COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS ‘The Basics with ApplicationsMcGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering Consuting Eators Jack P Halas, Souoher Methods University Joh Rng Michigan Sate Univesiy Andersen: Conpttionl Eid Dynamics: The Basis wih Aplin Andersen: Modern Compresle Flow Wh Hixoncl Perspect ‘Arras Ioan 10 primum Design ‘Bray and Stanley, Nondevractve Evolution: A Tu for Design, Maicring, dnd Some Bart: Induction to Dynamic Stems Anas Caps roils of Bory Comersion Daly: Palaing af Ecco Sens: A Manica Emini Approach Dicer: Enicring Design Matas and Prcesng proach Drie Lncar Control Sstoms Engineering ehert and Drake dna of Heat and Mass Transfer wards and MeKeer Fundamental of Mecha Component Design ‘Getnurt: Heat Comicon and Maus Dison Gino: Prinper of Composite Mtr Mechones amrock: Fundamental of Fad Fl Labriation Heywowd: lnorea! Combustion Engine Fundamentals Hinze Trblence Holman: Fxporimenal Methods for Egos Howell and BucknesFandomonas of Emgeoring Thermodynamics Hatton: Apped Mechta Mraions Savina: Pginering Conterations of Ses, Sin and Srench Kane and Levinnas Dyas: Theory and Applications Kays and Crawford: Comecive Heat nd Mass Taser ally: Fandomonate of Mechanical Viratons Kimrel: Knematis Anbsis and Sythe Kreider and Rol: Hoving ond Colin of Baling Martin: Kinemaris and Dynamics of Machines Modes: Radiative Hea Tansor Norton: Design of Machinery Plan: Pndomontas of Mecha! Desire Ravens Automatic Cond Enginering “tn Inaction tothe Pte Eleent Method Induction 10 Pha Stems Draies Shik and Mischhe: Mechanica! Engineering De SABE Aik Tory of ck nl ec Siler: Desn wi tenes fo hee Eine Soccer ad lent: Sepia Cong Ut Mana Bag es anderen: Ser! Opn Thies or ger with Applications o eee ark dived Tetons for Enns White: Viscous Fluid Flow oe Welds CADCAM Theory and Pracice McGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering Consuling Bator John D. Anderson, Je, Universi of Marland Andersoe: Conpttonal Fluid Dynamics: The Basce ‘Andton: Findon of derabramicy nh Pets tone feel cs a ‘ere ras fh en co i hee gaene aes ir iacan oe a ir! Pre "Azz and Heaps: Liner Cnt! Stem thats end Donaldson: Anais of Aron Sicnres. dn Inrotcncn Soe a Cat Se Kane, Ln nd Len: Sermon Sara en 8 hw my 2 nage HA hy Neat meres Bi a a ee sce Selleting: Boundary Loe theo ae Whee Spcegh DynamicsAso Avail form MsGrow il Schaum's Outline Series in Mechanical Engineering Mot outinesiade tse tary, defo sd nde of example problems sled in sepy-sep deta, and sappemenary probes wih ansxe. Reid ts othe cet list le Contr Mechanic Enginering Ezonomics ‘Enginering Mechanics Pd Mechs & Hydrate ‘Heat Taner Lagrangian Dynamics ‘Machine Design Mathematical Hondok of Females & Tales Operations Research ‘Slater € Mechanics of Matrls ‘Soogh of Matrls Preoretcal Mechs Thermadramic or Engineers Trermodramics with Choc! Aplations Schaum's Solved Problems Books Eich ie in his seis i compote nd expr sure of eed pablems with slats wont out in sep by-sep del Reed ties oo the crenata: 1000 Solved Prolens iv Calas 2500 Soted Poon ix Diff! Equaions 2500 Solved Proons ix Plaid Mohan dauter 1000 Seed Protein Heat Transfor 1000 Sobel Proons ie Linea Ager 2000 Safed Prolons In Mechanic Engnering Themodaamics 12000 Sate Pron in Numeral Anais. 200 Saved Prolems n ector Mechans for Engineer: Dynanict 100 Solel Proons iv Bctor Mecha fr Engineers: Star ‘valble at most ole Bookstores, o 6 a comple it files and pies, write New York, NY 10020, COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS The Basics with Applications John D. Anderson, Jr, Deparment of dospoce Engineering Univer of Marland McGraw-Hill, Inc. Now Yok St mis Son Fancies Achlnd Big) Canc Liston Lanna Metco iy thn Mow Now i Stn um Sian Sy Tigo Toma‘Storer ou econo wishiecesgre eta See eee cae brary o Cangrs Catlgig Paton Dae “ Con id rm ve wi elm te fac cto apc cp) | PtieddvemerDeaprecning, Tie Sai Wen ring ee SBN 7 21-4 ABOUT THE AUTHOR John D. Anderson, J, vas bom in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on Octobe 1, 1937 He attended the University of Florida, graduating in 1989 with high honors and Bachelor of Aeronautical Enginering Depre. From 1959 t0 1962, he vas a lewtenant and task scent atthe Aerospace Research Laboratory” Wright Paterson Air Force Base. From 19620 196, he atended the Oho State Univesity under the National Science Foundation and NASA Fellowships, graduating with & PAD. in acronautcal and astronautcl engnceing. In 1966 be joined the US. Naval Ordnance Laboratory as Chie of the Hypersonic Group In 1973, he Beare Chairman of the Deparment of Aerorpace Engineering the University of Maryland, and since 1980 has been profesor of Aerospace Eagincering st Maryland, In 1982, be was designated « Distinguished ScholTeacher by the University. During’ 1986-1987, while on sabbatical fom the unwveriyy Dr ‘Anderson occupied the Chaves Lindbergh chair at the National Ai and Space ‘Museum ofthe Smithsonian lnsitution, He coninies withthe Museum in a prt ‘ime appointment as special assistant fr aerodynamic. In ation to hs spot ‘ment in aerospace engineering, in 1999 he wae lected to the ficully of the Commitee onthe History and Philoropy of Science at Maryland Dr. Anderson has published five books: Gasdomamic Laer: Introduction Academie Pres (1970), and with McGraw-Hill, induction 0 Flight, 3 edition (1989), Modem Compresible Flow, 24 Edition (1990). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 28 edtvon (1991), and Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas ‘Dynamics (1989). He isthe autor of ove 100 papers a radiative gaadynamics, re ‘airy serothermodynamics, gas dynamic and chemical lees, omputtional Haid ‘dynamics, applied verodynamics, yperoni How ad the history of aerodynamics 1. Anderson isin Who Who America, and is Fellow ofthe Amen Insite of Aeronautics and Astonautics (AIAA). He is also Fellow of the Washington ‘Academy of Sienees, ands member of Tau Bea Pi, Sigs Ta, Phi Kappa Phi, Phi ua Sigma, The American Society for Engineering Edacation (ASEE), The Society forthe History of Technology nd the History of Seience Society He has recived the Lee Atwood Avan for excellence in Actospace Engineering Edustion frm the AIAA and the ASEE.‘To Sawus-Autin, Karuenne, AND Euizasent forall their love and understandingCONTENTS Preface we Part I Basic Thoughts and Equations Philosophy of Computational Fluid Dynamics 3 1 Computsionl Fit Dyas: Why? 4 12 Computer Fad Dynamite Research Too ‘ 13. Compustonal Fed Dynes at 3 Design Too 5 (4 The beget of Computational Fd Dynamics—Some Oter Exar B UAT Automobile and Engine Applications « 122. srl Manutcrng Appleone ” 163. Chol Engineesng Appicaons » 144 Envicnmenl Engng Applications » 14S Neal Arciecre Appin (Submarine Example) 22 1.5. Conta Fd Dynamics, What ts 12 B 16 ‘The Parone of Ts Book 2 2 The Governing Equations of Fluid Dynamis: ‘Their Deaton, x Diesssion of Ther ‘Manng, and'a Presentation of Forms Particularly Suitable to CFD a 21 Inmet Ff 22. Modal of the ow o 221 Pe Coat! Whine rn 323 Innes Psd Element 2 23, The Subsantal Dera (Tipe Rate of Change Following 2 Maing Find Element 2 24 The Drergnce of te loys Physiat Meaning 2 Tat A Commene rf 7at cones cont 25 The Conimiy Equa ° 43. DitoenceEaatons we PEORREPE Rae col Wome fiat a Spee {2 BbiGresagct Apache: Deion and Coats 5 EES ME SF Ft con ne org wah be {3 Eten Anas Sly 3 i 8 {ST Sahty Ame: Be epee te 253 Mole fn ihe Sl me Fad 4s Shey c 2.54 Ml sf an Iiiimaly Small Fil Element ‘Gumpepost 166 Neve i Pow ss ren as MRE Spite et One: Some Mainitinn 5 36 Magara em ote Eqns ne peers tpmat Conc e St tovactn 24m me a 32. Gnd somaton oe Egeins 2. Sry Gene sion fat Dames 22 Metre oe cy JE Eat eV owe NerSes ba Cre Ree The Tan Ven % Equations) 56. Srexhot (Cores!) Grids ie 222 ERE a intel Foy (flr Egan) 7? se cape 355 Slee ne en Ea i ‘Sn. Co St ii i = 29, Fil aay Conon ® io Ri ert tvongy Eun aay Stel uerost ws E55" Cotes cr ot Cera ao, Sek Fe, ‘i $8. ie oe x0 ian a 55. Some Modem Delopments in Ont Geeraton io samey 3 510 Some Moder Deveopent in Pnde-Vohune Mesh Caton Donat Mes tt» Res Cain 3 Mathematical Behavior of Partial Differential Nese Equations: The Impact on CFD os sat Satay sa 3 rnin 3 Peon BA 3h Heo Lina Pi iil Ege 97 3 ec ot ein te Caen of {6 ‘Some Simple CFD Techaiques: A Beginning 216 AS aia Toe Eyer Memes 12 ci teaetae ae 14 Sha Sa fe Dit eof G2 RO ie etige Fd Sint Emin ington Peal md _ 3 Whores mae B Compute Fi Bynes Sapper bre ‘ umerosr 2 34) pit Eee im (4 Sime Cmts: Vers Flow, Conia Frm 3.43 Ellipse Equations ur ‘Space Marching ns }U2 eben! te separ Ba Body Petco an 3 fae us $0) thas tem = 3s. wand Pebeme te £23 Soe ung a 36 Summary a 65 The Relaxation Technique and Tis Use with Low-Speod Problems a Inviscid Flow ne 64 ‘Rpt ot Mid Dita Dip: ii Part I Basics ofthe Numerics ty 2 HiT Leela 67 The Asin inten opis (AD Tose Es 2 ‘Te pee Conlon Teme: Apts 4 Basie Aspeets of Diseretization as wees Wace ow a» tant a Eat Sle Gmc o Se txanpeie 42 twedecten to Finite Ditirsacas 18 ‘Never utes Equaons ueiv xm 682. Some Comments oo Cent Diferncing ofthe Inconpressibe NaveSokes Equations The Need 683. The Phlosophy of he Presse Carection Method EAT Preme Corton Formla RS The Namercal Paced: The SIMPLE Alor 86. Boundary Condos for he Pressure Crecice Meta Guiperosr {69 Same Compare Graphic Techniques Used in CFD 692. Conlow Pas 693 Vator and Steamlie Plt 694 Seater Pe 695) Mah Poe 696 Composite Ps 169 Summary oh Computer Grice 610 Sanmary Probl Part III Some Applications Numerical Solutions of Quasi-One-Dimensional Nozzle Flows 7D odio: The Fort for Chapt in Pat 172 Inteduction othe Pasi Problem: Subsni Sperone asec Flow 13. CFD Selon of Subsonic Supesonic Ieuopic Nozze Flow: MacCoonack Tecnue 432 Inemedine Reals: The Fit Few Sep 23:3 Fat Nomen! Rens The Seady Ste Slsion 114. CRD Solution of Purely Sabsonie Beatpic Nozzle Flow 7441 The Sup: Boundary and nial Condon 742. Final Nimes! Ress: MocCormuk Techie 243 The Ansomy of Filed Sohsion 115. The Subsonic Sopesni Ietopie Nowe Solution ‘Revited The Use of the Goveing Eguons TS" The Base Equsins in Conservation Form 132 The Sup 153 Inemede Calolsions Te int Tine Sep 734. ‘eal Numeral Rest: The Stanly Soe Souton a 208 268 nm m re 28 2s 2 son 33 BS 30 36 Py MS 10 16 A Coe with Shock Capaeing Tet The Sap 762. The lume Tine Marching Poste ‘The New! for Ariel Vacoaty 163. Nema Ress 17. Sanmary ‘Numerical Solution of a Two-Dimensional ‘Supersonic Flow: Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Wave ladon tthe Phys Problem: Prandt Meyer ‘Expamion WaveExactAtlyea! Solaon 13 The Numeral Slaton ofa Paadi-Meyer Expansion Wave Flow Fad 31 Toe Governing Eons 132 The Soup 433 Intend Ress 134 Fat Renate Incompressible Couette Fl Solutions by Means of an and the Pressure Correction Method 51 tnmdicion 52. The Psa Problem and ts Exact Asli Slaton 93, The Numeral Appelt Cak-Neboson Teague 33 Te Numeral Fomaltion 532 The Sp 333 lemedite Res O34 ial Rese 4 Antes Numeral Approach: The Pesze Correction Met oat tee Sap 542 Rete 95. Summary Pree ‘Supersonic Flow over a Flat Plate: Numerical Solution by Solving the Complete Navier-Stokes Equations TOT odacton 102 The Physical Prot 103 The Namen Apposh:Faplict Fite Difference Soliton ofthe Toe Dense Complete Nv Stket Equsiens {O31 The Goveing Flow Equations 1032 The Soup 456 xt a m mm ” Me Ey Pi aie a 0 Bs as “o a rr 401033 The Finte-Difeence Equations 34. Calolton of Sep Seria Space snd Time 4“ 1035 lal and Bounty Condos s 104 Onion of oar Navi Stes Cole “ {Oat Oveniew 7 042 Tee Man Progam ast 1043. The MacComack Subroutine ‘6 1044 Fast Renae is 10S_ Final Name! Res The Sey Ste Slaton is 10s Siemay mm Part IV. Other Topics 11 Some Advanced Topics in Modern CFD: A’Discussion ” 1 neon * 112. The Comeraion Form of he Govemig Flow Equations Revs Te Jacohans of he Sys “0 1731" Syectaion o One Diner! Flow a 1122 esi Sanenary 9 113. Additonal Comieron fo toi Methods * 1131" Linerzatn of the Egon: The Beam and ‘ering Meo! 0 1132. The Mukiinesional Problem: Approxinte Fenton ra 1133 Bloc Tsingonal Mates 6 134 tern Summary =” 114 pind Scenes o TTI Foc Spiing ‘oo 1142. The Godano Apach so 1143, Grea Comment Pa 115. Send Orr Urwin Sehemes so 16 HighRescaion Sebenes: TVD nd Flex Liters 50 117 Some Rena 510 1a Motign’ Mend 33 119. Simeary it Froiee sie 12. The Future of CED sis 121" Tae Inporanee of CFD Revised 51s 122 Comper Graphics ix CFD S16 123 The Fue of CFD: Enhancing te Desi Proce 3 124 The Fuue of CED: Entacing Undewandig 36 125 Cctason 3 ix A. Thomas’ Algorithm forthe Saletan of a Trdiagona System of Equations References Index su eoPREFACE ‘This computational uid dynamics (CFD) book stu fr beginners you have never studied CFD before, f you have never worked in he arc, and if you have no ‘eal dca as to what the dicpin i all abou, the this Book for you. Absolutely ‘bo pice Knowledge of CFD is assumed on your par—only your desire to lam ‘something about the sbjet is taken for granted. "The author single-minded purpose in writing tis bok so provide a simple, satisfying, and motivational approach toward presenting the subject othe reader ‘who is leaming about CFD forthe fist time. In the workplace, CFD is today 8 ‘mathematically sophisticated discipline. intr, inthe universities it is generly consdered 1 bea graduate-level subject, the existing textbooks and iost ofthe profesional devlopment show courses ae pitched at the graduate level. The resent bok i a precursor to these ative. eis intended te “break thee” or the eer This book is unique in that is intended tobe read and mastered before you goon to any ofthe othe existing textbooks i the fed fore you take any Fepulr short courses in the discipline, and before you cadcavor to read the existing erature: The hallmarks ofthe present book a simplicity and motivation. 18 lntended o prepare you for the more sophisticated presentations clsewhre to give you an veal appreciation forthe base philosophy and ideas which wl then make the more sophisicated presenitions more meaningfal to you ler on. The mathematical level andthe prior backround infu dynamics assumed in this book are equivalent to tose aa college Senior in engineering or pial since. Indeed this book staged primarily for use as a one semester, senior evel couse in CFD, it may alo be useful in preliminary, first-level graduate course. “Thre are no role modes fora book on CFD athe undergrad level: when _you ak en diferent people abou what frm sucha ook should take, you ge ten {Gferentanowers. This book isthe author’ answer, a imperfect as It may be, Tomulted afer many years of thought and teaching experience. OF cour, fo achieve the goals sated above, the author has made some hard choices in picking {nd arranging the material inthis book. It sno sato-ohe-atextment of the ‘moder, sophisticated CFD of today. Such a weatment would blow the uninitiated reader completely cut ofthe water This author knows; he has seen ithappen verand over agin, wher a student who wants to eam about CFD is tty tured off by the advanced tremens and becomes unmotrated toward cominuing furber Inded, the purpose of ths book is to prepare the reader to benefit fom such avanced treatments at a later date. The present book provides a general Despective on CFD: its purpose sto tum yu, the reader, om 1 the subject, nt 10 fntimidae you. Therefore, the material i his book is predominately an intuitive, physically onented approach o CFD. A\CFD expert, when examining this book, naa st think that Some ofits "old-fashioned beease some ofthe materia ‘covered here was the sate ofthe atin 1980. But hss the point: the ade, ied land-proven ideas form a wonderfully inuitve and meaningfl learning experience forthe uninisted render. With the background provided by this book, the reader ‘an then progress 1 the mote sophisticated aspects of CFD in praduate school and in the workplace. However, to increas the slope of the reader’ leming curve, Stteofthoart CFD techniques ae discussed in Chap. 11, and some very reznt land powerful examples of CFD calculations are reviewed in Chap. 12. To ths fashion, when you Bnish the last page ofthis book, you are already wel on your way to the next level of sophisicaion in the discipline “This book isin pat the product of the author’ experince in teaching a one- ek short couse tiled “Iawoduction to Computations Fait Dyics" forthe past tn years atthe von Karman Insta for Fid Dynami (VKD in Belgium, fn in cent years also for Rolls Royce in England. With this experience, tis “tutor bis discovered much of wha i takes o present the elementary concepts of ‘CED ina manner which is aceptable, productive, and miata othe fst tine student. The present book dicey reflects the authors experience in this read “Testor gives special thanks to De. Joha Wendt, Digetorof the VKI who fist relied the ned for such an introdotry treatment of CFD, and whoa decade a0 falvanized te present autor into preparing such course at VK Over the ensuing ‘eas the demand for his “Introduction to Computational Fu Dynamics” course Ine been way Beyond our wilder dreams. Recently,» book containing the VK ‘ourse notes has been published, tis Computational Fld Dynamls: n Iraduton edited by loa F Wend, Springr-Verag, 199. The present book isa ‘really expanded sequel to this VKI book, simed at a much more extensive ‘resentation of CFD pertinent tp & onesemester classroom course, bul keping ‘within the basic spit of simplicity and motivation ‘Tis book is organized into four major pars. Pa 1 inteduces the basic ‘thoughts and philosophy associated with CFD, slong with an extensive discussion ofthe goveing equations of fuid dynamics. Iis vitally important fra stent of (CFD w filly understand, an fel comforabe with, the baie physical equations; they are the lifeblood of CFD. The author fel 0 strongly about this eed to lly understand and appreciate the governing equations that every effort has been made to throughly deve and discuss these equation in Chap. 2 Ina seas, Chap. 2 Sands independently sa “mini course inthe governing equations. Experience has Shown dat sudens of CFD come from quite varied backgrounds; in tur, tet ‘undertanding of the governing equations of Bid dynamics ranges across the vce aah speceum fom viualy none to adequate. Stadents fom te whole range ofthis Spectr hive contin thanked the author fr presenting the material n Chap. 2: those from te "virtually none” extreme are very apreiatve ofthe opportunity © become comforable with these equations, and those fom the “adequate” exteme ‘ae very happy to have an integeated presentation and comprehensive review tht Sips away any mystery aboot the mia of iffent forms of the governing ‘equation. Chapter 2 emphasizes the philosophy tht, to be good computational uid dynamicis, you must fist be a good Bu dynamic, In Pat I, the fundamental aspects of numerical discretization ofthe governing ‘equations are developed: the discretization of the pata) diferential equations (Gnte-dierence approach) i covered in deta Her is whee the base numerics se introduced and where several popular numerical techniques fo solving flow problems are presented. The fate-olume discretization ofthe integral form ofthe ‘Syuations is covered via several homework problems at Il consine applications of CFD wo four classic fd dynamic problems with wellenown, exact anlical sluons, which are sed ar a basi for comparison with the numeral CED results. Cleary, the eabward applications of (CFD are to problems that donor have known analytical slutons indeed, CFD Is ‘our mechani fr solving faw problems tht cannot be solved in any ott ws. However, nthe present bok, which is intended io inzoduce tho reader othe basic ‘specs of CFD, nothing i gained by choosing applications where ts dificult 0 heck the validity of the ress; rather everything is erned by choosing simple flows with arajtcal solutions so that the reader can fundamentally see the ssregths and. weaknesses of «given computtonal technique again the ‘sckground ofa known, exact analytical solution. Each aplication is worked in great detail so thatthe reader can sce the direct ute of much of the CFD andamentals which ae presented in Parts Ind Ui, The reader i also encouraged to ‘wie his or her own computer programs to solve these same problems nd to check the results given in Chaps. 7 10-In areal sense, although the abject of thie book 's computational uid dynamics, itis also a vebicle forte reader to Become more thoroughly acquainted with fd dyeamics per se. Tis author has intentionally emphasized the physical aspects of various fw problems inorder fo enhance the "eaders overall understanding In some respect, sian example ofthe adage that ‘student relly Tears the material of course N when he or se takes course N +I In tems of some aspects of basi Hid dynamics, the present book represen course Part IV dels with some topes which are more advanced than those discuss cali in the book bot which constitute the essence of modem siate-oftheart igosthms and applications in CFD. Ii well beyond the seope ofthis book to resco the details of such advanced topics—they avait your anion in your itu suis Instead, such aspects we simply discussed id Chap. 11 jst 0 give yous preview of coming atacons in your ftire mies. The purpor of Chap. 11 just 1 acquaint you with some of the ideas and vocabulary ofthe most modern FD techniques being developed today. Also, Chap. 12 examines te fre of|shone CFD, giving some very recent examples of pionering applications; Chap. 12 omen close the loop ofthis ook by extending sme of the msivational eas fie diconed in Chap “The mater of computer programing per se was anothes bard choice faced by the author, Should deta comprnter ings be lade in this ok as ana © ‘the reader computer programing and asa reeopiton of the importance of efficient land modular programing for CFD? The decison was no, withthe exception of & “computer listing for Thomas algorithm contained inthe solution for Couette flow tnd Tied in App. A There are good and bad programming techniques, and it tethooves the reader to become falar and adept with efficient programming. However, this nt the mle ofthe prevent Book. Rater, yOu ae eacouraged Yo tackethe applications in Part Il by Wriung your ew propa as you see it, and ot fllowing any resrbed ising provide bythe autor. This is essured io be Dt of your learing process. Te author wants ou o get your own hans "dity” Irth CED by wting your own programs is a Vil pat ofthe learning pocess at this age of your CED edoetion, On the aber hand, deed computer Using or all the applications discussed in Pa I ae listed the Solutions Manual fortis book. This i doe a sevice fo casroom istucters. In tam, the instore fe to releatet their sides any oral of thee listings as dcemed appropri ‘Something neds to be sid about computer graphs twas suggested by one ‘eviewer hat some aspects of computer graphics be mentioned in the present book. itis 2 good suggestion Therefore, i Chap. 6 an ene section 1s devoted to explaining and ilsrating the diferent computer graphic techniques commonly ted in CFD. Also, examples of resus presented in Sandan compuler graphic Format sr sprinkled throughout he book Something also needs o be sud about the role of homework problems in an insoductoy, senioelevel CFD course, and therefore about hamcwerk problems in the presen bok. This serious consideration, and one over which the author has tle fora considerable ime. The actual applications of CFD even the simplest techniques as addressed in this book--reque a sbstatiallearing period before the eer can actually do a reasonable calultion. Therefor, the early chapters ‘ofthis book, tere isnot much opportunity forthe veeder to prstice making falelations via homework exercises This sa deparre fom the more ‘ypc Undergraduate engineering course, where the student is usally immersed the “eaming by doing” process though the iwmedate asgnment of homework problems Insad he reader of tht book is immersed in fist leaming the asic ocabulry, philosophy, ess, apd concepts of CFD before he or she tally “neounter applications te sbjet of Part I Indeed, in these applications the ‘reader is nally encouraged to et up calculations and to get the experience of doing ome CFD work himself o hese Even hee, these applications are more onthe Scale of smal computer projects rater tan homework problems per se. Even the ‘eviewers ofthis book are divided as fo whether or not homework preblers should be incaded:exaly hath reviewers sad ys, but the thers implied that such problems ar not necessary. This author has taken sme middle ground. Thee are Fomeworkpblens in this Book, but not very many. They ae ineladed in seve chapters to help the reader think about the detail of some ofthe concepts being ‘iscused in the text Because thee are o established role models for 2 bok in ‘CFD at the undergraduate level for which th present Books simed, the author refers to leave the generation of age number of appropiate homework pbles {othe ingenuity ofthe readers and istsctors you will want o exercise your ov entity an thi eon This book is in keeping with the autor eater books in that evry effort has ‘been made to discuss de materi in an easyo-andestand witing le. This book la you ina conversational syle in order fo expedite Your understanding of ater that sometimes snot all hat eat to understand [AS sated cater, a unigue pect of this hook i i intended use in undergraduate progras in engineering and pial science. Since the seventeenth ‘ey, science and engineering have developed along two pall tacks: one — soarsrareas aster ero r | q J ii 14. THE IMPACT OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS—SOME OTHER EXAMPL1 Historically he eat developmen of CED inthe 1960s and 1970s was deve by the neds ofthe aerospace community. Inded the examples of CED applications ‘eseribed in Se. 1140 13a fom tis community. However, modem CFD cus serosal disciplines white the flow of fd is imporant. The purpose of tis Section Isto highlight some of these oie, momeerspace,anaicaiome of CFD.14.41 Automobile and Engine Applications To improve the performance of moder cats and tucks (environmental quality, fel Economy, et) te atonal industry has aceerated is use of high-technology ‘escarch and design fools One ofthese tole CFD, Whether itis te stad of te tetera flow ovr the body ofa vehi, ofthe intemal fw through the engine, CED is helping automotive engines Yo beter understand the physial 0% processes, and in tum fo design improved vehicles. Let us examine several such “Te caution of the extemal iow over aca is exemplified by the puts of sic pails shonin ig 18. The oui of theft hal of theca is shown bythe inca dsibuted over surface, and the white steaks ae the calculated paths of ‘aroussr partici moving ver ihe carom Ito ight These partic pahs were cule by means ofa rate-volame CFD algo. The aeons were made bea divert thee dimensional mesh dsibuted in the space around the car; that potion ofthe mesh om the contr plane of symmetry ofthe cristae in Fig. 1 Nove tht on ofthe coordinate lines ofthe mesh sited tothe body surface, 3 soled boundary-fited coordinate sytem. (Such coordinate stems ae dis: fst in See 57) Figures 18 and 19 ae taken fom a staly by C. Shaw of Jaguar Cas Lite (Ref. 58) Another example ofthe calulation ofthe eters Fw vera caste work of Matsunaga etal. (Re. 59 Figure 110 shows comours ‘of wom in the Row feld over a cat obained fom the fnite-ifferene Cakulations described in Ref, $9-¢ (Aspects of finieaierence methods ar {scussd trowphoot this book, begining with Chap. 4.) Here, the ealeulstions sre made na thee dimensional restangular gid a potion of whichis shown in Fig 11 The fundamentals of gd genertion an important aspect of CFD-—are {iscassed in Chap. 5 and special mention of carvan, or resangult, gids wrapped around complex thre-dimensonal bodies is made in Sec. 5.10. The calculation of the tral flow ise an intemal combustion engive such 4s tha sed in automobiles i exemplified bythe work of Giffin etal. (Ref. 60) Hee the unsteady Now field inside the eylinder of four stoke Oto-eycle engine war calulted by means of @ Sme-narching finte-diference method. Time Imarching methods are discussed in various chapters ofthis book.) The finite tierence gr for th sling show in ig 112, The piston crsshateed tthe botiom of Fig. 112 mines up and down iid the cylinder during the Satake, compression, power, and exhaust stokes; the intake valves open and close fppropntcys nan unsteady, recirculating flow eld established inside the {jlindr A caleulted veloity patter nthe valve plane when the piston sna the brotom of it stroke (bottom dad enter daring the intake stoke is shown in Fig TTT3 These eal calulatons were the Birt application of CFD t the study of flow16. rmenrr or comevones eem ae ‘eno evtngu sin gil wpe aad ca le io sho Fi [ee A Rg poi SS Tn ES ofa rinse expel} tee ce pie e ss eee ee Dt coeeet Al vee 2 2 eee ey ann eae ae ne bs nd cere ink kes pin ine inate cagu (Pow Re #9) ‘elds inside izernalcombnstion engines. Today, the massive power of moder CFD 's being applied by automotive engineers to study all aspets of the deals of ‘ntemal combustion engine fow fills inclading combasbon, rubulenee, and oping with the manifold and exhaust pipes ‘Asan example of the sophistication of moder CFD applications to gas turbine engine, Fig 1-4 ists a fnite-vokime mesh which = wrapped around bot the extemal egon ouside the engine andthe mortal passages though the compressor, the combustor, tho trbine, ete (Grids and meses ae dncusse in See 510} This complex mesh i generated by researchers tthe Centr for Computa ‘inal Fed Simulation at Mississippi Site Universi and isa precusor to ‘oupled extema-iternal CFD calelaton ofthe complete Row process associated witha gas turbine. Inthe authors opinion, this i one ofthe Most complex and ineresting CFD grids generated dat, andi leary underscores the imporance of CCFD tothe automotive andthe gas trbine industry 142 Industrial Manufacturing Applications Here we will give just two examples of the myriad CFD applications in manu facturing Figue 1.15 shows 2 mold beng fill with Iigid modular cas ion. The liguid iron Row field is ealeulated as function of time The gid on introduced it the cavity trough to side gates atthe righ, one atthe eater 2nd the eer a the bouom ofthe mold. Shown in Fig. 1-18 ate CFD rests forthe ‘elocity eld allt from a finite-wolume alg; resus ar sted for thre values of tie during the filing process: an early ime just afte the two Bales ‘a opened (op figure) alg later ime as the two steams surge sto the esi (Centr figure and yet Inter ime when the two steams re impinging on eachTenis epee at orf shor (btom figure. These calculations were made by Mampacy and Xu at he WTEM Founduty Rescach Center in Belgium (Re. 61), Sch CFD ealeultions sive a more detailed understanding ofthe real flow tehavior ofthe liquid metal fring mold filing and contbute to the desige of improved easing techniques second example of CFD in ant proces tht pram 0 the rmamaactre of ceramie compost materials. One method of proton involves the chemical vapor inflation technique wherein gaseous material Nows through + posse posting material on the sbeebs and evetalyfoming conto mar for the composi. OF prunes the vate and manner in which the compound sco carbie, SC, i deposited within the space sound theirs Recently Seige etal. (Ref 62) have use CFD to mode! Sic deposition in chemical vapor deponion eat The computational mesh dsebuton with the reactor shown n i, 116. The computed streamline pater inside the reactor is shown in Fig. 1-17 Hee, a gasous mote of CHSIC, and Hy ows into the reactor fom a pipe atthe botom. The ensuing chemical rection produces SiC, tic then deposits onthe wal ofthe reactor. The clelations shown i Fig 1.17 tre from a finie-volume solution of the goveing low eguations, and they ‘epreent an application of CFD as a research fool, contibuting information of ect application to manic, 1.43 Civil Engineering Applications Problems involving the seology of ives, lakes, estuaries, et, are alo the subject, ‘of investigations using CFD. One such example i the pumping of mud fom an underater ma cape reservoit as sketched in Fig 1.18. Here, 2 layer of water sitson top of layer of mad. and portion ofthe mad is topped and is being sucked vay atthe botom lef. This i aly bathe igure, the ober half Being miror ‘image, forming in ol symmetrical mud eservoit The vert line of symmetry20 ram cnemena ns mets tine wot isthe veri lin atthe let of Fig 1.18, A he mu is sucked aay athe bottom Jef crater is formed inthe mud layer which Als with water The only motion of the materi caused by the filing of his rater The computed velit fel in both the water and mud at 2 conan isto in time i shown in Fig. 119. where the ‘magnitude ofthe velocity vectors are scaled apts the arow designated aca “These results ae from the elclations of Tooman and Beano sgven in Ref (63. These results contribute to the design of undesater dredging operons, such asthe major ofShore dredging and beach elamation projec cared out at Ocean (Gay, Maryland, in the early 1980s. 1.44 Environmental Engineering Applications ‘The diepline of heating, airconditioning, and genes si circulation through tulding havea come under the spell of CED. For example, consider he propane Cpt rin pte fre ow CHSC a int chen apo don eae, (sheet) turing furmace sketched in Fig. 1.20, taken fom Ref. 64. The calculated velty field through this face shown in Fig. 1.2; the velocity vectors emanating fn ‘gd poins in a perpendicular vertical plane through the faraceare shown. These results ae fom the nte-diferenc calculations made by Ba and Fuchs (Ref, 64), Such CFD applications provide infomation fo the design of farmaces with i: creased thermal effclney and reduced emisions of pollutant “calculation ofthe flow from an air condor i lsttd in Fig, 1.22 and 1.23. schematic of room module with the al suply forced through x supply slot in the mide ofthe cling and return exh dct at both cmmers ofthe clings {ven in Fig 1.22. fnte-vohime CFD calculation ofthe velocity fi showing the air cicuation patter inthe room is given in Fig 1.23, These calelaons were made by McGuirk and Whitle (Ret, 65) ‘An intersting application of CFD for the eslulstion of air cunts throughout a building was made by Alama ta (Ref. 66). Figue 1.24 shows the cfs sation ofan ac building with wo symmetrical ales conned by 222 enero covers am i YP Pay pate mo pusagcway. Each half has lange glazed atrium, in Keping with a popular tend in !chtectral design. These aa, in connection with Sule lations for sr net tnd exhaust, provide @ natural venation system hich i comand ener ficient. A typical wintertime simulation ofthe velocity field ina cos seton through the enrance hal as calculted fom a Hatewolame CFD slgortim, i shown in Fig 125. LAS Naval Architecture Applications (Submarine Example) Computations uid dynamics isa major tot ia solving hydrodynamic problems associated with ships, submarines, taped, et. An example of CFD application {0 submarines is lsated in Fig 126 and 1.27. These cautions were made by the Science Applications Imenational Corperation and were provided othe author by De Nis Saeson of SAIC. Figure 1.26 shown the makina gi wd or the flow caluations over a generic submarine ul. (Such 2anal gris ae discussed in Sec. $9) The throesimensional Navier-Stokes equstions for an incompressible flow are solved including a turbulence model, forthe ow ove this submarine. Some ess for he lel steamiine pattem a he stem ofthe subi ae given in Fig. 1.27. Flow is moving from leo right Here we soe an example of & numerical experimen, fllowing the lilosophy st forth in So. 1.2. The upp all ‘ofthe figure stows the steamine wih a propel, and te once ball shows the Comme nm mars sa None ter ef 5) stcamlines without a propel In the later eas, How separation is observed atthe frst comer, whereas with the propeller no low separation takes place 15 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS: WHAT IS 17? (Oveston: What is CHD? To answer this question, we noe tha the physical aspects ‘of any fd low are governed by thee fundamental principles. (1) mass Is ‘sonsered (2) Newton's second law (free = mas > acceleration); and (3) energyis conserved. These fundamental physical principles an be expressed in terms of basic matematial equations, which inte most general form are ether integral uations or parti diferent equations, These exustion and ter derivation ae the sujet of Chap. 2. Computational uid dynamics i heat of replacing the imtegrals or the paral derivatives (asthe case may be) in thse equations with lscretized algebra ors, which nti are sed to bin mumbo fo the Sow ‘Shit ds a the oly Rt 8 ‘\ Cott ea pont shin i 12 lind by perinin f he Conc of Pac mR 5. On Blof the Ion of Mecha eld values at discrete pont in sme anor space. The end product of CFD is indeed eoleton of rumbers, im contst ta closed-form ealtcl oltion However, inthe lng run the objective of mos engineering analyses, closed orm ‘others, ia quantitative description ofthe problem, i, numbers (lt would be appropriate at tis sate to review the quote by Maxwell given atthe start ofthis shaper) ‘eat fe bt (Reiter te Counce he an of Mechanical nc fm e860 fea fe Ton of chanel Engr, Una Kon)iow ny vs lin fe ung sc in Fi. 124 (here permann of he Cn of en of Mes Ens fom Be 8 (eat amon of chat Page ted Kg) “oF a ations ee caso of er ow oer ner arn ll Coy fe See ppesons hana Caron 9) and BM Seren) ‘OF course, the instrument which has allowed the ractcl growth of CFD is the high-speed digital computer CFD solutions generally rege the repetitive manipulation of many thoustnds, even milion, of numbers, a ask thf humanly impossible without the aif of a computer. Therefore, advances in CFD, and it ppleations to problems of mote and more detail nd sophistication, ae intintely felted to advances in computer hardware, pariculay in regard to Sorage and xcuton seed. This is why the stongest fore driving the development of ne Supeeomputers is coming fom the CFD community. Indeod the advancement in large maifiame computes hasbeen phenomenal oer the past the decades. This is ncelyillarated by the vanition of relaive computation cost (or @ given calelton) with years a5 ploted in Fig 28, taken fom he deinve survey by step hs propio aH eos ptr oc! pall (Cattay 0 Saran Br Seen) np het | i of ae cot of gin ore yor Ur 1) ‘Chapman (Ref. 1). The dt points on this graph conespon to specific computes, staring with he venerable TBM 650 in 1983, conning hough the devslpment ‘oF the pioneering supercomputer, the CRAY I, n 1976, aad extrapolating fo the National Aerodyramie Simulate, facility which was ile at he NASA Ames Research Laboratory in the lat 1980s, Teds, even more spectacular advances aebing made in supercomputer architecure. An example of supercomputer isthe CRAY YEMR shown in Fig 1.29; this machine has 32 milion words of diet ‘resale conta memory with an additonal S12 million words avaabe in & ‘ompanion SSD (solid sate device. The execution sped clove 1 one gallop (G0 Roatingpoin operations per second his should be compared to te one ‘mepallop computes othe 1970s, Moreover, new concept in compute athe tov emerging, The eater highspeed yt comptrs were serial machines, apable of ene computational operation at tine; hence, al computations had 0 ein linet be processed. The finite speed of eles, cose 1 the speed of igh, poses an inherent itation onthe timate excaton speed of sich tel computer. To detour around this limitation, evo computer architectures afe now beng use 1, ecto processor, a configuration that allows sring of identical operations on tan amy of umes simultaneous thas saving both time and memory 2 Parallel procestors, a configuration tai ely two or more fly functioning ental processing units (CPUS), each of which can handle ive nsrucion ‘nd data seams and which can execute spare pats ofa program simul neously. working independently orn concet with her CPUS which belong 6 Vestor procesrs ae ia widespread use today and parle processors re raphy coming on the scene. For example, the new Connection Machines, which are russively pall processor, are now in ute by many agencies, Should you choose to sove ay problems in your professional fur using CFD, and these problems 1M of any sopisieaton snd complexity. the probably shih that you wil be sing either 2 vector computer 0& a parallel processoe » Why is CFD so imporant inthe madera sty and solution of problems in ‘uid mechanics, and why should you be motte t earn something sbout CFD? Tn estence, Se. I] to 4 were dovoed to some ancwerst his quesbon, but we ‘icy as the question hee in onder to give another example of the revolution that CED has wrought in modern fad dynamies—an example that wl serve as & Focal point for seme of our discussion in subsequent chaps Specifically, consider the low field over a bhntenosed boty moving at superonie or hypersonic speeds, as sketched in Fig. 130. The iterest in soch bois is driven bythe fact that aerodynamic heuting othe nose is considerably ‘led for blunt bodies compared to sharp-osed odes: thi why the Merry find Apollo space capsles were 50 nt sn one ofthe reasons why the space ‘hut asa Bunt nose and wings wih blunt leading edges. As shown in Fig. 130, there i srg, cared ow shock wave which stim font ofthe Blunt ose, ‘dace fom the nose by thedistunce 3, called he shack detachment dance. The falclation of his flow fel including the shape and location of the shook wave ‘eat one ofthe most perplexing ternyamic problems of the 19508 an 1960s Millions of research ‘dallas were spent to Solve this supersonic blunt body problem too aval ‘What was causing the dificoly’? Why was the flow field over a blant body roving a supersonic and hypersonic speeds So hard to calculate? The answer ress basically inthe sete shown in Fig, 1-30. The opin of low behind the ney rormal portion of the shock wave, inthe vicinity of the centerline, i= locally = =30 ncn comin nu mts subsonic, whereas futher downstream, Behind th Wesker, more oblique part ofthe ‘bow shock, the low is lealy supersonic. The ding ine between the subsonic and supersonic regions called the some in, a8 sketched in Fig 1-30. Ifthe lows sssumed to be inviscid Le, neglecting the dissipative transport process of ‘scosiy and thermal conduction, the governing flow equations ae the Euler ‘sation (0 be derived in Chap. 2) although thes equations are the same no ‘mater whether the Row i loaly subsonic or supersonic thet mathomaricl ‘behavior is diferent in the to regions. Inthe steady svbeonic region, the Euler ssuntions exhibit a behavior that is associated with ell pata feel tsutions, wheres inthe steady supersonic repion, the mathematical behavior of| the Euler equations is totaly dierent, namely that of fyperolc partial diferent ‘equations Such mathematical behavior, the definition of elit and hyperbolic ‘uations, andthe asacaed consequences Now field nabs are discussed in Chap 3. The change inthe mathematical behivior ofthe governing equations from clic in the subsonic region to hyperbolic in the supersonic region made. onssent mathematical analysis which ieuded bth regions vill imposible ‘america techniques hat wocked for the subsonic region fell part in the supersonic region, and techniques for the supersonic region broke down inthe subsonic flow Techniques were develaped for jus the subsonic portion, and other techniques (sch sth standard method of characte) were developed forthe supersonic region. Unfortunately the proper patching ofthese dierent techniques ‘trough the tansonic eplon around the sonic ne was extemely diet ence a5 late as the mid-1960s, no uniformly valid aerodynamic technige existed to tet he cee Now field over superonte bunt body ever. in 196, a breakrough occured in the bunt body problem. Using ‘he developing power of CFD at tht time, and enpaying the concept of ime dependent approach to the steady sae, Moret and Abbett (Ref 12) athe Polvecnie Insitute of Brooklyn (now the Poyteshnic Univesity) obtained a numerical, fnite-iference olution tothe supersonic bint body problem which ‘onsiied the fist proctcl,suughforwanenginecriag solution for this flow ‘After 1966, the Bln! body prblem was no longer areal “problem Indust 2h {povernmenthortries quickly adopted ths computational technique fr thet ‘blunt body analyses. Perhaps the most stking aspect f this comparison shat the supersonic blunt body problem, which was one of the most serous, most difcl ‘nd most researched theoretical aerodynamic problems ofthe 1950s and 1960s is today assigned as 3 omework problem in CFD graduate couse athe Univesity of Maryland ‘Therein lesan example ofthe power of CFD combined with an slgrthm which propery takes imo account the mathematical behavior ofthe govening Row ‘quatios Het isa answer othe questions asked eae, marcy hy Is CED so important in the moder study of ad dynamics, and why should you be motivated to fear something about CED? We have just sen an example where CFD aed proper algorithm development revolutionizd the teatment of given fow problem, "ung it roma virtual unsolvable problem into a standard every analysis ine ature of an extended homework problem. I i this power of CFD which is compelling reason for you to study the subject = oe eee | aces "Sons ree + [mii » (Cemerae J32 ron or cain nam as 1.6 THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK ‘The prvious diseussions have bee otnded o put you in & proper fame of mind regating the overall nature of CFD ant provide a cern mente t forge head "othe remaining chapter. As you ead on, you will ind sandvichod between the ‘covers ofthis hook a very bass, elementary, and tutorial presentation of CFD, cphasizing the fundamentals, surveying a number of soktiontecnigues, and ‘weatng various aplication anging front low-speed incompressible flow to high sped compressible flow. This book is truly an inact to CFD, itis aimed at the completely united reader, a reader who has ite or no experience in CED. There are presently sever! very good telson CFD atthe graduate lve such athe standard text by Anderson, Tanai and Pletcher (Ref 13) andthe moe tecen books by Fletcher (Refs. 14 and 15) and by Hinch Ref. 16 and 17)A once and readable presentation is given by Hffna (Ref 18). The present bok same a Tevel ne noch below tat of Res 13 to 17. Here we assume on the par of the ‘ear a physical understanding of general Aud dynamics equivalent to mos junior level courses in mechanical and aerospace engineering ad mathematical unde standing eguivalet wo basic ealeuls and elementary difretil equations. Ths ‘infeed to bea first book in he development of your tought processes in CFD. Tes purpose i fourfold: i sto provide Jon with 1. Some insight into the power and philosophy of CFD 2 An understanding of the governing equtins of Mid dynamics in forms poniclarly suitable to CFD 3. A familiarity with some solution teenies “4A working vocabulary inthe discipline By the time you nish this book, his author hopes that you will be wel prepared to launch into more advanced weatss (suchas Ref. 13-17), to begin reaing the erature in CFD to follow more sopisicated ste-oftheart presentation, and to begin the dst application of CED to your special reas of concem. Fone or more ofthe abou s what you Want, then you and the author share a common purpose Simply move on wo Chap. 2 and keep reading. ‘road map for dhe material covered in this book i given in Fig. 1.31. The ‘purpose ofthis bad map ito belp char the course for our thinking ant ee baw ‘he mater flows in some logical fashion. His the author experience ha when & stent fearing anew subject thre i tenency to get fos in the details and Yo lose sight ofthe big picture. Figure 131 isthe big pte for our discussion on CFD; we wil equetl be referring wo this roadmap in subsequent chipters simply 'otouch bae and to remind cuseves where the dts ito the overall scheme of (CFD. If at any stage you feel somewhat lost in ep to what we ae doing. please remember to refer to this central oad map in Fig 131, In aditon, locale rod ‘maps willbe include in most chaps provide guidance for the fo of eas ch chapter, inthe same spit as Fig. 131 provides gunance for the complete book: In paral, reterring to Fi. 1 31, noe tht blocks 4 through © sopresen some base thowghis and equaons which are common fo all of CFD: inde, the sere Wok 33 tri ofthe preset chaps eres by Hck A Afr hse Bsc aspects {Te undo and mastered we wl Ss he stand ays of dering te {Endamentlsqusons o akc tem amenabie to nian slston nek) {Sool she important saps of grid tnsfomaton eck). ABerdesebng, ome Popular eens Tor crying cu moa slatons ofthe squats {bloke will enera number of spec apicsions in some det noe {ler sae the wsigus (cla I-A), we wil ca the Suet Stato that aswel she fate of CFD (lok My Let us now posse 0 work ‘uray tzogh hs oad map, moving ono Bock B, wth the set the next chapter Filly, Fig. 1.320 conn diagrams that laste the fw of vious concep om art an et the applications css in at I-A thi tgs Simply noth hese ures exis we wlohe at appropiate ines in ‘ncnsons They are located hr simply for emveiene an 1 inte 0 30 thatthe algal ow fh ase ew ton Par and I the apltions ta oe c [pirate Sd See amine | = racer | [ARLEN ----| Sem | | somes ae ae Ceamoue > Caume > (Fin ano de temps Cone pain psn.) Pow feo ‘Sica Gt lw) (9 Poe meow ncn en ‘Seno to Po tern Cte Sm non eae omen mt) (Flot ken be Pato se wave ep (/) Fw of as Be mare ‘ed Sine Son ape elses tonSea36 pmoomy or mT RA ONE a> Came CHAPTER 2 THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS, OF FLUID DYNAMICS: THEIR DERIVATION, A DISCUSSION OF THEIR PHYSICAL MEANING, ID A ANI PRESENTATION OF FORMS PARTICULARLY SUITABLE TO CFD 4 fd i ay bay whose part sl 0 on ‘ce tmpresed on an by ing, are rnc 8? he ae to ais no mare causes of mtuM6 pe commnc nino nu mes hig tha ach a are both rad icin! um thi appenances To ts pose the pilsopers nay iat Ne det sting intend mar si ain hen st ‘el Some: for Nate i peed th simp ond acts no the pomp of 2.1 INTRODUCTION All of CFD, in one form or anober, is bas on the fundamental governing ‘sqations of fluid djnamics—the contin, momentum, and energy equations These equations speak plysice. They are the mathematical saemens of tree fundamental physial principles upon which all of fui dynames is based: 1. Mass is conserved. 2 Newon second fw, F= ma 13. Energy is conserve, “The purpose of this chaper i 0 derive and discuss these equations, "Te reason for aking te tme and spe to derive the goveming equations of| Aid dynamic in this ook istrefi 1. Because all of CED is base on these equations important foreach student 10 fel very comforuble wit thes equations Before continuing further with his ‘cher sta, and certainly before embarking on sx aplication of CFD 103 pareular problem 2 This autho assumes hat the reader ofthis book come fom varied background and experience. Some of you may not be fly falar wih thes equations ‘whereas thers may use them every dy. Is hoped ha this chap wil bese + lightenment fr the former and he an ineretng review for the later, |. The govering equations can be obtained in various diferent forms. For most acrdynamie theory, the particular Form ofthe equations makes lite difference Homever, fora given alga in CFD, te us ofthe equation i one fot my lead to sees, whereas the wse ofan alemate form may result ociltons (igles) inthe numerical resus, incoreat results o even instability, het oe nthe world of CFD, the various forms ofthe equation at of vill nee In turn, si imporant to derive these equations inorder to point out their Aieences and similaites, and o reflec on possible implications in their plication to CFD. ‘The reader is warned in advance that his chapter may appear tobe “wall 4- wall” equations. However, do not be mise This chapter one of the most permscron 39 importnt in the book tis deven by the question: If you do not physically understand the eating and significance ofeach of thee equations —indcod af «ach erm in these equatons~then how ean you even hoe to propery interpret the CCED results obsined by numerically solving thet equations? The purpose ofthis chapter is to squarely address this question, Here, we hope to preset the evelopment of these equations and w discus ther significance in such deal hat you wll begin to fest very comsorable with all forms ofall the governing ‘uatons of fid ow. Experience has shown Hat bepnningstdeos find these ‘uations sometimes complex and mystifying. This chapter i designed to take the ys cto hse ution fr he eran oreplace wth said unde sanding. ‘The road map for this chap is given in Fig 2.1, Notice the flow of ideas as Potayed inthis ap. All of Buid dynamic i based on the tre fundamental in ip Chap 2‘Physical principles itemized athe top lef of Fig. 2.1 These phys princiles are applied to a model of the fo; in tun, ths appication resus in eqtons which ‘2e mathematical sateen ofthe particu physical principles volved. taney the contin, momentum, and energy equations Each dierent model of the Row (orto Ie in Fig. 21) dirty produces a dierent mathematical statement of the ‘povering equation, some in conservation frm and other in noncenservaion form, (The distinction betace thee to diferent forms of te overing equations will be made clear by the nd ofthis chapter) Afr the continuity, momentum and energy cautions are obtained (he lage box atthe lower right se of Fig. 21, orm pariculaly suited fr use in formulating CFD solutions wil be detested {small box at lower right sie of Fig. 21). Final, the pysical boundary conditions and ther appropriate mathematical satements will be developed The governing ‘squatons must be solved subject to these boundary conditions. The psa spect ‘ofthe boundary conditions are fundamentally independent of the forms ofthe {goveming equations, and hence the box representing the boundary conitons stands by ise atthe Bottom of Fig. 2.1, unconnected fo ay othe eter boxes ‘the oad map. (However. the appropriate numerical form ofthe physical boundary conditions is dependent on the patcul mathematical form of te sovering cunts as well as the paricular numencal algorithm sed to solve thee ‘equation, Such maters will be discussed as they naturally are houghou it ‘book. The toad map given in Fig. 2.1 willbe helpful in guiding ou ow of des in {his chapter Als, wen you fish this chapter would be ful oretun fo Fig. 21 t help consolidate your thoughts before procesding to the next chapter 22 MODELS OF THE FLOW In obtaining the base equations of Bud mason, the following philosophy is aways followed 1. Choos the appropriate fundamental physic! principles frm the law of pyc, such as: a. Mass is conserved 1 B= ma (Newton second aw), ‘Energy is conserved 2. Apply these physical principles to suitable model of the flow. 3 From this application, exact the mthematial equations which embody such ysl principles. ‘This section deals with tem 2 above, namely the definition ofa suitable model of the flow. This snot tvial consideration. A soli body i rahe easy tose and ‘efineom th oer hand a uid sa “squishy” substance tht shad toga old Of Ifa solid body is in eanslaonsl motion the vloity of each pat of body ‘he same: on he oer hand a uid sa motion the Veloity maybe ferent a each ation in th Mud How thea. do we vsaiz moving ud sappy Ite fundamental physical principles? seonscems non 41 For contnium fui, the answer isto const one of the four models esrted below 22.1 Finite Controt Volume Consider a general Row field a represented bythe steamlines in Fig. 2.20. Let us imagine a closed volume deawn within a fate region ofthe ow This vole dies a conrol volume 7; acon! marfce $s defined asthe closed surface which bounds the volume. The contol volume may be fed in space with the Hud moving through it as shown atthe let of Fig, 220. Alematvey, the contol ‘volume maybe moving wth the fd sch that the same Hui particles ae always inside as shown at the right of Fig. 22a. I ether eae, the conto volume is a reasonably le, te reson ofthe Mow. Te fndamentl piel piciles are ‘pli te the Mui inside te onal volume and othe fad crossing the contol suece ithe contol volumes fxd in space). Therefore, instead of looking atthe ‘whole How field a oce, with he contol volume model we limi our attention to Sots = Ct ame a a aS aA ‘mag emt as Go oe 7 ‘tig wh nd oregon i oe tn ow vey eh de oon: o) Fe cml vlan pp; () nina i cena eh42 comme equ mona {st the fd in the finite region of the volume ise. The Auidlow equations that, ‘we drcly bain by applying the fandarental physical principles wo afte contol ‘lume aren integral orm. These itera forms othe powering equations ca Be ‘anipulate to ade obain paral iferential equations. The equatins so ‘sind fom the finite contol volume fixed in space (le side of Fi. 22a), in ‘ier integral or pal diferent form, ae called the conservation form ofthe oven equations. The equations obained fom the nite contol volume raving rth the Rt right side of Fig 22a), in eer itegral or pata diferent form, are called the nonconersation form of the governing eats. 2.22 Infnitesimal Fluid Element ‘Consider a general low field as represented bythe steamlines in Fig, 22h Let ws imagine an nfitsimaly smal fi element in the low with a ifferatialvolame «49 The fuid clement inftesimal inthe same sense as diferent calculus however, iis age enough to contain a huge umber of molecules vo that i can be ‘viewed aes continous medium, The fli element may be fxd in space with he ‘uid moving though as shown athe It of Fig. 22h, Altemivey, t may be ‘moving alongs srealine with velocity vector Veal othe flow velocity a each point Again, instead of looking a the whole flow field atone, the fundamental Blysica pancples are applied vo jus the nfatesinally small uid element elf "This application leads diets to the fundamenal equations in part diferent equation form. Moreover, the paricule poral difeeatil equations obtained ‘diely fom the fd clement xed in space (ef side of Fig, 2.26) are again the ‘omteration form of the equations. The patal diferent equations abained ‘dei fom the moving Hid element (right side of Figure 22) are aguin called the nonconseration frm of the equations. 223. Some Comments Inthe above discston, we have introduced the idea tha the governing esustions ‘an be expressed in two general frm consenation frm and nonconservation fanm-swithout even defiing what this wally means. Do not be fsered, At this stage in ou discussion, we donot have enough insight o understand what hese two dierent terms mean. The definition and understanding will come oly while we ae ‘actly deriving the different equation forms So jst hang on t this stage = ‘uicient just to be aware ofthe existence of these two dilfret forms Ts general aerodynamic theory, whether we deal with the conservation oF ‘noneansersation forms of the equtions is inelevant. Indeed through simple ‘tanipulation, one form canbe obsined from the or However, there are cases in CFD wher its important which form ve use, fo fat, the omenclatre which ‘sed 10 distinguish these two forms (conservation vere nonconservsion) his anon primanly inthe CPD literature. "The comments made in this section become clearer afer we have actualy 0 the sum becomes Ses [fossa Uf thisintepra is divided by A, the result is physically the tie rae of change ofthe extol volume, denoted by DY 1D, ta is, by PE A EI [ivan -as= | v-as em ‘Moving contol vlune wed fo the py sca neretaion the Snape feNote that we have writen the lside of Ea. (2.11) a the substan derivative of 7 bocase we are dealing wit the ime rat of change of the conta volume ay he volume moves withthe flow (we ate using the pictur shown atthe Hight of Fie 2.20), and this is physically whats meant by the substantial derivative. Applying ie ven tere fam esr cus tothe nit sie of Eq (211, we F-[ffo-wer en ‘Non, ets imagine hte moving cont ole in Fi 24s srk sal lune 4° sent Ssomig an infin ning Bd hae shsteon the igt of Fp. 220 Then Eq (213) cn be itn se 28 [Ifo yar ae Assume hat 37 i mall enough such that 0 Veena te se ve shoutout): Then mcg nb 23) etna? ada oto twenty (7 YOY Fm ey 2 ne he Dir) (ewer o = | Bain Fa. (214 ost. On thee si we ae the deren ofthe velo ‘om the right side we have its physical meaning. That is, . af Vis say eine tf cag oft velume ovine i cee, 241 A Comment 1s ue to agp he plysical meaning of he divergence of tbe velo in mind sen youate dealing hh oveming Row ston Inked is ere Gf anova pisopy wh ths storages you tence, an les Inagine hat we are ding wi a vesor vey Vi eesian 2) spe When a pure maemaianscesthe symbol VW, hie mind wl moa cy reper the fc tat ©" V = ux Ov + ids On the oe hand en Aid nant Ses the symbol VV. he he ind shoul er fhe Psi messing” Be of be sold ia se the smd te wor cine Fa of change the volume of moving fd cence nit une Idec ‘his phlsopy is extrapolated tal mathe squats and operators hang todo wih physical problems. Alvays kp in mind he phys eeaning of he seems in the equations you are desling with, I his vei, note hat inthe phrase computational i yams” the word "comptational is simply an adjective 0 “uid dynamics when you ae dealing with the discipline of CED, its vitly important to keep the phyial undersanding of ud dams uppermost in your ‘ind This, in pat isthe purpose of the present chapter 2.5 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION Lets now apply he philosophy discussed in Sec. 2.2; tha, let us (1) write down ‘funda physical prin, (2) apply it asuiable model ofthe Now and 3) ‘btain an equation whch represent the fundamental pysial principle. In tis testion, we will Wea the lowing case Ps! prise: Mase conserved ‘The governing fw equation which rls from the application ofthis physica ciple to anyone ofthe four mel ofthe fw shown in Fig. 222 and scaled the continty equation, Moreover, i this section we wll erry out i dell the plication of hs physical principle sing al four ofthe Bow modest in Fig. 222 and 6; in this way we bope to dnpel any mpsterysurounding the ‘vation of the goveming flow equation. Tati, we will etve the continuity ‘Sato four diferent ways obtaining na ret bon four diferent forms ofthe ‘ution, Then, by indirect aniplaton ofthese four ferent farms, we wl show {hat they ace all ell the some equation In ation, we wil make the idea of ‘omseration vera nonconsenaon forms elping to elucidate the meaning of| thse words, Let ws proceed 2.5.1. Model ofthe Finite Control Volume Fixed in Space Consider he ow model shown athe let of Fig 22a, namely, contro volume of| airy shape and of finite size. The volume ised in space. The surface that Sounds this contol volume is called the convo surface, as labeled in Fig 22a. The fuid moves though the xed contol volume, lowing across the contol safe This flow made! shown in more deal a Fig 2.5 Ata point onthe con save in Fig 25 the flow velocity eV andthe vector elemental surface area(s defined in See. 24) is dS, Alo let d¥” be an cemenal volume iside the ft con ‘lume. Applied to tht contol volume, out fundamental physical principle that mass is conerved means [Net mass flow ou ime rate of ‘of contol volume = decease of mass esa) Though surface S—nsde conte volume o s 2158) where and Car just convenient symbols forthe lef and right sides, respectively,50 pce veces "a Fite etslane d ace of Ba, (2.150), Fi, tw tian an expression for 3 in tems ofthe guaies Shown in Fig 2-5. The mss flow o ving ld oss ny aed sare (ap, i logan ean eis et eal po Hence the cement mas fiw sc he aca dS pn © Han) Pha dS = pV ds a6) "amin Fi 2 nate tht by comenton, aS aay points in dion ou the contol voume Hence, when Vaho ps oto econ ee stay in Pig. 25) the product f= 45 3 pout, Moron, when ¥ pts Sto Conlon, he mass ow is physical eevig te contol volume en ‘uo Herc, posite pV * 48 dees cto Iau, when ¥ pits {He contl volume, pV 8 is nau, Moroney, when V Fos wan the mss flow i scaly eting he ono oles es a iow Hence negaive/¥ "4 dens a now. The het mass few ou of te tie seek ‘olune tough th contol surface Sis the summaton oer a ele ase Tow expressed in (216) Ine li ths becomes 4 auc mee hh cal he let sds of Eqs (2150) an 150, ta [Jrv-as em Now somite it sie of E2156) and 2.15. The ms conned within th een Ylume di pd The tol tas mae te coal lose [foe The time rate of increase of mass inside is then allow In tur the inert of doeeas of mass inside ¥” the negative ofthe above; -alffro-< ew “Thus, ssbsating Bg (2.17) and (2.18) into 2156), we have . Bi ffoar [foes ow Equation (2.19) integra form ofthe continu equation. It was drive he ‘bss of finite contol volume fied in space. The fine aspect ofthe conto ‘ame shy the equation is obtained retin igral form. The at that the ‘contra volume was fae in space lads wo the specific integral form given by Ea. (2:10), whichis call the conservation form. Te forms of the governing Bow uations tat are dreay evan from a flow mee which sled in space re, ty definton, clled the consersation fom. "Now conser Fig. 2.6 which shows the sme four Now models given in Fig 22a and However in Fig. 26 the specific form ofthe continuity equation ‘bined divcdy from each model is displayed underneath the sketch of the Particular mods. In this subsection, we have Just finished the derivation of Eq (219) ating the model of finite coauol valume fixed in space. Therefore, Eq (2:19) is displayed in box {us below the skeich ofthis mode in Fig 26. Tn he folowing subsection, we wil derive the remaining thre equations which appear bones Ilo IV in Fig 3.6. Then, we will sho, by manipulation thatthe equations in ‘Your boxes are simply diferent forms ofthe same equation i, we wll connect AL four equation by the pats through D ilsrated in Fig. 2.6, As tated eal, ‘xe hope that these derations, along with te Bow of loge diagramed in Fig. 2.6, ‘nl take the mystery ot of the diferent forms of the goveting equations. 252 Model ofthe Finite Control Volume Moving with the Fluid Consider the fw model shows a the ight of Fig. 22a, nary, onto volume offi size moving with the id. This contol volume, as emoves withthe ad, § always composed of the same identifiable elements of mass Le, the moving onirl volume has a fed mass. On the other hand, as this fied mass moves ‘downstream, the shape and volume ofthe fit contol valume ean in general, ‘hangs, Consider an iafntermally small element of volume a9” iid ts finite52 tw common aun rn ours a. =e ‘eis i Pee Clee Ee (fied pe edie frm of he oti enn hp eet ow a {eSemte empha ral reps ey eset cc sie fe contol lute mas of is al ements es ‘Then, the total mass of the finite control volume is given by van [ffoar ex |i Ea. 220) the volume integra is taken over the whole moving contol volume However, kee in mind tht, hee, 8 changing the contol volume moves downstream, On the oe han the ysialpnepl tht mass conserved. when soplied to this model of the flow, simply sites thatthe mass in Eq. (220) is a constant a the control volume moves withthe ow Now recall the pyc ‘meaning ofthe substan dervatve a discussed in Sc. 23 i exposes the tine fate of change of any property of fd element a it moves with he Now. Sine our Site convo volume is made up ofan infinite amber of infinitesimally snl usd elements, all wih fed unchanging mas, and ence all with substantial evatves ofthese unchanging masses equal to zero, we can write forthe Hae foniol volume, from Eq. (220), econ enamen §3 DI ffoar—o aay [quaton 221) ian integral form of the comin equation, diferent fom tha txpresed in Eq. (2.19) It was derived on the ae of fiat conto vale ‘moving withthe fd The init aspect ofthe canto volume why the equation ‘bane dive nigra form. The ft thatthe conto volume is moving With ‘he uid leads to he specie itgral form given by Eq. (2.21), which i clled the -nonconseraton form. The forms ofthe governing How equation that are direct ‘band fom af model whichis moving withthe Now are, by deiniton called ‘he noneonervation form Equation (2.21) is displayed inbox Tin Fig. 2.6. Although he integral forms ‘of the equations in boxes 1 and II ae diferent, they can be shown by indiret manipulation (ath 4) 0 be the sume equation, This wll be discussed in Sc. 2.58, 25.3. Model of an InGnitesimally Small Element Fixed in Space ‘Consider the flow model shown athe eof Fig. 2.24 namely, a infinitesimally ‘sal element fixed in space, wt te Mui moving through t. This fow model Shown in more deal im Fig” 27. Hee, fr cowenience we adopt a cartesian ‘coordinate syste, where the velocity and density are fnctions of J. =) space Sd ume Fed ia this (y=) space fan iniatesinaly small element of sides ‘ds dy and ds (Fig. 27). There mass low tough this xed element, as shown i Fig 2.7, Consider the et abd right faces ofthe element which are perpendicular © thers axis, The area of thee faces is dy de. The mass ow trough the lef face is (pu) dv dz Sine the velocity and density are functions of spatial ction, the ales of the mass fa aros height fae wll be diferent fom that across ‘he let fac; indeed he difrence in mas Mux berscen the two Tacs is sin [okpin) a. Thos, the mace ow across the right fae can be expressed a {ar [Xp de The ase Row across oth the let and ight faces shown ‘in Fig. 2.7. Ina simile vein, te man Now trough oth the boom and tp aes, ‘hich re perpendicular to they axis i») de ds and p+ (p00) oy) dd, respectively. The mass fw dough both the font and back Taes, which are Perpendicular to the = ais, s (pw) de dy and {pw + (Op) de) db espe tively: Note tat uy and w are postive, by convertion, in the postive x,y and = Alzecons, respectively. Hence, the amos ia Fig. 2.7 show the combust the inflow and outow of mass through the sides ofthe xed clement we denote net futfow of mass as a positive quantiy, then fiom Fig 27, we hive Net ousow in x dvetion [ow a = dr Ba$4 we oacine enn ew AS yeep te 22 apiece ™ c Cont ey los 22 ae apa centres Comiy (pride os ft neesily al elnet aed pce a agin oe ms ie he ‘bu eof came that of ot oe Net exp tn y direction ai ” [oe cae dds = A ay a tn sn a [ow Ba ct d= 2 aa Hence, the net mass flow out of the element is given by 2), lm Me, XN ye gay Thetalmaso fun eines eal elements (de phe the tof neue of mat ee cemest gwen ty et mas tow = [208 commen $5 » e Time rate of mass increase = Pd dd) (22 “Te physical principle that mass is conserved, when applied to the fed clement in Fig 2, canbe expresod in words a follows the nt mass fo ota the element ‘mst qual the ime te of decrease of mas inside the element, Denoting the mass ‘eeease by negate quanti ths sateen canbe expressed in tems of Eqs (222) and (228) a8 ou), oe. ON yt = 2d tp Ke er ay r= Ba dt) : an how, on), Kon a cs ta E522 he term in ak ingly VG), Ths, (220 bcos +0-(pv)=0 225) Equation (2.25) is a pasa diferent! equation frm ofthe com equation. twas dered on the basis ofan initially ema element fed in space. The Infinitely mal spect ofthe elements why the equation is cbained diety in pata diferente equation form, The ft hat he clement was fied im space leads to the speciic diferent form given by Eq. 2.28) whic is eld the Conservation orm. As tt eat, the fens of the governing ow equations tht {ue dec obtained fom 2 fw’ mode! which s fixed in space ae, by dition called the conservation for. Equation (225) i displayed inbox In Fig, 26. 1s the Frm that most ety stems ftom he mode! ofa nfitesinally sal clement fixed in space: On te other hand. it cn also be obiined by indret manipulation fom ether of the integral equations ciplayed in boxes 1 and Il, as will be shown in See. 22 o (229 254 Model of an Infinitesim Element Moving with the Flow ‘Consider the flow model shown a the ight of Fig. 2.26, namely, an infty Sal fi element moving ith he ow This ud elemeat has a fixed mas, bt in tener ts shape and volume wil charge a it moves downstea. Denote the fined fas and variable volume ofthis moving Mui element by Sand 6¥, espectvely ‘Then ly Small Fluid fn= por (028) Since mass is conserved, we can sate thatthe time rate of change ofthe mas ofthe fuid element is zero ae the element moves along wih the ow. Invoking the Diyscal meuning ofthe subsantal derivative disused in Sec. 23, we hivexin : oti. ony B4P), ay De, T) ‘Dr Ce eoainor ne: ' oe [1 ber Be 2 (tp/0s) dito the ight (he postive x direction), These dtetons ‘se comistent withthe convention that pose increase in al tree components of ‘oc and osc a the poste ietions of the ave, For example, a Fig 2, wnscoes inthe posite dein, Therefore, concentrating on face eh {shigher just above the face than om the face; this canes “agua” ation which ter pl he fd element a the positive deco (to the ght) a8 shown in Fie 28 tatu, concentrating o fice aed is lower jas Beneath the face than on the fice ths esuss a retarding or raging action onthe Mid element, which acts in the negatives direction 10 he let) as shown in Fig. 2.8. The detons ofall the ‘ber vocous stones shown io Fg. 24, cluding canbe Justi in a Tike evens 6 ce abt + tale de tin the positive «direction. On fae ade, which is Dapendiclar tothe axis, the oa fees the x drction are the presure force Peete which aways act Inthe Seon nthe id eet, and ty dd thane negatives drsion, In ip 28 the reason whys 0 ace ae 810 Tyee ranges onthe consention mentioned eae forte dieton of increasing Gocty Her, by comenton, a positve crease in takes plac in the positive x Untoa Hence, the value oft just tobe fet face f ade is smaller han the vale aioe the fave ie Asa res the wtcous acon ofthe oem tress 2 a & ction on face wdc, there i a raging action toward the Ie thot warts 0 ‘au the movon ofthe hd element, n costs, on face Pg, he pressure force Prec i) ay de preses inward on the uid clement (in the negative 5 fection). and because the valve of ust to te right of the fice og i zer ‘han th valve ofa onthe face there sa “suction” dv othe isons noma Sess Thc te spl he element othe sight inthe postive x ditecton) wih free ul 0 (ae * Bele el oy ‘With the above in mind or the moving Mud clement we can write mar - F(a) [lee Bee) free (oe ea) lve [-+F4)--ee 0 ‘he wal fore in the x direction Fis given by the sum of Eas, (2.45) and (2.46) Alking. and cancelling teams, we obtain Wp , dtu , 9 nen ee Gey Equation (247) represents the lead side of Fa. 2.4), "Tusummarire and enforce te physical significance of the force on 3 moving ‘uid clement te as display Newtons second win digramatic form a follows: 2a ace cero aM) Considering the right-hand side of Eq (244, eal thatthe mass of he Bid cement i ix and i equal 0 m= pdedyde (28) Also scl that the acceleration of the element isthe time rate of hangs of tssinny the ine rat of change of since we ae following a moving fi le ‘hse ae of cane spn by he tsa dete Hs ee at 24) Combining Eas. (244) and 247) w (249), we obtain Du Op , Bia, Bee , Orn [aE] sm hich the x component of the momentum equation fr & viscous ow na simiar fashion, the y and = components can be obtained as 2.508) and (2.506) Equations 20a) 10 (2.50) ae the x,» and = components, respectively, of the ‘momentum equation. Note tht they ae paral dierent equations obtained directo a aplication ofthe fundamental physical pincpt toa notecnal uid element. Moreover, sine this uid element is ving wih the fom, Ene (2.50 o (2.80 ae in nonconseraton form They reser equations aad soe tale the NaverSoles equations i honor eft men the Frenebah M Raiee and the Englishman O, Sokes—who independent obtained the equations nthe fist half ofthe nineteenth cera “The Navier-Stokes equations Can be obtained in conservation frm as follows ‘ing te etd sie oF Eg, 2.504) ins of the dean of he sal bu, de pet 9M pve ash ‘Ae, exuding th flowing date, ou), 2° or PO op sod narangig, we have 24 _ ton) a am) Recaling the vector identity for the divergence of the product of a sear tines a veto, he have voy) =n -(9V) + (0V) Tu . Wi-ve=8-pv)—u0-") a8) Sin 230 8) oe | Pete 28 a6. ¥) 49-4) oe ferv.yy] +e as #9) [Rrcgw]eriny — ea “The term in bracket in Eq, 284) is simply the left-hand side ofthe continuity ‘uston a Bq. (2.25); hence the em in rackets 20. Thus Eg (2.54 vedues © Be Noe opal 2.35) Pe Met 0. uv) ass Subsite Eq. 55) no 00 [20 so. uvy = 22 Fe Faey |g Poo (guy = M4 a Aon Msg, | 560 Similar, Eqs. (2.506) and (2.50) can be expressed as aim) Op , Om Bn 5 a ee ogy) = 4 Bey agg, | (ay (tpn) Op, Bu, On eC oe tei] 286) 2) 9 (pw of sons 5) (5) ae ve Stks uo in comer frm ‘ami teeth ce, Nosed a te ina ad i oto net fi, why tons ach ie ‘xia? nwt Buc nich ¢ not porte oe wey {nd oe pomewaan fi; od ow iso cape) In val fac antdjan pte ad sone sand tose ewan ch Aid Ses 4s onc (asta) (2578) ase) asi)(ste) em ee he mols visstycoeficet and Zi he second vosy Sri sic mae ts bytes tet tani wich suey db wish til nt een tel cote te pena ty Subsite Fs (257) into 56, ve tain he comple Nv kes ccutons a oetion fans WaT, OT Beas ae rnlie ve) 5llG*S)] 2b] re | osm ae) ® | Or gis = (-veat) [o+2)] 06 | eam ais Alom) , dow!) oS ae be] + b(5-2)] 19. vea08) op Loo + 2.7 THE ENERGY EQUATION In the preset section, we epply the tid physical principle a teins a he ‘eionng of Soe 2.1; namay. os ae (2.58) Physical principle: Ene i conserved In keping with our dation ofthe Navier-Stokes equation ie the momenta ‘equation in Sec. 2.6, we will use again the flow model of an infitesimally small fui element moving with the fw (shown at he ight of Fig 228). The physical itcipe sated above i nothing more tan the ist av of thermodynamis. When [pple the How model fai lent moving with he om he Ast ses tt Rate of change Net x of Rate of work done on (Gf energy msde = heat into” + clement do Mid element” clement” * body and surface Frees or e9) A oe c where A, B, and C denote the eespocive terms above ‘Let u it evaluate C; tht let ut obiin a expression fr the rate of work one on the moving fi element de to body and sufice foes. It can be shown that he mate of doing work y a fore exened on maving body 6 egual the product ofthe force and the component of velocity ia he drction of the force (ee Refs. {and 8 for such derivation). Hence the rate of work dane bythe body force tuting on the fad element moving ata Velocty Vis of V(t dy de) ‘Wish sogard ote surface forces pressure pus shes and normal tess), consider jst the forces nthe» direction, shown n Fig. 24. The rate of work dove onthe ‘moving Hid clement by the presure and shear forces the x diecton shown in Fig 2 i simply tex component of veloc, , mulipied bythe forces; eg ob fice ahod the ate of work done BY &y dtd uty da, wth ilar expressions fa the other faces, To emphasize these energy considerations, the moving fd ‘ements redrawn ia Fig. 2 10, where the ate of work done om each Tce by surface forces in the x direction is shown explicitly. To obain theme rate of work done 00 the id element bythe sarfice fore, noe tha forces in the postive ¥ deton do postive work and tha force in the negative» dietion do nopative work. Hence, Comparing the prestre fees on fice adhe and begin Fig 210, the et rate of ‘work doae by pressure inthe x direton Is fn (wa) 80 de ee Ge Saas ‘ay Considering al he srice forces shown in Fig. 2.10, the nt rte of work on he roving fhid element de t these forces spl Aw), eta) , Bsa), eta) 4 ay ge [Soe Ge i aaa ‘The above expression considers only surfice forces in te x diction. When the safe forces in they and = directions are ako incladed, similar expressions arefs steno wy" wo ear ay btn nota the nett f work one on he moving id element i the sm of the suc fee conbutions nthe nd scons 6 wel te body fee contin. This i dened by Cin Eq (289) and gen by = —{(20e) , 200) , op) Dla) cn [CaP GP) «Mae Bn), ivi) , Biren), Auto), wr) ote ty tae te ea 120M gasp vee an 0 (20) at eft Beem on ed ie snp ry {tus tam out tention 8 in Ea. (25 i the et ao est ito clones. Ths hat fx dew (1) lumen heating sich a bsp oe rnvon of aio and) ent baer acs te src ae cera ate eral ein. Dene ft foes en mt ms. Nong that th mae ote moving hid Senet Fg Me Peta de we ath earns Volumetric heating of element = dr dy de 261 Jn Fie, 2.10, the heat transfered by thermal conduction ino the moving uid ement across fae adhe i ged de, where, is the het tented he + ‘ection pe unite pe nit rea by thermal conduction (The heat aati & siven dteston, when expressed in dimensions of eneray per unit time per wi area perpeaiulr tothe ieton called the hot farina ieton. Hee gs the Fein hex drction) The heat tansfered out ofthe element across face be ise + (g/t) ds) dad Ths, the net eat wasted inthe x ieton imo he fh! element by thermal conduction is fa (oa) ra ‘Taking into account beat transfer in he y and = directions across the oer faces in Fig 210, we obtain Heating of Aid element by = thermal conduction 2, 8 a ay ae ) ac dy de (262) The term & in Ea. (2.59) i the sum of Eqs. (2.61) and (2.62) r[o-( The heat fox due to thermal conduction, ftom Fourier’ law of heat conduction is proportional to the los temperate graen ee) whore Kis the themmal conductiviy: Hens, Bq (2.63) can be writen Toes 2 (att) 52 (407) , 2 (,0r of 80) 202 2(DJaoe 0m Fenty eto a 2) es eine lof ange oft senate atten acheter at Sunstein Zea anc neces gee oak Se ety nace hea tt ape of Mioamnc ED nous anteaters Sopeal me alga yo ara aaa ag SASSO oe a pk eth esos es con Timautaa tine Dee aioe grt ce oe amen ace soa hs eae gh se Sot ey Sts awa a woe ese Saere Stenon Tan ies tee oe See isdn Ce ee as os So caiac sh cfm dvds ee eee otaanens amerioemio mace Searels ars acm ieee ee on ene ange Fee tae acs yan bmi ey ate eet Tonle alt il ace nt Sy Souicac sr Sanat rane ns rss‘ov et o E9259) and examin he erm beled We sr now considering & gsscous medium that sin motion; Le, the energy term labeled 4 cones the nergy of a moving uid element Hence, hea lent hts tw contbutions 1 Ii enemy 1. The inema energy due to random molecular motion, e (pe nit mss). hiss the enery we hive described above 2. The kinetic energy duet rnin tion ofthe fi clement. The kinetic coor per unit mass i simply V2 Hence, the moving Bud element has both internal and Kinetic energy: the sum of those two isthe “tal” energy. In Eq (2.59), the energy inthe term A is he total energy: i the stm of the itera and knaic energies. The ttl ene 2+ V2 Since we are flowing s moving element, the ine rat of change of ‘otal eneray per unit mas i given bythe substantial derivative, Sine the mass of the fad element is pd dae, we have sar (e aera 26 “The final form of the enesy equations obained by substi Es (2.60), (2.64), and (2.5) ino 2.59), bisning als) R03) 305) 20%) | Dep) Oop) _ twp) , utr), Hut) , Blut) , Aven) , Arey) 4, Ota) , wea) , Bo) , Awe) a 7 * ay tae wey (2.66) ‘This is the nonconsration form ofthe energy eatin; als note that itis in tems ofthe otal energy + ¥72. Once again the nonconservain form esl rom he ‘application ofthe funtamental physical principle to 2 moving Mud element "The le-hind sie of Eq (266 voles the substantial derivative othe total ‘coergy, De + V2VDt. This is just one ofthe many diffe forms ofthe eet ‘quston; it te form that comes dieetly fom the principle of conservation of ‘ergy applied a moving fluid element. This equation can be ely modified ia ‘wo rsp, as flows 1. The et han side can be expressed in ters ofthe internal enery¢alne, othe Static entalpyb alone, of etal eathpy hy = h+ 12 alone In each case, the right-hand side of the peinnt equation slo changes. [For example inthe next paragraph we will amine the necesary manipulations to change Eq (2.66) into one involving De-De} 2. Foreach ofthe diferent forms of the energy equation mentioned above, here ae ‘both nonconsevation as well as conservation forms, The manipulation 1 convert one form into the other i also discussed Below, ‘Lets start with Ea. (2.66) and first ast inthe Frm dealing wih e ony. To sccomplish tis, multiply Eqs. (2.500), (250), and (2.50) by 1% and, respectively Op 4 Otay Btn y Dee Bene ee ue sh 267 4 yo ye 4s oy (28) ay ae Toy ae Be Me Mi 5M pale (2.60) tele + why + wh) (2.70) ‘abrseting Bq (2.70) fom (2.66), and noting that pf V = plu, + vf, + wh. we Bh a Di (He) yo) + oe) 0,50), Oe Oe, He) aaa py ty ry eH wot ng tog ou, Ow ture | em Equation (2.71) i form ofthe enegy equation where the substantia derivative on the lefshand side is tty in ems ofthe itera enegy only. The Kinetic eneay nd the body fore tems have dropped out indeed, porta to emphasis tatthe enegy equation when writen in tems of e alone doesnot expliily contain the body force Also note hatin comparison with Eq. (2.66), where the shear sect and normal stress multiplied by velocities appar inside the» and = derivatives, in Eq, 271) the viscous stresses appear by themselves, multiplied by veloiy gradients Finally, we note that Eq. (2.71) isin nonconseration form; the ‘manipulations which resulted inthe derivation of Eq (271) fom Eq (2.68) do not change that situation. By similar approaches, the ener equation can be couched alo in tems oF A and h + 772; the derivations ae lt 4 9 (or your Tesi tine) [ets take Ea. (2.71) ow stops furor. Recall rm Bes (2.574) 10257) that y= Sys an Ay ™ ty [Ths symmetry Between he Shear Sees is nscesary to keep the angular velocity of «Mud element fom gong to ify ae the volume ofthe clement shrinks t a point—it i associated with the moments ener on the fui element See Selihtng (Ref. 20) forthe deals] Hence, some ofthe tems in Eq. (2.71) can be factored, yielding (+5) +3 (3) eal) cafe on (BR) + 00(So 22) Appealing agin to Es. (2 57a) to 2.57/)inoder express the viscous tess in femme of velocity rac, Ba. (272) canbe writen as AG) BBB) (yA) 3) + rR) «(B-3)] | em ae ae) ae By, Equation 2.73) i a form ofthe energy equation completely in tems ofthe How: field variables. similar substation of Egs. (2572) to (2877) ean be made Eq (2.60) the resuling form ofthe energy equation in werms ofthe Now-feld ‘alls is lengthy, and to sve time and space it will not be given hee ‘We emphasize agin tht only the itera eneay appears in the ethan side of Bg. 2.73). Our derivation leading to Eq. (2.73) san example of how tel side neem scone 73 of the energy equation can be couched in terms of diferent energy forms—for ‘sample ines of tual energy it Eq, 2.6) and in terms of intemal energy in Ea {2.73, Ae ested ere, ther forme in ems of static enthalpy hand ttl enthaipy 12+ 72 can be obined by similar manpulaions. (For example, sce Re. 2 for these other forms) This is one of the aspects ofthe energy equation mentioned ‘sre, namely hat theft and side canbe expressed i terns of diferent enesy firme; foreach ofthese diferent forms, theres also iret fom of the ht and side ofthe energy equation. Now le us adress another aspect ofthe eneey ution aspect comyon tthe continuity and momentum equations a5 well mel that the energy equation canbe expressed in conservation form The forms ofthe energy equation given by Eqs. (2.66), 271), and (2.73) ae expresed in terms ofa substantial derivative on the lefchand side, hence these are poncon Sensation forms. They stem dielly fom our model of a moving uid clement. However, with some manipulation, all these egutons can be expesed in oneeraton form. Let us enamine this fr the ease of Ex. (2.73) Consider the Tefthand side of Bq. (2.73) Pom the defn of the substantial denvatve, (74) However, o (2.75) rom the vector identity concerning the divergence ofthe product of salar times 2 =e -(0V)49V-Ve (GeV) ~€¥(pV) (276) Vs (e¥) o pv-ve Subsite Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76) into 2.74: ete 2209 veov] seg) am “The term in brackets in Ea (2.77) is 2, fom the contnsty equation, Eg (2.3). Thus, Fa. (277) becomes 1 Be = 8B 6 o.(pevy (278) Subsinting Eq. (2.78) into Eq, (273), we have14 onan vnuron or ri mics eee) sed | hh G)'G) | 0) Gay c-3)] [om Equation (2.79) ithe conservation frm ofthe energy equstion, writen ntrms of the interal energy. Repeating the steps fom Eq (2.74) to Eq (2.7), except operating on the otal coery +772 instead of just the internal energy e, we obain (e+ )]oe-f(e)y] em Substinting Eq. (280) into the lefthand side of Eq, (2.66), we obtain rp) a BaF te D)- ey $()- Aaa), Hut oe oy Aree) , Bra) og + Bee) Meteo | (2st) uation (2.81) isthe conservation Frm ofthe energy equation, writen in terms of toal eney e+ 22, [Not thatthe manipulations required to change the nonconserstion form to te consevation form change only the leR-hand sie ofthe equations the ght Ind sides remain he sare. Fr example, compare Eqs. (2.73) and (2.79) Bosh are in terms of internal energy. Equation (273) sin nonconsersation form, and Eq (2.79) in conservation form. The le-hand sides are iferent ors, but he ight hand Sides are te same. The sume comparison can alo be made between Eqs. (2.66) and (281, 2.8 SUMMARY OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR FLUID DYNAMICS: WITH COMMENTS, By this point in our discussions, you have seen a large numberof equations, and ‘hey may seem to yout “al lookalike” Equations by themseves can be tiring, nd {hs chapter would sem to be “all-o-vall” equations. Howeve al of theoeical td computational id dynamic is tased om these equations, and therefore is Shsolutely essena! hat you ae fui with them and that you understand thet ‘physical signcance. Thats why we ive Spent so much ime and efor in denving the governing equations. ‘Considering this time and effort, itis inpotaat wo now summarize the important fom ofthese equations and to sit back and digest them. First of all, now iss good time wo reflect back tthe chaper oad map in ig. 1. We hve alfeady traveled our way dough about 80 percent ofthis map. Starting athe top of Fig 21, we ave taken the thre fundamental principles on which all of fuiddynamis {sbased (boxes 4-C) and applied these to various modes ofthe flow (bokes D-H). ‘We have saon how each modelo he fw leds diet a particle form ofthe governing equation (the routes Fm lett right atthe bot centr of Fig 2.1, {fom botesE-11 0 box 1), We lave aso seen how these particular forms ean bo reetpressed by sible manipulation into other forms ofthe equations (a iustated {or the cominuty equation in Fig. 26) All owes lead to bos Tat the night of Fig 21, which reese the basi continuity, momen, and energy equations i ll thee glorious forms. In our present discussion, ths is where We are now. For ‘in hs setion, we summarize hose equations represented by 28.1 Equations for Viscous Flow (the Navier-Stokes Equations) A viscous flow is one where the transport phenomena of frtion, thermal on duction, andior mass difsion are included. Those tanspor. phenomena are ‘isipatve they alvays increase the envopy of the low. The equations tht hve been derived an dieussed up this pont inthe preset chapter apply fo such 4 viscous flow, with the exception that mass difusion isnot included. Mass “isin oceurs when thre ae coacenation gradients of diferent chemical Species in the Row. An examples a nonhomngenecs mixture of nonestng eas, Such asthe fw fed associated with the injection of helium trough hol ost Into a primary stream of air Another example sa chemically reacting a, such as the dissociation of ar tht occurs in the hightemperature fow over hypescaie ‘vehicles in sich fw, concentation gradients ae induced by diferent rates of| reaction andlor by the prominence of ileret types of reactions m diferent pars of| the flow at itferent pressures and temperatures Chemically reacting Hows a8 well 16 norhomogenous flows are discussed at length in Ref 2, These ypes of flows ae ot treated inthe present bok, simply fr clanty- Our purpose ere so discuss te Isic aspects of CFD—ne choose not to obscure the computational aspects bycrying slong the extacomplcaons and pyscsasociated with chemically feng ws For hrs, ion ot ded athe tons Sree Rector an indepth dscsion of chemical reacting lows a bowk pars dacuson othe ply and numeral ees of mass ison. ‘With sboverestctons mind. the governing equations for an unsteady, Uhreedimenins, compres, seus How a Continuity equation Nonconseration form Pes yoow 22) 8 ° ex) amen oon ae — % (25a) —— * 509 ot es) oe ese) oo SEB omy em asuerce ne even cans or um woes 77 2 60)-5() oo) Sacer oun ante Auta), Buta), Aven) , Bvt) ot tor toy owen), Biren), ee ev Qa) ae : Wo ae Blea) + b+ a)"| oi (5) +3 (5) 2 (427) _ Sw) _ Op) _atwp), tuts) 3 () 93 SP gp Gs Biv) Beta) , rn) , ven) B® 2.82 Equations for Inviseid Flow the Euler Equations) Inve Now is, by definition, a flow where the dissipative, anspor! phenomena of scosity, mast isin, and thermal conduetity are megliced. IT we take the ‘equations iste in Sec. 281 and simply drop all he terms involving ftion and ‘heal condocton, we then have the equations for an inviscid flow The resuling ‘equations for an unsteady, thee-imeasionl, compressible invisckd How are ‘apliyed below Continuity equation Nanconseraton form (220) Conservation form HV-pV)=0 (226)78 econ ent acs ‘Momentum equatos Nonconteration frm be somponet = ane) —— om asm bw zeonponart Be as Canenaon form s eononst ass) compar say sr xmprent em rey eqetion Nemconsrton farm 20, 2 (or) ass) 2.83 Comments on the Governing Equations ‘Surveying al the equations summarized in Sec. 28.1 and 28.2, several comments and observations can be made, follows 1. They are a coupled system of nonlinear pata dierent qustions, and hence ane very dificult to solve analytical To due, there is no general closed-form solution to hese equations. (This doesnot mean that general solution exist we just ve not been able to find one) 2 For the momentum and energy equations, the difereace between the non- ‘conseration and conservation fom ofthe equations is ust te let had side stor uc aomone ao oe Rew apes 79 “The righthand side ofthe equations inthe two difirent forms isthe same 3, Note ht the conservation forms ofthe equations contain tems on he left-hand ‘Se which inclde the divergence of some. quay, such 3b V» (pV) oF 'V- (puV) For this reason, the conservation form ofthe goveming equations is sometimes called the divergence form. “4. The normal and shear tess terms in these equations ue function ofthe velocity igadiens, a given by Eqs. 2570-6) ‘5, Examine the equations in See. 2.8.1 and 2.82 closely. Count tbe number of| unknown, dependent variables in each section. In both cases, we have five ‘uations in terms of six unknown fow-ild variables p, pray s,m. I azrodyramic, itis generally reasonable to asume the asa perfect gas (which sssunes that intermolecular forces are neglgible—see Ref. 1, 8, and 21). Fora erect gs, the equation of sate is po pkT where R is the specific ss constant. The equation is comeimes labeled the thermal equation o tate This provides sixth equation, Du it also introduces 3 Seventh unknown, namely, temperature 7A seventh equation o cose the entire system mast bea thermodynamic ration Between ste vanes. For example, Tp) Fora caloricaly perfect ans (constant specific eas), this relation would be ened here ; isthe specific het at constant volume, Tis equation is sometimes labeled the caloric equation of state 6 In Sec, 26, the momentum equations fra viscous ow were identified as he Naver Soke equations, which is istorally accurate, However, inthe moder, CCD lira, his terminolony has been expanded to include the entire stem Of fow equtons forthe sltion ofa viscous ow-—coainuty and ence as Welles momentum. Therefore, when the CED lieatue discuss a numerical Solution othe “complete Navier-Stokes equation," t usualy is referring to 2 numerical soliton ofthe complet ye of equations, say, for example Eas. (2.3), 2.560) wo 2-86) and (281). In this sense, inthe CFD literature, a "NavierStokes solution” simply means solution of @ icous flow problem using the fll governing equations. This is why the entre Block of equations Summuried in Sc, 241 labeled asthe NavierStkes equations. Thi aathor aspects tat the CFD usage of tht nomenclature wills seep through all of ‘uid dynamics For this reason and because the subject ofthis book is CED, we wil follow ths nomenclature, Thats, when we refer to the Navier-Stokes guations, we wll mean the whole sytem of equations, sich as summarized in See. 281 In a similar vein, the equations fr inviscid flow in Sec. 2.82 are abled a the Euler equations Historically, Euler derived the county and momentum ‘equations in 1753; he did not deal withthe energy equation indeed, be had80 cane racine frm ace ‘ery lite to work with hecase the science of thermodynamic ie ninteenth eur product. Therefore, ona svc historical bss, only the continu and ‘momentim equations canbe labeled asthe Esler equtions Indeed in much of ‘he uid dynamics iterate, jas the momentum equations for an inset ow, © Eas. (2.834) to (2.80) ae labeled as tbe Euler equations. However inthe ‘modem CFD titrate, solutions 1 the complete sytem of equations for an inviscid ow, eg. dhe equations summarized in See. 282, ae called Euler solutions, andthe whole system of equations continuity, moment, and ‘nergy~ are called the Euler equations. We wil ll tis nomenclature ia the present book 29 PHYSICAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS The equations given above govern the Now of a Bud. They ar he same equations whether the flow i for example, over a Boeing 747, though a subsonic wind tunel, or pasta windmill. However, the flow fell ae quite diferent for these eases, although the governing equations are the same. Why? Where docs the ference enter? The answer is trough the Boundary conditions, which se quite dierent fo each ofthe above examples. The boundary condton, and somtimes the inal conditions dite the particular solutions 4 be obtained from the iveming equations, When the geomesne shape of « Boeing 747 tested, when ‘erain pyscal boundary conditions are applied on tat particular geometric surface, and when the appropriate boundary conditions astoited withthe fee stream fr ahead of the aiplane ae invoked then the reauting ston ofthe _0vering partial ferential equations wl el the Now eld ver he Bosing 747 “This isi contrast the fold sluions tat would be obtained fora windmill the geometric shape and festeam conditions pertinent tthe windmill wee treated. Hence, once we hive the governing ow equation as described in the ‘previous sections, thn the real drive fr any patil solution i the boundary ‘ondiions. This has particular significance in CFD; any ume solton ofthe ‘governing flow equations must be made tose @stong and compeling numeral representation of the proper boundary conditions Fire us review te proper physical boundary conditions for a viscous low, Here the boundary condition on a surface assumes veo relative velocity between the surface and the gas immediately atthe surface This i called the mo‘lp onditon 1 the surface is stationary, withthe ow moving past i then athe uric (ora viscous flow) (287), In addition, there is an analogous “no-lip” condition associated with the te perature atthe srfce. If the mate temperate of the surface is denoted by Ty (the wall emperatue, then the emperatre ofthe fi ayer mediately incon with the surface is aso If in given problem the wall tengeatre i own, then the proper boundary condition on the gat temperate Tis T=T, (atthe wall (2.88) (nthe oer band ihe wall temperature isnot known, ei is changing 3 8 function of time dus to aerodynamic Heat waster to or fom the sre, then the Fourie lw of eat condition provide the boundary condition at the surface. If we Jee ge denote the instantaneous heat ux tothe wal the from the Founer lw an =-(42%) cee nan om ia (2) toe em woe 4 domes fe eon a a Hn efi a west tte taste Segoe fc Seve aca mucad teased hey we Eee errata era aoa ey Ser eariorb comet bsg cen Tr te ah ara te sce el ee aan co Tn EO, z= fe (at the wal (2.90) (= oem she rtp tena et mien Sgt cre alert re gems tenes ae sa oceans 7 (atthe wal (2.91) (2) =0 tenesan as cnc un es te al my nin he ti of Ct yt be a sae een hs StS same mee ep any snd ite sn wna erased gu tS nl wl SOREN Geka we dies reat eee ian eich sr soc ah es nine 0s femmes Se pas pen thn chested ne aida wits were mae By athe Shea apo else a say oom Ba os Sr Sn Soest sal cops a nga Ey Acdsee sae eget ace Grau ae arr ey 69 onto Ser a dt et yaa in eg Sa SORT vgs so to we toma pee SST Sides era fe ote ey Sb en el ay ag coin none ep nin ne reba) ited aS iy cme x nal Oe er Sel Sapte ay stew cs pr ten{82 ecovtrne ea oboe For an ims flow, there is 0 fstion to promote its “sticking” to the surface: Hence, the ow velocity athe wall saint, nonzero vale, Mereove, or {moaporous wal bere canbe no mass Row into or ato the wal ths ean that {he fw velocity vector immeiately adjacent to the wall must be tangent to the all, fais unit normal vector at pot on the surface, the wall boundary enuiton can be given as Vem =0 (atthe sce) (2.92) Equation (2.92) i simply statement shut the component of velocity perpendicular tothe walls 0; Lethe fw atthe surface ange to the wal, This the ly sarface Boundary contin fran inviscid fw. The magnitude ofthe velo, a well as values ofthe id temperature, pressure and density atthe wall fal out ar of the solton Depending on the problem at hand, whether ibe viscous or inviscid thee are saris types of bounty conditions elsewhere in he flow aay fom the surface boundary. For example, fr fw through a dct of fixed shape, there are boundary Conditions which pertain othe inflow and outlow boundaries sich a tthe inlet land exit ofthe duct If the problem involves an aerodynamic body immersed in t ‘own fresream, then the boundary conditions applied at distance infty fat upstream, above, below, and downsteam ofthe body are simply tha ofthe even Feesucum conditions. “The boundary conditions dscused above ate physical boundary conltons Imposed by nature. In CFD we have an adtona concer, nately the proper ‘munerical implementation of hese phricel Boundary condition. Inne same sense 2 the el fw ed i dicated by the physical boundary conditions, the computed flow field is riven by the numerical fomblation designed to simulate these tbeoundary conditions. The subjct of proper and accurate boundary conditions in (CED is very important and isthe subject of much earrent CFD research. We wll etum to this mater at appropiate sages inthis book 210 FORMS OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS PARTICULARLY SUITED FOR CFD: COMMENTS ON THE CONSERVATION FORM, SHOCK FITTING, AND SHOCK, CAPTURING In this section, we finally adres the significance ofthe conservation verus the soaconservation forms of the governing Row equations vies applications of CCAD. Inthe historical development ofthese equitions thee was no reason for & preference of one form over the oer; indeed, theoretical uid dynamics evolved fate well over the ls ew centres without paying any attention fo this mate “his is reflected in all the general Bud dynamics td erode textbooks up 0 ‘treaty 1980s, wher tis autor defies you to id ny mention of or elerence to, ‘anseaton versus nonconservation forms-—the equation ate there, but they are ree cs cements arc reno cro inp nt itetied in these tes. The Ikelng of he govesing xutons as {ar conscreaon nonconsaton fom ge out of modem CFD, swell cette for hen ene om othe otc sond be ed Tora gen CFD appication {it a aes hie mer fom to peeves “The first perspective i simply thatthe conservation form ofthe governing unto provides numerical and computer prgasning convenience in that the ‘Soninu romentim, and energy equations in conservation form can all be ‘xpressed by the same generic equation. This can help to simplify and organize the topic a given computer program, To prepare us for his gener Fo, not that ll, the previous equation in conseration form have a divergence term on the le-hand de These ters involve the divergence ofthe fx of some physi quay, such From Ea. (233): pV sass fax From Eq (2.86): pV flux of component of momentum From Eq (2.566): po ‘ux of y component of momentum From Eq, (2.56) : pw fox of component of momentum From Eq (2.79): peV fh of itera enerzy Fonte 2): o(e+Z)¥ metal cal tat he cnservion frm fe equine wa ober fu 3 ‘Su tla sch ws fed gue ster an tng wih es When Sham aed nse cco wt ef ars moment, SSS lbh vole ics es emai bce iEprccpendet vrai sate, tar han jot pe was een nw the Let us purse this ea futher Examine the conservation form ofall governing equations contin, momentum, and energy” This pecaps most Eonvencny done by retuming to Sees. 2&1 and 282, where the governing fsustons for vicoor and iniseid lows, respectively, re compactly sunenaied {boking a the conservation forms, we ot tat hey al have the sme generic om, sien by (2.93) wom (293) can spent he ene tm of governing equations incom Schaton form if, FG Hand ae nerpeted aca vec, en yy° mu Coe 299 rm o(e+%) ve PE +P punt, pane 095) oF) teu ata vty = ete » wpm on e299) we or oes Bw tm 8 wey rye pete pa] omnwy . me pte es P or 0+ Ew tow AE arto ° eh Joy eh (298) of Dah +o + 1 + 0 In Bg, 2.93, the column vectors FG, and Hae alle the fat terms (or fla ‘vectors, and J epesents source frm which zero if bay forces and wolumete eating are negligbe.) The columa vector U is called the solution veo, for reasons 10 be sated shorty. To help yourself ge used to this generic eqstion vita in terms of column vectors note that he ist elemento the UF, G. Hand J ectors, when added together via Eg. (2.93), reproduce the eoninityegution, ‘The second clement of the U, FC, Hy and. J vectors, when aed together via Ey (2.95), reproduce the momentum eguation, and so forth. Indeed, Eq (293) 6 simply one large column vector exustion which represents the whole sytem of soverning equations, ‘tus explore the ramifications of (2.93) further tis writen wih kine Aesivaive OUI0 heaceitaples oan wasted ow. In gven problem, te acta) transients in an unsteady fow may be of primary ites. Jn other problems. 3 Sendy-slate solution maybe desired hat wherein the Best manner to sve fo his ‘Heady tit wo salve the unsteady equations andl the tad state be approached {symptoialy at lage tines. (This approach is sometimes called the rime depen en solution of steady flows; the soliton of he spersonic blunt body problem “iscusad atthe end of See 1-5 is ne such example) We willbe exploring such ‘mater im depth im Par ofthis book dealing wih appications of CFD; we ‘mention them bare ony in pissing. For ether an iberen asin solution, of tne dependent slut leading wa steady state the solution of Eq, (293) aks the form of tme-marching solution, se, where he dependent fold vaables are Solved propresel in steps af time. For och time-marchia Sltion, we isolate ‘AUI9e by rearranging Ea (293) 35 au _, af _aG_aH oo Oe By In Ba, (2.9), called the solution vector because the cements io U (Ppp ‘ete are the dependent ables which are usally obtained numerically i steps ‘time; the spatial denvativs onthe right side of Fa (299) are considered in some fashion a8 Known, say from the previous time sep. Please ote tha, in his formalism, iti the clement of U which are obtained computationally; i. numbers tne diet obtained fr te density p and the product pu pp and pe» ¥*2). These ae called the flu arabes, Thin contrast tu, and ey themselves, shih are examples of primitive varies. Hence, ina computational sluon of fav unsteady Now problem using Eg. (2.99), the de- pendent variables are the element ofthe U vector as displayed in Eq, (2.94) that st om ps and ple = 72) OF couse, once numbers are known for these ‘pendent variables (which incodesp by el), obtains the pimive variables ‘s snp (2.99) ° (2.100) a (2.101) ? e (2.102) pw ow (2.103) 7 c ples 2/2) erent aor ee ae (2.108) For example, the fist element ofthe U vector p itself number frp is obtainedby solving E9299). The sean element of is pu umber ote pdt pa ' ined by sofving (299) Int a ur ote pane al casi obined fom Ea, (2101) by king the mambo fx pu and ng iby he umber chained orp. The sine aproach can be td on he Drive varies ander the mambo the vrais, shown Eps 102) 6 2108). Foran insld flow Es. (293) and (298) ein te same, exept that he clement fh calura vcom ae smplifed. Examining te consenaton fr of the ins eqatons summarized a Se. 2.82, we fn et ° ow (2.108) (2106) (2107) (2.108) o oh I=) ah (2.108) ot Plat +o + 6h) +00 For the numerical soliton of an unsteady inviscid flows once again the soltion ‘econ U andthe dependent variables for ich number are ely obtained are bs Pt BX pm and ple + V2). in CFD, marching soltons are not limited to marching justin time. Unde cenain cieumstances, tead-state lows can also be soled by marching in given ‘Stal direction. The creumstancs that allow the use of 2 spall, marching ‘Blin depend onthe mathematical properties of he governing equation, and wil ‘be developed i ater chaps, begining wth Chap. 3. For our purposes at presen, simply imagine tat we are dealing witha stcady fo, for which DUO: = On Ea (293). Ifa matching solution in the + direction is allowed, then Eq. (2.93) 1 rearnged as a _ ant ae ere, F becomes the “solution” vector, we can imagine that the terms on the right tide of Eq, (2.110) are known, sy by evaluation at the previous sep ie atthe previous upstream x location, This lees the elements ofthe F vector athe next fe. teva the next downstream locaton, asthe unknowns. Fo simply tus ‘sume tat we are dealing with an iavsid low. Tn such a case, the dependent ‘aribles are the elements of Fas dpayed in Eq (2106), namely, pu, eu" + p, Dospan and pie + V7) + pu. Tae numerical sation of Fa. (2.110) yields rumbers for thee dependent variables, called the fx variables, Prom these ‘pendent variable, itis possible fo obtain the prmtve variables, although the lgchrais more complex than ino previously discused case for unsteady Now To fc ths more larly tux dente the fox variables which appears elemens of F 138 displayed in Eq. (2-105) by @.n10) a can ety (24d) paseo m(rE2zt2) snes ala A numerical soliton of Bg, (2.10) fo a avs ow yes numbers fore. ‘cu and cyt specific pont throughout the Now. Consider just one of those Pins. The numeral solaion yields numbers for the righthand sides of Eas. (2.1114) Q.1T Te) da pon n ten, Eqs. (2.1110) (2.111) can be solvedsimaltancousty for the primitive variblesp, uw nlp, anda that point. Note that we have six unknowns. To gs. (2111) t0 211) mst be ade a therm dynamic sat relaon; for assem in thensodyeamv elitism, this relation can be ofthe genene frm c= ep.) (rra) Indo, if we are dealing with a calrifaly perfect gs, a a8 with constant ‘specific heats (ee, for example, Ref 21), this ste elation is ¢= eT with, = ‘ty = 1h, where Ris the specific gas consan. Also involving the perfec pas equation f sate, p= pA. we have ar =ar= A (12) rip uations (2.1116) fo (2.11) and Fa, (2.1124) constitute al six equations fom ‘which the si unknown primitive variables cane obtain. The algebra necessary ‘osolve these si equations fer explicit relations for fw pa indy interns ofthe known ee, em and yi eft to you as Pros 3.1 Final. we te ‘ha the alsa is even moe complex wien We conse viscous Row, where tht solution yes numbers forte elements ofthe vetor as displayed in Ea (2.98), ere, we aso have to contend with he viscous sess, a the decoding fr the Primitive varbles becomes yet more involve [Nc have emphasized the disinetion between nonconeraton and conserva- tion foms of the goveming equations. Let us now expand the definition of the onseraton form ino two categories srong and weak, Notice atthe povening “ston, when writen in he frm of Eq, (2.93), have no ow sarbles ouside the Sinle 2, and «derivatives. Inded the terms in Eq. (2.93) have everything busied inne these deratves. The ow equations nthe fon of Ea (293) a al 'o bein rong conservation frm. In contrast, examine th frm of Eqs. 2364) 0 (2.56) and (281). These equations hive number of xp and ? deter "plc appearing on he ighthind sige These ae the weak conservation form oF the equations, ‘Ac the beginning ofthis section, we sated thatthe mater of conservation ‘erws nonconservation forms ofthe governing xutions within the framework of CFD would be discused fom two perspectives The ensuing material dacaned ie fit perpective—that the conservation form provides numeral and complet onvenicnes due tothe generic form of Fa 293). Nowe us consider the second Perpecive—one that i much more compelling than the first. Also is second epee i inrtwind with two dict and difleent philosophical aprons or the calculation of flows with shock waves, namely the shoekfiting approach andthe shock-

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