a 124 ee obaingq DETERMINANTS 25 Chali seal a vt he sot eA she salsa seo But by our formule for the expansion of a determinant in terms of the clements of « column, this equation can be written in the form At bbe! ode! [4 be alae gleule © sales l= Boe fl. lo & | AbR) [kee lOvE By ra (4) tha cofcents of y ad vain, oo that adel [Abo elec gl-|e e rh bel fone In the same way we drive the equations a bel Ja de vac mle 2 sh lp bt] |p ok Ja be JabaA s]de sl=|a e Bh lo atl lea ol Uf the determinant be ae 7 ph is not oro, the last threo equations givo us the value of the unknowns. Provided thet this determinant is not zero, tho equations oan be solved ‘uniqualy for 2, y, # If the determinant is zoro, it follows that tho right- band sides of the above equations must also be zero, and the equations ‘therefore cannot be solved unless 4, B, C satisfy the special conditions which are expressed by the vanishing of every determinant on the A= B= C=O, and if its determinant is different from zero, it again follows that z= y=: = 0. Tn addition to tho oases above, in which tho number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns, we shall occasionally mest with26 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. systems of two (homogenous) equations with three unknowns, az + by + cz= 0, det eyt fem 0. 1f the thes determinants bel pale e alla ala tre not ll eof fr exompe, Dy 0, oar ouatons cn it be sled forzend yt gen b male] 2D, Dy Dy ye DY" Dy = Dy: Dy: Dy Geometrically this haa the following meaning: wo are given two veotore wand 9 with the components a, Z, ¢ and d, «, f respectively. We sook a ‘eotor 2 which is perpendicular to # and v, that is, which eaties the equations ux=0, ox=0, ‘Thus 2 isin the direction of [+0]. Exaweues 1, Show that the determinant ab a lo & f k can alwaya be reduced to the form «00 op 0 00y merely by repeated application of the following processes: (1) interchang- ing two rows or two columns, (2) adding # multiple of one row (or column) to another rom (or column). 2, If the throe determinants, by by a], aia! law lee by by do not all vanish, then the necessary and sufcient condition for the existence of aolition of the three equations oe oy bye + by eet oyq DETERMINANTS 27 is D=|5 t, elo aal 5. State the condition that the two straight lines saat tb, sooth a yaad, ond yet td Patty realty cither intersect or aro parallel 4*, Prove tho propertios (I) t0 (7), given on pp. 20-28, for deter inant of the fourth onder (deined on p. 22 (footnote). 5, Prove that the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices (ey dy %) (Yo tah (to Yo Fs (te 20) given by Ana ah Blan a mH 4, Avvive TRANSFORMATIONS AND THE MULTIPLICATION or DErerwinants ‘We shall conclude these preliminary remarks by discussing the simplest facts relating to the so-called affine transformations; at the samo time ‘we shall obtain an important theorem on determinants, 1, Affine Transformations of the Plane and of Space. By a mapping or transformation of portion of space (or of plane) wo mean a low by which each point has sasgned to it another point of {oce (or point of tho plane) as tage point the point isa we call the Gripinl point, or sometimes the mate! (in antithesis to the image). We brain a physical oxpresion of the conoapt of mapping by imagining that fhe porn of space (or of the plane) in question is occupied hy some Aleforauble substance end that our transformation represents a deformation in which every punt of the substance moves from its originl position to a cerain final position, ‘Gain a rectangular sytem of co-ordinates, we tak (z, 9,2) as the co- ordinates of the orginal point and (2, #) as thos ofthe corresponding image point. ‘The transformations which ar not only the simplest and most easily tnderstood, but are also of fundamental importance forthe general ease, ro tho fine anaformations. Aa fine transformation iv one in which he covdinaton (os ys #) (or in th plane (2, y)) ofthe image point are28 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. expressed linearly in terms of those of the original point, Such a trans formation is therefore given by the three equations vaathytotm Yodtaytfetn Yagthythtp or in the plane by the two equations oat hytm Yretdtn, ‘with constant cooficients a,b, ...‘Theso antiga an image point to every ‘Point of space (or of the plane). ‘The question at once arises whether we ‘an interchange the relation of image point and original point, that i, ‘whether every point of space (oF ofthe plane) bas an original point corre- sponding to it. The necessary and sufficient condition for this is that the equations etltaa’om detaythay—n o wethyth=?—p shall be capable of being solved for the unknowns 2, ys £ (oF % ¥), no matter what the values of , yf, 7 are. By sootion 3 (p. 24) an affine fransformation Aas an inverse, and in fact a unique inverse," provided ‘that ita determinant an + ly=e—m eet dym yn aS | w ont Sh Repco is different from zero. Wo shall confine our attention to affine trans- formations of this type, and shall not discuss what happens when A=0. ‘By introducing an intermediate point (2”, y', 2”) we can resolve the ‘general affine transformation into the transformations 2 mw a + by tee b= vaathy Yom drteytife ot oe Vogts "OTe asd eave vadtm Yoyte oe Tote gree SN vawte ‘Here (2, y, #) i mapped first on (2, y’, #”) and then (2”, 2”) is mapped ‘on (2, 7,2). Sinoo the seoond transformation is merely a parallel translation ‘of the space (or of the plane) 08 a whole and is therefore quite easly under- ‘That fs, overy image point has one ad only one original point,q AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS 29 stood, we may restrict ourselves to the study of the frst. We shall there- fore only consider affine transformations of the form FaatWyte yey v deta the oe eet gy ve thy + ke with non-ranithing determinants. "The results ef sdton 8 (p. 26) for Linear equations enable sto express the inverse tranaformation by the formule eLt +! way Mee TTE © yee Lay, ge thy tke ° in which a, ¥, . . . are certain expressions formed from tho coefficients 4,2, . » » Boonuse of the uniquenee of the solution, the criginal equations ‘ho follow trom these latter. In particular, from 2 y= = 0 it follows that 2 = y/ = ¢ = 0, and conversely. ‘The characteristic geometrical properties of afine transformations are stated in the following theorems. (1) In apace the image of a plane is a plane; and in the plane the image of a atraigh line i a straight Tine. ‘For by section 1 (p. 9) we can write the equation of tho plane (or the lino) in the form Az+ By+ r+ D=0 (or Az+ By + D=0), ‘The numbers 4, B, C (or 4, B) are not all zero. ‘The co-ordinates of the ‘image points of the plane (or of the line) satisfy the equation Ale’ + Uy + ee) + Bee + ey +12) + Oz + Wy +k2)+D=0 (or Ae’ + By) + Bev + dy) + D=0). ‘Hence the image pointe themselves lie on a plane (or # line), for the co- ffcienta (« frestes CA + PB 4+ KO amie of tho co-ordinates 2, y, # (or 2, y') cannot all be zero; otherwise the ‘equations (ce eate8 vAtaR ¢A+fB+¥C srould hold, and these we may regard as equations in tho unknowns A, B,jo ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cxap. (or A, B). But we have shown above that from these equations it follows that 4 (or A= B= 0). (2) Phe image of a straight line in space isa straight Line, ‘Thia follows immediately from the fact that a straight line may be roganed as the intersection of two planes; by (1) ita image is also the inter seotion of two planes and is therefore a straight line. (8) The images of two parallel planes of space (or of two parallel lines of ‘the plane) are parallel. ‘For if the images had points of intersection the originals would have to interscot in the original points of those intarsoctions. (4) The images of two parallel lines in space are two parallel ines. For as the two lines lic in a plane and do not intersect one another, the same is true for their images, by (1) and (2). ‘The images are therefore parallel "The image of a vector 2 ia of course a vector »’ leading from the image of the initial point of @ to the image of the final point of v. Since the components of the veotor are the differences of the corresponding co- ordinates of the initial end final points, under the most general afine transformation they are transformed according to the equations to any + Bey + Oy ty = dey + ee + Soy = 904 + Bg dy 2. The Combination of Affine Transformations and the Resolution of the General Affine Transformation. [Hf we map a point (x,y, 2) on an image point (2, y’,#) by means of the transformation eaart byte Yadehaytfe va get hy + ke and then map (2, 7) on & point (2, y”, 2”) by means of s second affine transformation 2 mage + by +e vim ds ey + he 2 = gy + hy +e, then we readily eo that (xy, #) and (2”, 2”) arwals related by an afine (teansformation: and in fact imag t by beg Yom deeb ey the Fm geet hy + he where the coeficients are given by the equationsy AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS 3t as gat bd+ og be abt bet ah q=ae+ bf+ ob qadetedthn aa abtoetih h= det oft hb = Het Ret bg ym abt het bh, by= ge + af + hak We say that this lat transformation is the combination or resultant of the first two. If the determinants of the fit two transformations are different ‘rom zero, their inverses can be formed; hence the compound transforma tion also has an inverse, ‘The coefficients of the compound transformation fare obtained from those of the original transformation by multiplying corresponding elements of column of the first transformation and of & row of the socond, adding the three products thus obtained, and using this “product” of column and row aa the coefficient which stands in the column with the same number as the column used and in the row with the same number as the row used. In the same way, combination of the transformations emartly yg Maar thy vaatdy Vo + by ives the new transformation, x" = (aya + bye) + (mb + bydly Y= (eat dye + (ob + Ady. By & primitive transformation wo mean one in which two (or one) of the three (or two) co-ordinate of the image are the tame as the corre: sponding co-ordinates of tho originel points. Physically we may think of & primitive transformation ae one in which th spaco (or plane) undergoes ‘stretching in one direction only (the strtching of courwe varying from place to place) to that all the pointa are simply moved slong a family of parallel lies, A primitive affine tranaformation in which the motion takes place parallel to the s-axis ia analytically represented by formula of the type mart yay ly y The general affine transformation in the plane, ea artly vat dy, wwitn a non-vanishing determinant, can be obiained by a combination of primitive tranaformations. ‘In the proof we may assume * that a + 0. We introduce an intermediate = 164 ~ 0, thou +b 0, and wo can return to the caso @ +h 0 hy intorohanging a andy. Soch an Interchange, represented by the trnnaformation =p, ¥ 275, H ital elected by the three tcseaive primitive transformations Gry Goh , Eoratecy BoE Ro baat PENIS32 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. Point (Gn) by the primitive transformation Enartoy aH whose determinant a is different from zero. From & 7 we obtain 2, 7 by «second primitive transformation ad — be ja a. ‘This gives the required resolution into primitive transformations, Tn similar way the affine transformation in space vmod byte ade tf Ym gethy +h web ym let 4 ‘with the determinant ai— bet 1with a non-vanishing determinant, can be resolved info primitive traneforma- tions, Of the throo doterminanta 24] |e ol [bo act last legs st least one must be different from zero; otherwise, aa the expansion in feria of the elesenta ofthe last row shows, we should have do aes oak ‘Asin the provioun case, wo ean then assume without loss of generality (a) that [6 bf aod 2) at ot 0. ‘The firmb intermediate point (6 1» Os given by means of the equations gaart byte a oy t= ® ‘The determinant of this primitive transformation isa, which la not zero. or the second transformation to ©,» & we wish to put £/= & Um & and alo to have 7 =’: Ono primitive transformation then remains, Tf {nthe equation 1/ = y= de + ey + fe we introduce the quantities 7. & instead of = y. 5 we obtain the second primitive transformation in the formq AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS 3 alata vat ‘he determinant of this transformation is * formation must then be = , = 3, The Geometrical Meaning of the Determinant of Transforma- tion, and the Multiplication Theorem. From the considerations of the previous section we can find the geometrical meaning of the determinant of an affine transformation and ft the same time an algebraic theorem on the multiplication of determinants. ‘We consider a plane triangle with vertices (0, 0), ( area ia given (scotion 2, p. 14) by the formula Alay my jv val Wo shall investigate the relation between A and tho azea A’ of its Image obtained by means of « primitive affine transformation mart by y ‘The vortiows of the image triangle have the co-ordinates (0, 0), (0, + bay ibe Caen fe Alan + by, a+ bys aly win alm % ‘This determinant, however, can be transformed by the theorems of section 3 (p. 22) in the following way: Marth at ny u Was (le tle Whose 4 a= Jan an} Zim ml Zin ws that is, a4, 2 err)34 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. If wo had taken the primitive transformation ver cot dy, wwe should have found in the same way that Amd, Wo see, therefore, that s primitive affine transformation hae the effeot of multiplying the ares of a trianglo by a constant independent of the tri- ‘angle.* Sinoe the goneral affine transformation oan be formed by com. Dining primitive transformations, the stetement remaina true for any affine transformation. In the ease of an affine transformation the ratio of the area of an image triangle to the area of the original triangle is constant ‘and independent of the choice of triangle, depending only on the coecients of ‘the transformation. Tn order to find this constant ratio we consider in ppartioular the triangle with vertioes (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1), whose area A {is . Since the image of this triangle according to the transformation sant by Yatay ‘nas the vertioes (0, 0, (ao), (bs d) ita area ia fand wo thus seo that the constant ratio of area A’/A for an affine trans. formation is the determinant of the transformation. For transformations in space we can proceed in exactly the same way. Af we consider the tetrahedron with the vertioes (0, 0, 0), (zs Ys 4 (€x Yo *s (ep tr %) and subject it to the primitive transformation v= 5 ‘the image tetrahedron has the vertices (0, 0, 0), (az, + Buy + efi Yi 4), (arg + Bs + Cy Yo 2), (Oey + Bis + Cy Yo Hy 80 that its volume Fis amt byte amt Wat Oey 0g + yy + ce w we % 5 % 4 alm # a g]m te ws). “la a al 1 If no vertex of the triangle lies a the origin, the same fact hold, in virtue of the general formula for the area given on p. 14.i AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS 35 Hence Ve ay, where ¥ ia the volume of the orginal tetrahedron. or the volume of the {mage given by tho primitive transformation vane Yadetatte var ‘wo similarly find that Vemer, and for the primitive transformation sve find that vow From this it follows that an arbitrary affine transformation has the effect of multiplying the volume of tetrahedron by a constant.* Tn onder to find this constant for the transformation at byte Yadtath get hy + he we consider the tetrahedron with the vertices (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), whose image has the vertices (0, 0, 0), (a, d, g), (6.6, (@ J, B. Bor tho volumes V” and V of the image and the original ‘we’ therefore have | v= | v Wet lok sae hence the determinant is the constant sought, abe ae | oh ‘Tho sign of the determinant also has @ geometrical meaning. For from ‘what we have seen in section 2 (p. 18) on the connexion between the sense of rotation and the volume of the tetrahedron or area of the triangle, it follows at onco that a transformation with a positive determinant preserves ‘the sense of rotation, while a tranaformation with a negative determinant revere i ‘If no vertox of the tetrahedron coincides with the origin, thi theorem. follows from the general formula for the volume of « tetrahedron (p- 18).36 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTORS [Cuar. We now consider the combination of two transformations vaatta waar tb tat Yadtarfe — Ymad tay tht gethy the 2 = oe + hay + 2m (at bya + ole + (b+ bye + cab + (aye+ yf + eke = (da + ed + fige + (db + ee + Lidl + (he + af + hike 2 = 0+ hd + kygle + (3b + he + kh + (xe + Inf + bake ‘As we pass from 2, y,2to 2, y/, 2 the volume of a tetrahedron is multiplied by a be ae jo wo puss from 2, ys # to 2", y's 2” by eh aah hh and by direct change fom sy, # toy’, 2” ibs multiplied by net hdbeg abt bet oh ae+d,f-+ ak dot adt ig Gbteet hh detest hk lnot hid hg abt hye + hh go + haf + bi ‘This gives us the following relation, known as the theorem for the ‘multiplication of determinant Cr Cs a hl | eh oe lo i a0, + Bade + ci, aia + Bea + chy ee + By fat cake soe + cide + Site iba + eee ibe hee + eafet Sake ts + hd, + Fay et Iyea + habs 46a + Bafa + By ‘As before, we call the elements of the determinant on the right the pro- lab | a be | ducta” of the sows of |, 4% f,| and tho columns of |d 4 fe[s at oy oe he Bl the intersection of the ¢th row and the #-th column of the product of the determinants there stands the expression formed from the i-th row of ah by Gy @ 4 fh| and the Ath column of |d ey Jy]. Sinve rows and & hy! a hy by ‘columns ate interchangeable, the product of the determinants can alsoy AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS 7 bo obtained by combining columns and rows, eslumns and columns, ot rows and row, "For two-rowed determinants the corresponding theorem of course olds, namely [oe S| foe l= facet ee oe Js aL deel oes + abe cee + dad (combining rows and rows, &e). Exawrnns 1. Evaluate the following determinants: is 4 5 raid aad lew @i so, wir 24, @i2 34, Mi ye bo 7 139 3-17 le 2, Find the relation which must exist between a, b,¢ in order that the system of equations B+ dy poem det byt b= ba + by +7 may have a solution. 8°. (a) Prove the inequality abe Dale ve | 0 there shall correspond two positive numbers 8, and 3, such that [fE+h 1th) —-16 D1S€ whenever | h | S 8, and | k | S 8y. ‘The two conditions are equivalent. For if the original con- dition is fulfilled, go is the second if we take 8, = 8, = 8/4/2; and conversely, if the second con- dition is fulfilled, so is the first if for 8 we take the smaller of the ‘two numbers 8, and 8,. ‘The following facts are almost obvious: The sum, difference, and pro duct of continuous functions are 0 also continuous. The quotient of Fig, ¢—Bondary point continuous functions is continuous except where the denominator vanishes. Continuous functions of continuous functions are themselves continuous (cf. section 5, No. 1, p. 70). Tn particular, all polynomials are continuous, and alt rational fractional functions are also continuous except where the denominator vanishes.+ Fig 6 tustrates the cave whore (fy 9 lies onthe boundary of B. {Another obvious fact, which, however, is worth stating, is as follows age fenion (rg) ie continous tn a region Be and Se diferent from tere oto6 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES [Cxar. A funotion of soveral variables may have discontinuities of a much mote complicated type than a funetion of a single variable. For example, discontinuities may occur along whole arcs of curves, as in the case of the function «= y/z, whioh is discontinuous along the whole line 2 = 0. Moreover, a function f(z, y) may be continuous in z for exch fixed value ‘of y and continuous in y for each fixed value of 2 and yet be « discontinuous fupotion of sand y, Thai examplid bythe fanotion fs, 9) = 2. Bry J(0, 0)=0. TE wo take any fixed non-zero value of ys thin function ‘a cbriously continuous 28's funotion of 2, as the denominator cannot vanish. Tf y= 0, wo havo {(2, 0)— 0, which i a continuous fono- tion of =. Similarly, (2 9) is continuous in y for cach fxed value of 2 But at every polit on the line y= x, excopt the point = y = 0, tro have fis; y) 1s and there are pints of ths lin arbitrarily close {othe crigin. Henoo the fonction is discontinuous at the’ point zayno. Other examples of discontinuous fanotions will be found in Vol. I (p. 464). 2, The Concept of Limit in the Caso of Sovoral Variables. The concept of the limit of a function of two variables is closely related to the concept of continuity. Let us suppose that the function f(, y) is defined in a region R, and that (E, 2) is a point either within 2 or on its boundary. ‘Then the statement that the limit of f(z, y) as 2 tends to ¢ and y tends to 7 is 2 is to be understood as having the following meaning: for every €>0 there is a3 > 0 such that If —l (Em) interior point P of the region, it in pourible to mark of about P a neihtourhod, tty'a chek bldg en to Ree heh ie 3) 0 nowhere fea fo woe For the value of te function at Ps ay we can tack of about Pe cela wo ‘amall that the value of the function ia te lrcle diffe fom a by less than ai? and therefore ia oartainly got zero.1 CONTINUITY a7 For emphasis this is sometimes read “the double limit as 2 tends to £ and y tends to 7 of f(z, y) is”. Using the language of limits, we can say that a function f(y) is continuous at a point (¢, 7) if, and only if, pa fey =f). ‘We can see the matter in a new light if we consider sequences of points. We shall say that a sequence of points (2, 9s), (te Ys). +++ > Gm Yn> «+ tends to a limit point (Z, 7) if the distance VA Gea— 8F-+ Ya—7)?} tends to 0 a8 n increases. We can then show at once (ef. Vol. I, p. 47) that if f(a, y) > Las (x, y) > (.n), then lim f(t, ya) = 1 for every sequence of points (2 Ya) in R which tends to (£, 9). The converse is also true; if lim f(a: Ys) ‘exists and is equal tol for every sequence (tq) Yn) of points in R tending to (£, 7), then the double limit of f(z, y) as 7-> ¢ and y > 7 exists and is equal to. We omit the proof of this. In our definition of limit we have allowed the point (z, y) to ‘vary in the region R. If we 90 desire, however, we can impose restrictions on the point (2, y). For example, we may require it +o lie in a sub-region R’ of R, or on a curve C, or in a set of points MinR. In this case we say that f(z, y) tends to Las (z, y) tends to (€, 1) in R (or on C, or in M). Tt is of course understood that R (or C, or M) must contain points arbitrarily close to (g, 7) in order that the definition may be applicable. Our definition of continuity then implies the two following requirements: (1) a8 (x, y) tends to (£, 1) in R the function f(x, y) must possess a limit 1; and (2) this limit 1 must coincide with the value of the function at the point (£, 7). Tt is obvious that we could define continuity of a function, not only in a region R but also, for example, along a curve C, in the same way. 8, The Order to which # Function Vanishes.” If the function f(z, y) is continuous at the point (£, 9), the difference f(z, y) — f(é, 7) tends to zero as z tends to £ and y tends to 7. By introducing the new variables h—= 2— € and ‘This subweotion may be omitted on a first reading.B FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES [Cuar. = y—7 wo can express this as follows: the function (A, #) (E+ h, n+ ) — f(g, 2) of the variables 4 and & tends to 0 ash and k tend to 0. Wo shall frequently meet with functions such as ¢(h, X) which tend to zoro* as hand & do. As in the case of one in- dependent variable, for many purposes it is useful to describe the behaviour of 4h, #) as h-r0 and k-»0 more precisely by between different “orders of vanishing” or “orders of magnitude” of ¢(i, i). For this purpose we base our comparisons on the distance = VBE = Ve FP of the point with co-ordinates 2== €-+ A and y= +k from the point with co-ordinates and 7, and make the following statement: A function $(b, k) vanishes as p->0 to the same order as p= Vi-+ EA, or, more precisely, to at least the same order as p, provided that there is a constant O, independent of h and k, such that the inequality |2#2:8| <0 fz holds for alt suffciently small values of por, more precisely, when there is a 80 such that the inequality holds for all values of hand & such that 0< Vi#-+ <8. Further, we say that Mh, H) vanishes to a higher order + than p if the quotient Hb: ') P tends to 0 as p> 0. This is sometimes expressed by the sym- bolical notation t (A, &) = ofp). ‘Tn the older literature the expressions “ (hb) bocomes infinitely small tush and k do" or ih, 4 i infinitesimal ” are also found. ‘These statements ave perfectly definite meaning if wo regard them simply es another way of sexing | “iis #) tends to'0 as hand f do". Wo neverdhclees prefer to avoid ‘expremsion "infinitely small entirely. ee Brntardst to bvold confaalon, ve wosld exproosy point out that higher onder of vanishing for p> 0 lmplice emellor values in the neighbourhood of fo for cxampl, of vnihon to higher Sedat than p and phn amalar than p, when p is noaly sero The lttat oe of course chosen bocange it ia the first letter of tho word. order. If we wish to express the statement that g(h, E)vanishoe to at leect the ‘Sime ordar ae p, but not necessarily toa higher ordar, we use th letter O instead. ‘ofc, writing 4(B, 4) = O(p). in this book, however, we abell not we this symbol.1m CONTINUITY 9 ‘Lot us now consider a few examples. Sinoo the components hand i of the distance ¢ in the directions of the 2- and ‘y-axes vanish to atleast the same order as the distance itself, The same is truo fora linear homogencous funotion ah + BE with constants a and 0, ot for the fantion pin. ‘or fixed values of « greater than 1 the power fp of the distance vanishes tos higher onler than 9; symbolically, p= ole) for a> 1. Similarly, a homogeneous quadratic polynomial ah? 4. Dak 4 eb? in the variables h and i vanishes to & higher order than pas po: ait + bhE-+ okt — o0). More generally, the following definition is used. If the ‘comparison function a(h, %) is defined for all non-zero values of (h, #) in a sufficiently small circle about the origin, and is not equal to zero, then $(h, 2) vanishes to at least the same order as «(h, #) a8 p> 0 if for some suitably chosen constant O the relation H(A, k) eenlse holds; and similarly, $(h, k) vanishes to a higher order than w(h, k), $(h, k) or lh, B) = ofo(h, Bit EG 7) + 0 when p> 0. ‘For example, the homogeneous polynomial ak* + Bhk + ol¥ is at least of the same order as 6%, since Lads 4 oe + od] (lo) + 181 + Le) + Also » = o(, Since lim (¢log) = 0 (VoL Lp. 196% vee Exacrurs 1 Disouse the behaviour of the functions (a) at — Sey, @) A Gott tt {in the neighboushood of the origin, ‘2, How many constante docs the general form of polynomial P(x, 9) of degree n contain?so FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES [Cuar. 3, Prove that the expression att bt tty + at vanishes at z= y= 0 to at leat the same onder aa p*— (28+ yl 4. Find the condition that the polynomial Past + nyt og in of exactly the sare order as 6 in the neighbourhood of «= 0, y = 0 (he, both 5; and are bounded 1, Are the following functions continuous at 2 oy tev Btiyis OSte | (ORbartE fe Eta viet) lel gf a|itt. (ay | yield zr Vern fl 6, Find a 3(c)(p. 44) for thooe functions of Bx. 5 which aro continuous, 3. Tar Derivatives oF 4 Foncrion 1, Definition, Geometrical Representation, Hf in a function of several variables we assign definite numeri- cal values to all but one of the variables and allow only that one Sections of w= f(s 9) variable, say 2, to vary, the function becomes a function of one variable. We consider a function u = f(2, y) of the two variables and y and assign to y a definite fixed value y= yp=c. The function u= f(z, yo) of the single variable 2 which is thus11) ‘THE DERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION st formed may be represented geometrically by letting the plane Y= yo cut the surface u= f(x, y) (of. figs. 6 end 7). The ‘carve of intersection thus formed in the plane is represented by the equation u= f(z, yo). If wo differentiate this function in the usual way at the point «= zr (we assume that the derivative exists), we obtain the partial derivative of f(x, y) with respect to x at the point (zq, yo). According to the usual definition of the derivative, this is the limit * Tim Loh wd) hoo h Yo) Geometrically this partial desivative denotes the tangent of the angle between a pazallel to the z-axin and the tangeat line to the curve seo Jee yo Tes therefore the slope ofthe eurface w= I, 3) in the direc tion of the x-axis. To represent these partial derivatives several different nota- tions are used, of which we mention the following: lim flo be ve) Sf eo 7 If we wish to emphasize that the partial derivative is the limit of a difference quotient, we denote it by 3a zp = falter Yo) = Halts Yo)- x a Hore we use a special round letter 2, instead of the ordinary @ ‘used in the differentiation of functions of one variable, in order to show that we are dealing with » function of several variables and differentiating with respect to one of them. Tt is sometimes convenient to use Cauchy's symbol D, men- tioned on p. 90 of Vol. I, and write x an Dabs but we shall seldom use this symbol. In exactly the same way we define the partial derivative of #1 (ee) i» point on the boundary of the region of definition, we make the resition that in tho passage to the limit the point (2 +, yq) mast always remain in the region.52 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES [Cuan Se, y) with respect to y at the point (zo, yo) by the relation ow y+ h) Be ro» Yo) lin Le tot = Slt 40) _ oe, ys) = Dy flew te ao ee u=f(, y) with the plane = 2, perpendicular to the z-axis. Let us now think of the point (z, yo), hitherto considered fixed, as variable, and accordingly omit the suffixes 0. In other ‘words, wo think of the differentiation as carried out at any point (, y) of the region of definition of f(z, y). ‘Then the two deriva- tives are themselves functions of = and y, ls, Dah = FEY and ule, n= sles n= LEY. For example, the function w= 2*4+ y* has tho partial derivatives 14, = 2x (in differentiation with respect to = the term y* is regarded aa a constant and so haa the derivative 0) and u, = 2y. ‘The partial derivatives of um aly are uy = Baty and ty = 2. ‘We similarly make the following definition for any number n of independent variables, Plena 4 te) jg Stat hey - 2 Bn) ~ f(r By «++» a) iy = falta Sy «65 20) = Defy ap +++ 4 Pr it being assumed that the limit exists. Of course we can also form higher partial derivatives of f(x, y) by again differentiating the partial derivatives of the“ first order ”, f,(z, y) and f,(z, y), with respect to one of the variables, and repeating this process. We indicate the order of differentia- tion by the order of the suffixes or by the order of the symbols Gx and dy in the “denominator”, from right to left,* and use the following symbols for the second derivatives: EO-B-n- ns (Gh) = ssaymfor= Po 3 (Z) i writen ‘In Continental usage, on the other band, eeay THE DERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION 3 a (Y)_# 5G) = apa fos Dink We likewise denote the third partial derivatives by a =f. Oa \aat] ~ 08 ™ a a) of ay at) = Wyo a ( & (ey and in general the n-th derivatives by a (a ot ie &) an So 2 (a ay wy (& ayaeen See bee In practice the performance of partial differentiations involves nothing that the student has not met with already. For according to the definition all the independent variables are to be kept constant except the one with respect to which we are differentiat- ing. We therefore have merely to regard the other variables as constants and carry out the differentiation according to the rules by which we differentiate functions of # single independent variable. The student may nevertheless find it helpful to study ‘the examples of partial differentiation given in Chapter X of Vol. I (p. 469 et seq.). Just as in the case of one independent variable, the possession of derivatives is a special property of a function, not enjoyed even by all continuous functions.* All the same, this property is possessed by all functions of practical importance, except pethape at isolated exceptional pointa + For an explanation of the term “differentiable, which implies more than thatthe partial derivatives with respect to 2 aad y exit, we p. 60 en4 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES [Cnar. 2. Continuity and the Existence of Partial Derivatives with respect to x and 9. In the case of fumotions of a single variable, we know that the existence of the derivative of a function at a point implies the continuity of the function at that. point (cf. Vol. I, p. 97) In contrast with this, the possession of partial derivatives does not imply the continuity of a function of two variables: e.g. the re awit 4 (0,0) =0, has partial derivatives v everywhere, and yet we have already seen (p. 46) that it is discon- tinuous at the origin. Geometrically speaking, the existence of partial derivatives restricts the behaviour of the funetion in the directions of the 2- and y-axes only, and not in other directions. Nevertheless the possession of bounded partial derivatives does imply continuity, as is stated by the following theorem: Tf a function f(x, y) has partial derivatives f, and f, everywhere in a region R, and these derivatives everywhere satisfy the in- equalities function u (2, 9) [he 01

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