LI CM N

T in Chnh sch Thng mi quc t do nhm cc chuyn gia

ca B Thng mi v U ban Quc gia v Hp tc Kinh t quc
t bin son da trn Cun T in cc thut ng thng mi
quc t ca tc gi Walter Goode do WTO v nh xut bn ca
i hc Cambridge pht hnh. D n MUTRAP xin cm n s
cng tc ca ng Trn Thanh Hi, ng Trn ng Phng, b
Thu Hng vi vai tr hiu nh; ng Nguyn Hu Anh, ng Trnh
Minh Anh, ng T Cn, b Hong Th Lin, b Phm Qunh Mai
v b Trn Phng Lan vi vai tr bin dch.

ng thi, D n cng chn thnh cm n U ban Chu u

h tr ti chnh cho vic xut bn n phm ny.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Glossary of International Trade Policy Terms was compiled

by a group of experts in the Ministry of Trade, Vietnam and the
National Committee of International Economic Cooperation, on
the basis of the earlier Dictionary of Trade Policy Terms by
Walter Goode, published by the WTO, also available from
Cambridge University Press. The MUTRAP acknowledges with
thanks the contributions of Mr Tran Thanh Hai, Mr Tran Dong
Phuong, Mrs Do Thu Huong as Editors and Mr Nguyen Huu Anh,
Mr Trinh Minh Anh, Mr To Can, Mrs Hoang Thi Lien, Mrs Pham
Quynh Mai and Mrs Tran Phuong Lan as translators. The authors
have kindly granted the permission to reprint and distribute the
material in the framework of MUTRAP activities. Financial
assistance for the publication was provided by the European
Union.
 LI GII THIU
*****

Vic chnh thc gia nhp Hip hi cc nc ng Nam (ASEAN) thng 7/1995, tr
thnh thnh vin sng lp vin ca Hp tc -u (ASEM) nm 1996, v tr thnh thnh vin
chnh thc ca Din n Hp tc Kinh t chu -Thi Bnh Dng (APEC) nm 1998 nh
du mt bc tin quan trng trong s tham gia ca Vit Nam vo cc h thng kinh t-
thng mi th gii. Qu trnh hi nhp ny s nh hng ngy cng su sc hn ti cc chnh
sch iu hnh kinh t- thng mi Vit Nam.

Tuy nhin, h thng kinh t- thng mi a phng l lnh vc kh mi m, khng ch

vi a s cc doanh nghip m ngay c vi cc c quan qun l v hoch nh chnh sch ca
Vit Nam. Do vy, D n H tr Chnh sch Thng mi a bin (MUTRAP) phi hp vi
mt s chuyn gia ca B Thng mi xut bn cun T in Chnh sch Thng mi
Quc t vi hy vng s p ng phn no nhu cu tm hiu v lnh vc ny, c bit l i
vi nhng ngi ang lm nhng cng vic c lin quan n cc qu trnh m phn v trin
khai cc hot ng hp tc thng mi a phng.

CCH S DNG QUYN T IN

Cc mc trong T in c sp xp theo vn ch ci ca cc t gc ting Anh, bao

gm t n, cm t v cc t vit tt (in m). Mi mc t u c dch sang ting Vit (in
nghing, ch m), tip l phn gii thch ni dung mc t.

Trong phn gii thch, nhng t in nghing l nhng t c th tham chiu tip trong T
in di dng mt mc t ring. thun tin trong vic tra cu, chng ti c in km theo
mt danh mc ch dn tra cu theo chiu Vit Anh cui sch gip bn c c th nhanh
chng tm c nguyn gc ting Anh ca cc mc t ting Vit. Cc t tham chiu sau gi
"xem" v "xem thm", do c lin quan trc tip n t mc ang gii thch, nn c ghi thng
bng ting Anh.

Ngoi phn gii thch cc t mc, T in cng km theo cc ph chng tm lc

Hip nh thnh lp WTO, cc Hip nh GATT v GATS, l cc vn kin nn tng trong m
phn thng mi quc t hin nay.

Xin trn trng gii thiu cng bn c.

BAN QUN L D N MUTRAP

Cun sch ny c bin son vi s h tr ti chnh ca U ban Chu u. Quan im trong cun sch ny l
ca cc chuyn gia t vn v do khng th hin quan im chnh thc ca U ban Chu u

This book has been prepared with financial assistance from the Commission of the European Communities. The
views expressed herein are those of the consultants and therefore in no way reflect the official opinion of the
Commission

-3-
 A
Absolute advantage: Li th tuyt i
Quan im c Adam Smith a ra trong cun "S thnh vng ca cc quc gia", v c
mt s nh hc gi khc pht trin, l cc quc gia tham gia vo hot ng thng mi quc
t c th nhp c hng ho r hn so vi kh nng nc c th sn xut. Smith cho
rng thng mi quc t cho php s chuyn mn ho cao hn so vi nn kinh t t cung t
cp, do cho php cc ngun lc c s dng c hiu qu hn. Khi vit v l do ti sao cc
gia nh li i mua hng ho ch khng t sn xut ra n, ng ni rng: "Nhng iu khn
ngoan trong ng x ca mi gia nh kh c th khng tm thy trong ng x ca mt vng
quc v i. Nu mt nc khc c th cung cp cho chng ta hng ho vi gi thp hn chng
ta sn xut th tt hn ht l chng ta nn mua mt s hng ho ca nc mc d nn
cng nghip ca chng ta c th sn xut ra, trong khi chng ta c th tp trung vo nhng
ngnh chng ta c mt s li th". Xem thm autarkty, comparative advantage, gains-from-
trade theory, Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, self-reliance v self-sufficiency.
Accession: Gia nhp
Vic tr thnh thnh vin ca WTO (T chc Thng mi th gii), hoc mt t chc hay hip
nh quc t khc. Gia nhp WTO yu cu c cc cuc m phn gia nhng nc thnh vin
hin ti vi nhng nc xin gia nhp m bo rng ch thng mi ca nc xin gia nhp
phi ph hp vi cc nguyn tc ca WTO. Khi gia nhp, cc danh mc cam kt v gim thu
quan v dch v m nc xin gia nhp a ra phi tng t nh cam kt ca cc thnh vin hin
ti v h gia nhp WTO trc v tham gia lin tc cc vng m phn thng mi a phng.
Ni cch khc, mi quc gia khi gia nhp phi cam kt tng t nh nhng quyn li m h
c hng vi t cch l thnh vin. Gia nhp OECD cng i hi cc nc thnh vin mi
phi chng minh rng ch kinh t ca mnh ni chung l ph hp vi ch kinh t ca cc
nc thnh vin hin ti. Thnh vin ca UNCTAD hoc ca cc c quan khc ca Lin hp
quc khng i hi nhng ngha v ny. Xem thm enlargement, schedules of commitments on
services v schedules of concessions.
ACP States: Cc quc gia ACP
Khong 70 quc gia Chu Phi, vng Ca-ri-b v Thi bnh dng c lin kt vi Cng ng
Chu u thng qua Cng c Lom em li cho nhng nc ny s u tin cho vic tip cn
vi th trng ca Cng ng Chu u. Xem thm STABEX v SYSMIN.
Acquis communitaire: Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng
Cc vn bn php lut c thng qua cc Hip c thnh lp Cng ng Chu u bao gm
cc quy nh, tn ch, quyt nh, xut v cc quan im. im I ca Hip c Maastricht
yu cu duy tr v xy dng Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng nh l mt mc tiu ca Lin
minh Chu u. Khi mt quc gia tham gia vo Lin minh Chu u, cc vn bn php lut hin
c ca quc gia cn phi ph hp vi Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng. iu ny i hi
phi sa i hng trm o lut ngh vin cc nc thnh vin. Xem thm European
community legislation.
Actionable subsidies: Tr cp c th dn n hnh ng
Mt phm tr tr cp c quy nh trong Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng
ca WTO. Tr cp c coi l c th dn n hnh ng, v do l bt hp php, khi tr cp
gy thit hi ti nn cng nghip trong nc ca cc quc gia thnh vin khc v vi phm
cc cam kt ca GATT hoc gy tc ng nghim trng ti quyn li ca quc gia thnh vin
khc. Nu nhng nh hng tiu cc xy ra, nc p dng bin php tr cp phi rt b bin
php hoc khc phc cc nh hng tiu cc. Xem thm Countervailing duties, non-
actionable subsidies, prohibited subsidies v subsidies.
Administered trade: Thng mi c qun l

-4-
Xem managed trade.
Administrative guidance: Hng dn mang tnh hnh chnh
Vic lm trong thc t c thi k c chnh quyn Nht p dng. Nhng nc phn i nu
ra rng vic lm ny c thc hin thng qua vic a ra d bo v sn xut hoc xut khu
i vi nhng sn phm nhy cm hoc bng cc bin php khng chnh thc khc nhng cng
c tc dng tng t. Nhng v d tiu biu cho khi nim ny l nhng bin php p dng cho
mt hng -t v linh kin bn dn. Cc ngnh cng nghip c lin quan ti lnh vc ny ly
nhng d bo lm mc trn ti a c tnh cho cc hot ng xut khu ca ngnh mnh.
Hng dn mang tnh hnh chnh rt thch hp cho vic qun l nhng hn ch xut khu t
nguyn.
Administrative international commodity agreements: Cc hip nh hng ho quc t
mang tnh hnh chnh
y l tn gi i vi cc hip nh hng ho quc t khng p dng kho m, hn ngch xut
khu hoc cc c ch khc nhm tc ng ti gi c hng ho bng cch iu tit lng hng
ho tung ra th trng. y l mt hnh thc Hip nh lin quan ti cc vn nh tnh minh
bch ca th trng, nng cao hiu qu sn xut, ch bin, phn phi hng ho v thu thp cc
s liu thng k. Xem thm economic international commodity agreements.
Administrative protection: Bo h hnh chnh
Xem contingent protection v non-tariff measures.
Ad valorem equivalent: Thu tng ng tnh theo tr gi
Vic tnh mc thu ca mt sc thu c nh, bng cch chuyn mc thu sut tnh bng gi
tr tin t c nh ca mi sn phm thnh mc thu sut tnh bng t l phn trm ca gi tr
hng ho. Kt qu l mt thu sut tnh theo tr gi. V d: mc thu c nh 1 USD nh vo
mt a compact tr gi 10 USD, theo cch tnh , c mc thu sut tng ng tnh theo tr
gi l 10%. Nu a tr gi 20 USD th mc thu sut tng ng s l 5%.
Ad valorem tariff: Thu theo tr gi
Mt mc thu sut c tnh bng t l phn trm ca gi tr hng ho nhp khu. Hu ht cc
thu sut hin nay u tnh bng bin php ny. Xem thm customs valuation v specific tariff.
African Economic Community (AEC): Cng ng Kinh t chu Phi
AEC l mt t chc nhm mc ch pht trin kinh t, x hi v vn ho ca chu Phi. T chc
ny bt u i vo hot ng t ngy 12/5/1994. S lng thnh vin hin nay l trn 50 v
c m rng cho tt c thnh vin ca T chc thng nht Chu Phi. V lu di, AEC nhm
hnh thnh mt Th trng chung chu Phi nhng chng trnh lm vic ca T chc ny s tp
trung vo hp tc thng mi v to thun li cho thng mi trong thi gian trung hn. Ban
th k ca T chc ny t Addis Ababa.
AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area): Khu vc Thng mi t do ASEAN
Hip nh v Chng trnh u i thu quan c hiu lc chung nhm thc hin AFTA c hiu
lc k t ngy 1/1/1993. Hip nh ny p dng vi thng mi hng ho gia cc nc
ASEAN. Mc tiu ban u ca Hip nh ny nhm t c mc thu t 0-5% i vi thng
mi hng ho gia cc nc thnh vin vo nm 2003, nhng hin nay mc thi gian ny
c y ln thnh nm 2000 i vi nhiu sn phm. C ch chnh nhm t c vic gim
thu quan l CEPT (Chng trnh u i thu quan c hiu lc chung). Hip nh ny ch yu
bao gm Danh mc Gim thu c mc thu u i c p dng ngay v Danh mc Loi tr
tm thi. Mc thu u i i vi cc sn phm ca Danh mc loi tr tm thi s c p
dng mun nht l nm 2003. Vic gim thu c th c thc hin chm hn i vi nhng
mt hng thuc Danh mc Nhy cm i vi nhng nng sn cha ch bin c thng qua
vo thng 12/1995. Vic thc hin danh mc gim thu i vi nng sn c bt u t

-5-
1/1/1996. Bn cnh cn c chng trnh loi b cc bin php phi thu quan. Trong thi
gian hin nay, Vit Nam tham gia AFTA v s hon thnh cc ngha v ca mnh vo nm
2006. c nhng quan im cho rng vic gia nhp ASEAN ca Cam-pu-chia, Lo,
Myanmar vo nm 1997 s dn n hai tin trnh thc hin khc nhau i vi to thun li cho
thng mi trong AFTA. Xem thm ASEAN framework agreement on services v ASEAN
Investment Area.
AFTA-CER
Mt chng trnh hp tc v to thun li cho thng mi gia cc nc thnh vin AFTA
(Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thi-lan v Vit Nam) vi CER
(Australia v New Zealand).
Agenda 21: Chng trnh ngh s 21
Mt chng trnh bao gm cc nguyn tc v hnh ng c lin quan gia thng mi v mi
trng c thng qua ngy 14/6/1992 ti cuc hp UNCED (Hi ngh Lin hp quc v Mi
trng v Pht trin) Rio de Janeiro. Chng trnh im A nhm thc y pht trin bn
vng thng qua thng mi. Mc tiu ca Chng trnh ny l (a) thc y mt h thng
thng mi m, khng phn bit i x v bnh ng cho php tt c cc nc ci thin c cu
kinh t v nng cao iu kin sng ca nhn dn thng qua s pht trin kinh t bn vng; (b)
nng cao kh nng xm th cho hng xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin; (c) tng cng
kh nng iu hnh nn kinh t hng ho v t c nhng chnh sch hng ho lnh mnh,
ph hp v n nh tm c quc gia v quc t nhm mang li s ng gp ca hng ho i
vi s pht trin bn vng, trong phi k n vn mi trng; v (d) thc y v h tr
chnh sch quc gia v quc t nhm em li s tng trng kinh t v bo v mi trng
c cc nc ng h. iu ny c thc hin thng qua hng lot cc hot ng c m t
vi ni dung tng qut v, trong mt chng mc nht nh, xut pht t nhng hot ng
truyn thng ca UNTAD trong lnh vc hng ho. Chng trnh im B nhm (a) lm cho
thng mi v mi trng cng phc v cho s pht trin bn vng; (b) phn nh r vai tr ca
GATT, UNCTAD v cc t chc quc t khc trong vic gii quyt cc vn v thng mi
v lin quan n mi trng bao gm cc th tc ho gii, gii quyt tranh chp v khuyn
khch sn xut v cnh tranh quc t, khuyn khch vai tr c tnh xy dng i vi nn cng
nghip gii quyt cc vn mi trng v pht trin. Mc tiu ny c h tr bng cc
hot ng thc tin. Chng trnh ngh s 21 cp n trong quy ch lm vic ca U ban
WTO v Thng mi v Mi trng, v c dng tham chiu trong qu trnh tho lun ca
U ban ny. Xem thm Commodity policy v Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development.
Aggregate measurement of support: Lng h tr tng cng
Mt thut ng c s dng trong cc cuc m phn v nng nghip. y l mc h tr hng
nm tnh bng tin ca tt c cc bin php h tr trong nc trong ngun qu Chnh ph
c dng tr cp cho sn xut nng nghip. Theo kt qu m phn ca Vng Uruguay,
mc h tr hng nm phi c ct gim. Cc bin php h tr trong nc c nh hng ti
thiu ti thng mi s khng b ct gim. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture, blue box,
equivalent measure of support, green box v subsidies.
Aggressive multilateralism: Ch ngha a phng tch cc
Mt thut ng c Bayard v Elliott (1994) dng ch mt trong nhng cch m ca th
trng kh thi i vi Hoa K sau khi thng qua Bn ghi nh ca WTO v gii quyt tranh
chp. Bn ghi nh lm gim kh nng ca Hoa K trong vic tin hnh hnh ng theo
Khon 301 nhng mt khc n li a ra kh nng t ng v tin liu m Hoa K v nhng
nc khc ng h nhiu nm, iu m h thy cn thit h thng gii quyt tranh chp
ca GATT vn hnh tt hn. Ch ngha a phng tch cc c ngha l c ch gii quyt tranh
chp s c s dng mt cch dt khot, v c Khon 301 h tr trong chng mc iu
l hp php v cn thit.

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Aggressive reciprocity: Tng h tch cc
Mt dng tng h, do William R. Cline (1983) a ra, xut pht t hot ng n phng ca
mt nc nhm buc mt i tc thng mi p dng cc tp qun theo h. Cc bin php c
sc thuyt phc c s dng bao gm bin php tr a nhm phn ng li hnh ng khng
lnh mnh, vic p dng lut l thng mi trong nc, v.v... Tng h tch cc c kh nng
gii quyt mt s vn thng mi, nhng thng b chi phi bi nhng ch khng lnh
mnh mang mu sc chnh tr. Bin php ny c m t nh l "L thuyt thanh by trong
chnh sch thng mi". Xem thm Bilateralism, passive reciprocity, Section 301, Special 301,
unfair trading practices v unilateralism.
Aggressive unilateralism: Ch ngha n phng tch cc
Xem Unilateralism.
Agreement for the Protection of Appellation of Origin and their International
Registration: Hip nh v bo v quyn xut x v ng k quc t
Xem Lisbon Agreement.
Agreement on Agriculture: Hip nh v Nng nghip
Mt trong nhng kt qu ca Vng Uruguay. Hip nh ny a ra mt khun kh a phng
c hiu qu u tin cho ci cch v t do ho di hn thng mi trong lnh vc nng nghip.
Hip nh thit lp cc lut l v cam kt mi trong vic m ca th trng, h tr trong nc
v cnh tranh xut khu (vic x l tr cp). Hip nh khuyn khch vic p dng cc chnh
sch h tr trong nc m t bp mo thng mi hn, v cho php cc hnh ng nhm gim
gnh nng ca qu trnh iu chnh trong nc. Hip nh i hi cn c mt s bin php l
(a) ct gim 36% chi tiu cho tr cp xut khu u trong 6 nm i vi cc nc pht trin,
24% i vi cc nc ang pht trin trong 10 nm; (b) gim 21% lng hng xut khu c
tr cp trong 6 nm i vi cc nc pht trin, 14% trong 10 nm i vi cc nc ang pht
trin; cc khon tr cp trong nc c tnh bng lng h tr tng cng phi gim 20% trong
6 nm, so vi thi k c s tnh t 1986-1988; v (d) cc bin php phi thu quan hin c phi
chuyn thnh thu quan v c gii hn trn, sau gim bnh qun 36% u trong 6 nm, cng
ly thi k c s l 1986-1988. i vi cc nc ang pht trin th mc gim s l 24% trong
10 nm. Hip nh ny quy nh c cc cam kt m ca ti thiu i vi cc th trng b
ng ca trc , v cc bin php t v c bit phi tun theo cc iu kin c quy nh
cht ch gii quyt vic tng nhp khu sau khi thu ho. Ngoi ra, cc cuc m phn lin
quan n t do ho thng mi trong nng nghip phi c ni li vo ngy 1/1/2000. Cc
nc thnh vin c mt s linh hot trong vic thc hin cc cam kt nu nh h p ng c
cc mc tiu nh tho thun. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT, blue box, green box,
continuation clause v peace clause.
Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services: Hip nh v Dch v vin thng c
bn
Hip nh u tin ca WTO nh kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v thng mi trong lnh vc dch
v, c k vo ngy 15/2/1997. Hip nh ny c nhng cam kt v m ca th trng ca 69
nc thnh vin, bao gm c thng mi qua bin gii v vic cung cp dch v thng qua s
hin din thng mi. Hip nh ny c hiu lc k t ngy 1/1/1998. Xem thm cross-border
trade in services v International Telecommunication Union.
Agreement on Government Procurement: Hip nh v Mua sm ca chnh ph
y l mt trong nhng hip nh nhiu bn ca WTO. Vic chnh ph mua sm hng ho v
dch v dng khng nm trong din iu chnh ca GATS hoc GATT. Mt s thnh vin ca
GATT xem vn ny l thiu st ln v h tho thun Hip nh v Mua sm ca chnh
ph ti Vng Tokyo. Hip nh WTO l s k tha ca vn bn Vng Tokyo. Hip nh ny
p dng vi cc hp ng mua sm hng ho, dch v v xy dng ca chnh ph trung ng,

-7-
chnh quyn bang hoc tnh v nhng ngnh phc v cng cng trn mt quy m nht nh.
Hin nay Hip nh ny c 10 thnh vin tham gia, k c Cng ng Chu u c tnh nh l
mt, Nht, Canada v Hoa K. Mt s nc khc ang xem xt gia nhp. Hip nh ny nhm
bo m rng, tu theo cc bin php hp php bin gii (v d cc tiu chun sc kho v an
ton, bo v s hu tr tu, v. v...), cc nh cung cp nc ngoi c i x khng km thun
li hn cc nh cung cp trong nc trong nhng hp ng mua hng ca chnh ph. Hip nh
ny cng quy nh cc bn dnh cho nhau i ng ti hu quc trong vic mua sm ca chnh
ph, nhng c s tng h trc tip trong phm vi m cc nc thnh vin cho php cc cng
ty ca cc nc thnh vin khc cnh tranh trong vic mua sm ca chnh ph nc . iu
ny c c bit p dng mua hng cc cp di cp lin bang hay trung ng. Hip nh
cng nhm t c nhng th tc v tp qun ca chnh ph r rng trong vic mua hng.
Australia v New Zealand khng phi l thnh vin ca Hip nh ny. Xem thm second-level
obligations.
Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade 1994: Hip nh thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng
mi
y l Hip nh chng ph gi ca WTO. Xem anti-dumping measures v dumping.
Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade 1994: Hip nh thc hin iu VII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng
mi
y l Hip nh v nh gi hi quan. Hip nh ny quy nh cc nguyn tc v th tc m
cc nc thnh vin WTO phi tun th khi xc nh tr gi ca hng ho nhp khu nhm mc
ch thu ng thu hi quan. C s u tin tnh tr gi hi quan l tr gi giao dch. Ni
rng ra, y l gi thc tr cho hng ho xut khu theo cc iu kin cnh tranh thng thng.
Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures: Hip nh v Th tc cp php nhp khu
Hip nh ny quy nh cc th tc m cc nc thnh vin WTO phi tun th trong vic qun
l ch cp php nhp khu. Mt trong nhng mc tiu ca n l bo m rng nhng ch
nh vy c qun l theo cch cng bng v bnh ng v theo cc iu kin r rng.
Agreement on Preshipment Inspection: Hip nh v Kim tra trc khi giao hng
y l hip nh ca WTO quy nh cc iu kin v cc th tc m theo cc nc thnh
vin thc hin kim tra trc khi giao hng bo m rng chi ph ca hng ho c gi ph
hp vi chi ph ghi trong ho n. Vic kim tra nh vy ch yu c cc nc ang pht
trin s dng ngn nga vic r r vn, gian ln thng mi, trn thu hi quan v cc hnh
ng tng t khc. Hip nh i hi cc nc thnh vin p dng cc nguyn tc v ngha v
ca GATT trong cc hot ng ny. iu ny bao gm s khng phn bit i x, tnh cng
khai, bo v cc thng tin kinh doanh mt, trnh cc trng hp tr hon khng hp l, vic s
dng cc hng dn c th cho vic thm nh gi v trnh cc xung t v quyn li gia cc
c quan kim tra trc khi giao hng. Cc nc thnh vin xut khu phi p dng lut v cc
quy nh ca nc h lin quan n cc hot ng giao hng mt cch khng phn bit i x.
Cc nc phi cng b ngay cc lut l v quy nh ang p dng v khi c yu cu, cc
nc phi dnh h tr k thut cho cc nc thnh vin p dng bin php ny. Trong
trng hp c tranh chp, cc bn c s dng cc th tc xem xt c lp theo nh quy nh
ca Hip nh. Cc th tc ny do mt c quan c lp qun l to ra mt t chc lm i
din cho c quan kim tra trc khi xp hng v mt t chc i din cho ngi xut khu.
Quyt nh ca nhm ngi xem xt 3 bn c coi l rng buc vi tt c cc bn tranh chp.
Agreement on Rules of Origin: Hip nh v Quy ch xut x
Mt trong nhng hip nh ca WTO. Hip nh ny ra mt chng trnh lm vic di hn
nhm thng nht cc quy ch xut x. Cng vic ny phi c U ban v quy tc xut x hon
thnh vo ngy 1/1/1998 hoc ngay sau . Cng vic ca U ban c quy nh theo cc

-8-
nguyn tc trong Hip nh ny. V d, quy ch xut x c nh ngha l lut, quy nh v
quyt nh hnh chnh do cc nc thnh vin p dng xc nh nc xut x ca hng ho
c chp nhn theo cc iu kin v ti hu quc, tc l n khng p dng i vi cc sn
phm c nhp theo chng trnh u i thu quan. Nc xut x hng ho l nc hoc l
hng ho hon ton c sn xut ra, hoc nu c hn mt nc c lin quan th l nc
m hng ha c nhng chuyn i c bn. Hip nh quy nh rng quy ch xut x
cn c qun l theo cch nht qun, thng nht, cng bng v hp l. Cc quy tc khng
c to ra nhng tc ng hn ch, lm bin dng hoc ph v i vi thng mi quc t.
Cui cng, quy ch xut x phi quy nh nhng g to nn ch khng phi nhng g khng to
nn xut x. Hip nh c mt ph lc di dng mt tuyn b v vic qun l quy ch xut x
c chp nhn theo cc iu kin u i. Xem thm change in tariff heading v preferential
rules of origin.
Agreement on Safeguards: Hip nh v T v
y l hip nh ca WTO quy nh khi no v bng cch no cc nc thnh vin c th vn
dng iu XIX ca GATT. iu ny quy nh kh nng p dng hnh ng khn cp bo v
nn cng nghip trong nc khi vic tng nhp khu khng lng trc ang gy ra hoc c
th gy ra thit hi nghim trng ti nn cng nghip. "Thit hi nghim trng" c nh
ngha l vic gy phng hi ng k n nn cng nghip trong nc, v "e do thit hi
nghim trng" c ngha l nhng thit hi nh vy r rng l sp xy ra. Hip nh ny lu
rng vic xc nh mi e do ca cc thit hi nghim trng phi c da trn thc t, ch
khng phi trn l l, s phng on, hoc nhng kh nng xa xi. Hip nh ny ra nhng
tiu chun i vi vic iu tra p dng t v bao gm thng bo i cht cng khai v nhng
bin php thch hp khc cc bn c lin quan c th a ra cc bng chng. Cc tiu chun
cng bao gm quy nh bin php t v c v li ch chung hay khng. Nu nh vic
chm tr trong s dng hnh ng t v c th gy ra tn tht kh khc phc th c th p dng
cc bin php t v tm thi trong thi gian khng qu 200 ngy. Hnh ng t v phi c
thc hin mt cch khng phn bit i x. N c p dng i vi sn phm ch khng phi
chng li ngun sn phm. Kh nng la chn do khng cn na. Ni chung, thi hn ca
bin php t v khng c vt qu 4 nm, mc d vy c th ko di ti a trong 8 nm
trong mt s trng hp. Bt k bin php no p dng trn mt nm phi c kt hp vi
iu chnh c cu theo hng t do ho dn iu kin m ca th trng. Cc nc thnh vin
s dng hnh ng t v c th phi c bi thng. Hip nh ny cm cc ci gi l bin php
min xm v tt c cc bin php t v c hiu lc k t 1/1/1995 phi c loi b trong 5
nm. Xem thm de minimis safeguards rule.
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: Hip nh v p
dng cc bin php v sinh dch t
Mt hip nh ca WTO lin quan n vic s dng cc quy nh v an ton lng thc, sc
kho ng vt v cy trng cc bin php ny khng c s dng nh l hng ro tr hnh
i vi thng mi quc t. Hip nh ny dnh cho chnh ph quyn p dng cc bin php v
sinh dch t, nhng chng khng c dng phn bit i x mt cch tu tin v phi l
gia cc nc thnh vin WTO ang p dng cc bin php ging hoc tng t nhau. Hip
nh ny khuyn khch cc nc thnh vin p dng cc bin php trong nc theo cc tiu
chun, cc hng dn v khuyn ngh ca quc t. Cc nc thnh vin c th p dng hoc
duy tr tiu chun mc cao nu c nhng chng minh khoa hc hoc nu nh gi ri ro ch
ra rng iu l thch hp. Mt nc nhp khu phi xem xt cc tiu chun c cc nc
xut khu p dng l tng ng vi bn thn tiu chun ca nc nu nh nc xut khu
c th chng minh c ng l nh vy. Hip nh ny ra cc th tc chi tit iu chnh
tnh cng khai ca cc quy nh, c ch thng bo, v vic thnh lp cc im tip xc quc
gia.
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin
php i khng

-9-
Mt hip nh ca WTO quy nh 3 loi tr cp v cc th tc x l cc loi tr cp . Ba loi
l cc tr cp b cm (tr cp c iu kin da trn kt qu xut khu hoc yu cu s dng
hng ni a ch khng phi hng nhp khu), tr cp c th dn n hnh ng (l tr cp ch
c duy tr nu khng gy thit hi nn cng nghip ca cc nc thnh vin khc, v hiu
ho hoc gy phng hi cc ch li hoc gy ra phng hi nghim trng ti li ch ca cc
nc thnh vin khc) v tr cp khng dn n hnh ng (tr cp cc nc thnh vin c
php duy tr). Hip nh ny quy nh chi tit thi gian biu i vi trng hp gii quyt tranh
chp ny sinh t vic p dng Hip nh. Hip nh ny cng quy nh cc iu kin c th p
dng thu i khng. Hip nh ny khng p dng i vi tr cp nng nghip. Xem thm
Agreement on Agriculture, blue box, green box, Permanent Group of Experts v provisional
countervailing duties.
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: Hip nh v Cc hng ro k thut i vi
thng mi
Mt hip nh ca WTO nhm m bo cc quy nh v tiu chun k thut k c cc yu cu
v ng gi, nhn mc v cc th tc nh gi s ph hp vi cc quy nh v tiu chun k
thut, khng to ra nhng tr ngi khng cn thit i vi thng mi quc t. Hip nh ny
k tha B lut Tiu chun ca Vng Tokyo. Hip nh ny khuyn khch cc nc thnh vin
s dng cc tiu chun quc t thch hp, nhng khng yu cu cc nc thnh vin phi thay
i mc bo h v l do tiu chun ho. Hip nh ny p dng khng ch vi nhng tiu chun
i vi mt sn phm m cn lin quan n cc phng php ch bin v sn xut. Cc th tc
thng bo quy nh s c p dng. Bn ph lc ca Hip nh ny l B lut v tp qun
tt phc v cho vic chun b, thng qua v p dng cc tiu chun. C quan tiu chun ho
ca chnh quyn trung ng phi tun th b lut ny v n c m i vi cc c quan
chnh quyn a phng v phi chnh ph. Xem thm conformity assessment, International
Electrotechnical Commission v International Organisation for Standardisation.
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing: Hip nh v Hng dt v may mc
Mt hip nh ca WTO k tha Hip nh a si (MFA). Hip nh ny khc vi MFA ch
mc tiu ca n l a thng mi quc t trong lnh vc hng dt v may mc tr li khun
kh cc nguyn tc t do ho v khng phn bit i x thng thng ca WTO vo ngy
1/1/2005. n 1/1/1995, cc nc thnh vin phi p dng cc bin php trn cho 16% khi
lng thng mi hng dt nm 1990 ca mnh. n 1/1/1998, 17% khc s phi c a vo,
thm 18% na vo ngy 1/1/2002 v s cn li s c a vo ngy 1/1/2005. iu ny c
ngha l c mt khi lng ng k c d dn vo thi k sau, nhng mt s iu kin cng
bng s c p dng. V d mi giai on, sn phm phi c chn t 4 nhm sau: lt
v t si, vi, sn phm dt lm sn v qun o. Tin trnh thc hin c c quan iu hnh
hng dt gim st, l mt c quan c thnh lp theo Hip nh ny v c mt s chc
nng gii quyt tranh chp trong phm vi Hip nh. C ch gii quyt tranh chp ca WTO
cng c p dng i vi cc nc thnh vin.
Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft: Hip nh v bun bn my bay dn dng
y l mt trong nhng hip nh nhiu bn ca WTO, lc u c k nh mt b phn ca
Vng Tokyo. Cc bn k kt ca Hip nh cam kt gim thu hi quan v cc khon thu khc
i vi (a) my bay dn dng; (b) ng c, cc b phn v chi tit my bay dn dng; (c) cc
b phn, chi tit, cc chi tit lp rp ph khc ca my bay dn dng; (d) thit b m phng bay
mt t. Hip nh ny quy nh ngi mua c t do la chn ngi cung cp trn c s cc
yu t thng mi, cng ngh v khng c hn ch nh lng. Cc quy nh ca WTO v tr
cp s c p dng.
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights: Hip nh v Quyn
s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi
Mt trong nhng hip nh ca WTO c k trong Vng Uruguay. Hip nh ny c m
phn nhm gii quyt cng thng gia tng trong thng mi quc t ny sinh t nhng tiu

- 10 -
chun khc nhau bo h v thc hin quyn s hu tr tu v vic thiu nhng nguyn tc a
phng v thng mi hng gi quc t. Hip nh ny p dng i vi bn quyn v cc quyn
lin quan, thng hiu, ch du a l, kiu dng cng nghip, bng pht minh, s mch tch
hp v vic bo v b mt thng mi. Tiu chun bo h c p dng l cc tiu chun c
trong Cng c Paris (sa i 1967), Cng c Bern (sa i 1971), Cng c Rome v Hip
c v s hu tr tu lin quan n mch tch hp nhng khng cn thit phi tham gia vo
nhng Cng c . Cc nc thnh vin c t do xc nh cc phng php ph hp thc
hin cc quy nh ca Hip nh ny trong phm vi h thng php lut v thc tin ca mnh.
Cc nc pht trin c yu cu phi a cc quy nh php l v thc tin ca mnh ph hp
vi Hip nh vo cui nm 1995. Cc nc ang pht trin v cc nc ang trong qu trnh
chuyn i t k hoch ho tp trung sang nn kinh t th trng cho n tn cui nm 1999
mi phi thc hin nhng iu cam kt. Xem thm industrial property v intellectual
property.
Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures: Hip nh v Cc bin php u t
lin quan n thng mi
Mt trong nhng Hip nh ca WTO c k ti Vng Uruguay, c hiu lc t ngy 1/1/1995.
Hip nh ny nhm loi b cc iu kin gn vi vic cho php u t c nh hng bin dng
hoc hn ch thng mi hng ho. Ph lc ca Hip nh c danh sch minh ho cc bin
php v u t c xem l khng ph hp vi iu 3 (i ng quc gia) v iu 9 (Loi b
hon ton cc hn ch nh lng) ca GATT. l (a) i hi doanh nghip phi s dng mt
s lng nht nh sn phm c xut x ni a, (b) cho php nhp khu lin quan n vic
thc hin xut khu, (c) cc yu cu lin quan n hn ch nh lng hng nhp khu. Cc
nc thnh vin pht trin phi loi b cc bin php khng ph hp vo ngy 1/1/1997, cc
nc ang pht trin vo ngy 1/1/2000 v cc nc km pht trin nht l vo ngy 1/1/2002.
Hip nh cng a ra ti iu 9 mt kh nng l vo giai on sau c th c c nhng quy
nh v u t v chnh sch cnh tranh. Xem thm local content requirements.
Agreement regarding International Trade in Textiles: Hip nh v thng mi quc t
hng dt
Xem Multi-Fibre Arrangement.
Agreement respecting normal competitive conditions in the commercial shipbuilding and
repair industry: Hip nh lin quan n cc iu kin cnh tranh thng thng trong
ngnh cng nghip ng tu v sa cha tu bin thng mi
Xem OECD shipbuilding agreement.
Agriculture and the GATT: Nng nghip v GATT
Cc quy nh ca GATT khng phn bit gia hng nng sn v nhng hng khc ngoi tr
nhng trng hp nh. iu XI yu cu loi b cc hn ch nh lng ni chung, nhng iu
XI:2 cho php mt s hn ch nhp khu v xut khu i vi nhng sn phm nng nghip
theo nhng iu kin quy nh ngt ngho. iu XVI (tr cp) yu cu cc bn trnh s dng
tr cp i vi vic xut khu cc sn phm s cp, v iu XX (Ngoi l chung) cho php cc
nc thnh vin ngng mt s ngha v tun theo cc bin php m h chp nhn trong
cc Hip nh hng ho quc t. Nhng Hip nh ny thc t khng chu s iu chnh bi cc
nguyn tc ca GATT. Trong vi nm u ca GATT, tnh hnh ny khng gy ra kh khn
thc s no. Ty u ang c gng khc phc nhng nh hng ca chin tranh v cha c mt
s du hiu d tha thng xuyn, iu tr thnh mt c trng ca thng mi trong nng
nghip thp k sau . Ni ring, cc nc ny dng nh l nhng th trng tiu th d
tha ca Hoa K, ngoi tr sn phm sa. Vo thi gian ca Phin hp r sot GATT 1955, c
mt suy ngh gia cc nc thnh vin l n thi im a nhng cam kt v hng ho vo
di s gim st ca GATT. Tuy nhin, Hoa K thc s c vn . Dng nh khng th
kim ch kh nng sn xut d tha trong nc ca Hoa k, v cc th trng nhp khu ca h
tr nn rt quyn r i vi cc nh cung cp nc ngoi. Nhng hn ch nhp khu theo iu

- 11 -
XI:2 c v khng p ng c vic gii quyt vn ny. Vo nm 1951, Hoa K dnh s
min tr i vi hn ch nhp khu hng sa. iu ny c thay th bng mt yu cu vo
nm 1954, v c chp thun vo nm 1955, dnh s min tr khng thi hn cho n khi
nc ny c th a cc quy nh ca o lut v iu chnh trong Nng nghip ph hp vi
ngha v ca GATT. y l min tr Khon 22. T , Hoa K c php p t hn ch nhp
khu i vi cc sn phm nng nghip khi thy cn thit. Hnh ng ny to ra nn tng cho
vic x l nhng vn nng nghip trong tng lai tng lai theo cc nguyn tc ca GATT.
Cc c hi gii quyt vn ny theo nhng nguyn tc thng thng gp phi cn tr
ln. V d, khi Thu-s tm thi gia nhp GATT vo nm 1958, nc ny ginh c ngoi
l i vi ton b lnh vc nng nghip. Tuy nhin, nhng nc thnh vin khc ca GATT li
tip tc tm kim mt ch thng mi quc t i vi hng ho. Trong khi ch i, mt
xut ny sinh vo u nm 1955 v vic hnh thnh Hip nh c bit v cc tho thun
hng ho (SACA). Hip nh ny to ra c ch gii quyt s mt cn bng gia sn xut v
tiu dng i vi nhng loi hng ho s cp, k c kh nng p dng cho nhng tha thun
hng ho. Tho thun ny tn ti song song vi GATT hay l mt b phn ca GATT th cha
bao gi c lm r. Trong bt k trng hp no, d xut c gi tr nh th no, th iu
cng khng c ngha l g v Hip nh khng c hiu lc. c mt s nc cho
rng h c th sng tt hn vi cc iu kin hin thi ca GATT. Mt s nc khc cho rng
chng c ngha g tip tc khi Hoa K t r rng h khng quan tm vic tr thnh thnh
vin ca SACA. Cc n lc trong 3 thp k tip theo nhm p t cc nguyn tc ca GATT
i vi thng mi nng nghip khng t c tm nh xut . Mt sng kin ny sinh
my thng sau nhm gii quyt vn gii quyt d tha, c th l theo cc o lut ca
Hoa K chng hn nh PL 480, b m nht dn sau vi nm tho lun. Mt n lc sau
nhm gii quyt nhng vn lin quan n thng mi trong lnh vc nng nghip c
a vo trong Bo co Haberler nm 1957. Bo co ny ch yu nhm phn tch ti sao thng
mi ca cc nc ang pht trin khng pht trin nhanh chng nh cc nc cng nghip ho,
nhng dao ng gi ngn hn qu ln ca cc sn phm s cp v vic p dng rng ri bo h
hng nng nghip. Bo co ca Ban hi thm vi tiu Nhng xu hng trong Thng mi
quc t, c cng b vo thng 10/1958. Bn cnh cc vn khc, bo co ny lp lun
phi gim mc ch ngha bo h nng nghip Bc M v Ty u, phng hng chung
ca bo co ny l thin v t do ho thng mi. Mc d bn bo co c hu ht cc thnh
vin ng h nhng nh hng ca n li tr nn rt nh b. Mt U ban c thnh lp
xem xt chi tit nhng xut ca bn bo co, v iu ny lm ngi ta tin rng mt gii php
ang n gn. Mc d c phn tch v tho lun, nhng iu ng ni nht v tc ng di
hn ca bn bo co Haberler ch l n c xem nh l bc u tin tin ti vic ra i Vng
Dillion vo nm 1960. Lc vic phc hi hon ton ca Ty u sau chin tranh v vic
thnh lp Cng ng Kinh t Chu u dn n tnh hnh mi trong thng mi hng nng
sn ton cu. Vic p dng Chnh sch Nng nghip chung vi cc bin thu v nhng bin php
h tr trong nc to ra mt i th cnh tranh ng gm lm bin dng thng mi m n
tn by gi vn c coi l do cc hnh ng ca Hoa K gy ra. Sau , Vng Kennedy bt
u nm 1963 dng nh a ra nhng c hi mi gii quyt vn nng nghip. Mt
trong nhng mc tiu ca Vng ny l thng qua cc bin php xm th cho nng sn v cc
sn phm s cp. Vng m phn bt u tht ti t bng vic n ra Chin tranh tht g, mt
cuc tranh chp gia Hoa K v Cng ng Kinh t Chu u vi vic ng ca bt ng th
trng c v cc nc Chu u khc i vi gia cm thng qua vic p dng cc bin thu.
Kt qu ca Vng Kenedy v hng nng sn rt ngho nn. Thnh cng chnh ca n l to ra
ng lc cho vic k kt Tho thun mi v ng cc quc t sau . Nhim v caVng Tokyo
(1973-1979) l m phn v nng nghip, c tnh n nhng c th v nhng vng mc
trong lnh vc ny. Nhng cuc m phn nh vy cui cng cng kt thc trong tht bi. Vic
k Hip nh v tht b v Hip nh quc t v cc sn phm sa a ra mt gii php yu t
i vi lnh vc thng mi ny, nhng vn khng gii quyt c nhng vn v sn xut
qu mc trong nc, tr cp xut khu, cc hn ch nhp khu v cc bin php khc l c
trng trong lnh vc thng mi nng nghip. Vng Tokyo kt thc vi tho thun l cc
nc tip tc m phn xy dng mt Khun kh Nng nghip a phng nhm trnh i u

- 12 -
chnh tr v kinh t lin min trong lnh vc ny. Cc cuc m phn c ni li nhng khng
c hiu qu g. Nh Hudec, Kennedy, Sgarbossa (1993) ghi nhn, trong khong t nm 1947
n trong khong t nm 1947 n nhng nm u 1980 c 100 cuc tranh chp trong GATT
lin quan nng nghip, chim khong gn 43% cc tranh chp c bo co. Hoa K v Cng
ng Kinh t Chu u c lin quan vi t cch nguyn n hoc b n ca 87 v trong s .
Mt bc khi u mi nhm tm c gii php i vi cc vn v thng mi nng nghip
l rt cn thit. Cuc hp cp B trng GATT nm 1982 tho thun v chng trnh lm
vic nhm xem xt tt c cc vn nh hng ti thng mi, m ca th trng, cnh tranh
v vn cung cp trong nng nghip. Mt nhm lm vic a ra xut vo nm 1984 v
m ca th trng ln hn, cnh tranh xut khu mnh hn, nhng quy tc r rng hn v hn
ch nh lng v tr cp, v nhng i ng c bit c hiu qu hn i vi cc nc ang
pht trin. Bn bo co c cc xut c thng qua trong cng nm . Sau , nhng
xut li v pha sau v cc cuc m phn chun b cho Vng Uruguay bt u.
Thc ra, nhng xut to nn d tho cc mc tiu chnh ca m phn n c bt u
vo nm 1986. Cc B trng tho thun ti Punta del Este rng cc cuc m phn cn t
c s t do ho hn na trong thng mi nng nghip v t tt c cc bin php nh hng
ti tip cn th trng nhp khu v cnh tranh xut khu vo khun kh cc nguyn tc v lut
l ca GATT cht ch hn v c kh nng p dng hiu qu hn. Cn phi ch hn ti vic
gim cc hng ro cn tr nhp khu, mt mi trng cnh tranh tt hn v nhng nh hng
ca cc bin php v sinh dch t. Mt nhn t mi nhp cuc. Trong cc Vng Kenedy v
Tokyo, cc cuc m phn v nng nghip ch yu c tin hnh gia Cng ng Kinh t
Chu u v Hoa K. Cc i tc thng mi khc v nng nghip ch xut hin bn l ca
nhng cuc m phn . Vic hnh thnh Nhm Cairns ngay trc khi tin hnh Vng
Uruguay, mt nhm gm 14 nc kinh doanh lnh mnh trong lnh vc nng nghip, m
bo c ting ni th 3 c nh hng v c mc . Nng nghip l mt trong nhng ch
m phn kh khn nht ca Vng m phn ny. Cc vn u c hiu k nhng
khng t c tin b no cho ti khi Cng ng Chu u tha nhn rng nhng thay i
trong Chnh sch Nng nghip Chung ch cn thit v l do ti chnh trong nc, v vic gim
h tr gi l c th m khng gy chia r nhng mi lin h x hi ca Cng ng . Ngay c
lc , U ban Chu u cng gp kh khn trong vic nhn c u quyn m phn t cc
nc thnh vin. S yu km trong vic tham gia ca Cng ng ny vo cc cuc m phn v
nng nghip l nguyn nhn trc tip dn n tht bi ca Hi ngh B trng Brussel vo
thng 12/1990. Vn cng gp kh khn v Hoa K c bm cht mc tiu nhm t ti tr
cp bng khng, mt vic m ngay c Hoa k cng khng mong i c th lm c ngay c
vi nhng tp qun ca h. Hip c Blair House thng 11/1992 nh du mt mc quan
trng ca Vng m phn. Cc cuc m phn vn din ra kh khn v mt s thay i c li
cho Cng ng Chu u c a vo Hip c ny vo thng 12/1993. iu ny cho php
kt thc Vng m phn vi ngy sau . Thng mi i vi tt c nng sn hin nay thuc
din iu chnh ca cc quy tc ca WTO nhng vn cn thm nhiu cuc m phn t
c mt ch thng mi tng t nh cc sn phm cng nghip. c c m t ngn
gn v kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v nng nghip, xem Agreement on Agriculture. Xem thm
Baumgartner proposals v Mansholt proposals.
ALADI: Hip hi lin kt M La-tinh
Hip hi lin kt M La-tinh (LAIA), c thnh lp nm 1980 gm cc nc Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay v Venezuela theo
sau s sp ca Hip hi Thng mi t do M La-tinh (LAFTA). Mc tiu ALADI c
quy nh trong Hip c Montevideo l theo ui vic thnh lp dn dn v lin tc mt th
trng chung M La-tinh. Mercosur c xem nh l mt bc tin ti mc tiu ny.
Alliance for Progress: Lin minh v s tin b
Ban u l K hoch pht trin 10 nm ca M La-tinh bao gm nhng mc tiu kinh t v x
hi c Tng thng Hoa K Kenedy a ra nm 1961. Trong nhng mc tiu ny c "mt gii
php nhanh chng v bn vng i vi nhng vn gc r do s dao ng gi qu ln ca cc

- 13 -
mt hng xut khu chnh ca nhng nc M La-tinh" v y nhanh lin kt kinh t M La-
tinh. Mt s tin b t c theo thi gian, nhng khi Lin minh v s tin b chnh thc
kt thc vo nm 1980, nhng thnh qu t c cn xa vi mc tiu nh. Xem thm
Caribbean Basin Innitiative, Enterprise for the Americas Initiative v FTAA.
Alternative dispute resolution: Gii php thay th i vi tranh chp
Mt phng php gii quyt tranh chp thng qua trng ti, tham vn, trung gian gii quyt
tranh chp, v.v... bn cnh cc th tc to n chnh thc. Cc bn tranh chp thng nh ra mt
hoc vi ngi khng lin quan c kh nng i n kt lun da trn s cng bng v bnh
ng. Gii php thay th i vi tranh chp ch c tc dng khi cc bn thc s mong mun tm
ra gii php v chp nhn kt qu ca m phn, v nhng phn quyt nh vy trong phn ln
cc trng hp khng c kh nng cng ch thng qua to n. Xem thm dispute settlement.
Alternative specific tariff: Thu c nh thay th
Mt mc thu sut tnh theo tr gi bng t l phn trm ca tr gi sn phm, hoc theo thu
sut c nh, tc l c tnh mc tin t c nh trn mi sn phm. Cc c quan hi quan
thng p dng mc thu cao hn trong hai mc nu trn. Xem thm ad valorem tariff v
specific tariff.
Admendments to WTO agreements: Sa i i vi cc Hip nh WTO
Cc iu khon sau ca WTO c th c sa i vi s nht tr ca tt c cc thnh vin: iu
IX (ra quyt nh) ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi Th gii, iu I
(i ng ti hu quc chung) v iu II (Danh mc u i) ca GATT 1994, iu II:1 (i ng
ti hu quc) ca GATS, v iu IV (i ng ti hu quc) ca Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr
tu lin quan n thng mi. Sa i i vi cc quy nh khc ca cc hip nh a phng
WTO c th c thng qua theo nguyn tc a s 2/3. Mi nc thnh vin sau phi hon
thnh cc th tc chp nhn sa i . Hip nh Marrakesh c cc iu khon cho php
Hi ngh B trng WTO quyt nh theo nguyn tc a s 3/4 m bt k mt thnh vin no
khng chp nhn sa i trong mt khong thi gian no c th t do rt khi WTO hoc
vn l thnh vin. Quy nh ny r rng l ch c s dng trong mt s trng hp ngoi l.
Tt c thnh vin ca WTO u c mt phiu biu quyt. Cng ng Chu u c php c s
lng phiu bng vi s lng nhng nc thnh vin ca mnh. Nhng sa i i vi hip
nh nhiu bn ca WTO c thng qua vi iu kin phi tun theo cc quy nh ca cc
hip nh ny. Xem thm decision-making in the WTO.
American Selling Price (ASP): Gi bn ca M
Cho n nm 1979, l phng php tnh tr gi hng ho ti bin gii tnh thu hi quan
c Hoa K quy nh trong o lut Thu quan 1922 v thc hin theo vi s kt hp ca
o lut Thu quan 1930. Tnh thu ch yu da trn gi bn bun thng thng, gm c vic
chun b giao hng, m ti hng ho c sn xut ti Hoa K c bn trn th trng
trong nc. nh hng ca h thng ny c th l mt mc thu cao hn t 2-3 ln so vi
phng php tnh tr gi c a ra trong iu VII ca GATT (nh gi hi quan). Vic p
dng h thng c vn c php v iu khon bo lu cho php s tip tc tn ti cc o lut
c t trc khi c GATT, thm ch n vi phm ngay chnh iu khon ca GATT. Tuy nhin,
ch c di 1% hng nhp khu ca Hoa K lun b nh hng ca h thng ny, ch yu l
hng ho cht. Ti Vng Tokyo, ASP chu s ph phn mnh m ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu
u v iu ny dn n gii php mt phn i vi hng ho cht. H thng ny b hu b
nh c o lut v cc hip nh thng mi 1979 m Hoa K chp nhn nhng nguyn tc
quy nh trong Hip nh ca Vng Tokyo v vic thc hin iu VII (nh gi hi quan). Xem
Vitamin B12 v tranh chp xung quanh vic chuyn t H thng ASP sang nhng quy tc v
nh gi hi quan.
Analytical Index: Sch phn tch chi tit

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y l hng dn i vi vic gii thch v p dng GATT (Hip nh chung v thu quan v
thng mi) c Ban php l ca WTO chun b, c nh k cp nht v ti bn. Ni dung
ca hng dn c c kt t ngun ti liu chnh thc ca GATT. Sch phn tch c gii
thch rt chi tit v cc iu ca GATT do cc nc thnh vin, ban hi thm gii quyt tranh
chp, v.v... a ra. V mt php l, y l cng c c bn ca nhng ai tham gia phn tch
chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents.
Andean Pact: Hip c Andean
Hip c ny c hnh thnh vo nm 1969 v c xem nh l mt tiu nhm ca LAFTA
(Khu vc Thng mi t do M La-tinh) vi mc tiu nhm iu phi chnh sch cng nghip
v u t nc ngoi. Cc nc thnh vin l Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuardor, Peru v Venezuela.
Andriessen Assurance: m bo Andriessen
y l mt tho thun c m phn vo nm 1985 gia Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v
Australia nhm gi mt s th trng th b Chu khng c tr cp. Frans Andriessen l
B trng ca EEC v nng nghip thi .
Annecy Tariff Conference: Hi ngh Thu quan Annecy
Vng th 2 trong 8 vng m phn thng mi a phng, c t chc ti Annecy, Php t
thng 4 n thng 8/1949. Mc tiu c bn l nhm to thun li cho vic gia nhp GATT ca
10 nc (an-mch, Cng ho Dominica, Phn-lan, Hy-lp, Haiti, Italia, Liberia, Nicaragua,
Thu-in v Uruaguay), l nhng nc khng tham gia cc vng m phn thu quan ti
Genve 1947. Ti hi ngh ny, Uruguay khng tham gia cho n tn 1953. Xem thm Tariff
Conference.
Anti-circumvention: Bin php chng trn trnh
y l bin php do Chnh ph p dng nhm ngn nga vic trn trnh thu chng ph gi.
Mt s cng ty tm cch n trnh nhng thu bng nhiu cch, trong c cch lp rp cc
b phn nc nhp khu hay nc th ba, hoc bng cch chuyn ngun sn xut v xut
khu ti mt nc th ba. Thut ng c dng trong WTO khng lin quan n cc trng
hp gian ln, nhng trng hp c gii quyt bng nhng th tc php l thng thng
ca cc nc c lin quan. Cc quy nh v chng trn trnh c a vo chng trnh ngh s
cc cuc m phn ca Vng Uruguay v Hip nh chng ph gi cng nh Hip nh v Tr
cp v cc bin php i khng nhng khng t c tho thun no. Mt chng trnh lm
vic hin nay ang c tin hnh ti U ban ca WTO v cc hot ng chng ph gi. Xem
thm anti-dumping measures, dumping v screwdriver operations.
Anti-competitive practices: Cc hot ng phn cnh tranh
Thng c gi l cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch hoc cc hot ng kinh doanh khng
lnh mnh. Cc cng ty s dng hot ng ny hn ch mc m h b chi phi bi c ch
gi. iu ny c th thc hin c khi mt cng ty hoc mt nhm cc cng ty c u th th
trng hoc sc mnh th trng. Trong mt s trng hp, n lin quan n s thng ng
gia cc cng ty. Xem thm antitrust, cartel, conduct v trade and competition policy.
Anti-dumping measures: Cc bin php chng ph gi
Loi thu c bit nh vo hng nhp khu khi mt cng ty b nh gi l bn hng ho ti
th trng nc nhp khu mc gi thp hn mc gi tnh trn cng loi sn phm th
trng trong nc. Do , c th coi cc bin php chng ph gi nh mt hnh thc t v.
Theo quy tc ca WTO, cc bin php chng ph gi ch c p dng khi n gy thit hi i
vi nn cng nghip trong nc sn xut ra nhng sn phm tng t nc nhp khu. Khi
nim th n gin nhng vic thc hin n dn n mt h thng qun l hnh chnh phc tp
v c qu nhiu iu khon c s dng cn phi c thm nh ngha. Hip nh ca WTO v
vic thc hin iu 6 ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 quy nh r cc
th tc chnh xc v r rng i vi vic thc hin cc bin php chng ph gi. Mt s phng

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php phc tp c s dng nh gi nhng chnh lch v gi v xc nh mc tn
tht. Cc bin php chng ph gi c hnh thnh nu nh gi c do cng ty nc ngoi tnh
nc nhp khu thp hn mc tr gi thng thng nc sn xut. Tr gi thng thng c
tnh bng nhng chi ph c nh v bin i ca sn xut cng vi mt lot cc chi ph khc
thng gn lin vi sn xut v thng mi. Nu nh kinh doanh trong nc qu t, tr gi
thng thng c ly l mc so snh cao nht th trng th ba hoc chi ph sn xut c
tnh ca cc cng ty xut khu cng vi mc hp l trang tri cc chi ph v li nhun nh
mc. Nu khng c gi xut khu, hoc l thng mi gia cc bn c lin quan vi nhau, v
do ch s gi c xem l khng tin cy, mc gi xut khu c th c tnh trn c s
nhng g c tnh khi bn cho mt ngi mua c lp, hoc l da trn mt s c s hp l
khc. Kh nng tranh chp v mc tr gi thng thng ng n l d nhn thy. Khi nim v
thit hi vt cht i vi cc ngnh cng nghip sn xut nhng sn phm tng t cn nhiu
nhiu tranh ci. C GATT ln Hip nh v iu VI u khng nh ngha v thit hi vt cht,
nhng Hip nh th hai li c danh sch minh ho chi tit v nhng yu t c a ra xem
xt nh gi liu thit hi v vt cht c xy ra hay khng. Danh sch ny cha c xem l
ton din v bao gm s suy gim thc s hoc tim nng v doanh s, li nhun, sn lng, th
phn, nng xut, hon vn u t hoc tn dng nng lc; cc yu t nh hng ti gi trong
nc; bin ph gi; nhng nh hng thc s v tim tng i vi lung tin mt, my mc,
cng n vic lm, lng bng, s tng trng, kh nng tng vn hoc u t. c nhiu
ngi vit v ngha ca "sn phm tng t" v liu n c c hiu l sn phm ging nhau,
sn phm tng t, hoc sn phm khc nhau nhng c gi tr s dng ging nhau hoc nhm
t c cng mc tiu. Hip nh v iu VI hin nay lm r im ny. Sn phm tng t
phi l ging nhau v mi mt. Nu khng c nhng sn phm nh vy, sn phm khc c th
c chn mc d khng ging nhau v mi mt, nhng c c trng rt ging vi sn phm
ang c xem xt. Cc bin php chng ph gi ch c p dng trong chng mc b p
c bin ph gi, l s chnh lch gia tr gi thng thng v gi ti bin gii nc
nhp khu, c iu chnh cho ph hp vi nhng chi ph bnh thng c th gn lin vi
thng mi. Do , nu c quan iu tra thy c hin tng ph gi, mc bo h i vi ngnh
cng nghip trong nc trn c s cc bin php chng ph gi c xem l tng i hn ch.
khng phi l bin php c tnh t ng. Theo cc quy tc ca WTO, phi c chng l y
mi c p dng cc bin php chng ph gi, v li cn c cc quy nh cho php cc bn
b nh hng c khng co. Hip nh v iu VI nhn mnh rng vic p dng cc bin
php chng ph gi phi c bng chng ca vic ph gi, thit hi, v mi lin quan c nguyn
nhn gia 2 bn. Mt s khng nh khng thi, khng c bng chng chng minh, th
khng c xem xt l ph hp gii quyt cc yu cu . Yu cu p dng bin php
chng ph gi phi do ngnh cng nghip trong nc nu ra. Khng c p dng bin php
no nu khng c s ng h ca cc cng ty i din cho 25% tng sn lng sn phm
ging nhau . Ngay c khi s ph gi l nghim trng th cc bin php chng ph gi cng
cha chc c p dng nu ngnh cng nghip khng chng minh c kh khn l do ph
gi ch khng phi l kt qu ca nguyn nhn khc. Theo nguyn tc v mc ph gi ti thiu,
khng c c hnh ng no nu nh bin ph gi thp hn 2%. Hnh ng chng ph gi
vn cn nhiu tranh ci. Cc cng ty chu cc hnh ng ny v nc h i khi thy bin php
ch nh l phng tin ngn cn vic nhp khu khng mong mun. iu qu thc c
phn ng. Nh l hnh thc bo h t xut, cc bin php cho php Chnh ph c th tc
ng n lung nhp khu. Tuy nhin, iu tra chng ph gi c th phc v mc tiu r rng
bng cch chng minh vi cc nc xut khu b nghi ng l ph gi v c cu gi thnh thc
s, v xut ra nhng cch thc thay th i vi sn xut v ch thng mi c th gim
hoc loi b nhu cu p dng cc bin php chng ph gi. Cng cn ghi nhn l, nh Gabrielle
Marceau (1994) ch ra, ph gi v lut chng ph gi khng ch l phn bit i x v bc lt
v gi. l nhng ch m gia nhng h thng quc gia v cnh tranh. Hoekman (1995) khi
bnh lun v cc yu cu c tnh th tc chi tit quy nh Hip nh v iu VI ghi nhn rng
iu ny tr thnh mt lnh vc bo b ca chuyn mn ho i vi ngh php l nhng
lnh th tch cc s dng bin php chng ph gi. iu ny cho thy rng tt c cc c ch
cho php chnh ph c tc ng n lung nhp khu to ra mt hnh nh xu. Trong trng

- 16 -
hp p dng cc bin php chng ph gi, cc nh nhp khu than phin v nhng nh hng
ngn cn thng mi, nhng cc ngnh cng nghip nhng nc nhp khu cho rng nhng
bin php nh l nhng phng tin chm chp v vt v gii quyt ngay vn . Lun c
mu thun gn lin vi vic p dng cc bin php chng ph gi. Nh K W Dam (1970) ch ra
rng, nhng ngi son tho GATT c v c 2 lp trng v vic gii quyt ph gi nh th
no. H thng nht iu VI rng ph gi l iu khng mong mun nhng phn cn li
ca iu , h li hn ch cc iu kin m theo cc bin php chng ph gi c th c
p dng. Ngy nay, c mt quan im mnh m gia mt s cc nh hoch nh chnh sch
thng mi rng chnh sch cnh tranh c th l cng c tt hn gii quyt cc trng hp
ph gi nhng vi iu kin tt c cc nc thnh vin ca WTO sn sng theo ui nhng
chnh sch cnh tranh c hiu qu. Cho ti khi iu ny xy ra, quy tc v chng ph gi vn
to nn mt c ch r rng, nu n l hp php v i khi c thiu st, gii quyt nhng lo
ngi do cng ng thng mi a ra. Xem thm Agreement on Safeguards, boomerang clause,
competition policy and anti-dumping measures, de minismis dumping margins, lesser duty
principle v predatory pricing.
Antitrust laws: Cc o lut chng c quyn
y l mt phn cc quy nh to nn chnh sch cnh tranh. Lut ny nhm m ra mi trng
cnh tranh dnh cho cc cng ty thng qua vic bo m rng h khng lm dng sc mnh th
trng th trng trong nc, mc d, c bit l th trng Hoa K, lut chng c quyn
c mt tm c quan trng ngoi phm vi lnh th. Thut ng "chng c quyn" bt ngun t
khi nim trong chnh sch ca Hoa K vo nhng nm 1880, 1890 l c mt s ngnh cng
nghip, c t chc thnh nhng cng ty (t-rt) c ln vi quyn lnh o c tn, lm suy
yu c ch gi. o lut Sherman c thng qua 1890 vn cn l hn tng v biu tng
ca lut chng c quyn Hoa K. Bn bo co ca U ban H ngh vin 1994 ghi nhn rng
"trc ht, chng c quyn c ngun gc t nhng u i khc bit ca Hoa K i vi a
cc, t do thng mi, tip cn th trng, v c l quan trng nht trong tt c l t do la
chn". Hnh pht i vi nhng trng hp c chng minh v s vi phm lut chng c
quyn Hoa K thng rt nghim khc v kh nng hnh pht ca to n gy tn tht gp ba
i vi nhng ngi vi phm. Xem thm cartel, Clayton act, extraterritoriality v Webb-
Pomerence act.
Antitrust enforcement guidlines for international operations: Hng dn thc hin chng
c quyn trong cc hot ng quc t
Mt tp hp cc hng dn do B T php v U ban thng mi Lin bang Hoa K ban hnh
ln mi nht vo thng 4/1995. Nhng hng dn gii thiu cho cc doanh nghip tham gia cc
hot ng quc t cc vn lin quan n vic thi hnh lut chng c quyn. Nhng hng
dn bao gm c nhng lnh vc chng hn nh ti phn v hnh vi v cc thc th bn
ngoi Hoa K, s lch thip, h tr ln nhau trong vic thc hin lut chng c quyn quc t,
nh hng ca vic tham gia ca chnh ph nc ngoi ti trch nhim chng c quyn ca
cc cng ty t nhn. Xem thm effects doctrine, extraterritoriality, negative comity v positive
comity.
ANZCERTA: Hip nh thng mi lin kt kinh t cht ch hn gia Australia v New
Zealand
Thng c gi l CER. Hip nh ny c hiu lc vo 1/1/1983 v c xem xt li vi ln
k t . Ngoi hng ho v dch v, Hip nh ny cp mt s vn chng hn nh cng
nhn tiu chun, cng nhn ln nhau v hng ho v ngh nghip, v.v... Xem thm Trans-
Tasman Mutual Recognition Arrangement.
ANZCERTA protocol on trade in services: Ngh nh th ca ANZCERTA v thng mi
trong lnh vc dch v
Ngh nh th ny c thng qua vo 1988 a thng mi trong lnh vc dch v vo
khun kh chnh thc ANZCERTA. Ngh nh th cp ti tt c thng mi dch v gia

- 17 -
Australia v New Zealand, ngoi tr cc hn ch i vi mt s nh cc hot ng c th nu
2 ph lc. Khng c mt hot ng mi no c b sung vo cc ph lc v cc cuc tho
lun song phng nh k dn n vic rt bt hoc tht cht cc iu kin. C cu ca Ngh
nh th ny phn nh trc hu ht cc nt c trng ca GATS (Hip nh chung v thng
mi trong lnh vc dch v). Xem thm negative listing.
ANZSIC: Phn loi tiu chun cng nghip gia Australia v New Zealand
Vic phn loi trong cng nghip c Cc thng k Australia s dng bao gm vic sn xut
s cp v mc ch thng mi v phi thng mi, khai thc m, ch to v dch v. ANZSIC
bao gm 17 phn, 14 phn trong lin quan n dch v (bao gm kh t, nc, in v xy
dng). Xem thm SITC v UNCPC.
APEC: Din n hp tc kinh t Chu - Thi bnh dng
c thnh lp vo nm 1989. Mc tiu c bn ca APEC bao gm (a) gi vng s tng trng
v pht trin trong khu vc, (b) tng cng mt h thng thng mi a phng m ch khng
phi l vic hnh thnh khi thng mi khu vc, (c) tp trung vo kinh t ch khng phi l
cc vn an ninh v (d) khuyn khch s ph thuc ln nhau mang tnh xy dng bng vic
khuyn khch lung hng ho, dch v, vn v cng ngh. Chng trnh ngh s chnh ca
APEC l ph b hng ro thng mi v u t gia cc nc thnh vin vo nm 2020. Cc
nc pht trin cam kt thc hin iu ny vo 2010. Mt s nhm lm vic c thnh
lp thc y s hp tc trong hng lot cc vn , c bit l trong lnh vc thun li ho
kinh doanh v trao i thng tin. Cc nc thnh vin APEC l Australia, Brunei, Canada,
Chile, Trung Quc, Hng kng, Indonesia, Nht, Hn Quc, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, New Zealand, Singapore, i-loan, Thi-lan v Hoa K. APEC c Ban th
k nh t ti Singapore. Xem thm Bogor Decleration, Manila Action Plan for APEC, open
regionalism, Osaka Action Agenda, Seoul Declaration v cc t mc khc bt u bng APEC.
APEC Business Advisory Council (ASAC): Hi ng t vn doanh nghip APEC
c thnh lp vo 11/1995 ti Hi ngh B trng APEC Osaka bo m s hp tc lin
tc v tham gia tch cc ca gii doanh nghip v t nhn trong tt c cc hot ng ca APEC.
APEC Committe on Trade and Investment (CTI): U ban APEC v thng mi v u t
c thnh lp vo 1993. U ban qun l cc chng trnh lm vic tp trung vo t do ho v
thun li ho lung thng mi v u t trong khu vc APEC, c bit trong cc lnh vc nh
chnh sch thng mi, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, ni lng th ch, doanh nghip va v
nh, tiu chun v s ph hp, th tc hi quan, chnh sch cnh tranh, quy ch xut x, u t
v cc bin php phi thu quan, v.v...
APEC Economic and Technical Cooperation: Hp tc kinh t v k thut APEC
Mt trong ba ct tr ca chng trnh ngh s lm vic ca APEC. N nhm h tr vic t
c mc tiu ca APEC bng vic xy dng cc khi nim chnh sch chung, thc hin cc
hot ng chung, tham gia trong cc cuc i thoi v chnh sch. N c thnh lp ti Hi
ngh B trng APEC thng 11/1995. Cc hot ng hp tc din ra trong lnh vc pht trin
ngun nhn lc, khoa hc v cng ngh cng nghip, doanh nghip va v nh, c s h tng
v kinh t, nng lng, giao thng, du lch, vin thng v thng tin, d liu thng mi v u
t, xc tin thng mi, bo tn ti nguyn bin, ngh c, v cng ngh nng nghip. Xem
thm APEC working groups, Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.
APEC Eminent Persons' Group (EPG): Nhm nhng c nhn xut sc APEC
c thnh lp ti Bangkok nm 1992. N bao gm nhng c nhn ni bt bao gm nhng hc
gi v cc nh kinh doanh t cc nn kinh t APEC. Nhim v l a ra vin cnh di hn i
vi t do ho thng mi trong khu vc. EPG pht hnh 2 bn bo co thng nin bao gm
cc vn nh t do ho thng mi, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, cc vn v mi

- 18 -
trng, u t, v tiu chun. Hi ngh nguyn th APEC 1995 t chc ti Osaka tuyn b rng
nhim v ca n hon thnh. N c th c thnh lp li nu c yu cu.
APEC framework for liberalisation and facilitation: Khun kh v t do ho v thun li
ho ca APEC
Qu trnh t do ho v thun li ho ca APEC l nhm t c mc ch ra trong
Tuyn b Bogor nh nu trong Chng trnh hnh ng Osaka. N bao gm (a) cc hnh
ng ca tng nc thnh vin APEC, (b) cc hnh ng ca cc din n APEC v cc hnh
ng ca APEC lin quan n cc din n a phng. Cc din n APEC bao gm U ban
APEC v thng mi v u t, U ban kinh t v cc nhm lm vic APEC. Xem thm
Manila Action Plan for APEC.
APEC individual action plans: Cc k hoch hnh ng ca tng thnh vin APEC
Cc k hoch ny gm cc hnh ng t nguyn ca cc nc APEC t c mc tiu ca
Tuyn b Bogor. Cc k hoch ny c c th ho trong Chng trnh Hnh ng Osaka. Cc
k hoch hnh c nhn gm cc hnh ng d kin ca tng nc, v, nhng ni thch ng,
cc hnh ng tp th v t do ho v thun li ho thng mi v u t. Cc k hoch bao
gm cc bc i trong 15 lnh vc nh sau: thu quan, cc bin php phi thu quan, dch v,
u t, tiu chun v s ph hp, th tc hi quan, quyn s hu tr tu, chnh sch cnh tranh,
mua sm ca chnh ph, ni lng th ch, quy ch xut x, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, s
i li ca doanh nhn, vic thc hin kt qu ca Vng Uruguay, thu thp v phn tch thng
tin. Cc k hoch hnh ng ring r c nhiu chi tit v cc hnh ng ngn hn v cc chnh
sch hoc cc nh hng rng hn cho di hn. Chng c cp nht thng xuyn. Xem
thm rolling specificity.
APEC Leaders' Meetings: Hi ngh nguyn th APEC
Cc cuc hp khng nghi thc ca cc nh lnh o APEC cho php h chia s cch nhn i
vi khu vc Chu - Thi bnh dng v a ra nh hng cho chng trnh pht trin di
hn ca APEC. Hi ngh nguyn th c t chc Seattle (1993), Bogor (1994), Osaka
(1995) v Manila (1996). Xem thm Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.
APEC Ministerial Meetings: Hi ngh B trng APEC
Cc cuc hp hng nm thng c cc B trng Ngoi giao v Thng mi tham d
thng qua cc chng trnh lm vic v ngn sch ca APEC, ra quyt nh i vi cc vn
v chnh sch, chng hn nh c cu t chc v kt np hi vin ca APEC, a ra nh hng
cho nm ti. Hi ngh B trng nm 1995 l ln th 7 v c t chc Osaka. Hi ngh ln
th 8 c t chc Manila vo nm 1996, ln th 9 s c t chc Canada vo nm 1997
v ln th 10 s c t chc Malaysia vo nm 1998. Nc ng cai Hi ngh B trng
cng ch tr tin trnh APEC cho nm . Xem thm Seoul Declaration.
APEC non-bingding investment principles: Cc nguyn tc u t khng rng buc ca
APEC
iu l t nguyn bao gm mt lot cc quy tc c p dng i vi lung u t c thng
qua ti Hi ngh B trng APEC 1994 ti Bogor. N nhm thc y mt mi trng chnh
sch c biu hin bng lng tin, gim s khng chc chn, t do ho v n gin ho cc quy
tc v chnh sch u t. Cc quy tc c thng qua bao gm tnh cng khai, i ng ti hu
quc, lp doanh nghip, i ng quc gia, chuyn nhng, quc hu ho v bi thng, cc yu
cu thc hin trong u t, khuyn khch thu v u t, gii quyt tranh chp, v.v... Xem thm
World Bank Guidlines on the Treatment of Foreign Direct Investment.
APEC Pacific Business Forum: Din n kinh doanh Thi bnh dng APEC
c thnh lp ti Hi ngh Nguyn th ti Seattle vo thng 11/1993 ch ra cc vn m
APEC cn tp trung nhm lm thun li ho thng mi v u t khu vc v khuyn khch
s pht trin ca mng li kinh doanh trong c khu vc. Din n ny bao gm cc nh doanh

- 19 -
nghip cao cp i din cho quyn li ca cc doanh nghip nh, va v ln. Din n ny pht
hnh 2 bn bo co v cc vn bao gm trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, u t, tiu chun,
v.v... Din n c thay th bng Hi ng t vn doanh nghip APEC theo quyt nh c
a ra ti Hi ngh B trng APEC ti Osaka.
APEC Senior Officials' Meetings: Hi ngh cc quan chc cao cp ca APEC
y l cuc hp gia cc quan chc cao cp c t chc thng xuyn gia cc cuc hp B
trng hng nm. Khng ging nh WTO, OECD, UNTAD v cc t chc kinh t v thng
mi quc t khc, APEC khng c phi on thng trc ti khu tr s. Do , cc cuc hp
ca cc quan chc kinh t cao cp s l c hi thc hin cc quyt nh ca cp B trng v
chun b cc xut cho cc cuc hp ti. Xem thm APEC ministerial meetings.
APEC Working groups: Cc nhm lm vic ca APEC
APEC c 10 nhm lm vic lin quan n cc hot ng hp tc thc tin chng hn nh vic
chun b cm nang k thut, mng li thng tin, cc kho o to, v.v... 10 nhm lm vic bao
gm nng lng, nh bt c, pht trin ngun nhn lc, khoa hc v cng ngh cng nghip,
bo tn ti nguyn bin, du lch, vin thng, xc tin thng mi, d liu thng mi v u t,
giao thng vn ti.
Appellate body: C quan Phc thm
Mt c quan thng trc bao gm 7 ngi c thnh lp theo Bn ghi nh ca WTO v quy
tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp nhm nghe nhng khng n ny sinh t cc v vic c
ban hi thm xem xt. C s i vi nhng khng n c hn ch trong khun kh cc quy
nh ca WTO. Cc thnh vin ca c quan phc thm l nhng ngi c c quan c thm
quyn tha nhn v s tinh thng trong lut php, thng mi quc t v cc hip nh lin
quan ca WTO, l nhng ngi khng c lin quan vi bt k mt chnh ph no. Xem thm
dispute settlement, dispute settlement body, panel v WTO understanding on dispute
settlement.
Appellations of origin: Cc ch nh v xut x
Cc loi ch dn a l cho thy sn phm xut x t mt nc, mt vng hoc a phng c
cht lng hoc c tnh quan h mt thit vi mi trng a l, bao gm c cc yu t thin
nhin v con ngi. Chng c iu chnh bng Hip nh v s hu tr tu lin quan n
thng mi ca WTO.
Applied tariff rates: Thu sut p dng
Thu sut m c quan hi quan ti bin gii thc p dng. Nhng thu sut ny trong mt s
trng hp thp hn ng k so vi thu sut rng buc ca WTO t c trong cc cuc m
phn thng mi hoc thu sut c lit k trong danh mc thu quan quc gia. Xem thm
bingdings (goods), ceiling bindings, nominal tariff rates, single-column tariff v multi-column
tariff.
Arbitration: Trng ti
Mt cch gii quyt tranh chp. Hnh thc ny mang tnh chnh thc hn trung gian gii quyt
tranh chp nhm a cc bn tranh chp li vi nhau, mang t tnh php l hn cc th tc phc
tp ca to n. Cc bn nht tr p dng trng ti thng rng buc ln nhau vo cc quy tc r
rng v th tc. Cc bn thng ng trc vi nhau rng phn quyt ca trng ti a ra l
rng buc i vi cc bn. Th tc trng ti thng c bit hu ch khi cc bn tranh chp
mun tm ra mt gii php bnh ng v dt khot i vi vn . Xem thm dispute settlement
v WTO understanding on dispute settlement.
Arm's-length pricing: Cch tnh gi si tay
y l mt nguyn tc c a ra nhm nh gi liu gi th trng tnh i vi hng ho v
dch v bun bn trn th trng quc t c b thay i hay khng. Mc tnh gi si tay thng

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c nh ngha l mc gi c tnh gia cc cng ty kinh doanh c lp khng c quan h
trong cc trng hp tng ng. Cc phng php nh gi tiu chun ny c tho ng hay
khng c th l rt phc tp. Xem thm transfer pricing.
Arrangement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods:
Tho thun v ngn chn cc ch dn sai hoc la o v ngun gc hng ho
Xem Madrid Agreement.
Arrangement on Guidlines for Officially Supported Export Credits: Tho thun v hng
dn tn dng cho xut khu c h tr chnh thc
y l cam kt khng rng buc ca OECD c k ln u vo nm 1978. Cam kt ny nhm
bo m mt th trng tn dng xut khu c trt t v trnh cnh tranh gia cc nc a
ra cc iu kin tn dng u i hn. K t n nay cam kt c cp nht nhiu ln.
Cam kt p dng i vi tn dng xut khu c Chnh ph trc tip gia hn v h tr hoc
thay mt Chnh ph c chnh ph bo m. Cam kt ny cng p dng vi cung cp ti chnh
u i theo chng trnh tr gip nu nh vic cho vay b rng buc bng vic mua hng ca
nc ti tr.
Article 113 Committee: U ban iu 113
U ban ny c tn gi ny t iu 113 ca Hip c Rome cho php Cng ng Kinh t Chu
u hnh ng da trn cc nguyn tc thng nht v thu quan, chng ph gi, cc hip nh
thng mi, t do ho thng mi, v.v... U ban Chu u, pht ngn v m phn thay mt cc
nc thnh vin ti WTO, phi tin hnh cc cuc m phn thng mi c tham kho kin
U ban ny. Xem thm Common Commercial Policy v subsidiarity.
ASEAN: Hip hi cc quc gia ng Nam
c thnh lp nm 1967 thc y s tin b kinh t v n nh chnh tr trong khu vc.
Hip hi ny bao gm Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thi-lan v Vit
Nam. Lo, Myanmar (Burma) tr thnh thnh vin vo thng 7/1997. Xem thm AFTA.
ASEAN framework agreement on services: Hip nh khung ASEAN v dch v
Hip nh ny c Chnh ph cc nc ASEAN thng qua vo ngy 15/12/1995. Hip nh
ny nhm (a) tng cng hp tc trong lnh vc dch v gia cc nc thnh vin nng cao
hiu qu v tnh cnh tranh ca cc nh cung cp dch v ca ASEAN v a dng ho kh
nng sn xut, cung cp v phn phi dch v trong v ngoi ASEAN, v (b) gim c bn
nhng hn ch i vi thng mi trong lnh vc dch v gia cc nc thnh vin v t do
thng mi trong lnh vc dch v bng vic m rng chiu su v phm vi t do ho qu cc
cam kt ti GATS vi mc tiu hin thc ho khu vc thng mi dch v t do. iu II tm
kim kh nng hp tc thng qua thit lp v ci thin cc phng tin c s h tng, cng sn
xut, v cc tho thun tip th v mua sm, nghin cu v pht trin, trao i thng tin. iu
III i hi cc nc thnh vin phi t do ho thng mi trong mt s ln cc lnh vc dch v
trong phm vi thi gian hp l thng qua vic xo b cc bin php phn bit i x v cc hn
ch v tip cn th trng v ngn cm p dng cc bin php hn ch mi. Theo iu IV, cc
nc thnh vin phi tham gia vo cc cuc m phn v cc bin php nh hng ti cc lnh
vc dch v c th. iu V cho php cng nhn ln nhau v trnh , gio dc, kinh nghim v
bng cp, nhng khng i hi cc nc thnh vin lm nh vy. Hip nh ny quy nh rng
cc quy nh ca GATS s p dng i vi cc vn khng c cp n. Xem thm
AFTA.
ASEAN Free Trade agreement: Hip nh Khu vc Thng mi t do ASEAN
Xem AFTA.
ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme (AICO): Chng trnh Hp tc cng nghip
ASEAN

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Chng trnh pht trin cng nghip c cc nc thnh vin ASEAN thng qua vo thng
12/1995 thc y u t trong lnh vc cng nghip da nhiu vo cng ngh v tng cng
cc hot ng tng tr gi trong sn xut hng ho v dch v. Chng trnh ny thay th
chng trnh Lin doanh cng nghip ASEAN. c hng li ch ca AICO, mt lin
doanh hp tc phi bao gm t nht 2 cng ty t cc nc ASEAN khc nhau, v nhng cng
ty phi c t nht 30% c phn ca cc nc ASEAN. Sn phm c ph chun ca cc
thc th AICO c hng mc thu u i i vi thng mi trong ASEAN l t 0-5%. Tt
c cc sn phm, tr nhng sn phm quy nh theo iu 9 (Ngoi l chung) ca Hip nh
CEPT, s thuc AICO.
ASEAN Industrial Joint Venture Scheme: Chng trnh Lin doanh cng nghip ASEAN
Xem ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme.
ASEAN Investment Area: Khu vc u t ASEAN
Mt chng trnh hp tc c a ra nhm to iu kin thun li cho u t v c th t do
ho u t gia cc nc thnh vin ASEAN. Xem thm AFTA.
Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM): Hi ngh -u
y l cuc hp gia lnh o chnh ph ca Lin minh Chu u v cc nc ASEAN, Nht,
Trung Quc v Hn Quc c t chc t 2-3 nm 1 ln. Cc Hi ngh B trng gia cc k
hp trn cng c d nh t chc. Cuc hp u tin ca ASEM l vo thng 3/1996 ti
Bangkok.
Assistance: Tr gip
Khi nim nh hn bo h nhng c cng ngha v nh hng.
Associated foreign direct investment: u t trc tip nc ngoi lin kt
c UNTAD nh ngha l u t trc tip nc ngoi c bt u bng vic thnh lp mt
cng ty con hoc vic m rng cc cng ty con. Khon u t phi tun theo ngi lnh o.
Xem thm sequential foreign direct investment.
Association agreements: Cc hip nh lin kt
Cc hip nh gia Cng ng Chu u, cc nc Trung v ng u v mt vi nc ang
pht trin mang li cho nhng nc ny nhng tip cn th trng u i vo th trng Cng
ng chu u. Cc lnh vc nhy cm c th khng chu s iu chnh ca nhng Hip nh
, v vic k cc hip nh ny khng c ngha l trong tng lai s t ng l thnh vin
Cng ng Chu u. Nhng hip nh k vi cc nc Trung v ng u cng c bit n
nh l cc Hip nh Chu u. Khong 70 quc gia ACP lin kt ring r vi Cng ng Chu
u thng qua Cng c Lom. Xem thm hubs and spokes.
Association of Caribbean States: Hip hi cc quc gia vng Ca-ri-b
i vo hot ng t thng 8/1995. Hip hi ny bao gm 25 nc M La-tinh v vng Ca-ri-b,
k c 14 thnh vin ca Caricom, vi mc ch hnh thnh mt nhm thng mi ng th 4
th gii. Vo thng 12/1995, Hip hi ny thng qua chng trnh hnh ng nhm t do
ho thng mi thng qua cc bin php hi nhp kinh t gia cc nc thnh vin, k c t do
ho thng mi, u t, giao thng v cc lnh vc lin quan khc; thc y v thun li ho
thng mi v u t v thc y giao thng v du lch ca khu vc. Ban th k c t
Port-of-Spain, Trinidad v Tobago.
Association of Tin Producing Countries: Hip hi cc nc sn xut thic
c thnh lp vo nm 1983 vi mc tiu t c ngun thu xng ng v bnh ng cho cc
nh sn xut thic, v ph hp vi ngi tiu dng mc gi cng bng v n nh. Cc nc
thnh vin l Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thi-lan v Zaire.
Asymmentrical trade agreements: Cc Hip nh thng mi khng tng xng

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y l nhng hip nh thng mi song phng t ra nhng ngha v khc nhau i vi hai
bn. iu ny c th l mt thi gian biu khc nhau i vi vic gim thu hoc vic loi b
cc bin php phi thu quan. Trong mt s trng hp khc, mt bn c th min thu i vi
nhng sn phm ca cc bn khc vo nc m khng cn i hi mt s i x tng t
tr li. Xem thm Caribbean Basin Initiative, GSP, Lom Convention v SPARTECA nh
nhng v d ca nhng hip nh loi ny.
Asymmentrical trade openness: M ca thng mi khng tng xng
Quan im v h thng thng mi ton cu da trn s bt bnh ng thc s v nhn thy
c i vi vic tip cn th trng cc nc xut khu. Quan im ny c thnh hnh
c bit Hoa K vo nhng nm 1980 nh mt phn ca vic phn tch s thm ht thng
mi ngy cng tng. N c da trn gi thit rng Hoa K m ca th trng nhiu nht, v
rng Hoa k gn b hon ton vi cc nguyn tc thng mi a phng. Nhng nc khc
c xem nh l km m hn nhng mc khc nhau v tham gia vo h thng bun bn,
nhng cc nc c c li ch ging nhau nh vic m ca ca Hoa K. Theo nhng ngi
xng quan im ny, vic gim s khng tng xng c th t c thng qua nhng chnh
sch thng mi quc gia v a phng thch hp. Xem thm aggressive unilateralism,
mercantilism, Section 301 v Super 301.
Atlantic Charter: Hin chng i ty dng
y l kt qu ca Hi ngh i ty dng vo thng 8/1941 gia Tng thng Hoa K
Roosevelt v Th tng Anh Churchill, Hi ngh a ra trong on 4 v 5 mt nh ngha
u tin v ch ngha a phng m n s nh hng vic ti thit sau chin tranh. Hin
chng ny th hin mong mun ca Hoa K v Anh "trong khi vn tn trng cc ngha v
hin hnh, s cho tt c cc nc d ln d nh, thng trn hay bi trn, c tip cn bnh
ng ti thng mi v nguyn liu ca th gii cn thit cho s thnh vng ca nhng nc
". Cm t "ngha v hin hnh" l dnh s tu chn cho nc Anh lin quan n tho
thun u i ca ch. on 5 vit "... h mong mun em li s lin kt ton din gia cc
quc gia trong lnh vc kinh t vi mc tiu bo m cho tt c cc tiu chun lao ng c
nng cao, s pht trin kinh t v an ton x hi". Theo thi gian, nhng tng dn n
cc hip nh Bretton Woods v cui cng l GATT.
At-the-border barriers: Cc hng ro ti bin gii
Bao gm ch yu l thu quan, cc bin php phi thu quan, k c hn ngch nhp khu. Mt
s ngi thm t gi hi oi vo loi ny nhng thng khng phi l phm vi ca cc b
thng mi. Xem thm behind-the-border issues.
Audiovisual services: Cc dch v nghe nhn
Vic sn xut, phn phi v trin lm cc phim nh, bng hnh. Mt s lnh vc chnh sch
nhy cm tp trung vo lnh vc ny. Cc lnh vc ny bao gm nhng i hi v c trng vn
ho, bo h quyn s hu tr tu v mc tiu nhm t do ho thng mi. Cc lnh vc ny t
t mnh ra khi nhng thay i nhanh chng trong cng ngh v kh nng mi v vic phn
phi dch v nghe nhn m s thay i a ra. Chnh ph cc nc thnh thong p dng hn
ngch phim nh v hn ch s hu i vi bo ch, i pht thanh v truyn hnh nhm bo tn
nhng c trng vn ho. Xem thm audiovisual services in the Uruguay Round, broadcasting
directive, local content rules in broadcasting v trade and culture.
Audiovisual services in the Uruguay Round: Cc dch v nghe nhn quy nh trong Vng
Uruguay
y l mt trong nhng lnh vc nhiu tranh ci trong m phn dch v ca Vng Uruguay m
Cng ng Chu u v Hoa K l nhng nhn vt chnh. Cng ng Chu u, cng ging nh
cc thnh vin khc, cm thy rng trong lnh vc ny h c nhng li ch vn ho quan trng
phi bo v. i vi Hoa K, ngha quan trng ca lnh vc ny nm thc t l phim nh v
bng hnh chim trn mt na gi tr xut khu dch v gii tr ca h. Hoa K thc s c

- 23 -
c tip cn th trng tt i vi dch v nghe nhn hu ht cc quc gia, v nhng tr ngi
ln v tip cn th trng khng l vn thc s i vi nc ny, tuy th h vn ro rit tm
cch loi b cc hng ro hin nay. Tuy nhin, Hoa K phn i vic gia hn ch hn ngch
a phng c a ra trong Ch th v Truyn hnh Chu u i vi cng ngh mi, c ch
truyn tin v knh phn phi v iu ny c th ct mt ca h cc th trng d kin s m
rng nhanh chng khi nhng cng ngh v dch v mi ang ngy cng c a vo kinh
doanh. iu rc ri t hn i vi Hoa K l tp qun ca Chu u v vic nh thu phim nh
v mc ch tr cp cho sn xut phim a phng. Nhng bt ng ny dn n mt tnh
hung l cc dch v nghe nhn l lnh vc chnh duy nht khng nm trong bt k ph lc
chuyn ngnh no ca GATS khi m phn kt thc, mc d tt nhin l cc quy nh ca
GATS vn p dng i vi lnh vc ny. Rt t nc thnh vin ca Vng Uruguay a ra cam
kt thun li v lnh vc ny. Vn bao trm c nhng lnh vc dch v v cng ngh mi ca
Ch th v Truyn hnh vn cn cha gii quyt c cho n tn thng 3/1995 khi Cng ng
Chu u quyt nh khng m rng phm vi ra nhng lnh vc dch v mi na. Xem thm
audiovisual services, cultural specity v European Community legislation.
Australia and the third world: Australia v th gii th ba
Xem Harries Report.
Australian subsidy on ammonium sulphate: Tr cp ca Australia i vi Sulfat Amoniac
y l mt trng hp do Chile a ra phn i Australia vo nm 1950 lin quan n vic
chuyn nitrate soda khi nhm phn bn c ni-t c tr cp ca Chnh ph Australia. Cho n
nm 1939, c sulfat amomiac sn xut trong nc v nhp khu c phn phi mc gi
thng nht thng qua mt tho thun nhm v thng mi. Khi sunpht amoniac tr nn him
do chin tranh, Chnh ph vn phi nhp nitrat soda v phn phi theo cch tng tng t. Khi
gi nhp khu tng hn gi th trng, Chnh ph s b chnh lch v iu ny to ra tr cp
i vi phn bn nhp khu. Nm 1949, vic phn phi nitrate soda tr li knh thng mi
nh trc thi chin. Chnh ph tip tc nhp khu sunpht amoniac v do gi tng ln Chnh
ph b tn tht do vic phn phi cho cc cng ty qu nhiu. Tr cp i vi sunpht amoniac
vn c duy tr v amonic ph thuc vo qun l gi trong nc. Nhng nitrat soda th khng.
Nhm lm vic kim tra trng hp ny v thy rng Australia hnh ng ph hp vi
GATT v vic rt nitrate soda khi tho thun thng mi khng lin quan n vic cm on
nhp khu nitrate soda hoc thu v cc khon thu ni a khc nh ln mt hng ny. Hai loi
phn bn khng th c xem nh l cc sn phm "tng t" theo nh ngha ti iu I ca
GATT (i ng ti hu quc). Nhm lm vic cng thy khng cn phi xem xt tr cp i
vi sulfat amoniac theo iu 16 (Tr cp) v trong bt k trng hp no khiu ni v thit hi
cng khng c c s. Tuy nhin, Nhm lm vic pht hin ra rng gi tr u i dnh cho
Chile b phng hi bi mt bin php khng tri vi cc quy nh ca GATT, c ngha
l trng hp khng vi phm. iu ny xy ra v Chnh ph Australia nhm hai loi phn
bn thnh mt v i x vi chng nh nhau v tnh trng thiu thn trong chin tranh.
Australia tip tc thng l cho n nhng nm sau chin tranh. Do , Chnh ph Chile
c th c gi thit hp l rng tr cp trong thi gian chin tranh cng c th c p dng
cho c hai loi phn bn chng no s thiu thn phn bn ni-t trong nc vn cn tn ti. C
cu vn c hiu lc vo thi im 1947 khi ang c m phn v thu quan. Hnh ng ca
chnh ph Australia khng phi l bt hp l, nhng Chnh ph Chile khng lng trc
c rng nhng hnh ng nh vy li c th xy ra trong khi ang m phn v thu quan
nm 1947. Ban hi thm khuyn ngh Australia nn loi b s bt bnh ng v cnh tranh
trong i x vi hai loi phn bn.
Australian System of Tariff Preferences (ASTP): H thng u i thu quan ca Australia
Chng trnh ca Australia dnh i x u i thu quan i vi cc sn phm c ngun gc t
cc nc ang pht trin, c a ra vo nm 1965 v c cp nht ho vi ln k t .
Australia l nc u tin a ra chng trnh ny v cn c min tr ca GATT thc hin
n. Min tr l cn thit bi v dnh i x u i di hnh thc thu thp hn cho mt s

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lng nc hn ch l tri vi nguyn tc Ti hu quc. Vic a ra GSP trong phm vi ca
UNCTAD vo nm 1971 dn n s min tr chung ca GATT i vi cc chng trnh nh
vy.
Australian Pacific Economic Cooperation Committee (AUSPECC): U ban hp tc kinh
t Thi bnh dng ca Australia
c thnh lp vo nm 1984, chu trch nhim v s tham gia ca Australia vo Hi ng
Hp tc kinh t Thi bnh dng (PECC) v c vn cho Chnh ph Australia v hp tc kinh t
trong khu vc Chu Thi bnh dng. Thnh vin bao gm i din ca gii doanh nghip,
hc gi v Chnh ph.
Australia-United States Antitrust Cooperation Agreement: Hip nh hp tc chng c
quyn gia Australia v Hoa K
c k vo nm 1982. N a ra mt khun kh cho vic thng bo nu mi bn p dng
bin php chng c quyn i vi cc cng ty ca nc kia. Hip nh ny cng quy nh c
tham vn nhm trnh nhng xung t gia lut php, chnh sch v quyn li quc gia ca cc
bn. Thm vo , cc bn cam kt xem xt li ch xut khu ca bn kia trong nhng hnh
ng chng c quyn c lin quan. Xem thm negative comity.
Autarky: Nn kinh t t cung t cp
Mt quan im v kinh t v chnh tr nhm t c s t cung t cp ca quc gia trong sn
xut. Mt nn kinh t hon ton t cung t cp ch l mt khi nim c tnh l thuyt v khng
th c c trong th gii hin i. Ti nhng nc c thc hin, v d nh Albania, iu
ny phi tr gi rt t cho iu kin sng. Thut ng ny hin nay i khi c s dng i
vi nhng nn kinh t tm cch p ng phn ln nhu cu trong nc bt chp mi gi thng
qua cc chnh sch nhm t lc, t cung t cp v ch ngha quc gia v cng ngh.
Automatic import licensing: Giy php nhp khu t ng
Xem import licensing.
Average tariff: Thu trung bnh
Mt cng c a ra mt bc tranh thng tin khi qut v mt danh mc thu quan vn
thng c cc mc thp nht v cao nht. l bnh qun n gin ca tt c mc thu p
dng hoc mc thu gii hn trn. Mc thu cng c dng so snh cch i x cc loi
sn phm nhng nc khc nhau. Xem thm applied tariff, binding (goods), peak tariffs v
trade-weighted average tariff.

Backdoor protectionism: Ch ngha bo h tr hnh

Vic p dng cc bin php chng hn nh tiu chun sn phm phi l v nhng quy tc cch
ly kim tra nghim ngt c nh hng ti lung nhp khu. C v l, nhng yu cu c p
t bo v quyn li chung v i khi, tht bt ng, l v quyn li ca ngi tiu dng. Xem
thm protectionism, sanitary and phytosanitary measures v technical barriers to trade.
Backloading: p dng sau
Trong m phn thng mi, l cc cam kt t do ho c dn vo giai on cui mt thi
hn tho thun. iu ny ng vi mt s cam kt ca mt s nc pht trin theo Hip
nh WTO v hng dt may. Thut ng ny i khi cng dng ch vic lm chm li t do
ho thng mi theo mt hip nh hay tho thun cho ti thi im hp php mun nht c th
c. Xem thm frontloading.

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Balance of advantages: Cn cn li th
y l mt nguyn tc i khi c s dng trong m phn thng mi a phng cho rng
nhng li th c c t vic trao i u i trong m phn thng mi cn c cn bng
rng ri gia cc nc thnh vin. S cn bng thng c c thng qua yu cu v cho cam
kt. Nguyn tc ny khng da trn l thuyt kinh t v mt s l gii bt ng i vi s tn ti
cn bng c a ra.
Balance of payments (BOP): Cn cn thanh ton
Bn bo co tm tt s liu tng tr gi thng mi, cc giao dch kinh t khc v lung ti
chnh ca mt quc gia. BOP bao gm ti khon vng lai (giao dch vng lai), ti khon vn
(giao dch vn) v khon cn bng khc phc mi kh khn trong giao dch quc t. Nhng
phn v ti khon vng lai v ti khon vn ca BOP c th thng d hay thm ht nhng bn
thn BOP phi lun lun trong trng thi cn bng. Ti khon vng lai l mt b phn ca BOP
th hin thng mi hng ho v dch v, thu nhp v nhng khon chuyn nhng bt thng
(vd: thanh ton vin tr nc ngoi, vic chuyn tin ca cng nhn, v.v...) trong mt khong
thi gian nht nh. Ti khon vn ghi li lung tin vo v ra theo cc giao dch quc t di
dng ti sn ti chnh chng hn nh u t v cc khon vay.
Balance of Trade: Cn cn thng mi
Cn cn gia gia xut khu v nhp khu hng ho v dch v ca nn kinh t. Xem thm
trade deficit v trade surplus.
Balancing Trade: Cn bng thng mi
y l n lc him c hoc mt mc tiu di hn khng tuyn b ca cc Chnh ph bo
m rng gi tr nhp khu khng vt qu xut khu. Thng thng, mi quan tm i vi
thng mi hng ho ln hn mi quan tm v thng mi dch v. Khi cc nc p dng hn
ch nhp khu cn bng thng mi, thng thng h ch thnh cng trong vic gim tng
kim ngch v do gim phc li. Vic mt nc nhp khu hng ho nhiu hn xut khu
hay khng cn tu thuc vo nhiu yu t, k c giai on pht trin kinh t v c cu nn kinh
t. Thng mi hng ho c cn bng bn thn n khng phi l du hiu ca chnh sch
kinh t thnh cng.
Banana cases: Cc v v chui
Hai cuc tranh chp thng mi c a ra phn x ti GATT v WTO. V th nht xy ra
vo nm 1993 trong GATT gia Columbia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua v Venezuela
vi Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) v c quyt nh vo u nm 1994. V ny ny
sinh t vic thay i trong ch nhp khu chui ca EEC dn n khc bit v m ca th
trng ph thuc vo ngun gc ca chui t trong ni b EEC, hay l t cc quc gia ACP
truyn thng, cc nc ACP mi, hoc t nhng nc th ba. Nhng ngi khiu ni cho rng
iu ny vi phm cc quy nh khng phn bit i x ca GATT, v EEC cng ph v rng
buc thu quan ca mnh. Nhn chung, ban hi thm c yu cu phi c kt lun v tnh ph
hp ca ch nhp khu trong khong 10 iu ca GATT. i vi nhiu iu trong s ,
Ban hi thm thy rng EEC khng phi tr tha kin. Tuy nhin, iu quan trng l Ban hi
thm quyt nh rng cch thc i x u i thu quan ca EEC i vi vic nhp khu chui
l tri ngc vi i ng ti hu quc c quy nh trong iu I ca GATT. Trng hp th 2
c phm vi rng hn. N c Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico v Hoa K a ra WTO
vo u nm 1996 lin quan n ch nhp khu, bn v phn phi chui ca Cng ng
Chu u (EC). Nhng nc khiu ni khng nh l EC lm tri vi ngha v theo GATT,
GATS, Hip nh v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi, Hip nh v Nng nghip,
Hip nh v cc Th tc cp php nhp khu. Trong bn bo co di nht t trc n nay,
Ban hi thm thy rng EC vi phm cam kt ca h theo GATT, GATS v cc quy nh v
giy php nhp khu. Mt im c bit th v trong bo co ca Ban hi thm l Ban hi thm
p dng cc kha cnh ca cc quy nh lin quan n thng mi dch v cho thng mi
hng ho. Cng ng Chu u khng co chng li quyt nh ny.

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Bangkok Agreement: Hip nh Bangkok
Tn chnh thc l Hip nh u tin v m phn thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin
ca ESCAP. y l Hip nh nhm m rng thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin l
thnh vin ca U ban kinh t v x hi ca Chu - Thi bnh dng (ESCAP) thng qua
nhng bin php thng mi cng c li. N c k vo 31/7/1975. Cc nc thnh vin l
Bangladesh, n-, Lo, Hn Quc v Sri Lanka.
Bargaining Tariff: Thu quan mc c
y l tn gi c dng trong li ni ph thng i vi mc thu ca Hoa K c dng
mc c gim thu quan ca cc nc khc sau vic thng qua Chng trnh cc hip nh
thng mi tng h ca Hoa K vo nm 1934. Thu c hiu lc thi l thu Smoot
Hawley khng th thay i c ngoi tr khi c Quc hi thng qua sa i. Evans v
Walsh (1994) cng gii thch thut ng l vic duy tr hng ro thu quan khng cn cn
thit dng trong m phn. Xem thm autonomous tariff, conventional tariff, multi-column
tariff v single-column tariff.
Barter trade: Thng mi hng i hng
Vic trao i hng ho hoc dch v c tnh c tr gi bng nhau. S ng gp ca mi bn c
th c nh gi bng ng tin ca nc th ba cho mc ch k ton, nhng c im chnh
ca thng mi hng i hng l khng dng n tin. Xem thm compensation trade v
countertrade.
Base period: Thi k c s
Khong thi gian, ch khng phi thi im khi u, c tho thun trong cc cuc m
phn nng nghip ca Vng Uruguay v c xem nh l c s cho tt c ct gim v cam kt
c. i vi vic tip cn th trng v cc cam kt h tr trong nc th thi k c s l t
1986-1988. i vi cc cam kt tr cp xut khu th thi k c s l t 1986-1990. Xem thm
Agreement on Agriculture.
Basel Convention: Cng c Basel
Cng c Basel v qun l vic vn chuyn cht thi nguy him qua bin gii v x l chng,
thng qua vo nm 1989 trong khun kh Chng trnh mi trng Lin hp quc (UNEP).
Cng c ny nhm gim v kim sot vic vn chuyn quc t cht thi nguy him v bo
m cht thi c x l theo cch bo v tt cho mi sinh. Vo thng 9/1995, cc bn tham
gia cng c quyt nh sa i cng c ny nhm cm c vic vn chuyn nhng cht thi
nguy him phc v cho vic ti ch t nhng nc pht trin sang nhng nc ang pht trin,
bt u t 1/1/1998. Tuy nhin, mt s nc pht trin tin rng Cng c tip tc cho php to
ra thng mi lnh mnh v mt mi trng gia nhng nc pht trin v nhng nc ang
pht trin sau ngy .
Basic Instruments and Selected Documents: Cc vn kin c bn v cc ti liu chn lc
Xem GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents.
Basic telecommunication services: Dch v vin thng c bn
Bao gm in thoi, telex, fax v truyn d liu. Xem thm Agreement on Basic
Telecommunications Sevices, GBT, International Telecommuniacation Union, NGBT v value-
added telecomminications services.
Baumgartner proposals: xut Baumgartner
y l mt tp hp cc kin c xut c hnh ng trong GATT vo nm 1961 ca B
trng Ti chnh v Kinh t Php Baumgartner nhm qun l thng mi th gii i vi cc
sn phm nng nghip. Bn cht ca xut ny l vic m rng m hnh Chnh sch Nng
nghip chung i vi th trng ton cu, c b sung bng chng trnh Lng thc v ho

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bnh ca Hoa K, loi b sn xut tha. Ci gi phi tr ca k hoch ny s do nhng nc
nhp khu chu. Thnh phn chnh ca c ch gi l "mc gi thng thng", c t mc
cao hn hn mc gi th trng m. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT.
Beer II: Bia II
Xem second beer panel.
Beggar-thy-neighbour policies: Chnh sch li mnh hi ngi
Cc bin php thng mi hoc kinh t, chng hn nh tr cp xut khu, hn ngch v thu
nhp khu, c p dng ci thin cc iu kin kinh t trong nc (v d tng thm vic
lm) c nh hng lm thit hi cc nc khc. Nhng chnh sch nh vy c th dn ti nhng
bin php p li tng t ca nhng nc khc. Chnh sch li mnh hi ngi c xem nh
l nhn t chnh lm khot su v ko di cuc i suy thoi vo nhng nm 1930. Xem thm
balancing trade, mercantilism v Smoot-Hawley tariff.
Behind-the-border issues: Cc bin php ng sau bin gii
Cc chnh sch v cc bin php c Chnh ph cc nc thng qua nhm ch yu vo nn
kinh t trong nc nhng c nh hng i vi chnh sch thng mi. Cc chnh sch v cc
bin php bao gm tr cp trong nc, chnh sch cnh tranh, tiu chun, cc iu kin lao
ng v nhiu bin php chnh sch khc. Xem thm at-the-border barriers.
Beirut Agreement: Hip nh Beirut
Hip nh to iu kin thun li cho vic lu hnh thit b nghe nhn quc t trong lnh vc
gio dc, khoa hc v vn ho. Hip nh ny c thng qua trong khun kh ca T chc
Gio dc, Khoa hc v Vn ho Lin hp quc (UNESCO) vo nm 1948. Hip nh quy nh
cc bn tham gia khng c nh thu nhp khu hoc p t hn ch nh lng i vi nhp
khu cc nguyn liu nh.
Belgian family allowances: Chnh sch h tr gia nh ca B
y l mt trng hp c Na-uy v an-mch a ra GATT chng li B vo nm 1952. N
lin quan n vic p t thu i vi hng ho c cc c quan Nh nc ca B mua t cc
nc m h thng tr cp gia nh khng p ng c cc yu cu ca B. Ban hi thm kt
lun rng v thu c tnh vo lc m cc c quan nh nc thanh ton mua hng ch khng
phi l khi n c nhp khu nn y l vn i ng quc gia. Tuy nhin, Ban hi thm cn
nhc l i n mt phn quyt dt khot rt l kh, phn no l v h thy khi nim v nh
thu b li vic thiu tr cp gia nh cc nc khc th rt kh dung ho vi tinh thn ca
GATT. H ghi nhn vi s th pho nh nhm khi Chnh ph B quyt nh thay i cc
bin php cho ph hp vi GATT. Cc bin php ca Nht i vi hng da l mt trng
hp khc ti GATT vi n lc bo v mt chnh sch x hi. Xem thm social clause v
trade and labour standards.
Benifits of trade: Li ch ca thng mi
ch li ch khc vi nhng li ch c tha nhn trong l thuyt li ch ginh c t
thng mi. Khi nim ny ch ra rng hai nc vi nhng c cu gi c khc nhau s t
c ngun thu kinh t nhiu hn nu h bun bn vi nhau ch khng phi nu nh h da
vo nn kinh t t cung t cp. L thuyt v li th so snh cng hng ti nhng ch li ca
chuyn mn ho quc t. Ngoi ra cn c mt s li ch khc. Thng mi to ra s tip cn
i vi hng t bn, my mc v nguyn liu th. iu ny dn n vic chuyn giao cng
ngh thng qua vic m rng thng mi v hp tc v k thut, tng v k nng mi.
Thng mi y mnh vic chuyn vn khi cc cng ty tm cch sn xut nhng nc p
ng tt nht yu cu ca h. Thng mi cng em li nhng ch li khc khng phi lun lun
c nhn thy nh l: nhng chnh sch chng c quyn v mi trng cnh tranh.
Benelux: Lin minh gia B, H-lan, Luxemburg

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Mt lin minh hi quan c hnh thnh vo nm 1948 gia B, H-lan v Luxemburg. Cc k
hoch thnh lp mt lin minh kinh t gia 3 nc ny c thay th bng vic h tham gia
sng lp Cng ng Kinh t Chu u vo 1/1/1958.
Benign mercantilism: Ch ngha trng thng n ho
Xem mercantilism.
Berne Convention: Cng c Bern
Cng c Bern v vic bo h cc tc phm vn hc v ngh thut nhm bo v quyn ca tc
gi cc tc phm vn hc v ngh thut. N c hon thnh vo nm 1886 v c sa i vi
ln k t , ln cui cng l vo nm 1971. Mc tiu c bn ca ln sa i cui cng l
chuyn Cng c theo hng bo h thng nht c bn tt c cc nc thnh vin. Cng c
ny do WIPO gim st. Xem thm intellectual property v Agreement on Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
Bicycle theory: L thuyt chic xe p
y l mt xut m h thng thng mi a phng phi lin tc hng ti trc thng qua
cc vng v hip nh t do ho lin tc nu n mun duy tr tnh t do ho. Theo l thuyt
ny, h thng c th b ging nh chic xe p khi gin cch gia cc chu k t do ho l
qu lu s cho php cc quan im v hnh ng bo h chim u th. Xem thm
protectionism.
Big Emerging Markets (BEM): Nhng th trng ln mi ni
Vic phn loi c cc c quan Chnh ph Hoa K p dng i vi 12 th trng m theo
quan im ca B Thng mi l c th tng ng, ly v d, v quy m vi xut khu ca
Hoa K sang th trng Cng ng Chu u v Nht vo nm 2000, vi gi thit l t l tng
trng GDP ca cc th trng ny s tng trung bnh 6,3% mt nm t 1996 n 2000 v vic
nhp khu hng ho v dch v s tng 75% vo nm 2000. Nhng th trng l: Khu vc
kinh t Trung Quc (Trung Quc, Hng Kng, i-loan), n-, Hn Quc, Mexico, Brazil,
Argentina, Nam Phi, Ba-lan, Th-nh-k v cc nc ASEAN.
Bilateral investment treaties: Cc hip c u t song phng
y l tn ca Hoa K gi cc hip nh xc tin v bo h u t ca mnh. Hip nh mu
ca Hoa K bao gm quyn v ngha v lin quan n vic p dng i ng ti hu quc v i
ng quc gia tu ci no tt hn; ni rng hn l i x cng bng v bnh ng; cho php
nc lin minh c vo lnh th ca nc khc thnh lp, pht trin, qun l v c vn v
u t v tham gia vo i ng qun l cao cp bt k quc tch no; cam kt khng p t cc
yu cu thc hin; quy nh v cc phng tin c hiu qu khng nh cc i hi v cc
quyn thc thi; s r rng ca cc quy nh; cc th tc phi tun theo trong trng hp tch
thu; v quyn t do chuyn qu.
Bilateralism: Nguyn tc song phng; ch ngha song phng
Mt dng u i khi thc hin chnh sch thng mi quc t ch yu thng qua m phn
song phng trc tip. Nguyn tc song phng cho rng s d dng t c kt qu hn nu
ch lin quan n 2 bn, mt phn v cc p lc v chnh tr v kinh t hin hnh s t b sao
lng. V nguyn tc, s c t hn cc yu t lm phn tn. iu ny ng trong nhng trng
hp m c th phn nh mt cch chnh xc cc yu t to nn quan h song phng
thun tu. Tuy nhin, thng thng iu ny khng thc hin c v c th mt trong cc bn
cng c cc ngha v v cng mt loi vn vi cc bn th ba. Mt s ngi ng h m
phn song bin cho rng y l cch duy nht t c kt qu. Lch s ca m phn song
phng t gia nhng nm 1980 d bo nhng hoi nghi v tnh ng n chung ca nhn
nh ny, nhng nguyn tc song phng c p dng thnh cng gii quyt mt s vn
. Tnh hiu qu ca cc cc phng php song phng ph thuc vo sc mnh m phn m
mt nc dng gy nh hng n thi , cch c x ca nc kia. y l mt phng

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php c li hn cho cc nc mnh v bt li cho li ch ca cc nc nh v va. Nguyn tc
song phng cng c th lm cng thng thm i vi h thng a phng. Ngi ta t bit
rng mt dng ca nguyn tc song phng c s dng trong m phn thng mi a
phng. Cc thnh vin ca WTO m phn song phng v u i thu quan, nhng h p
dng cc kt qu m phn trn c s a phng ph hp vi ngha v ti hu quc. Xem thm
aggressive reciprocity, Section 301, Special 301 v Super 301.
Bilateralism trade agreement: Hip nh thng mi song phng
Mt hip nh gia hai nc trong nu ra nhng iu kin tin hnh cc hot ng
thng mi. Nu c hai bn u l thnh vin ca WTO v ang c hng ch khng
phn bit i x, m ca th trng v cc quyn li khc, th l do b sung ch yu cho hip
nh song phng c th l mt chng trnh song phng to thun li thng mi v xc tin
thng mi. Nu mt bn khng phi l thnh vin ca WTO, thng thng th Hip nh s
em li i ng ti hu quc v i ng quc gia, bo h quyn s hu tr tu, tham vn v gii
quyt tranh chp v cc c cu khc cn thit m bo cho dng thng mi c lu thng
thun li v gii quyt cc vn c nhanh chng. Hip nh thng mi song phng
thng c kim im nh k s pht trin ca thng mi cp B trng hoc cp chuyn
vin, v d nh u ban chung v thng mi hoc u ban hn hp.
BIMP-EAGA: Khu vc tng trng kinh t ng ASEAN
Gm Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines, c xut ti cuc hp ca cc B trng
Kinh t ASEAN thng 10/1993. Khu vc ny bao gm vng Labuan, Sabah, Sarawak ca
Malaysia, vng bc, trung, nam v ng nam Sulawesi, Maluku, Irian Jaya v vng ng, ty
v trung Kalimantan (Indonesia), vng Mindano v Palawan ca Philippines v ton b Brunei.
BIMP-EAGA c thit lp nhm mc ch pht trin thng mi v u t gia cc vng cn
km pht trin ca cc nc ny.
Binding commitments (service) (i khi dng l bound): Cc cam kt rng buc (trong dch
v)
Ngha v php l khng lm cho cc iu kin m ca th trng kh khn hn cc iu kin
nu trong danh mc cam kt v dch v ca mt nc trnh WTO. Rng buc l bt
buc theo quy nh ca WTO v c th vi phm thng qua m phn vi i tc thng mi b
nh hng. Mt nc vi phm mt rng buc c th phi nu ra mc bi thng cho bn i tc
di dng cc cam kt v dch v khc.
Bindings (goods): Cc ngha v rng buc (v hng ho)
Mt rng buc (cng c th gi l u i) l mt ngha v php l khng tng thu quan mt s
sn phm nht nh ln cao hn mc tho thun trong m phn GATT v c a vo
trong danh mc u i ca mt nc. Rng buc l bt buc thng qua WTO. Mc ch ca
rng buc l to ra mc chc chn hn v thng mi thng qua vic nh mc thu trn
m mt nc khng th vi phm nu nh khng c bi thng cho bn i tc thng mi b
nh hng. Cc rng buc ny thng cao hn thu sut p dng.
Blair House Accord: Hip c Blair House
Hip nh t c ngy 20/11/1992 gia Hoa K v Cng ng Chu u v ba thay i i
vi d tho kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v nng nghip. Mt l, gim mc ct gim khi lng
hng xut khu c tr cp t 24% xung 21%. Hai l, mt s tr cp trong nc do Chnh
ph thanh ton trc tip cho ngi sn xut s khng phi cam kt gim. Ba l, ni rng iu
khon ho bnh to ra min tr i vi khiu ni v tr cp ang c ct gim. Nhng thay i
ny khng lm thay i nhng nguyn tc iu tit thng mi trong nng nghip sau khi kt
thc Vng Uruguay, nhng nhng thay i ny s to cho nhng nc tham gia s linh hot ln
hn trong vic thc hin nhng thay i. Hip c Blair House to kh nng bt u li m
phn a phng, nhng thun li ban u ca n phai nht dn khi ngy cng r rng rng
tho thun khng gii quyt c cc khc bit c bn v m ca th trng gia hai bn.

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Hip c Blair House c sa i thng 12/1993 v vic sa i ny loi b c tr
ngi cui cng t ti kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v nng nghip. Xem thm Agreement on
Agriculture, agriculture and the GATT v market access for agriculture.
Blue Box: Hp xanh lam
Mt thut ng dng trong Vng Uruguay ch mt loi tr cp nng nghip. Hp xanh lam
bao gm thanh ton trc tip cho ngi sn xut trong cc chng trnh hn ch sn xut (nu
lin quan n thanh ton da trn c s s hectares v s gia sc). Cc loi tr cp ny khng
phi cam kt ct gim theo Hip nh v Nng nghip ca WTO. Thanh ton chnh lch ca
Hoa K v thanh ton bi thng ca Cng ng Chu u theo ci cch Chnh sch nng
nghip chung u thuc loi ny. Xem thm green box.
Bogor Declaration: Tuyn b Bogor
Do cc v nguyn th APEC a ra ti Bogor (Indonesia) ngy 15/11/1994, trong h ng
t c thng mi t do cho hng ho v dch v cng nh u t gia cc thnh vin ca
APEC. Cc nc pht trin s t c mc tiu vo nm 2010, cc nc ang pht trin t
c mc tiu nm 2020. Cc v nguyn th nhn mnh h phn i mnh m vic to ra mt
khi hng ni lm cn tr mu cu mong mun thng mi t do ton cu. Cc v nguyn th
cng tuyn b rng h s dnh s ch c bit cho bun bn vi cc nc ang pht trin
khng phi l thnh vin ca APEC m bo rng cc nc ang pht trin ny cng thu
c li ch thng qua vic t do ho thng mi v u t ca APEC, ph hp vi cc iu
khon ca GATT/WTO. Xem thm APEC v open regionalism.
Boomerang clause: iu khon Boomerang
iu khon 91.2 ca Hip c Rome gii quyt vn ph gi ca cc nc thnh vin Cng
ng Kinh t Chu u i vi cc nc thnh vin khc trong thi k chuyn i 12 nm
(1958-1970) dn n vic thc hin y Hip c. C th thc hin cc bin php bo h
chng ph gi trong thi k chuyn i nhng U ban chu u quyt nh v hnh ng cn
phi tin hnh. Mt trong nhng kh nng ng cho cc cng ty b pht hin ph gi sn
phm l rt li s sn phm . iu khon 91.2 to iu kin cho vic ny vi s va chm t
nht. iu khon quy nh rng cc sn phm c ngun gc hoc a vo tiu th mt
nc thnh vin c xut khu n mt nc thnh vin khc s khng phi chu bt k mt
khon thu hoc hn ch nh lng no khi cc sn phm c ti nhp khu vo lnh th
ca nc thnh vin ban u. iu khon ny khng ngn cm ph gi, nhng n lm gim
ng c thc hin vic ny. Trong nm 1970 cc nc thnh vin ca Cng ng Chu u
ngng s dng bin php chng ph gi chng li nhau. Xem thm competition policy v
anti-dumping measures.
Boomerang effect: Hiu ng Boomerang
Kh nng c th gy hiu ng ngc li cho Chnh ph khi thc hin cc chnh sch no .
Trong lnh vc thng mi, l vic cc nh xut khu ca mt nc s c Chnh ph nc
ngoi i x tng t nh cch Chnh ph i x vi cc nh xut khu ca nc mnh.
Hiu ng Boomerang rt d xy ra i vi cc lut v quy nh khng b quy nh dnh i ng
quc gia. Xem thm Beggar-thy-neighbour policies.
Bootlegging: Vic ghi m bt hp php ti bui ho nhc
Vic ghi m khng c php ti mt bui ho nhc sau pht thanh li hoc phc v cho
mc ch thng mi. Cc bn ghi m ny thng r tin v cht lng khng c tt. Xem
thm copyright, intellectual property v piracy.
Borderless world: Th gii khng bin gii
Bt ngun t tn ca mt cun sch ca Kenichi Ohmae vit nm 1990 trong ch yu cp
n cc phng cch m mt hng c th thc hin c vic cnh tranh tt nht trong mt nn
kinh t ton cu c lin h tc ng ln nhau. Do vy n i din cho mt kha cnh ca cc n

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phm v ton cu ho. Trong khi , khi nim v mt th gii khng c bin gii quc gia
c trong nhiu nm. Tuy nhin, cng ging nh khi nim vn phng khng cn giy t, khi
nim ny cn thm mt thi gian na mi thc hin c.
Border measures: Cc bin php ti bin gii
Xem tariff v non-tariff measures.
Border tax adjustments: iu chnh thu ti bin gii
Hon tr, hoc b sung thm thu gin tip (v d thu tiu th c bit) hoc khng thu cc
khon thu pht sinh t mt mt hng c mc ch s dng trong nc nhng li c xut
khu. S iu chnh ny i khi cng c gi l hon thu hoc min gim. S iu chnh ny
cng c th di dng cc khon thu nh vo hng ho nhp khu tng ng vi thu gin
thu (v d nh thu doanh thu) nh vo cc sn phm trong nc tng t. Theo GATT nhng
iu chnh ny khng phi l bt hp php. Xem thm export incentives.
Border Trade: Bun bn qua bin gii
Thng thng ni n bun bn qua ng bin gii gia cc ngi dn a phng trong
mt khu vc xc nh r v a l, nhng ngi c c mi quan h tt p hoc quan
h kinh t lu di. Cc nc c th quyt nh khng p dng tt c cc th tc hi quan thng
thng i vi bun bn qua bin gii. Ngi ta khng hy vng nhiu rng hng ho bun bn
theo cch ny c th lm tng trng cho nn kinh t ca c hai bn. iu XXIV ca GATT
loi tr bun bn qua bin gii ra khi cc iu khon ca Hip nh.
Bound tariffs: Thu quan rng buc
Xem bindings (goods).
Bottom-up multilateralism: a phng t di ln
Mt thut ng c Cowhey v Aronson (1993) s dng m t mt qu trnh m phn a
n kt qu song phng v tiu phng, sau c th m rng ra a phng t di ln trn.
H nhn mnh rng theo quan im ca h nhng kt qu ny cn phi bao gm nhng nguyn
tc c bn ca ch thng mi a phng v cn phi cng khai cho bn th ba kim tra.
Hai tc gi lu rng m phn a phng s ch thc y tin b hng ti t do ho mt
cch chm chp v theo quan im ca h ch ngha khu vc, v trong mt s trng hp cch
tip cn theo chuyn ngnh c th a n nhng gii php tt hn cho nhiu vn nu nh
c c cu tham vn thch hp gia cc vng. Xem thm bilateralism, hub and spoke,
minilateralism v sectoral trade negotiations.
Bound tariff rates: Thu sut trn
Thu hi quan m mt chnh ph s khng nng ln cao hn mc cam kt ti WTO. Xem
bindings (goods).
Bounty: Tr gi
Mt dng tr cp cho cc nh sn xut trong nc vi nhng mc ch c bit. Tr cp ny c
th nhm mc ch b vo khon chnh lch gia gi nhp khu v gi sn xut trong nc ca
mt ngnh sn xut no y (v d: ng tu), hoc l vic s dng thm mt u vo nht nh
trong qu trnh sn xut (v d: s dng super phosphate trong nng nghip). Xem thm
subsidies.
Boycott: Ty chay
T chi cung cp, nhp khu hoc mua ca mt nc hoc mt hng v t chi khng gii
quyt vi nc v hng bng bt k cch no khc. Trong mt s trng hp nht nh, iu
ny c th to nn hot ng phn cnh tranh hoc hot ng hn ch kinh doanh.
Brain drain: Chy mu cht xm

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Xem reverse transfer of technology.
Brandt Report: Bo co Brandt
Bo co xut bn nm 1980 ca U ban c lp v cc vn pht trin quc t di tiu
Bc - Nam: Mt chng trnh tn ti. U ban ny c triu tp nm 1977 do ng Willy
Brandt, cu Th tng Cng ho Lin bang c lm Ch tch. Bn bo co cp n cc ch
thng mi v pht trin hng ho, nng lng, cng nghip ho v thng mi th gii, cc
cng ty xuyn quc gia, u t v chia s cng ngh, trt t tin t th gii v pht trin ti
chnh. Bn bo co mong mun tm kim s tham gia rng ln hn ca cc nc ang pht
trin vo qu trnh gia cng ch bin, tip th v phn phi hng ho, cc tho thun bi thng
v ti chnh v vic k Hip nh hng ho quc t. Bn bo co cng ng h cho vic rt dn
ch ngha bo h ca cc nc cng nghip, cc chng trnh iu chnh tch cc (iu chnh
v c cu), lm gim nh cc quy tc ca GSP v tiu chun lao ng cng bng trnh cnh
tranh khng lnh mnh v to iu kin thun li cho t do ho thng mi. Cht lng ca
bn bo co, s ra i ng lc v thnh phn ca U ban m bo cp mt vn rng
ln v cc xut ca bo co c tho lun rng ri. Cc xut cn hnh ng ca bo co
ny c thy trong chng trnh ngh s ca tt c cc hi ngh quan trng trong giai on
. Nm 1983, U ban Brandt xut bn cun Khng hong chung: Bc-Nam: S hp tc
phc hi th gii p li iu m cc thnh vin ca U ban cho l cha c p li y
i vi cc vn c nu ln trong bn bo co u tin ca U ban. U ban c chnh
thc gii tn thng 2/1983. Xem thm Cancun Summit v North-South Dialogue.
Brazilian unroasted coffee: C-ph cha rang ca Brazil
Mt v kin a ra GATT nm 1980 tp trung vo ngha ca cu sn phm tng t. Brazil
khiu ni rng nhng thay i trong danh mc thu quan ca Ty-ban-nha c ngha l c-ph
cha rang, cha tch cafein ca Brazil b i x t thun li hn "c-ph nh". S phn bit gia
hai loi c-ph ny da trn c s mt phng php thng k do Hi ng c-ph quc t p
dng phn loi c-ph thnh cc loi: c-ph nh Arabica, c-ph Arabica cha ra v c-ph
Robusta. Brazil khiu ni rng Ty-ban-nha ang vi phm iu I:1 ca GATT (i ng ti hu
quc chung) ch h i x vi sn phm tng t ca cc nc khc nhau mt cch phn bit
i x. Ty-ban-nha tranh lun rng "c-ph cha ra Arabicas" v "c-ph nh" l cc sn
phm khc nhau v mt cht lng, hng v v phng php trng trt. Ban hi thm khng
ng vi gii thch ca Ty-ban-nha. Ban hi thm chp nhn c s khc nhau gia cc loi
c-ph nhng li cho rng nhng s khc nhau ny khng cho php c cc i ng thu
quan khc nhau. Ban hi thm cng thy rng c-ph cha rang thng c bn di dng pha
trn, v "c-ph, dng s dng, thng c coi l mt sn phm ring bit c xc nh
r dng ung". Nh vy Ban hi thm ng h Brazil v kin ngh rng Ty-ban-nha cn b
vic phn bit i x vi c-ph Brazil.
Bretton Woods agreements: Cc hip nh Bretton Woods
Hi ngh v ti chnh v tin t ca Lin hp quc t chc ti Bretton Woods, New Hampshire,
nm 1944 thng qua iu l ca Ngn hng Th gii (Ngn hng Ti thit v pht trin quc
t - IBRD) v Qu Tin t quc t (IMF). Hi ngh ny cng ngh thnh lp T chc Thng
mi Quc t (ITO), vic m phn ra i t chc ny c tin hnh ring bit v cui cng
a n s ra i ca GATT. i khi ba t chc ny c gi l cc nh ch Bretton
Woods. Xem thm Havana Charter, IBRD, IMF v ITO.
Brigden Report: Bo co Brigden
Do Chnh ph Australia lp ra nm 1927 bo co v cc nh hng ca thu quan i vi
nn kinh t. Bn bo co c mang tn gio s J. B. Brigden thuc Trng i hc tng hp
Tasmania l ngi ng u vic tm hiu nh hng ny. Bn bo co xut mc bo h
va phi v cnh bo rng cc mc bo h ti thi im c th t ti gii hn kinh t
ca h. V lu di, nh hng ca bn bo co ti cc phng php nh gi mc bo h
ln hn nhiu nh hng ti hoch nh chnh sch thu quan.

- 33 -
Broadcasting Directive: Ch th v truyn hnh
Ch th v truyn hnh khng bin gii do U ban chu u nu ra nm 1989 nhm mc ch
y mnh thng mi t do trong vic truyn hnh trong phm vi Cng ng Chu u. Ch th
ny yu cu nhng ngi lm truyn hnh trong ton cng ng, nu c th c, dnh phn
ln thi gian pht cc chng trnh ca chu u. Thi gian ny khng bao gm thi gian
c phn chia cho cc chng trnh tin tc, th thao, cc cuc thi u, qung co v cc dch
v tin ch. Cc chng trnh chu u c xc nh l cc chng trnh c ngun gc trong
phm vi Cng ng Chu u, cc quc gia thuc Cng c chu u v truyn hnh xuyn bin
gii v mt s chng trnh c s tham gia ca cc nh sn xut thuc Cng ng v cc nc
chu u th ba. Vic thc hin gia cc quc gia thnh vin cng khc nhau. V d nh Php
c t nht 60% chng trnh truyn hnh phi l ca chu u v t nht 40% chng trnh
truyn hnh l ca Php. Xem thm audiovisual service, audiovisual service in the Uruguay
Round, cultural specificity v European Community legislation.
Broadband service: Dch v bng rng
Cc dch v thng tin s dng cc hnh nh c nh, video, m thanh, vn bn v d liu, di
dng tch ri hoc kt hp. Dch v bng rng thng ni n kh nng lin lc thng tin vi
tc truyn dn cao. Xem thm audiovisual services.
Broader competition policy: Chnh sch cnh tranh rng hn
Xem competition policy v wider competiton policy.
Brussels Definition of value (BDV): nh ngha gi tr Brussels
Mt tiu chun xc nh gi tr hng ho ti bin gii vi mc ch xc nh thu hi quan
cn phi tr, c xy dng di s gim st ca Hi ng hp tc Hi quan lc , nay l T
chc Hi quan th gii, ng ti Brussels. Tr gi chnh l gi ca hng ho bn trn th
trng t do ca nc nhp khu ti thi im v ti ni qu trnh nhp khu din ra. Tiu
chun t ra mt s vn cn phi xem xt nhm t c mt quyt nh l gi bn
thc t ca sn phm c tng xng vi chun mc gi tr thng thng khng. n nay BDV
b thay th bng cc phng php tnh tr gi hi quan c nu trong Hip nh v thc
hin iu khon VII ca GATT. Xem thm customs valuation.
Brussels ministerial meeting: Hi ngh B trng Brussels
Xem Uruguay Round.
Brussels Tariff nomenclature: Danh b thu quan Brussels
Vic phn loi sn phm vi mc ch xy dng biu thu quan cho mt quc gia do Hi ng
Hp tc hi quan, nay l T chc Hi quan th gii c tr s ti Brussels, xy dng. Danh b
ny b H thng hi ho thay th t ngy 1/1/1988.
Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for
the Purposes of Patent procedure: Hip c Budapest v cng nhn quc t i vi k gi
vi sinh vt hon thnh cc th tc bng pht minh
c k vo ngy 28/4/1977. Hip c nhm n gin ho cc th tc xin bng pht minh cho
ngi xin bng m pht minh ca h c lin quan n vi sinh vt hoc dng vi sinh vt khng
th ph bin rng ri. Trong khi s nc ngy cng tng ln, th tc xin bng pht minh khng
nhng i hi phi in vo mt bng m t pht minh m cn yu cu phi k gi mu ca vi
sinh vt ti mt c quan php l chuyn mn. iu tht l phc tp v tn km khi th tc
ny c lp i lp li nc ny v nc khc. Cc bn ca Hip c ny ng rng vic k
gi mu bt k mt c quan k gi quc t l , bt k l c quan k gi nm u.
Xem thm intellectual property.
Buffer stocks: Kho m

- 34 -
Mt c cu c thit lp theo mt s hip nh hng ho quc t tc ng v n nh gi
ca hng ho. Kho m s c a ra bn khi gi vt qu mc gi c xc nh trc, v
c tch tr khi gi trt xung di mc gi c xc nh trc phn nh gi hin ti ca
th trng. Kho m c th hot ng tt khi nhng bin ng v gi c xy ra trong thi gian
ngn v khi gi cao t nhiu cn bng vi gi thp trong mt thi gian hp l. Khung gi do
hip nh nu ra thng thng c kt cu sao cho ng ph trch kho cn phi mua khi gi
xung n mc thp nht trong khung gi vi gi thit rng c sn ngun vn mua. Sau
l mt khung gi ngi ph trch c th mua trn c s trin vng thng mi, ngun vn
sn c, kh nng cha ca kho v.v... Ti thi im gi cao hn, ngi ph trch c th bn v
quyt nh ph thuc vo mt s im cn xem xt. Mt khi gi hng ho ln n nh
cao nht ca khung gi nu trong hip nh, ngi ph trch cn phi bn ra, gi nh rng
lc trong kho c hng. Ngi ta c nh kho m hot ng trn c s t trang tri v
ti chnh. Lng ti a ca hng ho trong kho v cch ti tr cho n l vn thng hay bt
ng, gy tranh ci. Nhng ngi ng h quy ch ny cho rng vic hot ng mt Kho m
ln so vi kh nng ca th trng v c mt ngun vn ln c th iu tit th trng d dng
hn so vi mt kho nh vi ngun ti chnh nh. Nhng iu hnh cng tn km hn nhiu.
Tuy nhin trong trng hp cung cu thay i lin tc, ln ca hot ng c lm cho vic
iu chnh d dng hn th khng c r rng lm. Trong thc t, thnh cng ca cc tho
thun kho m ch c tnh tm thi v cc tho thun ny thng khng linh hot x l
vi cc thay i th trng di hn. Trn thc t, cc tho thun c th lm cn tr vic iu
chnh c cu. Mt vn c bit pht sinh khi gi thp trong thi gian di v ng thi cc
nh sn xut khng c khuyn khch hn ch sn xut. Ngha v tip tc mua c th lm cho
cc kho m b ph sn. Nu nh khung gi cho php cc kho mua hoc bn l qu rng th
hiu qu ca hip nh hng ho quc t nh l mt cng c can thip vo th trng b gim
i rt nhiu. Tuy nhin, ni chung, kt qu hot ng ca kho m lm cho ngi ta tht vng.
Xem thm commodity policy, Common Fund v Integrated Programme for Commodities.
Building-block approach: Cch tip cn xy dng khi
Mt thut ng c s dng trong vic phn tch khu vc thng mi t do. Xy dng khi c
th din ra hai cp. Th nht, chng c th l cc yu t quyt nh cui cng to nn hip
nh thng mi t do. T tng ch o l mt s yu t d dng, v d nh cc hot ng to
iu kin thun li cho thng mi, c th c gii quyt u tin xy dng lng tin. Cc
quy nh v kinh t kh khn hn c th s a vo sau. Th hai, cc khu vc thng mi t do
c nh gi nh cc vin xy dng ca h thng thng mi a phng. Cc khu vc
ring l c th kt hp vi nhau loi b cc ro cn thng mi gia cc khu vc rng ln
hn. Bng chng v vic ny cho n nay l cha c kt qu. Xem thm stumbling blocks.
Burden-sharing: Chia s gnh nng
xut cho rng gi ca cc bin php thng mi mi nn c chia s cho mt nhm cng
nhiu cng tt cc nc b nh hng. Mt s nc cng s dng thut ng ny khi h coi t do
ho thng mi l mt dng gnh nng. Chia s gnh nng khng ging vi tng h, i hi
cc hnh ng tng t t cc thnh vin khc, nhng i lc n cng c ngha gn vi tng
h.
Buy American Act: o lut mua hng M
Mt o lut ca Hoa K c thng qua nm 1933 m bo rng: (a) ch nhng hng
ho, nguyn liu, vt t gia cng hoc cha gia cng c sn xut trn t Hoa K l c
php mua s dng cng cng; (b) trong trng hp xy dng cc khu kh cng cng v cc
cng trnh cng cng th ch nhng hng ho, nguyn liu v vt t sn xut ti Hoa K l c
th c s dng tt c cc cng on trong qu trnh xy dng. o lut khng p dng i
vi hng ho s dng bn ngoi Hoa K, khng sn xut ti Hoa K hoc c mua s dng
trong Khu vc knh o Panama. Cng c mt s ngoi l khc bao gm c ngoi l trong
li ch cng cng c th i hi ngc li hoc chi ph c th khng hp l nu nh cc nguyn
liu ca Hoa K c s dng. Cc nc thnh vin ca Hip nh v mua sm ca chnh ph

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ca WTO u c min tr kh nhiu kha cnh ca vic thc hin Lut ny. Nhiu bang ca
Hoa K u c Lut mua hng M ca h. Xem thm buy-local policies.
Buy local policies: Cc chnh sch mua ti a phng
Mt cch to iu kin thun li cho cc nh sn xut trong nc cung cp hng ho v dch
v theo cc quy tc mua sm ca chnh ph mt s nc. Cc chnh sch ny thng c th
hin di dng mt khon u i cho cc sn phm c sn xut ngay trong nc mnh,
nhng i khi cc chnh sch ny c th gii hn thnh vic ch mua ti a phng nu nh tt
c cc iu kin khc l nh nhau. Chnh sch mua ti a phng i khi c dng y
mnh nn cng nghip trong nc. Cc chnh sch tng t p dng cho cc lnh vc ngoi vic
mua sm ca chnh ph c th s vi phm ngha v i ng quc gia.

Cabotage: Ni hnh
Dch v hng hi hay hng khng ni gia cc cng v sn bay ni a. Ti hu ht cc nc,
cc dch v ny c dnh cho cc tu thu hoc cho my bay do a phng s hu v ng
k. Thu th, phi hnh on cn phi thu theo cc iu kin tuyn dng ti a phng. Ti
Hoa K, cc tu thu cung cp dch v cng phi c ng ti cc xng ng tu trong nc.
Xem thm freedom of the air v Jones Act.
Cairns Group: Nhm Cairns
Mt nhm gm 15 nc bun bn nng sn nh Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile,
Colombia, Fiji, Hungary, Indonesia, Malaysia, Paraguay, Philippines, New Zealand, Thi-lan
v Uruguay. Nhm ny c thnh lp nm 1986 ti cuc hp cp B trng Cairns,
Australia i ph vi vic chu u phn i gim thu cc mt hng nng nghip trong ci
sau ny tr thnh Vng Uruguay. Nhm ny t thnh lp nh l lc lng th ba trong nng
nghip (cng vi Lin minh Chu u v Hoa K) v chc chn s l i tc chin lc trong
WTO. Xem thm v Agreement on Agriculture v agriculture and the GATT.
Calvo doctrine: Hc thuyt Calvo
Mt hc thuyt ng tr trong h thng php l ca chu M La-tinh. Hc thuyt cho rng ngi
nc ngoi, c bit l cc nh u t nc ngoi, khng uc quyn tm kim bo h t chnh
ph ca h vt qu mc bo h dnh cho cng dn ca nc ch nh. Ni cch khc, hc
thuyt loi tr mi xut dnh s i x c bit cho cc nh u t nc ngoi. Thc t hc
thuyt ngn cn cc nc theo ui n k kt nhng hip c bo h u t v do n c
nh hng trc tip ti dng u t. Hc thuyt ny c mang tn Tin s Carlos Calvo, mt
lut s v nh ngoi giao Argentina, ngi ln u tin trnh by nm 1868.
Canada - Administration of the Foreign Investment Review Act: iu hnh Lut r sot
u t nc ngoi ca Canada
Xem FIRA panel.
Canada - Import, distribution and sale of certain alcoholic drinks by provincial
marketing agencies: Vic nhp khu, phn phi v bn mt s ung c cn ca cc i
l tip th cc tnh ca Canada
Xem second beer panel.
Canada - Measures affecting exports of unprocessed herring and salmon: Cc bin php
nh hng ti xut khu c trch v c hi cha ch bin ca Canada
Xem herring v salmon.

- 36 -
Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement: Hip nh Thng mi t do Hoa K -
Canada (CUSFTA hoc CUSTA)
c k ngy 2/1/1988. Hip nh quy nh rng tt c cc mc thu gia hai nc s phi loi
b vo thng 1/1998. Ngng thm nh u t nc ngoi ca Canada tng ln t 5 triu
-la Canada ti 150 triu -la Canada, nhng mt s cc hn ch khc v u t vn cn tn
ti. Hip nh cp n cc dch v nhng cc iu khon v vn ny km t do hn cc
iu khon v hng ho. n nay Hip nh ny hu nh b NAFTA thay th.
Canadian periodicals: Tp ch Canada
Mt v Hoa K kin Canada ti WTO nm 1996. Canada duy tr mt lot cc bin php
nhm ngn cm vic nhp khu mt s tp ch nc ngoi hoc c li cho tp ch trong nc
thng qua vic nh thu tiu th c bit v ph bu in thp. Mt yu t quan trng ca cc
bin php ny l nhm bo v cc c trng vn ho ca Canada. Thng 6/1997, Ban hi thm
tm thy nhng bng chng chng li Canada trong hu ht cc lun im, c bit lin quan
n ngha v theo iu III ca GATT (i ng quc gia) v iu XI (Loi b chung cc hn
ch nh lng).
CANATA (Canada-Australia Trade Agreement): Hip nh Thng mi Canada-
Australia
K nm 1960 v c sa i nm 1973. Hip nh ny k tha Hip nh nm 1931 y mnh
vic trao i cc u i ch. Bun bn u i song phng gim st nhiu, phn nh vic
suy gim gi tr ca u i trong bi cnh gim thu quan chung. Xem thm Imperial
preferences arrangement.
Cancun Summit: Hi ngh Thng nh Cancun
Cuc hp ca 22 v ng u Nh nc v Chnh ph ti Cancun, Mexico nm 1981. Mc ch
ca cuc hp l tm ra cch bt u li cuc i thoi Bc-Nam. Cuc hp c t chc trong
bu khng kh thun li do bn bo co Brandt xut bn nm 1980 to ra. Mc du cuc hp
kt thc vi kt qu nht tr r rng nhng n tr thnh tht bi trong vic t c mc tiu
m n t ra. Cng ging nh tt c cc sng kin Bc-Nam khc, cuc hp khng th vt
qua c cc quan im cnh tranh ca cc nc tham gia chnh lin quan n cch tt nht
thc hin bt k mt bin php no c xut.
Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI): Sng kin ca vng lng cho Ca-ri-b
Mt k hoch 12 nm ca Hoa K bt u c hiu lc t 1/1/1984 theo Lut phc hi kinh t
vng lng cho Ca-ri-b nm 1983 y mnh s pht trin ca cc quc gia vng lng cho
Ca-ri-b. n nay Hip nh ny c gia hn thm 10 nm na. CBI m rng phm vi min
thu cho tt c cc sn phm ca vng Ca-ri-b tr hng dt, mt s hng bng da v mt s
sn phm du m. Nhp khu ng ph thuc vo h thng hn ngch, nhng ng ca cc
nc Ca-ri-b nhp vo Hoa K khng phi chu thu. Xem thm Alliance for Progress v
Enterprise for the Americas Initiative.
Caricom: Cng ng cc nc Ca-ri-b
Thnh lp nm 1973 v bao gm 14 nc thnh vin vng Ca-ri-b nhm loi b tt c cc loi
thu trong ni b cc nc vng Ca-ri-b. Mc ch hin ti l mun bin Caricom tr thnh
mt th trng nht th vo nm 1997. Cc nc thnh vin cng ng vi mt th trng ni
b t do v dch v hng khng.
Cartagena Agreement: Hip nh Cartagena
Xem Andean Pact.
Cartel
Mt tho thun chnh thc hoc khng chnh thc gia cc hng t c kt qu c li cho
cc hng c lin quan, nhng c th c hi cho cc bn khc. Nhng kt qu ny c th bao

- 37 -
gm vic gim bt cnh tranh gia cc hng, tho thun khng cnh tranh v gi, gii hn sn
lng u ra ca cc hng thnh vin, cc tho thun chia s th trng, v.v... Cc hot ng
ny hp php n mc no ph thuc vo chnh sch cnh tranh ca nc . Cc tho
thun cartel s t hiu qu nht khi ch c mt s t hng thng tr mt hot ng no . Cc
tho thun c chia thnh cartel cng cng v cartel t nhn. Cartel cng l mt loi cartel
trong chnh ph thit lp v iu tit cc quy tc v cc l do chnh sch rng ln hn. iu
ny c th bao gm vic chp nhn cartel xut khu nhm tng cng sc cnh tranh cho cc
hng trong nc. Mt v d ca vic ny l Lut Webb-Pomerene ca Hoa K. Cartel nhp
khu th t gp hn, v trong nhiu trng hp cc c quan chc trch v cnh tranh khng chp
nhn vic thit lp v hot ng ca h. Cartel cng cng c th c php nhm thc y iu
chnh c cu. Cartel t, hoc cc tho thun gia cc hng, trong nhiu trng hp cha ng
cc yu t b mt, c bit nu nh cc cartel ny i ngc li lut php hoc c th dn n
tng gi cao hn i vi ngi tiu dng. Xem thm antitrust laws, rule of reason v trade and
competition policy.
Carve-out: Tm min tr
Mt tho thun gia nhng bn tham gia m phn tm min tr trong thi im hin ti mt
s cc bin php hoc mt hot ng kinh t xc nh khng phi p dng cc quy tc thng
mi mi hoc cc quy tc c ngh. Cc v d v carve-out l vic min tr khng phi
thc hin cc quy tc ca GATS i vi cc quyn hng khng song phng v cc quy nh
thn trng p dng cho cc dch v ti chnh.
Cascading tariffs: Cc mc thu tng dn
Mt thut ng i khi dng m t s leo thang thu quan. N phn nh tp qun thng t
mc thu thp i vi cc b phn tng i n gin ca mt sn phm hon chnh v tng
cc mc thu theo mc gia cng ch bin. Mc ch ca n l tng gi tr ca phn sn xut
trong nc cng nhiu cng tt.
Cassis de Dijon case: V Cassis de Dijon
Xem mutual recognition arrangements.
Causality: Nhn qu
S tn ti ca mi lin quan h nhn qu gia gia tng nhp khu v thit hi nghim trng ca
nn cng nghip trong nc hoc mi e do gy thit hi nghim trng. Cc nc thnh vin
WTO thc hin bin php t v hoc bin php chng ph gi phi th hin c rng vic
nhp khu gia tng dn n thit hi l v cc cam kt t do ho ti GATT
Ceiling bindings: Cam kt trn
Mt khi nim trong WTO ch vic rng buc tt c, hoc mt phn ln, cc mc thu ti mt
mc c nh sn, thng thng vi mt phn m cao hn mc thu sut ang p dng.
Mc thu rng buc thng l kt qu ca m phn. Nhng nc cam kt mc thu trn c
ngha v php l khng tng cc mc thu rng buc ny. Xem thm bindings (goods) v
peak tariffs.
Central African Custom and Economic Union: Lin minh Kinh t v Hi quan Trung Phi
Thng c gi l UDEAC, vit tt ca tn bng ting Php. c thnh lp nm 1964 vi
mc ch cui cng l chuyn thnh mt th trng chung. Cc thnh vin ca Lin minh ny
l Cameroon, Cng ho Trung Phi, Chad, Congo, Ghi-n xch o v Gabon. Ban Th k ca
UDEAC t ti Bangui, Cng ho Trung Phi.
Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA): Hip nh Thng mi t do Trung
u

- 38 -
c thnh lp thng 3/1993, cc thnh vin bao gm Cng ho Sc, Hungary, Ba-lan,
Slovakia v Slovenia. Hu ht cc mc thu s c loi b gia cc bn vo nm 1997, nhng
ch thi gian cho cc lnh vc nhy cm l nm 2001.
Centrally-planned economies (CPE): Cc nn kinh t k hoch tp trung
Tn gi c dng cho n cui nhng nm 1980 hoc u nhng nm 1990 cho cc nc
Trung v ng u, Lin X, Trung Quc, Vit Nam v mt s nc khc trong cc hot
ng kinh t c da trn k hoch hng nm thng thng do mt c quan ging nh U ban
k hoch Nh nc son tho. Nhng nc ny cn c gi l nhng nn kinh t phi th
trng. a s cc nc c nn kinh t k hoch tp trung chuyn thnh nn kinh t th
trng hoc ang trong qu trnh hng ti mc tiu . Xem thm economies in transition.
CEPAL
Xem Economic Commision for Latin America and the Caribbean.
CEPT (Common Effective Preferential Tariff): Chng trnh u i thu quan c hiu lc
chung
Mt c ch c thit lp cho AFTA t c mc tiu gim thu cn t 0% n 5% cho
thng mi ni b trong ASEAN, lc u d nh thc hin trong 15 nm (nay gim xung
cn 10 nm). Vic gim thu c thc hin theo chng trnh gim nhanh (mc tiu t c
vo nm 2000) hoc chng trnh gim thu bnh thng (mc tiu t c vo nm 2003)
ph thuc vo loi sn phm. Xem thm sensitive list v temporary exclusion list.
CER - Closer Economic Relations: Hip nh Hp tc kinh t cht ch hn gia Australia
v New Zealand
Xem ANZCERTA.
CER-AFTA
Xem AFTA-CER.
CER Protocol on Trade in Service: Ngh nh th ca CER v thng mi trong dch v
Xem ANZCERTA Protocol on Trade in Service.
Certificate of origin: Chng nhn xut x
Mt loi ti liu chng nhn bng vn bn nc xut x ca hng ho nhp khu. y l mt
kha cnh qun l ca quy ch xut x. Vic i hi v chng nhn xut x c th dng lm ro
cn i vi thng mi quc t. Cc thnh vin ca GATT ng t u nm 1953 rng cc
giy chng nhn xut x ch cn s dng trong cc trng hp khng th thiu c.
Chaebol enterprises: Cc cng ty ln mang tnh cht gia nh Hn Quc
Cc hng ln ca Hn Quc sau chin tranh. c trng ca cc hng ny l do mt gia nh
lm ch s hu, vic kim sot tp trung thm ch cn ko di ti th h th hai hoc th ba ca
cc ng ch. Cc hng ny c nhiu u th c bit trong lnh vc sn xut v xy dng. T
trng ca cc cng ty chaebol trong tng sn lng kinh t ton quc t ra ngy cng suy gim
k t nhng nm 1970, nhng h vn cn l nhng tr ct kinh t ln.
Change in tariff heading: Thay i mc thu quan
Mt nguyn tc dng trong vic p dng quy ch xut x. Nguyn tc quy nh rng mt
mt hng sn xut ti nc A bng nhng nguyn liu c ngun gc t nc B c coi l sn
phm ca nc A nu sn phm c ch to thnh mt sn phm rt khc bit. Vic phn
loi danh mc thu quan c s dng l H thng hi ho. Xem thm substantial
transformation.
Charter for an International Trade Organization: Hin chng v T chc Thng mi
quc t

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Xem Havana Charter.
Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Hin chng v quyn v ngha v kinh
t ca cc quc gia
Mt sng kin do UNCTAD III (1972) xng b ngoi l nhm mc ch bo v quyn kinh
t ca tt c cc nc nhng thc cht l y mnh thay i a v thp hn ca nhng nc
ang pht trin trong h thng kinh t quc t. Hin chng d tho, ban u c nh rng
buc cc bn v tr thnh mt b phn ca lut quc t, c i hi ng Lin hp quc
thng qua theo Ngh quyt s 3281 (XXIX) thng 12 nm 1974. Hin chng c 34 iu khon
c gp thnh 4 chng. Chng I gm 15 nguyn tc s iu tit cc vn c bn ca quan
h kinh t quc t gia cc quc gia. l: (a) ch quyn, thng nht lnh th v c lp v
chnh tr ca cc quc gia; (b) bnh ng v ch quyn ca tt c cc quc gia v khng xm
lc; (c) khng can thip ln nhau; (d) quyn li bnh ng v cng c li; (e) cng tn ti
trong ho bnh; (f) quyn bnh ng v t quyt ca cc dn tc; (g) gii quyt ho bnh cc bt
ng; (h) sa i li nhng bt cng do p lc hoc tc ot ca mt quc gia nhng phng
tin t nhin cn thit cho s pht trin bnh thng ca n; (i) hon thnh cc ngha v quc t
mt cch trung thc; (k) tn trng quyn con ngi v quyn t do c bn; (l) khng c tm
cch ginh quyn b ch v phm vi nh hng; (m) tng cng cng l x hi quc t; (n) hp
tc quc t cho pht trin; (o) cho m ng t do ra bin i vi nhng nc khng c bin
trong phm vi khun kh ca nhng nguyn tc ny. Chng II gm 28 iu khon m t cc
quyn v ngha v v kinh t ca cc quc gia. Nhiu iu khon c ngha r rng, nhng trong
nhiu trng hp, cng khng d dng tm c ngha chnh xc. Vic khng nh rng mi
nh nc u c quyn tham gia vo thng mi quc t kh c th phn i c. Gy bt
ng nhiu hn l quyn lin kt ca nhng nh sn xut nhng hng ho s cp trong nhng
t chc thc hin cm vn trong lut quc t i vi cartel ca nhng nh sn xut. Ngha v
ng gp cho s pht trin ca thng mi hng ho quc t thng qua vic k kt cc hip
nh a phng di hn v hng ho cng l mt vn . Mt khc, ngha v hp tc trong vic
t do ho v m rng thng mi quc t mc d c nng cao ln nhiu bng cc bin php
c li cho cc nc ang pht trin, ngy nay c th d chp nhn hn so vi nm 1974. Cc
iu khon lin quan n gii tr qun b v ch ngha Apartheid l s phn nh tnh hnh
chnh tr thi gian . Chng III chi tit ho trong 2 chng nhng trch nhim chung ca cc
quc gia i vi cng ng quc t tc l gia cc quc gia i vi nhau. y bin v thm lc
a vt qu gii hn php l quc gia cng nh cc ngun ti nguyn trong c coi l di
sn chung ca nhn loi. Vic bo v mi trng c coi l trch nhim ca tt c cc quc
gia. Chng IV bao gm cc quy nh cui cng trong 4 iu khon bao gm c quan nim
rng s thnh vng ca cng ng quc t ni chung ph thuc vo s thnh vng ca tng
thnh vin cng ng. a s cc nc pht trin b phiu trng hoc biu quyt chng li Hin
chng. Nhng nc t chi ng h Hin chng lo ngi rng Hin chng khng bao gm
mt cam kt i vi lut quc t hoc mt tham chiu c lin quan n lut quc t. Ni cch
khc, Hin chng dnh cho nhiu quyn lc k kt nhng nhng quyn ny khng cn
xng vi ngha v i vi cc nc khc. Hin chng c th cho php quyn tc ot v bi
thng theo nh lut trong nc. c nhiu tranh lun pht trin a v php l ca Hin
chng nhng n b phai nht dn khng cn l mt vn quc t na. Mt s c quan im
rng mc d Hin chng khng mang li c cc thay i trong quan h kinh t quc t
nhng vn tranh ci v n cho thy rng mi quan tm ca cc nc ang pht trin s c
lu hn trong tng lai. Xem thm Global Negotiations, New International Economic Order
v North-South dialogue.
Chicago Convention: Cng c Chicago
Cng c Hng khng dn dng quc t, k nm 1944 vi mc ch y mnh mt quy ch v
dch v hng khng quc t an ton v trt t. Cc iu khon ca n iu tit vic phn chia
cc thng quyn song phng, mt c im c bn ca h thng hng khng ton cu. Cng
c do T chc Hng khng dn dng quc t (ICAO) c tr s ti Montreal, iu hnh thc
hin. Xem thm freedoms of the air v open-skies agreements

- 40 -
Chicken War: Chin tranh g
Mt thi k cng thng trong bun bn gia Hoa K v Cng ng Kinh t Chu u ko di t
thng 7/1962 n thng 1/1964, do ph bng en ln giai on u Vng Kenedy. N lm
n ra vic m rng cc bin thu i vi gia cm theo Chnh sch Nng nghip chung lm tng
gp 3 ln chi ph nhp khu ca c. S kin ny dn n vic suy gim nhanh chng v
mnh m trong vic xut khu gia cm ca Hoa K sang c mc d cho n thi gian cc
nh xut khu Hoa K rt thnh cng trong vic ny. c nhng khiu ni v phn khiu
ni i bi thng. Vic thit lp mt ban hi thm gm cc chuyn gia do GATT thc hin
thng 11/1963 to ra c c s cho mt gii php. C hai bn chp nhn rng bun bn
v gia cm tr gi 26 triu -la b nh hng. cn bng, Hoa K nh thu nhp khu b
sung nh hng ch yu n ru cognac ca Php, xe ti ca c v dextrin v tinh bt ca
H-lan, nh vy m bo rng hng ng tr a ca Hoa K cn phi c cc thnh vin ca
Cng ng Kinh t Chu u nhn bit mt cch rng ri hn. nh hng ca chin tranh g vt
i vi phn cn li ca Vng Kennedy l kh nh gi, c bit v n tip theo mt s thi k
kh khn khc. Tuy nhin, n nu ra gi i vi vn bun bn nng sn quc t gy ra
tranh ci ngy cng tng m cc nh xut khu c kh nng ang gp phi bi v Chnh sch
Nng nghip chung trc ht s dn n chu u t cung t cp v sau dn n vic tr cp
xut khu i vi nhiu sn phm.
Chief supplier provision: iu khon v nh cung cp ch lc
Mt trong nhng c im chnh ca Chng trnh cc Hip nh Thng mi tng h ca
Hoa K. Chng trnh ny quy nh rng khng c u i v thu cho bt k nc no nu nh
nc khng phi l nc cung cp ch lc v sn phm . Ngi ta c nh s dng iu
khon gi duy tr sc mnh m phn mc c ca Hoa K vi cc nc s k kt hip
nh thng mi tng h sau khi p dng vic ct gim trc y i vi cc i tc khc ca
hip nh thng mi theo cc quy tc ti hu quc. iu khon v nh cung cp ch lc
c chuyn sang GATT di hnh thc quyn cc nh cung cp chnh.
Child labour: Lao ng tr em
Cng c s 138 (Cng c v tui ti thiu) ca T chc Lao ng quc t quy nh rng tui
ti thiu s dng lao ng nhng nc tham gia Hip c khng c di 15. Tui lao
ng c th xung ti 13 i vi mt s cng vic nh v xung ti 12 i vi cc nc ang
pht trin min l vic s dng lao ng khng nh hng ti vic hc hnh ca tr em. Cng
c s 138 nhm nng tui ti thiu v Khuyn ngh s 146 ca ILO gi rng tui ti thiu
s dng lao ng nn l 16. Xem thm core labour standards v Harkin Bill.
Chinese Economic Area: Khu vc Kinh t Trung Hoa
Thut ng i khi c dng ch mt khu vc bao gm nc Cng ho Nhn dn Trung
Hoa, Hng Kng, i-loan.
Chinese Taipei
Tn chnh thc ca i-loan trong APEC v WTO.
CHOGM (Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting): Hi ngh Nguyn th cc
nc thuc khi Thnh vng chung
Cc vn v chnh sch thng mi thng c t ra trong chng trnh ngh s nhng
cuc hp ny khng c vai tr ra quyt nh. CHOGRM (Hi ngh Nguyn th cc nc thuc
khi Thnh vng chung trong khu vc) bao gm cc i din ca cc nc thnh vin trong
khi Thnh vng chung Khu vc chu - Thi bnh dng.
CIPEC (Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries): Hi ng lin chnh
ph ca cc nc xut khu ng
c thnh lp nm 1967 phi hp cng tc nghin cu v trao i thng tin, bao gm c
thng k, gia cc nc thnh vin. Thnh vin chnh thc gm cc nc Chile, Indonesia,

- 41 -
Peru, Zaire v Zambia. Australia v Papua New Guinea l cc thnh vin d thnh, trc y
Nam-t cng vy.
Circumvention: Lng trnh
Thut ng c dng cho nhng c gng trn trnh cc bin php chng ph gi, nhng n
cng c th dng ch vic trnh quy ch xut x, v.v... N bao gm vic ci trang xut x
thc ca sn phm, i khi thng qua cc qu trnh sn xut ch vi mc ch cung cp cc
bng chng p ng cc yu cu ca hip nh. Cc hot ng ny c xp vo loi cc
hot ng tuc-n-vt. Xem thm anti-circumvention.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora): Cng c quc t v thng mi cc chng loi ng thc vt hoang d qu him
k kt nm 1973 di s bo tr ca Lin minh quc t v bo tn t nhin v ti nguyn
(IUCN). Cng c bt u c hiu lc t 1/7/1975. IUCN khng phi l mt b phn ca Lin
hp quc nhng c quan h cht ch vi Lin hp quc. Cng c ny iu tit thng mi
quc t cc loi ng vt v cy ci hoang d. Cng c cm vic bun bn cc chng loi c
nguy c b dit vong. Cng c cho php bun bn c kim sot cc chng loi m kh nng
tn ti khng b e do, nhng c th b e do. Theo Cng c ny, vic bun bn s c
thc hin thng qua mt h thng giy php. Xem thm trade and environment.
Civil aircraft code: Lut my bay dn dng
Xem Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft.
Clayton Act: Lut Clayton
Lut chng c quyn ca Hoa K ln u tin c thng qua nm 1914. Lut nhm chng li
mt lot cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch v "ngn chn vic to ra cc t-rt, cc m mu
v c quyn khi mi phi thai v trc khi hon thnh". Lut cng cho php nh thu gp 3
ln tn tht. Ni chung lut p dng i vi ngoi thng, nhng mt s iu khon c gii
hn cho vic bun bn gia cc bang. Xem thm competition policy, Robinson-Patman Act,
Sherman Act v Webb-Pomerene Act.
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty: Hip c Cobden-Chevalier
Mt hip c thng mi k kt nm 1860 gia Anh v Php. N a vic i ng ti hu
quc tr thnh ph cp chu u.
COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls): U ban iu phi
kim sot xut khu a phng
L do c bn cho s tn ti ca U ban xut pht t kin ngh ca i hi ng Lin hp quc
nm 1951 i vi vic cm vn vic giao cc "v kh, n dc, phng tin chin tranh, cc
nguyn liu nng lng nguyn t, xng du v cc hng ho s dng cho vic sn xut cc
phng tin chin tranh" cho cc nc cng sn. Nm 1958, danh mc cc mt hng b cm
c gim ch cn i vi cc hng ho chin lc v sau c mt s thay i trong danh
mc cc mt hng b cm. Cc thnh vin ca COCOM bao gm cc nc trong NATO (T
chc Hip c Bc i ty dng) tr Iceland v Nht. Tho c Wassenaar v kim sot xut
khu i vi v kh thng thng v cc hng ho v cc cng ngh lng dng, bt u c
hiu lc t ngy 1/11/1996, thay th tho thun COCOM.
Code-conditioned most-favour-nation treatment: i ng ti hu quc vi iu kin cng
tham gia mt hip nh
Tnh hung trong i ng ti hu quc ch c dnh cho cc thnh vin ca mt hip nh
GATT hoc WTO. Mt v d ca vic ny l Hip nh mua sm ca Chnh ph ca WTO.
Xem thm conditional most-favoured-nation treatment.
Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and Application of Standards: Lut
thc hnh cho vic chun b, thng qua v p dng cc tiu chun

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iu khon ny nm trong Ph lc 3 ca Hip nh v cc hng ro k thut i vi thng
mi cu WTO. Cc c quan tiu chun ca Chnh ph Trung ng cn phi tun theo cc iu
khon ca B Lut nhng n cng c ng cho cc c quan ca chnh quyn a phng
hoc cc c quan phi Chnh ph. B Lut bao gm 14 iu khon c bn nhm chun b v thc
hin cc tiu chun mt cch minh bch v khng phn bit i x. Xem thm conformity
assessment, International Electrotechnical Commission v International Organisation for
Standardisation.
Codex Alimentarius
Xem Food and Agricultural Organisation.
Collective action: Hnh ng tp th
Mt thut ng dng trong APEC m t cc hot ng nhm t do ho hoc m rng thng
mi m ch c th cng nhau thc hin. Nhng hot ng ny bao gm cng nhn ln nhau cc
bng cp v tiu chun, hp tc hi quan v.v... Xem thm concerted liberalisation action.
Comecon: Hi ng Tng tr kinh t
Xem Council for Mutual Economic Assstance.
Comity: S thn thin
Mt thut ng dng trong lut quc t biu th s lch s c i c li hoc tn trng ln nhau
m mt thnh vin ca mt nhm cc quc gia dnh cho cc nc khc khi cn nhc nh hng
ca cc hnh ng ca mnh. Xem thm negative comity v positive comity.
Commercial defence mechanism: C ch phng v thng mi
Xem contingent protection.
Commercial policy: chnh sch thng mi
Mt thut ng gi y tr thnh lc hu v trong s dng thng thng c thay th bng
trade policy v chng tn ti cng nhau trong nhiu thp k. Chnh sch thng mi bao
gm cc b lut, cc chnh sch v cc tp qun ca chnh ph c nh hng n thng mi.
Chnh sch thng mi trong thi hin i bao gm phm vi rng ln hn gm c cc loi dch
v, cc kha cnh ca quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi, v.v... v cc vn
thng mi mi. Nhng nh son tho Hip nh GATT coi chnh sch thng mi l nhng
ch c nu trong Phn II ca GATT, cng vi cc vn khc, bao gm i ng quc gia,
chng ph gi v thu i khng, nh gi hi quan, cc l ph v th tc xut nhp khu, m
hiu xut x, hn ch nh lng, tr cp, cc doanh nghip thng mi quc doanh, cc bin
php t v, tham vn v gii quyt tranh chp. Cng cn lu rng, v d, mc VII ca
Hip c Maastricht c ly dng ch "chnh sch thng mi chung" ca Hip c Rome m
trong iu 113 nh ngha l "trn c s nhng nguyn tc thng nht, c bit i vi
nhng thay i trong thu sut, l vic k kt hip nh thu quan v thng mi, vic t c
s thng nht trong cc bin php t do ho, chnh sch xut khu v cc bin php bo h
thng mi nh cc bin php c thc hin trong trng hp ph gi v tr gi". Xem thm
Common Commercial Policy.
Commercial presence: Hin din thng mi
Bt k mt loi hnh bun bn hoc mt c s chuyn doanh no trn phm vi lnh th ca mt
nc thnh vin ca GATS (Hip nh chung thng mi v dch v) vi mc ch cung cp
dch v. S hin din ny bao gm cc php nhn, cc chi nhnh, cc vn phng i din. Xem
thm mode of service delivery v right of establishment.
Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER): U ban i din thng tr

- 43 -
Mt c quan ca Cng ng Chu u chu trch nhim chun b cc cuc hp ca Hi ng
cc B trng. N thng gii quyt cc vn gay cn hay gy tranh ci nhng khng c
thm quyn quyt nh.
Committee on Rules of Origin: U ban v quy ch xut x
Xem Agreement on Rules of Origin.
Committee on Trade and Development: U ban v thng mi v pht trin
Mt u ban ca WTO c thnh lp ngy 26/11/1964. U ban ny lin quan n cc vn
ca cc nc ang pht trin v mt trong nhng nhim v chnh ca n l qun l iu hnh
Phn IV ca GATT v iu khon cho php. Xem thm developing countries and the GATT.
Committee on Trade and Environment: U ban v Thng mi v Mi trng
Mt u ban ca WTO c thnh lp p ng Tuyn b Rio v mi trng v pht trin v
Chng trnh ngh s 21. Nhim v ca U ban l xc nh mi quan h gia cc bin php
thng mi v cc bin php mi trng y mnh pht trin bn vng v kin ngh nhng
thay i c th c i vi cc quy ch ca h thng thng mi a phng lin quan n
hng ho, dch v v quyn s hu tr tu. Theo nh iu l ca U ban, bt k mt gi thay
i no cng cn phi ph hp vi tnh cht m rng, cng bng v khng phn bit i x ca
h thng thng mi a phng. Xem thm Multilateral Agreement on Environment.
Commitment: Cam kt
Mt rng buc php l c th i vi mt nc ti mt trong nhng hip nh do WTO iu
hnh. Cc v d ca cam kt l rng buc thu quan, cc cu vit trong danh mc cam kt v
dch v. Cc cam kt thng bt ngun t vic m phn gia hai hoc nhiu bn v sau
c p dng khng phn bit i vi tt c cc bn c lin quan ca hip nh. Cc cam kt
ny khc vi cc quy tc chung, v d i ng ti hu quc hoc i ng quc gia vn c gi
l quyn v ngha v.
Commodity: Hng ho
Bt k mt mt hng no c trao i trong thng mi, nhng thng thng nht l ch
nguyn vt liu. V d nh la m, thic, ng, mangan, c-ph, ch, cao-su. Xem thm buffer
stock, commodity policy, commodity terms of trade v international commodity agreement.
Commodity cartels: Cartel hng ho
Cartel cng hoc cartel t c thit lp duy tr gi c ca mt loi hng ho cao hn gi c
th bn c trn th trng cng khai. C ch thng thng cho vic ny l vic p dng hn
ngch xut khu v s cu kt duy tr gi cao hn mc gi thc ca th trng. Cc cartel
ny ch c th thnh cng nu chng bao gm cc nh sn xut ln, quan trng v nu khng
c hng ho khc c sn thay th. OPEC l mt cartel thnh cng trong hn mt thp k
nhng kh nng gi gi cao ca n dn n vic gia nhp th trng ca nhng nh sn xut c
chi ph cao hn. Cartel v kim cng quc t c tr s Nam Phi hot ng c hiu qu, thu
nhiu li nhun trong nhiu nm nhng ang b thch thc ngy cng tng bi nhng nh sn
xut kim cng bn hng cc th trng khc. Xem thm commodity policy, international
commodity agreements v resources diplomacy.
Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC): Cng ty tn dng hng ho
Mt cng ty ca Chnh ph nm trong B Nng nghip Hoa K thc hin tt c cc giao dch
lin quan n h tr gi v thu nhp cho nng dn. Chc nng ca CCC bao gm h tr gi c
th trng thng qua t sut vay, qun l cc kho cng cng, thanh ton thiu ht cho cc nh
sn xut, qun l cc chng trnh vin tr lng thc v qun l chng trnh y mnh xut
khu (EEP) v chng trnh khuyn khch xut khu sa (DEIP).
Commodity policy: Chnh sch hng ho

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Mt phn ca chnh sch thng mi, l cc hnh ng ca Chnh ph c nh hng n
thng mi hng ho. Mc tiu chnh ca n l m bo thu nhp cng bng v c li cho cc
nh sn xut v cung cp hng ho tin cy vi gi cnh tranh cho ngi tiu dng. Khng c
mc ch no c xc nh mt cch khch quan. Hng ho lun lun c phn loi bi mt
s phng php c bit v s bin ng cung cu vn c v s thay i gi c km theo v s
bin ng thu nhp xut khu. Trong cc trng hp khc, c bit i vi sn phm nng
nghip, cuc sng ca i b phn dn s b nh hng mc t nhiu khc nhau bi s
pht trin ca th trng. Cc Chnh ph c xu hng cnh gic vi nhng mi lo ngi ny v
tm phng cch v bin php gim nh chng. Chnh sch hng ho quc t hin i bt
u vi vic son tho Hin chng Havana ch yu ng h nguyn tc th trng t do. D
tho Hin chng cho php lp ra cc Hip nh hng ho quc t (ICA) vi vic kim sot gi
c v thng mi, c gi l Hip nh kim sot lin Chnh ph, ch khi ng lc th trng
thng thng khng th gii quyt nhanh chng cc bin i gia sn xut v tiu th v vic
tht nghip lan trn lin quan n mt loi hng ho ch yu c th xy ra hoc c th s
xy ra. Tuy nhin, nguyn tc th trng t do c tho hip theo nhiu cch trong khi d tho
tin ti cho php, ly v d, Chnh ph lp k hoch bi nhng ngi nhn thy cn phi lm
nh vy. Cc nc ang pht trin c php duy tr hn ch nhp khu bo v nn cng
nghip trong nc. Cui cng th Hin chng Havana khng c hiu lc. Nm 1947,
ECOSOC thnh lp U ban iu phi lm thi cho cc tho thun hng ho quc t
(ICCICA) vi tng triu tp cc nhm nghin cu hng ho v xut triu tp hi ngh
m phn v cc hip nh v hng ho. Mt s ICA vi c cu bnh n c m phn di
s bo tr ca n. Bo co Haberler c chun b di s bo tr ca GATT nm 1958 to
ra s h tr thn trng i vi vic k kt cc hip nh hng ho quc t v k hoch bi
thng ti chnh gii hn, nhng bo co khng dn n bt k mt no khc. Khi UNCTAD
c thnh lp nm 1964, chc nng ca ICCICA c chuyn sang cho UNCTAD. ngh
u nhng nm 1970 cho Trt t kinh t th gii mi c tip theo nhn nhn vic chuyn
t cc ngun ti nguyn sang cc nc ang pht trin, mt phn qua cc hip nh v k hoch
hng ho gii quyt vn thiu ht ca thu nhp do xut khu mang li. Ngay t u
UNCTAD tr nn mang tnh can thip trong quan im ca h v chnh sch hng ho, v
ti UNCTAD IV (1976) UNCTAD a ra mt Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng v
Qu chung. l nhng c cu trn mt phm vi ln iu tit v n nh thng mi hng
ho th gii thng qua cc kho m v ti chnh bi thng. UNCTAD c gip mt
cch gin tip trong mc ch ca n thng qua ngoi giao ti nguyn ca nhng nm 1970
thng qua , cc nc ngho v hng ho tm kim c cch tip cn chc chn vi cc nh
cung cp. nh gi nh nhng hn v cc vn gn lin vi thng mi hng ho th gii t
gia nhng nm 1980 v sau cnh bo mi nghi ng ngy cng tng v s can thip vo th
trng trn phm vi rng ln i vi c nh sn xut v ngi tiu dng. Vo gia nhng nm
1990 quay tr li nhng nguyn tc ca th trng t do gii hn vic hp tc quc t trong
vic tng cng tnh cng khai v y mnh ti tr cho vic nghin cu v pht trin lm
cho hng ho hp dn hn i vi th trng. Xem thm compensatory financing arrangements.
Commodity terms of trade: Cc ch s thng mi theo hng ho
Mt ch s cho thy t l gia gi c ca hng ho (s cp) vi gi c ca hng ho qua ch
to. Cc ch s v thng mi hng ho s c ci thin nu lng hng ho phi bn thanh
ton cho mt lng hng ho qua ch to gim. Cc ch s ny s xu i khi phi bn nhiu
hng ho hn. Xem thm terms of trade.
Common Agriculture policy (CAP): Chnh sch Nng nghip chung
Mt h thng h tr v tr cp gi nng nghip do Cng ng Chu u iu hnh. C cu ti
tr cho CAP l Hng dn nng nghip chu u v qu bo m chu u. Mc ch ca CAP
c nu r l khuyn khch n nh cc iu kin th trng nng nghip, nng cao iu
kin sng ca nng dn, gi c hp l cho ngi tiu dng, tng sn lng ma mng v nng
cao nng sut lao ng. Vic thc hin chnh sch nng nghip lun kh khn v c gng pha
trn nhng chnh sch x hi v chnh sch kinh t. CAP thnh cng c bit trong vic

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nng cao sn lng v tng thu nhp cho ngi nng dn, nhng chnh sch ny dn ti vic
ph v th trng ton cu trn phm vi rng ln v nng sut gia tng, sn xut vi gi thnh
cao ch c th xut khu c vi s gip ca nhng khon tr cp xut khu to ln. CAP
cng dn n gi nng sn cao cho ngi tiu dng trong EC v ng gp cho thm ht
ngn sch chu u.
Common Commercial Policy: Chnh sch Thng mi chung
Theo Hip c Rome, cc nc thnh vin ca Cng ng Chu u thc hin mt chnh sch
chung v thu quan, hip nh thng mi, cc bin php t v, cc bin php chng ph gi,
v.v... qua U ban chu u. Cc nc thnh vin khng c quyn n phng thay i thu
quan i ngoi chung hoc tin hnh cc cam kt thng mi vi cc nc khc. c mt c
cu tham vn ni b pht trin trnh cao v d nh U ban iu 113, theo cc nc
thnh vin c th a cc ngh thay i chnh sch thng mi chung.
Common customs tariff: Thu quan chung
Xem common external tariff.
Common external tariff: Thu quan i ngoi chung
Thu sut thng nht do cc nc thnh vin ca mt lin minh hi quan p dng i vi cc
nc khng phi l thnh vin. Cc nc thnh vin ca Lin minh Hi quan ng hu b
hoc gim dn tt c cc thu sut gia cc nc vi nhau. ng thi h thay th cc thu sut
ring l ca tng nc bng mt mc thu sut. Do , gia nhp mt lin minh hi quan s em
li cho cc nc thnh vin mt thu sut khng i trn mi sn phm, thu sut c th cao
hn hay thp hn thu sut c ca mi nc. Theo quy ch ca WTO, nhng thay i khng
c dng tng mc bo h ni chung. Cc khu vc thng mi t do khng c thu quan
chung.
Common Fund: Qu chung
Qu ny c xut ln u tin nm 1976 ti UNCTAD IV nhm thnh lp mt c cu ti
chnh cho Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng. m phn v c cu ca qu hon
thnh nm 1980. Qu ny c 2 nhnh. Nhnh th nht nhm gip cho s hot ng ca kho
m, nhnh th hai nhm ti tr vic nghin cu v pht trin, nng cao nng sut lao ng v
y mnh tiu th hng ho. Nm 1988 cc thnh vin ca UNCTAD duyt thng qua Qu
ny n c hiu lc thi hnh. Ban Th k ca Qu ng ti Amsterdam. Xem thm
commodity policy, international commodity agreements v UNCTAD.
Common market: Th trng chung
Theo mt s ngi nh gi th th trng chung l dng pht trin cao hn ca Lin minh hi
quan, trong ngoi vic chu chuyn hng ho t do gia cc nc thnh vin, lao ng v vn
cng c th di chuyn m khng c hn ch. Xem thm four freedoms.
Common Market: Th trng Chung
Xem European Economic Community.
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA): Th trng chung ng
v Nam Phi
Hip c thnh lp COMESA do 22 nc k kt ti Kampala ngy 5/11/1993. Mc ch ca
COMESA l: (a) t c s tng trng v pht trin bn vng ca cc nc thnh vin bng
vic y mnh pht trin c cu sn xut v th trng hi ho, cn i hn; (b) thc y pht
trin chung trong tt c cc lnh vc ca hot ng kinh t v cng p dng cc chnh sch v
chng trnh kinh t v m chung nng cao mc sng ca nhn dn v thc y quan h cht
ch hn gia cc nc thnh vin; (c) hp tc trong vic to ra mt mi trng thun li cho
u t nc ngoi, u t gia cc nc v trong nc, bao gm c vic cng y mnh nghin
cu v ng dng khoa hc v cng ngh cho s pht trin; (d) hp tc trong vic tng cng

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ho bnh, an ninh v n nh gia cc nc thnh vin tng cng pht trin kinh t trong
khu vc; (e) hp tc tng cng mi quan h gia th trng chung v phn cn li ca th
gii v cng thng nht cc quan im chung trn cc din n th gii; (f) ng gp vo vic
xy dng, tin trin v thc hin cc mc tiu ca Cng ng kinh t chu Phi. Trong lnh vc
t do ho thng mi v hp tc hi quan, cc nc cam kt: (i) thit lp lin minh hi quan,
hu b tt c hng ro phi thu quan i vi thng mi gia cc nc vi nhau, xy dng thu
quan i ngoi chung i vi cc nc ngoi khi v hp tc cc hot ng v cc th tc hi
quan; (ii) p dng mt c cu bo lnh hi quan chung; (iii) n gin v hi ho cc chng t
v th tc thng mi; (iv) thit lp cc iu kin iu tit vic ti xut cc loi hng ho t
nc th ba trong phm vi ni b khi th trng chung; (v) dnh quyn min tr tm thi i
vi Lesotho, Namibia v Swaziland cha phi thc hin y cc quy nh.
Commonwealth of Independent States: Cng ng cc quc gia c lp
c thnh lp cui nm 1991 gm nhiu nc cng ho thuc Lin-x trc y. Mi mt
nc sng lp l Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mondova, Nga,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine v Uzbekistan. Georgia gia nhp nm 1993. Xem thm
Newly Independent States.
Commonwealth preferences: Cc u i ca Khi cng ng Thnh vng chung
Tn ca cc u i c s dng trong thi gian sau chin tranh, nhng loi u i ny
c dng trong nhng nm chin tranh. Xem imperial preferences arangements.
Community interest clause: iu khon li ch cng ng
iu khon ny l mt phn trong quy nh ca Cng ng Chu u nm 1979 quy nh nh
thu chng ph gi hoc thu i khng phi ph thuc vo li ch chung ca Cng ng trong
vn lin quan. Quan trng hn, "li ch cng ng" bao gm li ch ca ngi tiu dng,
ngi gia cng ch bin mt hng nhp khu, cng s cn thit c cnh tranh trn th trng
ni b. Xem thm anti-dumping measures, countervailing duties v European Community
legislation.
Comparability: Tnh tng ng
Thut ng c dng trong cc cuc tho lun ca APEC bao hm cc tho thun m bo c
s tng ng rng ri v ng gp gi cc nc thnh vin ca APEC trong vic thc hin
Tuyn b Bogor. Xem thm comprehensiveness v Osaka Action Agenda.
Comparative advantage: Li th so snh
Mt l thuyt ln u tin c David Ricardo m t nm 1817 rng mt nc c th xut khu
hng ho m nc sn xut c hiu qu tng i. Mc hiu qu tng i so snh chi ph
sn xut ca cc loi hng ho khc nhau trong mt nc, ch khng phi l chi ph sn xut
ca cng mt loi hng ho cc nc khc nhau. Li th so snh ca mt nc c phn nh
trong xut khu khng c tr gi ra th trng th gii, v c gi l li th so snh hin th.
Li th so snh ca mt nc khng phi lun lun c nh. V d, cc nc c th ginh c
mt li th so snh thng qua vic u t lc lng lao ng ca h nm bt c k nng.
V th c khi nim li th so snh nng ng. Xem thm absolute advantage, competitive
advantage, gains-from-trade theory, Hechscher-Ohlin theorem, kaleidoscopic comparative
advantage v Stolper-Sammuelson theorem.
Compensation: Bi thng
Mt cch khc phc sa cha cho cc thnh vin ca WTO trong nhng trng hp mt thnh
vin khc ph v mt cam kt trn v dch v hoc p t mt mc thu i vi mt loi hng
ho cao hn mc thu cam kt. Cc nc thnh vin c quyn ph v cam kt ni trn theo
mt s iu khon ca Hip nh, nhng nc thnh vin phi bi thng cho cc nc
khc, thng thng u i v thu i vi mt mt hng khc hoc cam kt v mt hot ng
dch v khc. Xem thm Binding commitment (service), bindings (goods) v safeguards.

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Compensation trade: Thng mi bi thng
Mt tho thun thng mi trong ngi cung cp nguyn liu, hng ho v dch v cho mt
cng ty nc ngoi ng c thanh ton di dng mt phn ca sn lng ca cng ty .
Ngi mua c li th l khng cn phi c ngoi t nhp khu cc nguyn liu cho sn xut,
do vy khng cn phi thanh ton li cho n khi hot ng bt u v cng ty c sn th
trng cho mt s loi sn phm ca n. Tuy nhin, c th thy rng i khi cng ty s phi
cnh tranh vi chnh sn phm ca n nu nh cc sn phm ch c mt th trng gii hn
v cng ty phi tr ngi cung cp bng sn phm ca mnh vi gi thp. Xem thm barter
trade v counter trade.
Compensatory financing arrangements: Cc tho thun bi thng ti chnh
K hoch lin chnh ph nhm ti thiu ho nh hng ca thiu ht trong thu nhp t xut
khu hng ho v nhng bin ng trong thu nhp t xut khu, c bit thu nhp ca cc nc
ang pht trin ph thuc rt nhiu vo xut khu hng ho s cp. Vic tip cn c ti c
cu chnh - Phng tin Ti chnh t xut v Bi thng ca IMF - phi ph thuc vo mt
lot cc iu kin, ch yu nhm y mnh iu chnh c cu v ci thin cn cn thanh ton.
Cc k hoch STABEX v SYSMIN p dng cho cc nc ACP theo Cng c Lom th c t cc
iu kin hn. Xem thm Common Fund.
Competition policy: Chnh sch cnh tranh
Bao gm cc quy tc v quy nh nhm thc y mi trng cnh tranh trong mt nn kinh t
quc dn, mt phn thng qua vic phn b c hiu qu hn ngun ti nguyn. Lut cnh tranh
ca hu ht cc nc u iu chnh bn loi i x chnh i vi cc cng ty: (a) cc tho
thun ngang (ch yu cc tho thun gia cc cng ty v gi v kim sot gi), (b) tho thun
dc (c th bao gm vic bun bn c quyn, duy tr gi bn, hn ch a l trong hot ng
v quan h, (c) thao tng th trng bi cc cng ty c quyn v cc cng ty ln, (d) kim sot
vic st nhp v mua li m bo khng nh hng n iu kin cnh tranh chung trn th
trng. Cc quy tc iu chnh cc vn nu trn i khi c gi l chnh sch cnh tranh
hp. Chnh sch cnh tranh thng c coi l ch yu thc y quyn li ca ngi tiu dng.
T nhng nm 80 thut ng "chnh sch cnh tranh" c m rng phm vi trong nhiu nc
cng nghip, ti khi nim ny lin quan n c vic nng cao phc li trong vic a cnh
tranh vo c nhng ngnh phi thng mi. Chnh sch c gi l chnh sch cnh tranh
rng ri hn. Chnh sch ny bao gm c vic cung cp kh t, nc v in, nhng lnh vc
mt thi c coi l c quyn mc nhin. Xem thm antitrust laws v trade and competition
policy.
Competition policy and anti-dumping measures: Chnh sch cnh tranh v cc bin php
chng ph gi
Mt trong nhng vn lin quan n vic xem xt tnh kh thi ca cc quy tc thng mi a
phng v thng mi v cnh tranh, mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi. C kin cho
rng c mu thun c bn gia vic mt chnh ph qun l ng thi c lut chng ph gi v
lut cnh tranh hay lut chng c quyn, c bit l trong mt lin minh hi quan hay khu vc
thng mi t do. Quan im ny da trn gi thuyt rng chnh sch thng mi c th em
li li ch cho cc nh sn xut trong nc thng qua cc bin php chng ph gi cho php h
c li nhun b sung bng cch nng gi. Cc nh xut khu c cam kt gi gi trnh b
nh thu chng ph gi cng c th c li ch kinh t bng cch ny. Vng mc l ch
nhng hnh ng ny l hp php trong chnh sch thng mi, nhng li bt hp php trong
chnh sch cnh tranh. Mt mu thun khc ny sinh t nguyn tc c bn l lut chng ph
gi c t ra bo v cc nh sn xut v bn hng ni a trong khi lut cnh tranh li
hng vo vic bo v nh nhp khu v ngi tiu dng. Cc nc v cc ngnh t coi mnh l
b bt li bi cc bin php chng ph gi thng mun thay cc bin php bng lut cnh
tranh. iu ny xy ra trong thng mi gia Australia v New Zealand trong khi
ANZCERTA v gia cc thnh vin ca Cng ng Chu u. C s nht tr gia cc nh phn
tch rng mt bin php chung trong lut cnh tranh l cn thit t c mc tiu ny. Vn

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 trong cng ng thng mi rng hn l khng ch c s a dng ho ca cc ch cnh
tranh v thi hnh lut l, m nhiu nc ang pht trin cn cha c hoc mi ch c h thng
cnh tranh mc s ng.
Competitive advantage: Li th cnh tranh
Mt l thuyt cn ang gy tranh ci v pht trin cng nghip do Michael Porter truyn b
(1990). L thuyt ny bt ngun t Alfred Marshall. L thuyt ny ch ra rng thnh cng ca
mt cng ty hay mt ngnh l da trn li th v chi ph sn xut mt sn phm tiu chun
ho hoc li th v sn phm ln quan n vic pht trin cc sn phm khc bit khc. Cc
hng c li th cnh tranh thng tp trung v mt a l, do h tr pht trin trnh ca
lc lng lao ng. Nhng nh ph bnh l thuyt ny lu rng vi vic tp trung cc cng ty
s dng cng ngh cao cc nc pht trin v gim tm quan trng ca chi ph so snh s to
c s php l cho vic chi tiu cng v chnh sch bo h hng n vic pht trin vi v cc
ngnh cng ngh cao. Xem thm comparative advantage v strategic trade theory.
Competitive-need limitation: Hn ch v nhu cu cnh tranh
Mt kha cnh qun l ca chng trnh GSP Hoa K. Nu trong mt nm, nhp khu mt sn
phm t mt nc hng li chim hn 50% nhp khu sn phm ca Hoa K th quyn
hng li ca nc xut khu s chm dt. Tng t, mt khi xut khu mt sn phm ca mt
nc vo Hoa K vt qu mt gi tr nh th cng khng c hng li na. Gi tr ny
khc nhau mi nm. Hn ch v nhu cu cnh tranh c th c min tr trong mt s trng
hp, c bit nu nc xut khu m ca th trng mt cch hp l cho hng ho v dch v
ca Hoa K v nu nc bo h tt cc quyn s hu tr tu ca Hoa K. Nhiu nc km
pht trin c hng min tr t ng. Xem thm graduation.
Competitiveness: Tnh cnh tranh
Kh nng ca mt hng, mt lnh vc sn xut hoc thm ch mt nc duy tr hiu qu kinh t
so vi cc hng, lnh vc, nc khc. Cc chnh ph i khi mun ci thin tnh cnh tranh ca
mt lnh vc thng qua vic s dng mc tiu xut khu, tr cp, bo h hoc cc bin php
khc. iu ny ch c th lm c vi s hy sinh ca cc ngnh kinh t khc v hiu qu lu
di ca vic lm l lm gim tnh cnh tranh ca nn kinh t ni chung.
Competitive neutrality: Trung tnh cnh tranh
Khi nim lin quan n vic kim tra v qun l bn cht cnh tranh gia cc hng t nhn v
hng c quyn c ni lng quy ca chnh ph. Nhu cu v trung tnh cnh tranh ny sinh t
vic loi b cc hng ro i vi xm nhp th trng v chm dt c quyn ca chnh ph c
th cha c s cnh tranh thc s trong lnh vc . Trong trng hp nh vy, li th c
th thuc v doanh nghip trc y tng l c quyn hoc mt phn c quyn ca chnh
ph. Cch khc phc thng l cc dng quy nh ng h cnh tranh.
Composite tariff: Thu gp
Xem compound tariff.
Composition of trade: Cu thnh thng mi
Thng l phn tch thng k thng mi ca mt nc v cc nhm sn phm ch ra loi hng
ho hay dch v no nc xut khu hay nhp khu t mt nc no .
Compound tariff: Thu gp
Thu sut nh ln mt sn phm gm hai phn. Phn th nht l thu tr gi th hin phn
trm tr gi sn phm. Phn th hai l thu sut c nh th hin lng tin ng vi mt n
v sn phm khng k tr gi ca sn phm . Mt v d gi nh l mi chic a CD chu
thu c nh l 1 -la cng vi thu tr gi l 10%.
Comprehensiveness: Tnh ton din

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Mt nguyn tc do cc nh lnh o APEC a ra nhn mnh rng cam kt thng mi v u
t m v t do vo nm 2010/2020 s p dng trong thi hn nh cho mi lnh vc v bi
b mi tr ngi. Nguyn tc ny cho php mt s linh hot v thi gian t do ho trong nhng
khu vc khc nhau ca nn kinh t. Xem thm Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.
Concerted liberalisation action: Hnh ng t do ho ho hp
i khi cng c gi l ch ngha n phng ho hp. Phng thc c bn ca cc nc
APEC t c mc tiu thng mi v u t m v t do vo nm 2010/2020 nh nu
trong Tuyn b Bogor. Trong khi t do ho WTO da trn yu cu v cho cam kt, ti APEC
cc thnh vin s t do ho thng mi v u t ca mnh trn c s c s tin b ng u
gia cc nc thng qua tnh tng ng v mi lnh vc u c a vo t do ho nh
nguyn tc ton din. Xem thm APEC, collective action v Osaka Action Agenda.
Concession: u i
Thut ng s dng trong WTO. l vic gim thu quan hoc loi b tr ngi i vi thng
mi dch v, thng thng theo yu cu ca mt bn khc. Trong ngha hp hn, n c th ch
l rng buc mt mt thu no . Mt vi nh bnh lun cho rng thut ng ny nn c thay
bng cam kt trnh cm tng rng cc nc phi hy sinh do vic gim thu sut v t do
ho thng mi l mt ci gi phi tr ca nn kinh t. GATS dng t cam kt. Xem thm
requests and offers, schedules of commitments on services v schedules of concessions.
Conditional most-favoured-nation treatment: i ng ti hu quc c iu kin
Dnh i ng ti hu quc cn c vo mt s iu kin m nc c hng phi p ng. V
d trong trng hp Hip nh Mua sm ca chnh ph trong WTO, MFN i vi mua sm ca
chnh ph ch dnh cho cc thnh vin ca Hip nh. Do quy ch thnh vin ca mt hip
nh c th l mt iu kin. iu ny i khi c gi l ti hu quc vi iu kin cng tham
gia mt hip nh. Cng c nhng trng hp khi mt nc quy nh dnh MFN cho mt nc
khc ch khi mt s iu kin khng lin quan n thng mi c p ng. Tnh hung
ny sinh khi Quc hi Hoa K thng qua Lut Jackson-Vanik sa i Lut Thng mi 1974
vn hn ch vic dnh MFN cho cc nc thi hnh chnh sch di dn t do. Lut p dng
chng Lin X v cng c Hoa K dng trong vn nhn quyn ti Trung Quc. D nhin,
Hoa K khng c ngha v gia hn MFN cho Trung Quc v nc ny cha l thnh vin ca
WTO.
Conditional offers: Cho cam kt c iu kin
Cho cam kt a ra trong m phn thng mi hoc pha bn kia s i li cho cam kt
tr gi tng ng hoc coi nh cho cam kt tng ng vi nhng cho cam kt c.
Cho cam kt c iu kin c th rt li hoc sa i bt k lc no cho n khi t c cch
gii quyt chung.
Conduct: Hnh vi
Trong chnh sch cnh tranh, l cch c x ca mt hng trn th trng, nht l i vi bin
php cnh tranh ang p dng hay lut chng c quyn.
Conference on International Economic Cooperation: Hi ngh v Hp tc kinh t quc t
Do Chnh ph Php triu tp t 12/1975 n 6/1977 nhm tho lun gia cc nc pht trin v
cc nc ang pht trin v cc vn kinh t quc t, bao gm c nng lng, gi nguyn
liu, pht trin v ti chnh. Mt s ngi ni rng y thc s l khi u ca i thoi Bc-
Nam. Mc d Php c nhiu li khen v sng kin ny, nhng Hi ngh khng t c
mt kt qu c th no.
Conformity assessment: nh gi s ph hp
Cng vi nhng th khc, bao gm cc th tc ly mu, th nghim v kim tra; nh gi,
xc minh v m bo v s ph hp; v ng k, u thc v chp nhn. Hip nh v cc Hng

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ro k thut i vi thng mi ca WTO t ra Lut Chun b, thng qua v p dng cc tiu
chun cho cc c quan chnh ph v phi chnh ph cn c nh hnh v s dng cc quy tc
k thut. Hip nh yu cu cc th tc xc nh tnh ph hp ca sn phm vi cc tiu chun
quc gia phi cng bng v bnh ng, c bit l khi lin quan n sn phm ni a v sn
phm nhp khu c tnh cnh tranh. Xem thm International Electrotechnical Commission v
International Organisation for Standardisation.
Consensus: Nht tr
Phng php thng thng ra quyt nh WTO. Cng c phng php biu quyt, nhng
biu quyt nh vy rt him hoc ch tin hnh khi khng t c nht tr. Quyt nh nht tr
lm gim phm vi tranh chp do cch hiu khc nhau v cc quy nh. Tuy nhin vic t c
nht tr s ko di thi gian m phn v c th gy chm tr bi nhng bn c tnh tr hon.
Xem thm convoy problem v decision-making in the WTO.
Conservative social welfare function: Chc nng phc li x hi bo th
Mt trong nhng yu t tc ng n vic chnh ph xem xt chnh sch t do ho thng mi
ca mnh, do Max Corden vch ra ln u tin (1974). ng ni, theo mt cch ni n gin,
rng cc chnh ph cm thy trong vic phn phi thu nhp, bt k s gim tuyt i cc khon
thu nhp thc t no cng u nn trnh. Ni cch khc, vic tng thu nhp t c ngha, cn
vic gim thu nhp li c tc ng ln. Chc nng phc li x hi bo th do gii thch mt
phn ti sao cc chnh ph i khi li thn trng trong vic gim thu hoc d b cc bin php
thng mi c th nh hng tiu cc n s hot ng ca cc ngnh ang hot ng.
Constructed value: Tr gi cu thnh
Mt phng php s dng trong Hip nh v Thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu
quan v thng mi 1994, thng c gi l Hip nh Chng ph gi, tnh gi thnh sn
xut ca mt sn phm nc xut khu. Phng php ny ch c dng nu khng c gi
xut khu hoc nu gi xut khu b xem l khng tin cy do c nghi ng v tnh gi si tay.
Thng khng s dng cho cc nn kinh t th trng.
Consular formalities: Th tc lnh s
Yu cu hng xut khu hng ho n mt s nc phi c xc nhn ca i din lnh s ca
nc nhp khu vo ho n, giy chng nhn xut x, bn xp hng xung tu v cc chng t
khc. Vic xc nhn phi tr mt khon ph thng tng ng vi tr gi l hng. Th l ph v
th tc cng nh s chm tr quan liu thng tr thnh yu t cn tr trong quan h thng
mi quc t. Thm vo , khi lng thng mi tng ln lm th tc ny tr nn phi thc t.
a s cc nc nay b th tc lnh s, ti mt s nc khc th tc ny tr nn li thi.
Xem thm preshipment inspection.
Consultation: Tham vn
Giai on u trong th tc gii quyt tranh chp WTO nhm gii quyt vn trn tinh thn
hp tc, i khi thng qua trung gian ho gii ca mt bn khng lin quan. Bn cht tm hiu
s vic ca tham vn gia cc bn thng dn n mt gii php chung. Khi khng t c
gii php thng qua tham vn, giai on tip theo hu nh chc chn s l vic thnh lp ban
hi thm gii quyt tranh chp. Xem thm WTO understanding on dispute settlement.
Consultative Group of Eighteen: Nhm t vn 18
Mt c ch khng chnh thc trong GATT, lp ra ngy 11/7/1975 vi 18 thnh vin i din
ch yu cho cc nc pht trin v ang pht trin. Thot u, nhm ny do mt trong cc
thnh vin lm ch tch, nhng nm 1979 Tng Gim c GATT c giao lm vic ny. CG-
18, nh cch nhm ny c gi, nhm h tr cc thnh vin GATT thc hin trch nhim ca
mnh thng qua vic tho lun trc cc vn thng mi c th c kh khn. Nhm ny
khng c chc nng ra quyt nh. Cc thnh vin c th xoay vng, nhng trn thc t t c s
thay i sau khi s c ban u c nht tr. Nhm CG-18 tm nh ch trong Vng

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Uruguay v khng c ti lp li, nhng vn c nhng li ku gi lp nn mt t chc tng
t trong WTO.
Consumer subsidy equivalent: H tr ngi tiu dng tng ng vi tr cp
Thng vit tt l CSE. Vi mt mt hng nng nghip, CSE c nh ngha l tng s tin
m khch hng c tr n b do nh hng ca vic bi b cc chng trnh h tr nng
nghip. c tnh bng phn trm, l t s ca tng tr gi cc khon khch hng nhn c
vi tng chi ph ca khch hng cho sn phm. Khi khch hng nhn c h tr th CSE l
dng. Khi n m tc l khch hng b nh thu. Xem thm producer subsidy equivalent.
Contact points: im tip xc
Xem enquiry point.
Contestability of markets: Tnh cnh tranh ca th trng
Xem international contestability of markets.
Contingent multilateralism: a phng ngu nhin
Thut ng ca Hoa K cho rng cn p dng hnh ng a phng bt c khi no c th nng
cao mc m ca th trng, nhng i khi t do ho mang tnh u i di dng hip nh t do
thng mi v hnh ng n phng li tt hn. Xem thm unilateralism.
Contingent protection: Bo h t xut
C cu bo h, cng gi l c cu phng v thng mi, hp php theo cc hip nh WTO v
c th s dng p li nh hng ca ph gi, tr cp v s tng t bin nhp khu gy
thit hi cho cng nghip ni a. Nhng c cu nh vy bao gm c cc bin php chng ph
gi, thu i khng v bin php t v.
Continuation clause: iu khon tip tc
Mt iu khon trong iu 20 ca Hip nh v Nng nghip WTO ku gi khi phc m
phn a phng v nng nghip mt nm trc khi kt thc giai on thc hin nht tr. Cc
cuc m phn mi do s bt u vo 1/1/2000. iu ny m bo rng qu trnh ci cch
s tip tc v mc tiu di hn ca vic gim bt cc h tr v bo h vn c duy tr. Cc
cuc m phn c khi phc s tnh n (a) kinh nghim thc hin cc cam kt gim thu
cho n thi im , (b) nh hng ca cc cam kt gim thu ln thng mi th gii trong
nng nghip, cc vn phi thng mi, i x c bit v i x khc bit vi cc nc ang
pht trin, (c) mc tiu thnh lp mt h thng thng mi cng bng v mang tnh th trng,
v (d) cc mc tiu khc cn t c cc mc tiu di hn. Xem thm WTO built-in
agenda.
Contraband: Hng lu
Ch hng ho trung lp trong thi gian chin tranh c kh nng c s dng tr gip cho
cc hot ng qun s ca k th. Cc quy tc lin quan n hng lu thng rt l linh hot v
ph thuc vo s cch hiu ti ch, nhng theo nguyn tc th da vo s ngn cn hng ho
c xc nhn l hng ho trong thi k ho bnh th s cho php tip tc, nhng nu l vt liu
chin tranh th s phi dng li. Vic son tho v kim sot cc nguyn tc v hng lu thng
xuyn gp kh khn bi l c nhiu hng ho v gia dng c kh nng hoc l hng dn
dng hoc l hng qun s. Theo cch ni ph bin, hng lu thng c s dng khi thut
ng bun lu tr nn ph hp hn. Xem thm dual-use exports.
Contracting party: Bn k kt
Thut ng chnh thc ch cc nc thnh vin GATT. Khi cc bn k kt hot ng cng nhau
thng qua mt quyt nh, cc vn bn GATT ch r bng ch vit hoa (the
CONTRACTING PARTY). Cc bn k kt ca GATT hin nay l cc thnh vin WTO.
Conventional tariff: Thu quan quy c

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Thu quan m hu ht hay tt c cc mc thu l kt qu ca cc cuc m phn theo cc cng
c hay hip c quc t. Xem thm maximum-minimum tariff.
Conventional wisdom: S thng thi truyn thng
Mt cm t do J. K. Galbraith a ra (1981) miu t "c tin m bt k lc no cng c th
c nhng b c t ph a ra mt cch thng xuyn, trang trng v thiu suy ngh". ng
coi cu ni ny va nh tn thnh va nh ma mai. Xem thm QWERTY principle v vestigial
thought.
Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conference: Cng c v Lut Thc hin i
vi cc Hi ngh Tu ch hng
Ngi ta thng bit n nhiu hn l Lut Tu ch hng ca UNCTAD. L mt hip nh lin
chnh ph n lc nht t c vo nm 1987 di s bo h ca UNCTAD nhm tng t l
hng ho c chuyn ch trn cc tu ca cc nc ang pht trin ci thin cn cn thanh
ton ca nc h. Lut ny thc hin theo nguyn tc t l 40-40-20 mc d khng c c th
ho trong Cng c, s phn chia mt cch khng chnh thc 40% cho thng mi tuyn ng
bin ca nc nhp khu, 40% cho nc xut khu v 20% cho tuyn ng bin ca nc th
ba. Cc nc thnh vin ca Lut tu i bin kh c th t c nhng con s ny do tnh thc
tin thng mi v chiu hng thng mi ang thay i. Xem thm MFN exemptions.
Convention on International Civil Aviation: Cng c Hng khng Dn dng Quc t
Xem Chicago Convention.
Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora:
Cng c Thng mi Quc t i vi cc loi ng thc vt hoang d b e do tuyt chng
Xem CITES.
Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the illicit Import, Export and
Transfer of Ownership of Culture Property: Cng c v cc bin php cm v ngn cn
xut khu, nhp khu, v chuyn i tri php quyn s hu ca sn phm vn ho
Mt cng c ca UNESCO c thng qua nm 1970. Cc nc tham gia quy nh cc loi
ti sn tn gio hoc phi tn gio ng vai tr quan trng i vi kho c hc, thi k tin s,
lch s, vn hc, ngh thut hay khoa hc. Cc nc phn i xut khu, nhp khu, chuyn i
bt hp php quyn s hu ti sn vn ho. Xut khu ti sn vn ho hp php phi c tun
theo mt h thng chng nhn.
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of
Other States: Cng c v gii quyt tranh chp u t gia cc quc gia v cc kiu dn
ca cc quc gia khc.
Xem ICSID.
Convoy Problem: Vn i hnh on tu
Vn ny ny sinh trong cc cuc m phn thng mi a phng khi cc bn tham gia
sn sng tin ln li phi i mt bn cn thiu chun b hoc cha mun thc hin. Khi bn
chm tr nht, ging nh con tu chm nht trong i hnh, s quyt nh ton b tin trnh.
Mt s ngi thch so snh vi hnh tng n ngng bay hnh ch V. Tuy nhin khi quan st
hnh nh , ngi ta s c kt lun rng khng c chng c r rt l con ngng u n s
quyt nh tc ca nhng con bay chm hn. Cc nh iu hc c th khng ng . Xem
thm foot dragger v consensus.
Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action: Tuyn b Copenhagen v Chng
trnh Hnh ng
Mt lot cc cam kt bt buc ca 117 nc tham d Hi ngh Thng nh th gii v Pht
trin X hi vo thng 3/1995 Copenhagen. Mt s cc iu khon ca tuyn b ny t

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ch ti vai tr ca thng mi v u t trong vic thc y s pht trin x hi v c s lin
quan n nhng tranh lun v thng mi v tiu chun lao ng.
Copyright: Bn quyn
c quyn c lm mt s vic nht nh vi mt tc phm gc, bao gm quyn sn xut li,
ti xut bn, trnh din tc phm trc cng chng... v to ra s ph hp ca chng. Bn quyn
khng bo v ni dung ca cc tc phm nhng li bo v xut x ca tc phm. Trong cc tc
phm vn hc, kch, m nhc, ngh thut, ni chung bn quyn thng ko di ht cuc i ca
tc gi cng thm 50 nm na. Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Interllectual
Property Right, Berne Convention, interllectual property v Universal Copyright Convention.
Core labour standard: Tiu chun lao ng c bn
Mt khi nim lin quan n s tranh lun liu khi no th thng mi v tiu chun lao ng
c a vo chng trnh lm vic ca cc t chc lin quan n xc tin thng mi quc t.
OECD (1995b) cho rng cc tiu chun lao ng phi tnh n (a) m phn tp th v quyn
t do lp hip hi, (b) xa b cc hnh thc khai thc lao ng tr em, (c) cm lao ng cng
bc di hnh thc lao ng n l hay bt buc, (d) khng phn bit i x i vi ngi lm
vic, chng hn nh quyn c tn trng v i x bnh ng i vi tt c cng nhn. Tt c
tiu chun ni trn u l tiu chun nhn quyn c bn, nhng cha c cng c quc t tp
hp chng theo cch ny. Tiu chun lao ng c bn c nh ngha trong T chc Lao ng
th gii v cc cng c v khuyn ngh ca Lin hp quc. Mt s coi quyn lm vic di
nhng iu kin lm vic c th c chp nhn (tiu chun v an ton ni lm vic v sc
kho ti thiu, mc lng ti thiu, s gi lm vic ti a trong mt tun, ...) cng l mt tiu
chun c bn, mt quan im c t ra ti Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh ca Hoa k. iu
ny cn gy tranh ci nhiu hn na. Xem thm pauper-labour argument, race-to-the-bottom
argument, social clause, social dumping, social labelling v social subsidies.
Core-periphery thesis: Thuyt ht nhn v ngoi vi
Mt hc thuyt ca cc quan h kinh t quc t pht trin mnh t nhng nm 1950 n nhng
nm 1980. N tha nhn rng h thng kinh t quc t bao gm mt ht nhn kinh t pht trin
(cc nc pht trin) v ngoi vi (cc nc ang pht trin). N cng gi nh rng ngoi vi ph
thuc vo ht nhn trong c hai vn cn bn nh: th trng tiu th sn phm, c bit l
nhng hng ho s cp v b quyt. Thuyt ny nng ng ch n gi nh v lu di ngoi vi
s t lp nhng ht nhn mi. Gilpin (1987) a ra nhn nh li th ban u ca ht nhn so
vi ngoi vi chnh l tnh vt tri v mt k thut v t chc nhng v lu di tnh cnh tranh
ny li to ra nhng c hi mi cho ngoi vi khi ngoi vi c sc cnh tranh hn. Gilpin cng
lu rng khi thuyt ny ln u tin xut hin vo th k 19, ngi ta cho rng ht nhn s
pht trin ngoi vi. Nhng hin nay chnh ht nhn li ngn cn s pht trin ca ngoi vi. Xem
thm dependency theory v North-South dialogue.
Corn Laws: Lut v ng cc
Cc b lut c ban hnh ln u tin Anh vo th k 20 bo v sn xut nng nghip.
Cc lut ny b bc b vo nm 1846. Vic bc b cc lut ny cng vi vic bc b Lut Hng
hi vo nm 1849 nh du thng li ca thng mi t do v l s khi u ca mt c ch
t do to nn chnh sch thng mi ca Anh cho 50 nm tip theo. iu cng c ngha l
chp nhn "khoa hc" kinh t nh l mt cng c lp chnh sch. Xem thm Cobden-
Chevalier Treaty.
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: Hi ng Tng tr Kinh t
Thng c bit n vi tn Comecon. c thnh lp vo thng 1/1949 vi cc thnh vin l
Bulgaria, Tip-khc, Hungary, Ba-lan, Romania v Lin bang Nga. Sau kt np thm Cuba,
Cng ho Dn ch c, Mng-c v Vit Nam. Anbania l thnh vin ca Hi ng ny vo
thi gian 1949-1961. Nam-t l mt thnh vin d thnh v ngoi ra cn c mt s quan st
vin. Mc ch ca Comecon l thc y pht trin kinh t k hoch ca cc nc Thnh vin,

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y nhanh tin b kinh t v k thut, tng mc cng nghip ha cc nc thnh vin c
nn cng nghip km pht trin hn, khng ngng tng nng sut lao ng v thnh vng lu
di cho nhn dn cc nc thnh vin. Comecon chnh thc gii th vo nm 1991. Xem thm
economies in transition.
Council for Trade in Goods: Hi ng v Thng mi hng ha
U ban gim st vic hot ng ca 13 hip nh a phng ca WTO iu tit thng mi
hng ha nm trong Ph lc 1 ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th
gii. Trong s hip nh quan trng nht l GATT. Tt c cc thnh vin ca WTO mc
nhin tr thnh thnh vin ca Hi ng ny. Cc nc ny gp nhau mi thng mt ln.
Council for Trade in Services: Hi ng v Thng mi dch v
U ban gim st GATS (Hip nh chung v Thng mi dch v). Tt c cc nc thnh vin
ca WTO ng nhin tr thnh thnh vin ca Hi ng ny. Cc thnh vin gp nhau mi
thng mt ln.
Council for TRIPS: Hi ng v Quyn S hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi
U ban gim st Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi (TRIPS). Vai tr
ca n l gim st hot ng ca Hip nh v tun th Hip nh ca cc nc thnh vin. Tt
c cc nc thnh vin WTO ng nhin tr thnh thnh vin ca U ban ny.
Counterfeiting: Lm hng gi
Vic sn xut bt hp php cc sn phm, nhi li sn phm tht c bn di mt nhn
hiu thng mi. Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Interllectual Property
Rights, intellectual property v intellectual property rights infringements.
Countertrade: Thng mi i ng
Mt dng tinh vi hn v i khi kh phc tp ca thng mi hng i hng. V d, mt nc
c th xut khu than v i ly thit b khai thc m. Khng c tin trao tay trong thng v
ny. Ngi mua sau s tm cch bn trn th trng th ba c thanh ton bng tin hay
i ly mt sn phm khc. Hng ha c bun bn theo cch ny thng c nh gi
theo ng tin ca mt nc th ba, v d dng franc Php. Thng mi i ng ni chung l
mt cch thc khng hu hiu tin hnh thng mi, nhng i khi hnh thc ny hp dn
cc nc thiu ngoi t. Xem thm compensation trade.
Countervailing duties: Thu i khng
Loi thu c bit nh vo hng nhp khu b li vic cc nh sn xut v xut khu c
hng t tr cp ca chnh ph. iu khon VI ca GATT v Hip nh ca WTO v Tr cp
v cc bin php i khng t ra cc quy nh v vic p dng cc loi thu ny. Cc loi thu
i khng c th c s dng di mt s iu kin hn ch v khi c thit hi vt cht gy ra
cho ngnh sn xut trong nc. Xem thm cc bin php chng ph gi nhm vo cc hnh
ng ca cc cng ty hn l ca cc chnh ph.
Creative minilateralism: Ch ngha tiu phng sng to
Mt chin lc thng mi m ca th trng Hoa K do Bayard v Elliott a ra nm 1994.
Chin lc ny lin quan n (a) m thoi song phng, nu cn thit c s h tr ca Khon
301 hoc e do hnh ng chng c quyn, (b) kh nng phn tch mnh hn nh gi cc
hn ch tip cn v c cu, v (c) vic s dng cc khu vc c cc quyn li chung trn cc th
trng ch. Chin lc ny c th c kt hp vi chin dch qung co v hp tc k thut
i vi cc nc ang pht trin cho php cc nc ny xy dng v thc hin cc h thng
quy ch c hiu qu. Ngi ta c th phi dng li suy ngh ti sao sau 20 nm k t khi
Khon 301c a ra, mt cch thc c mi ngi chp nhn nh vy vn nn c coi l
mi l. Xem thm minilateralism.
Crisis cartel: Cartel gm cc cng ty b khng hong

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Hay cn gi l cartel trong trng hp khn cp, cartel hp l ha, cartel trong thi k suy
thoi, v.v... y l hnh thc cng tc trong mt ngnh trong trng hp c bit theo lut
chng c quyn. iu kin thnh lp mt cartel l mt ngnh b suy thoi lu di v
nghim trng, ha hn em li hiu qu cho li ch chung m cc cch khc khng em li
c. Xem thm cartel v failing-firm doctrine.
Cross-border investment: u t qua bin gii
Xem foreign direct investment
Cross-border trade: Thng mi qua bin gii
S di chuyn ca hng ha t mt lnh th hi quan ca mt nc sang lnh th hi quan ca
mt nc khc. i vi cc thnh vin ca WTO, GATT l mt h thng lut l chnh iu
tit thng mi gia cc bn. Cc nc khc thng tin hnh thng mi theo hip nh
thng mi song phng. Xem thm border trade.
Cross-border Trade in Services: Thng mi dch v qua bin gii
c nh ngha trong GATS l thng mi m ngi sn xut v ngi tiu dng khng cn
phi gp nhau thc hin mt giao dch. Thng thng, cc loi hnh dch v ny c thc
hin bng in t. Trong NAFTA, nh ngha ny rng hn, dch v c bao gm mua bn
dch v, tip cn h thng phn phi, s hin din ca cc nh cung cp dch v ca mt bn
khc v t cc khi cn thit cho thng mi dch v. Xem thm commercial presence, modes
of services delivery v trade in services.
Cross-compensation: n b cho
C th xy ra trong gii quyt tranh chp v d khi mt nc thnh vin WTO b coi l vi phm
mt cam kt no khng rt li cc bin php hoc cc hnh ng sai phm, nhng thay vo
li chp nhn n b trong mt lnh vc no khc ca thng mi.
Cross-retaliation: Tr a cho
Mt tuyn b rng, v d trong mt s trng hp nht nh khi quyn li ca mt nc thnh
vin WTO theo mt hip nh no b xm phm, nc thnh vin c th s tr a li
nc thnh vin vi phm di mt hip nh khc. Bn ghi nh v Gii quyt tranh chp ca
WTO lm cho kh nng ny tr thnh hin thc.
Crow-bar theory of trade policy: L thuyt n by ca chnh sch thng mi
Xem agressive reciprocity.
Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act: Lut v on kt dn ch v
t do ca Cuba
Xem Helm-Burton legislation.
Cultural specificity: c tnh vn ha
Mt thut ng miu t c im v vn ha ca mi nc gip phn bit nc ny vi cc nc
khc. Khng c tranh ci g v vn ny nhng n c th gy tranh ci trong ng cnh ca
chnh sch thng mi khi cc nc tm kim cc quy nh v thng mi bo v hoc tng
cng nhng c tnh vn ha ca h. Nhiu ngi nghi ng rng iu ny v hnh chung em
li cho cc nc ny quyn p dng cc bin php hn ch nhp khu, ch yu l cho cc
nguyn nhn v vn ha, nhng trn thc t l nhm cc mc ch khc. V d, mt nc
mun bo h sn xut truyn thng v lc lng lao ng bng cch ny mc du cng ngh
hin i c th sn xut ra cc sn phm ging ht nh vy vi sc cnh tranh cao hn. Xem
thm audiovisual services in the Urugoay Round, local content rules in broacasting v trade
and culture.
Cumulative assessment of dumping: nh gi ph gi cng gp

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Vic iu tra do nc nhp khu tin hnh xem xt vic mt s nc cng lc ph gi cng
mt sn phm. Theo quy nh ca WTO vic nh gi nh th ch c php nu (a) bin
ph gi ca mi nc vt qu mc ti thiu v hng nhp khu t mi nc khng phi l
khng ng k, v (b) nh gi trong iu kin cnh tranh gia hng nhp khu v hng ni
a. Xem thm anti-dumping measures v de minimis dumping.
Cumulative rules of origin: Quy tc xut x gp
Mt h thng quy ch xut x cho php cc sn phm c qu trnh sn xut hoc chuyn i
din ra hai nc hay nc khc nhau c quyn tip cn th trng nc nhp khu. i khi
c ch GSP s dng cng c ny dnh u i cho cc nc ang pht trin v nu khng t
cc nc ang pht trin khng th p ng c tiu chun xut x tip cn th trng.
Cumulative subsidies: Tr cp gp
Hip nh ca WTO v Tr cp v thu i khng quy nh rng nu hng nhp khu ca hn
mt nc ang l i tng iu tra p dng thu i khng, cc c quan c thm quyn c
th nh gi nh hng gp ca vic tr cp ny. Tuy nhin, cc c quan ch c quyn iu tra
nu (a) mc tr cp ln hn mc tr cp gii hn v (b) nu nh gi c thc hin trong
iu kin cnh tranh trn th trng nhp khu.
Current access tariff quotas: Hn ngch thu quan theo mc m ca hin hnh
M t cc c hi m ca th trng cho hng nng sn khi cc bin php phi thu quan c
chuyn thnh thu quan. Mt hnh thc c tho lun ti Vng Urugoay, ti mc m
ca th trng i vi mt sn phm no c xc nh qua vic so snh mc nhp khu
trong thi k c s vi mc tiu th. Mc m ca hin thi c thng qua nhm m bo
nhp khu chim t nht 5% tiu th ni a c p dng trong thi k c s 1986-1988. Xem
thm Agreement on Agriculture v minimum access tariff quotas.
Current account: Ti khon vng lai
Xem balance of payment.
Current domestic value: Tr gi hng ni hin hnh
Mt phng php nh gi tr hng nhp khu xc nh thu hi quan. Gi ca hng ho
tnh thu l mc gi m hng ho c th so snh c vi cc hng ho nhp khu c bn ra
trong iu kin hon ton cnh tranh trn th trng ni a ca nc m t hng ho c
xut khu. Phng php ny c thay th bng cc th tc nm trong Hip nh v vic thc
hin iu khon VII (nh gi hi quan) ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v thng mi.
Xem customs valuation.
Customs Convention on Temporary Admission: Cng c hi quan v vic chp nhn tm
thi
Xem Istanbul convention.
Customs Cooperation Council: Hi ng Hp tc Hi quan
Xem World Customs Organosation.
Customs duties: Thu hi quan
Thu nh ti ca khu vo cc hng ho nhp khu hoc i khi vo hng ho xut khu. Thu
ny c ghi r trong danh mc thu quan quc gia. Vic nh thu da vo gi tr hng ho
nh thu theo tr gi v i khi c tnh nh gi trn mt n v theo dng thu c nh. Xem
thm multi-column tariff v single-column tariff.
Custom territory: Lnh th hi quan
Theo cc quy nh ca T chc Thng mi th gii th l bt k vng lnh th no c thu
quan v cc iu l khc v thng mi ring ca vng kim sot vic bun bn ca n

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vi cc vng lnh th khc. Mt lnh th hi quan khng cn thit phi l mt nh nc c ch
quyn. Xem thm customs union.
Customs union: Lin minh hi quan
Mt khu vc gm c hai hay nhiu nn kinh t hoc lnh th hi quan ring bit, c quy nh
loi b mi thu kho v i khi c nhng vt cn ngn tr vic m rng thng mi gia
chng. Cc thnh vin lp nn khu vc sau s p dng mt loi thu i ngoi chung. Xem
thm common market v free-trade area.
Customs valuation: nh gi hi quan
Cc bin php do cc c quan hi quan s dng nh gi i vi hng nhp khu nhm mc
ch tnh thu nhp khu ng. Hip nh v vic thc hin iu VII (nh gi hi quan) ca
Hip nh chung v thu quan v Thng mi nhm mc ch quy nh mt h thng cng
bng, thng nht v trung lp nh gi cc hng ho, ngn nga vic s dng cc gi tr hi
quan gi hoc ty tin. Cc iu khon ca bn Hip nh rt chi tit, nhng quy tc c bn l
tr gi tnh thu hng ho nhp khu gia cc bn khng c lin quan th s l tr gi giao dch,
c ngha l gi c thanh ton thc t cho hng ho khi bn hng xut khu sang nc nhp
khu. Cc vn ti, ph ng gi, hoa hng, cc hng ha v dch v c cung cp min ph
cho ngi mua v mt vi cc chi ph khc c th c b sung vo tr gi tnh thu. Hip nh
cng quy nh nhng bin php khng c php s dng tnh tr gi. Cc bin php bao
gm th d: tr gi tnh thu ti thiu, gi hng ho trn th trng ni a ca nc xut khu,
gi bn cc hng ho c sn xut ti nc nhp khu, mt h thng cung cp cho hai gi tr
cao hn, ... Nu c s nghi ng rng gi tr giao dch l gi th cc c quan hi quan c th
quyt nh gi thng qua 5 s la chn hin c sau: (a) gi tr ca hng ho ging ht, (b) gi
tr ca hng ho tng t, (c) gi nhp khu ca cc hng ho ging ht hoc tng t khu tr
cc chi ph, (d) gi tr tnh ton, (e) nu khng bin php no trong s nhng bin php ny
dng c th c th s dng cc cch hp l. Cc yu t b sung c p dng ni m nh
xut khu v nh nhp khu l cc thc th c lin quan.
Customs valuation agreement: Hip nh nh gi hi quan
Xem Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of the General Agreement on tariffs and
trade 1994 v customs valuation.
Cyclical dumping: Ph gi tun hon
Xem dumping.

D' Amato legislation: Lut D' Amato

Lut trng pht Iran v Libya ca Hoa K c thng qua ngy 5/8/1996. Mc tiu ca lut l
(a) khng cho Iran v Libya c ngun thu ti tr cho hot ng khng b quc t, (b) hn
ch giao lu ngun lc cn thit mua v kh git ngi hng lot v (c) gy p lc buc
Libya phi tun th mt lot cc ngh quyt ca Lin hp quc. Lut cho php Tng thng Hoa
K c quyn p t lnh trng pht i vi cc cng ty nc ngoi u t mi vo lnh vc
khai thc du m Iran v Libya vi s vn trn 40 triu USD. Lnh trng pht ca Hoa K c
th c thc hin di cc hnh thc nh t chi cp giy php xut khu, cm cc t chc ti
chnh Hoa K cho vay hoc cp tn dng, cm khng c hng quy ch i l chnh i vi
cc cng c n ca chnh ph Hoa K, cm khng c tham gia u thu mua sm ca chnh
ph Hoa K v cm cc cng ty vi phm c xut khu hng vo Hoa K.
Data protection in trade in services: Bo v d liu trong thng mi dch v

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GATS quy nh cc iu khon m bo b mt h s v d liu. iu III ph cho php cc
nc thnh vin khng phi thc hin quy nh cng khai nu nhn thy vic tit l thng tin
gy cn tr cho vic thc thi php lut, v nu khng s lm tn hi n quyn li cng cng
hoc gy hi n li ch thng mi chnh ng ca cc cng ty nh nc v t nhn. iu IX
(Thc tin kinh doanh) ch yu cu cc nc thnh vin phi cung cp nhng thng tin khng
b mt c cng b cng khai lin quan n thc tin hot ng kinh doanh phn cnh tranh.
Cc thng tin khc c th c cung cp khi nc yu cu cung cp thng tin cam kt bo m
b mt. iu XIV (Nhng ngoi l chung) cho php khng phi thc hin cc ngha v theo
Hip nh bo v s b mt d liu, ti liu v h s c nhn.
Davignon Plan: K hoch Davignon
K hoch c Cng ng Kinh t Chu u thng qua vo nm 1978 tip thm sc mnh
cho ngnh cng nghip st thp ca Cng ng. Mc tiu ngn hn ca k hoch l tng kh
nng sn xut. V di hn k hoch nhm ci t c cu v hp l ho ngnh cng nghip thp.
Vin tr ca nh nc v hn ch nhp khu l nhng yu t quan trng t c cc mc
tiu theo k hoch. K hoch ny ly tn ca Viscount Etienne Davignon, ngi m sau ny l
y vin Hi ng chu u v cc vn Cng nghip v Th trng trong khi. Xem thm
Multilateral Steel Agreement.
Decision: Quyt nh
Xem European Community legislation.
Decision in Favour of Least-Developed Countries: Quyt nh ng h cc nc chm pht
trin
Xem least-developed countries.
Decision-making in the WTO: Ra quyt nh trong WTO
Trong hu ht cc trng hp, quyt nh trong WTO da trn tha thun nht tr ca tt c cc
nc thnh vin. Tuy nhin c quy nh c th v vic b phiu nu cc nc thnh vin khng
th t c s nht tr. Mt bin php ch c thng qua nu nh c s ng ca a s cc
nc thnh vin, nhng vi mi vn khc th yu cu v t l phiu thun cng khc nhau.
Vic din gii cc hip nh WTO tr cc hip nh nhiu bn phi c 2/3 s nc thnh vin
ng h trong Hi ngh B trng WTO hoc trong i hi ng, v t l ny cng c p
dng trong trng hp min tr. Mi mt thnh vin WTO c mt phiu. Cng ng Chu u
c s phiu bu ngang bng vi tng s nc thnh vin ca mnh. Vic din gii cc hip nh
nhiu bn phi tun theo cc quy nh c th trong tng hip nh. Xem thm amendments to
WTO agreements.
Declaration giving effect to the provision of Article XVI.4: Tuyn b iu XVI.4 c hiu
lc
c thng qua vo nm 1960, theo cc thnh vin ca GATT nht tr rng t 1/1/1958 s
ngng tt c cc hnh thc tr cp xut khu, trc tip v gin tip, i vi mt sn phm dn
n gi ca sn phm xut khu thp hn gi ca sn phm tng t ti th trng nhp khu.
Tuyn b ny khng p dng i vi sn phm s cp.
Declaration on the Contribution of the World Trade Organisation to Achieving Greater
Coherence in Global Economic Policymaking: Tuyn b v ng gp ca T chc Thng
mi Th gii trong vic t c mi lin kt cht ch hn trong qa trnh ra chnh sch
kinh t ton cu
l mt trong nhng kt qa ca Hi ngh B trng Marrakesh vo thng 4/1994 khi kt
thc Vng Uruguay. Ni dung chnh ca bn tuyn b l cao vai tr tch cc ca kt qu
vng m phn Uruguay trong vic to dng mi lin kt cht ch hn trong chnh sch kinh t
quc t. Tuyn b ghi nhn rng nhng kh khn xut pht t cc lnh vc khc ngoi lnh vc
thng mi khng th khc phc c nu ch n thun s dng cc bin php thng mi.

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Do vy bn tuyn b ku gi Tng gim c WTO cn phi tho lun thm vi IMF v IBRD
v cc hnh thc hp tc gia ba bn c c mi lin kt cht ch hn trong vic ra
chnh sch kinh t ton cu.
Declaration on the establishment of a new International Economic Order:Tuyn b v
vic Thnh lp mt Trt t Kinh t Quc t mi
Xem New International Economic Order.
Decompilation: S phn tch
Vic nghin cu hoc phn tch mt chng trnh my tnh nhm khm ph tng v cc
nguyn l hot ng. S phn tch thng gn vi vic ti to hoc sn xut sao chp chng
trnh . Lut bn quyn ca mi quc gia c cc quan im khc nhau v tnh php l ca
thc tin sao chp li v chnh v vy vic thc t thc hin cng gy ra nhiu tranh ci. Ta n
Hoa K th cho rng thit k ngc, trong c c vic phn tch li mt chng trnh khm
ph nhng tng v khi nim khng c bo v l c php theo mt s lut tng ng
nh "s dng lnh mnh, th nhng Australia th vic sao chp li c th l vi phm n
quyn ti sn xut bn quyn ca ngi ch s hu.
Decoupage: Tch i
Mt phng php v mt th tc c thng qua trong Vng Kennedy v vic ct gim thu
mt hng ho cht. Vn ny ny sinh v nhu cu tch ring hai loi u i ca Hoa K, mt
l nhm u i do c quan c thm quyn m phn a ra (Lut m rng thng mi 1962) v
hai l nhm u i i hi phi c quc hi thng qua. u i thuc nhm th hai ch yu
tp trung xung quanh ngh th tiu h thng gi bn M v bin php nh gi mt vi loi
ho cht ti ca khu tnh thu hi quan.
Deep intergration: Hi nhp su sc
S kt hp cc h thng chnh sch quc gia ca hai hay nhiu nc m theo truyn thng cc
h thng chnh sch hon ton thuc thm quyn ca chnh ph quc gia. H thng chnh
sch ny bao gm chnh sch cnh tranh, tiu chun k thut, tr cp, chnh sch ti chnh tin
t, cc quy ch v gim st cc t chc ti chnh, cc vn mi trng, mua sm ca chnh
ph v mt s chnh sch khc. Cng ng Chu u l khu vc tin xa nht trong qu trnh hi
nhp su sc v gn y Cng ng Chu u thng qua vic thnh lp mt Th trng thng
nht v thc hin cc bin php ra trong Hip c Maastricht, nhng ngoi ra ANZCERTA
v NAFTA cng l v d v hi nhp su sc trong thi gian hin nay. Ngc li l hnh thc
hi nhp nng th hin trong cc hnh thc hi nhp t khu vc thng mi u i n lin
minh hi quan hoc khu vc thng mi t do, th nhng trong hnh thc hi nhp nng mi
nc thnh vin vn c t do duy tr cc chnh sch khc ca nc mnh. Mt s nh phn
tch cho rng GATT cng thuc loi hi nhp nng. Tt nhin hi nhp nng cng c tc dng
thc y qu trnh hi ho cn i chnh sch, iu ny c chng minh trong h thng
thng mi a phng. Xem thm European Community Single Market, negative intergration
v positive intergration.
De facto GATT membership: T cch thnh vin khng chnh thc ca GATT
Cc nc trc y l thuc a sau khi ginh c c lp c quyn tham gia vo GATT vi t
cch l thnh vn khng chnh thc nu cc nc ny chp thun cam kt tun th cc nguyn
tc ca GATT trong c ch qun l thng mi. Cc nc mi ginh c c lp ch c
chp nhn l thnh vin khng chnh thc ca GATT nu nc thng tr trc y l thnh
vin. WTO khng chp nhn t cch thnh vin khng chnh thc
Deficiency payments: Thanh ton cho s thiu ht
Theo Chnh sch nng nghip chung ca Cng ng Chu u v chnh sch nng nghip ca
Hoa K th thiu ht l s khc nhau gia gi m chnh ph cho rng ngi nng dn ng

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c nhn v gi thc t trn th trng. S thiu ht ny s c b p bi hu bao ca cng
chng hoc ca ngi tiu dng di hnh thc gi cao hn. Xem thm blue box v green box.
Definitive anti-dumping duties: Thu chng ph gi xc nh
Thu chng ph gi p dng sau khi vic iu tra kt thc. Thu chng ph gi ch c
thc hin trong vng 5 nm, tr trng hp trc khi ht hn nc ch nh xem xt li v nhn
thy cn phi tip tc p dng thu chng ph gi. Xem anti-dumping measures v provisional
anti-dumping duties.
Degressivity: Bo h gim dn
Ni chung y l mt nguyn tc bo h phi gim dn theo thi gian. cng l mt vn
kh khn, c bit khi Chnh ph p dng cc bin php t v v bt u qu trnh iu chnh
c cu, lm gim mc bo h ca cc lnh vc ang thc hin bin php t v. Thng
thng cc nc thnh vin thng tip tc bng hn ch nhp khu mc bo h tng t.
DEIP (Dairy Export Incentive Program): Chng trnh khuyn khch xut khu sa
Chng trnh tr cp ca Hoa K ln u tin c lut Nng trang thng qua vo nm 1985,
theo Tp on Tn dng Hng ho tr cp cho nh xut khu sn phm b sa ca Hoa K
nhm gip h c kh nng cnh tranh vi cc nc tin hnh tr cp khc, ch yu l Cng
ng Chu u. Chng trnh khuyn khch xut khu nhm tng cng xut khu thng mi
ch khng nhm mc ch y li cc sn phm b sa ca cc nc khc. Tuy nhin, trn thc
t chng trnh ny khng ch gii hn trong tr cp i khng li chnh sch tr cp ca
chu u. Xem thm United States Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform FAIR Act of
1996, l lut m rng chng trnh ny.
Delocalisation: Di chuyn a im
Thut ng do nhng ngi ch trng m phn v thng mi v tiu chun lao ng s dng.
Trong bi cnh ny di chuyn a im c ngha l mt cng ty quyt nh di chuyn cc
phng tin sn xut t ni c chi ph cao sang ni c chi ph thp hn tit kim chi ph
nhm h tr cho lc lng lao ng v cc iu kin x hi. Xem mc race to the bottom v
workers rights.
De minimis dumping margins: Gii hn ph gi
Thut ng ny m t mc ph gi thp hn 2%, tnh trn gi xut khu ti nc xut x. Gii
hn ny cng p dng cho cc trng hp khi lng nhp khu mt sn phm tng t t mt
nc l khng ng k, t hn 3% tng tr gi nhp khu mt hng . Trong c hai trng hp
trn nc nhp khu khng c p dng bin php chng ph gi.
De minimis imports: Gii hn nhp khu
Thut ng c s dng trong Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi ca
WTO, theo cc iu khon ca Hip nh khng p dng i vi hng ha phi thng mi
vi s lng t ng trong hnh l c nhn hoc c gi trong l hng nh.
De minimis safeguards rule: Gii hn p dng quy tc t v
Bin php t v khng p dng vi mt nc ang pht trin nu tr gi nhp khu ca nc
chim khng qu 3%tng gi tr hng nhp khu ang c xem xt. Quy tc ny ch c p
dng nu tng gi tr hng nhp khu t cc nc ang pht trin c th phn t hn 3% chim
khng qu 9% tng tr gi nhp khu mt hng . Xem Agreement on Safeguards, safeguards
v selectivity
De minimis subsidies: Gii hn tr cp
Hip nh WTO v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng nh ngha tr cp gii hn l tr cp
cha n 1%. Cc c quan tin hnh iu tra nh hng ca tr cp phi dng ngay hot ng
iu tra nu pht hin ra lng tr cp khng qu 1%. Vi nhng nc ang pht trin c tin

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hnh tr cp th gii hn tr cp p dng vi tng nc l 2%. Quy nh ny cng c p dng
trong trng hp tr cp ca cc nc ang pht trin i vi mt sn phm khng vt qu
4% nhng vi mt iu kin l tng tr cp ca tt c cc nc ang pht trin c mc tr cp
di 4% khng c vt qu 9% tng gi tr nhp khu mt hng ti nc tin hnh iu
tra.
Denial of benefits: Chi t quyn li
Cc thnh vin ca Hip nh chung v Thng mi dch v c quyn t chi nhng li ch ca
Hip nh dnh cho mt thnh vin khc nu h chng minh c rng dch v cung cp khng
c xut x t lnh th ca mt nc thnh vin GATS hoc nu nh cng ty cung cp dch v
khng thuc mt quc gia l thnh vin ca GATS. Xem thm non-application.
Dependence theory: Hc thuyt v s ph thuc
Hc thuyt c nhiu nc ng h vo nhng nm 1960, 1970. Theo hc thuyt ny, cc nc
ang pht trin ph thuc c v mt kinh t, chnh tr v x hi vo nhng nhm c quyn lc
cc nc pht trin, c bit l cc tp on xuyn quc gia. Ngy nay ngi ta cho rng hc
thuyt ny khng th a ra c gii thch mt cch tho ng nguyn nhn to nn qu trnh
pht trin v nguyn nhn lm cho cc nc km pht trin. Chnh v vy hc thuyt khng a
ra c c hi la chn chnh sch tho ng cho cc nc ang pht trin. Xem thm core-
periphery thesis.
Deregulation: Ni lng th ch
Mt qu trnh Chnh ph iu chnh quy ch trong cc ngnh cng nghip hoc trong cc lnh
vc ngh nghip, y mnh kh nng cnh tranh v do tng cng hiu qu i vi phn
phi hng ho v dch v. Xem thm privatisation v wider competition policy.
Developing countries and the GATT: Cc nc ang pht trin v GATT
Vo nm 1947, khi m phn v ni dung ca GATT, cc nc pht trin u cho rng Hip
nh nn p dng mt cch cng bng i vi cc nc c trnh pht trin khc nhau. Cng
vo thi gian cc nc ang pht trin phn i mnh m v h cho rng trong qu trnh
t do ho thng mi h khng phi dnh u i cho cc nc khc trn c s hon ton c i
c li v c quyn hng u i hn i vi vic tip cn th trng cc nc pht trin. Cui
cng iu XVIII (Tr gip ca Chnh ph i vi pht trin kinh t) quy nh phi to iu
kin thun li cho cc nc ang pht trin c kh nng duy tr pht trin kinh t khng ngng,
c bit l nhng nc c mc sng thp v nhng nc mi ang trong giai on u ca
qu trnh pht trin. Trong bn ch gii iu khon ny ghi r thut ng mc sng thp c
hiu trong cc hon cnh kinh t bnh thng v khng c nhng iu kin thun li c bit
mang tnh cht tm thi xut pht t cc th trng xut khu hng th v s ch sang th
trng tim nng. Thut ng trong giai on u ca qu trnh pht trin kinh t khng
nhng c dng ch cc nc mi trong giai on khi u pht trin kinh t m cn ch
c nhng nc ang tin hnh cng nghip ho thot ra khi tnh trng qu ph thuc vo
vic sn xut hng th v s ch. iu XVIII cho php cc nc ang pht trin c duy tr
mt c cu thu pht trin cc ngnh cng nghip non tr v c p dng hn ch nh
lng v mc ch cn bng cn cn thanh ton. Vic qun l iu khon ny lun gp kh
khn v cc tiu chun s dng trong iu khon c tnh linh hot cao. Th nht, iu khon
ny cho rng cc nc t bit khi no h c nh gi l mt nc c nn kinh t ang pht
trin v iu khon ny khng quy nh c ch chuyn t a v nc ang pht trin sang a
v nc pht trin. Th hai, thc t p dng iu khon lin quan n pht trin ngnh cng
nghip non tr l rt phc tp. Th ba, khng phi tt c cc tiu ch xc nh hn ch nhp
khu trong cc iu khon v cn cn thanh ton c c nh ngha y . Cc nc c th
p dng hn ch nh lng thp hn so vi mc cn thit (a) chn trc nguy c hoc chn
ng tnh trng sa st nghim trng trong ngun d tr tin t v (b) ngun d tr tin t ca
mt nc thnh vin tng vi tc hp l khi nc ny khng c d tr tin t. Tuy nhin
trong v Tht b Hn Quc, Hn Quc th hin r nh duy tr hn ch v l do cn cn

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thanh ton lu hn nhiu so vi khong thi gian cn thit v mt khch quan. Trn thc t, cc
nc ang pht trin nhn thy iu XVIII khng thc s hu dng i vi cc nc ny nh
h mong i. Ngay c cc nc pht trin cng cho rng iu khon ny khng c g u vit
c. Theo quan im ca mt s nc, kh khn c bn ny sinh trong qu trnh thc hin iu
khon ny l do n da trn hc thuyt thay th hng nhp khu, i ngc li chnh sch kinh
t hng ngoiv hng v xut khu. Cc nh kinh t ch ra rng nu tun theo hc thuyt
thay th hng nhp khu th cc nc s gp phi tnh trng khan him ngoi t v ngun thu t
hng xut khu khng th b p c chi ph nhp khu hng ho c bn. Rt kh thay i
cc iu khon ca GATT v Phin hp R sot ca GATT vo nm 1955 ni chung cng
gi nguyn tnh trng ny. Thc s l cho n trc Vng Kenedy cc nc ang pht trin ni
chung ch ng vai tr th yu trong cc cuc m phn chnh ca GATT. Trong khong thi
gian 1948 - 1963 cc phin m phn ch tp trung vo vn thu quan ch khng bn tm
nhiu vo cc vn mang tnh cht h thng. Mt vi hng ho th v s ch m cc nc
ang pht trin l nhng nc cung cp ln ch phi i mt vi mt vi hng ro cn tr khi
thm nhp vo th trng cc nc pht trin. Tt nhin hng nng sn, hng dt v cc sn
phm nhit i khng nm trong s nhng mt hng ny. Mt khc, c ch yu cu v cho
cam kt m cc nc s dng gim thu rt nhiu mt hng ch to v quy tc v quyn
ca ngi cung cp ch yu chng t rng cc nc ang pht trin c th phn rt nh ti
hu ht cc nc thc cht b loi tr ra khi cc vng m phn v thu trc y. Mc d
cc nc ang pht trin cng n lc kin tr chng minh rng h khng c tham gia vo
h thng thng mi hu chin tranh nh h tng mong i, cc nc ang pht trin ch thc
s tham gia vo h thng thng mi th gii t sau nm 1957 khi ton b cc thnh vin ca
GATT quyt nh nghin cu vn ny mt cch cn thn hn. Kt qu l bn Bo co
Haberler c a ra vo nm 1958 vi kt lun l c mt vi bng chng bin minh cho quan
im ca cc nc ang pht trin khi h cho rng cc quy tc v quy c hin hnh v chnh
sch thng mi l tng i bt li cho cc nc ny. Sau mt u ban c thnh lp
xem xt k thm vn ny v s a tng vn c th ca cc nc ang pht trin vo
chng trnh lm vic ca Vng Kenedy. Cng vo chnh thi gian ny, vic chm dt tnh
trng thuc a dn n vic c thm nhiu nc ang pht trin gia nhp vo GATT. Mt
vi nc thnh vin v mt s nc khc ngoi GATT bt u coi h thng Lin hp quc l
mt c ch c kh nng hn trong vic em li nhng tin b i vi nhng vn m h quan
tm. iu ny dn n s kin UNCTAD (Hi ngh ca Lin hp quc v Thng mi v
Pht trin) nhm hp vo nm 1964, UNCTAD cng c thnh lp vo nm v c xem
l mt t chc lu di. Sau cc nc ku gi cho mt trt t kinh t quc t mi v iu l
v Quyn v Ngha v Kinh t ca cc quc gia. C hai u c thng lng di s bo tr
ca Lin hp quc. Vng m phn Kenedy bt u vo nm 1963 l bc t ph to ln i
vi cc nc ang pht trin. y l ln u tin cc nc dnh mt vng m phn tho
lun c th v vn cc nc ang pht trin. Theo tuyn b cp B trng a ra trong vng
m phn th mc tiu chnh ca vng m phn ny l phi thng qua cc bin php nhm m
rng thng mi ca cc nc ang pht trin v coi l phng tin thc y pht trin kinh
t ca cc nc ny. Kt qu ca vng m phn i vi cc nc ang pht trin l hn n.
Cc nc ang pht trin c li do vic ct gim thu, c bit l i vi cc mt hng phi nng
nghip m h quan tm. H cng t c Phn IV ca GATT gii phng h khi yu cu c i
c li i vi cc nc pht trin trong qu trnh m phn v thng mi. Tuy nhin, kt qu
ny ch mang tnh cht tng trng v v gi tr thc ca n i vi cc nc ang pht trin l
nh th no gy ra tranh ci mnh m. Mt khc, Tho thun di hn v Thng mi Quc
t trong lnh vc dt bng hn ch nghim trng kh nng tng cng xut khu hng dt bng
c gia hn thm 3 nm v vn tip tc vng mnh trn con ng tr thnh mt nt c
trng ca h thng thng mi a phng di hnh thc Hip nh a si cho n khi n c
thay th bng Hip nh v Hng dt may ca T chc Thng mi th gii vo hn 30 nm
sau. Nm 1968 UNCTAD II chp thun mt gii php ku gi thit lp h thng u i ph
cp gip cho cc nc ang pht trin c c iu kin u i tip cn th trng cc nc
pht trin. tng ny c tho lun nhiu ln trong nhng nm sau . Nm 1963,

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Cng ng Kinh t Chu u k kt Cng c Yaounde dnh nhng li ch c bit cho mt
s nc chu Phi. H thng u i thu quan ca Australia c thnh lp vo nm 1965 theo
quy nh min tr c bit ca GATT. c bit cc nc v khu vc khc cng c chng
trnh xy dng nhng k hoch tng t trong vng 10 nm. Nh vy, cc nc ang pht trin
chnh thc t c c 2 mc ch chnh ca h l khng dnh u i trn c s c i c li
v c c iu kin u i tip cn th trng. H thnh cng trong vic cng c nhng g
thu c trong Vng Tokyo thng qua vic chp nhn iu khon Cho php gip cho mc
tiu c i x c bit v khc bit c nhng bc i vng chc hn. Ngi ta cho rng iu
khon ny cng em li quy nh min trch lu di cho GSP. Tuy nhin dng nh khng c
mt thnh tu no trong s ny a cc nc ang pht trin tin xa hn trong xu hng gia
nhp y hn vo h thng thng mi a phng. Tt nhin mt vi nc pht trin rt
tt trong vic xut khu hng ch to v thu ht vn u t, th nhng h li khng c c tc
ng hiu qu vi cc quy tc ca cuc chi. i vi cc nc pht trin vn cn c mt im
nh trong vic nht tr cc quy tc vi nhng ngi tham gia cuc chi khng bt buc. Do vy
vo nhng nm tip theo sau khi kt thc Vng Tokyo c nhiu li ku gi thit lp cc quy
tc mi ca GATT i vi cc nc pht trin, l ngh a ra ci gi l GATT b sung.
Nu ngh ny c thng quan th tnh trng ng ngoi ca cc nc ang pht trin li
c hp thc ho hn na. Thc t tri ngc vi Bn bo co Leutwiler nm 1985 m bn
bo co ny ku gi tp trung hn na vo vic khuyn khch cc nc ang pht trin tn
dng u th cnh tranh v hi nhp hn na vo h thng thng mi. Ni mt cch khc, cc
nc ang pht trin nn chp nhn thm cc ngha v ca GATT c hng nhiu quyn
li hn na. Quan im ny thu c s ng h t nhiu nc ang pht trin c chnh sch
hng ngoi. Kt qu Vng Urugoay lm o ln xu hng trc y, cc nc ang pht
trin ngy nay c v nh chp nhn thc t l h s ch c sc mnh trong m phn nu h
chp nhn cam kt theo tt c kt qu ca vng m phn. Qu trnh m phn GATS th
hin r iu ny. Trong GATS ngha v ca cc nc ang pht trin gn ngang bng vi ngha
v ny ca cc nc pht trin, s khc bit ch l con s lit k tng i trong danh mc cam
kt. Xem graduation v infant-industry argument.
Differential and more favourable Treatment, reciprocity and Fuller Participation of
Developing Countries: i x khc bit v thun li hn, c i c li v s tham gia y
hn ca cc nc ang pht trin
Xem Enabling clause.
Diffuse reciprocity: C i c li lan truyn
Xem reciprocity at the margin.
Dillon Round: Vng Dillon
Vng m phn thng mi a phng ln th 5 c t chc ti Genve t nm 1960-1961.
Vng m phn ny ly tn l Douglas C. Dillon, Th trng Ngoi giao lc ca Hoa K.
Ni dung chnh ca Vng m phn Dillon l m phn v thu xut pht t vic thnh lp
Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v xy dng biu thu i ngoi chung, nhng trong vng Dillion
cng c m phn v cc vn thu quan tng qut hn. Cho d ngi ta s dng thut ng
"vng m phn" nhng y thc s l hi ngh m phn v thu cui cng theo kiu c. Kt
qu t c ca vng m phn mc va phi. C khong 4.400 u i v thu c trao
i so vi con s khong 45.000 trong Hi ngh Thu quan Genve nm 1947.
Diminished giant syndrome: Hi chng suy gim cu nc khng l
Thut ng do Jagdish Bhagwati to ra nm 1988 m t s xi mn a v ni bt ca Hoa K
trong nn kinh t th gii. ng ta xem hi chng suy gim ca cc nc khng l l mt trong
nhng nguyn nhn gin tip "khuyn khch quan im cho rng cc nc khc ang bun bn
khng lnh mnh v chnh iu ny s dn n vic cc nc ban hnh nhng quy nh hung
hng v thng mi, a ra nhng quy nh cht ch hn v hn ch hn i vi cch hiu v

- 64 -
thc tin thng mi khng lnh mnh, cng u trong m phn quc t v cc nc s a ra
cc chin lc i u". Xem aggressive unilateralism v Section 301.
Direction of trade: Hng thng mi
Thut ng m t ton th cc nc bn hng bun bn vi mt nc v tm quan trng ca
thng mi gia nc ny vi mt hay mt nhm nc. Tc phm thng k chnh c cha ng
thng tin ny l Cun ch dn v nin gim thng k thng mi ca IMF c xut bn tng
nm.
Directive: Ch th
Xem European community legislation.
Dirty tariffication: Thu ho sai lch
Xem water in the tariff.
Disguised trade barriers: Hng ro thng mi tr hnh
Nhng bin php chnh ph s dng t c nhng mc tiu m b ngoi tng nh khng
lin quan n thng mi nhng thc t chng li c nh hng trc tip n vic nhp khu.
Trong s cc bin php c s dng c cc bin php nh lut bo v ngi tiu dng, tiu
chun v sn phm v cc quy nh kim dch. Xem thm sanitary and phytosanitary
measures, shelf-life v technical bariiers to trade.
Dispersed tariff rates: Thu sut phn tn
Mt danh mc thu quan c s cch bit ln gia thu sut thp v thu sut cao. Ngoi ra c
rt t mc thu sut tng t nh nhau. Xem peak tariffs.
Dispute settlement: Gii quyt tranh chp
Mt gii php gii quyt tranh chp xy ra gia cc Chnh ph trong vic thc hin cc quy tc
thng mi hoc do hnh ng ca mt trong nhng Chnh ph lin quan, thng l thng qua
vic ho gii gia cc bn, i khi l phi thng qua nh ho gii trung gian. i khi vic gii
quyt tranh chp c th l i nghch nhau mt cch r rt hoc da trn c s cc quy tc.
Vic gii quyt tranh chp trong T chc Thng mi th gii thng bt u sau khi tham vn
b tht bi. Cc th tc bn bc v gii quyt tranh chp c trnh by trong iu XXII v
XXIII ca GATT i vi hng ho, trong iu XXII v XXIII ca GATS v iu 64 ca Hip
nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi i vi vn s hu tr tu. Cc hip
nh ny v cc tho thun c lin quan c cng c ch gii quyt tranh chp. Xem Dispute
settlement body v WTO understanding on dispute settlemeny.
Dispute settlement body (DSB): C quan gii quyt tranh chp
L i hi ng WTO khi nhm hp vi mc ch gii quyt cc tranh chp xy ra gia cc
thnh vin. Hi ng gii quyt tranh chp l c quan duy nht c thm quyn thnh lp cc
ban hi thm, chp nhn cc bn bo co ca ban hi thm v c quan trung thm, duy tr vic
gim st thc hin cc quyt nh v khuyn ngh cho php cc nc c quyn tr a trong
cc trng hp cc khuyn ngh b b qua. Xem thm appellate body, Dispute settlement body
v WTO understanding on dispute settlement.
Diversionary dumping: Ph gi trch hng
Vic xut khu cc sn phm ph gi sang mt nc trung gian ri t hng ho s li c
xut khu sang th trng ch tht s. Mc ch ca vic ph gi trch hng l tn dng li
th v c cu gi ca nc trung gian trnh cc bin php chng ph gi. Xem thm
dumping.
Domestically prohibited goods:Cc hng ha cm s dng ni a
Xem export of domestically prohibited goods.

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Domestic content requirements: Cc yu cu hm lng ni a
Xem local content requirements.
Domestic International Sales Corporation:Tp on bun bn quc t trong nc
Mt c cu lin kt c s dng Hoa K cho n tn nm 1984 ni chung c bit n
di ci tn DISC. Li ch chnh m cc cng ty theo loi hnh c cu ny c c l h c
quyn np thu chm, h ch phi thanh ton cc khon thu lin bang nh vo thu nhp t li
nhun xut khu sau khi li nhun c phn b cho cc c ng. Cc tp on DISC tp
trung ch yu vo bun bn hng ho. Trong lnh vc dch v, h t nhiu ch hn ch trong cc
hot ng lin quan n xy dng. Nm 1973, Cng ng Kinh t Chu u ban b vic kin
i gii quyt tranh chp trong GATT v vic tr cp cho cc tp on DISC tham gia vo vic
xut khu thp. Mt Ban hi thm c thnh lp gii quyt tranh chp. Ban hi thm
cho php Cng ng Kinh t Chu u c quyn tr a chng li Hoa K trong mt s i
x thu nht nh. Cui cng tranh chp c gii quyt vo nm 1982. Nm 1984 cc quy
nh v DISC c thay th bng chng trnh v Cc Tp on bn hng ra nc ngoi,
chng trnh ny c coi nh l ph hp vi cc quyt nh ca GATT nhiu hn, nhng
khng phi tt c mi ngi u ngh nh vy.
Domestic support: H tr trong nc
Mt thut ng khc ch h tr l thut ng gip hoc tr cp. Xem thm Agreement on
Agriculture v Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Duties.
Dominant supplier provision: iu khon v nh cung cp thng tr
Mt iu khon trong lut Thng mi m rng ca Hoa K nm 1962, cho php gim thu
xung 0% cho bt k loi sn phm no m Hoa K v EEC c 80% th trng ton cu
hoc hn th. Xem thm zero-for-zero tariff reductions.
Double cart formula: Cng thc gp i
Cng thc c s dng trong m phn thu tuyn tnh do Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC)
ngh trong vng m phn Kenedy. Cng thc ny da trn c s xc nh mc chnh lch
ng k v thu sut ca cc thnh vin chnh, c bit l EEC, Nht, Anh v Hoa K. Theo
cng thc ny, thu sut s c xem l khc nhau nu t l gia cc mc thu ln hn 2:1.
Cng thc ch c p dng nu nh s khc bit t nht l 10% theo tr gi. Xem thm ad
valorem tariff, tariff reduction, tariff negotiations v thirty-ten formula.
Double pricing:Gi p
Mt thc tin m bo cho cc nh sn xut v ch bin trong nc c th bun bn nguyn
liu th vi gi thp hn gi bn trn cc th trng xut khu. Mc ch ny c th t c
thng qua hn ngch xut khu, thu xut khu v cc bin php khc c mc ch tng t.
Downpayment: Gim thu tng phn
xut cam kt gim thu ban u c iu kin tun th k hoch m phn tho thun
hoc nhng nh thc s quan tm n kt qu ca cuc m phn. Trong APEC l ln
gim thu u tin theo cam kt di hn t do ho v m ca thng mi v u t nh
ch r trong Chng trnh hnh ng ring, nh tho thun trong Chng trnh hnh ng
Osaka thng 11/1995.
Downstream dumping: Ph gi xui dng
Tn gi ca vic bn mt b phn ca sn phm cho nh sn xut trong nc vi gi thp hn
chi ph y . Nh sn xut ny sau li thay i hnh thc b phn hoc lp rp n vo sn
phm khc v bng cch ny t c li th v gi trn th trng xut khu. Xem thm anti-
dumping measures v dumping.
Dracula effect: Tc ng Dracula

- 66 -
Di Jagelish Bhagwati (1988) gii thch thut ng ny l "phi by t nn ra nh sng l gip
tiu dit t nn. Xem thm notification, surveillance v trasparency.
Draft International Antitrust Code: D tho b lut Quc t v chng c quyn
Xem Munich Group.
Draft International Code of Conduct on the Transfer of Technology: D tho B lut
Quc t v Thc hin Chuyn giao Cng ngh
Mt cng c m phn trong UNCTAD t nm 1976 n 1985. Mc ch ca b lut nhm
thit lp cc tiu chun chung v cng bng cho vic cc bn thc hin chuyn giao cng ngh.
Sau khi m phn v d tho b lut kt thc, cc nc vn c nhiu kin khc nhau. Hin
cha c k hoch tip tc m phn.
Draft International Conduct on Transnational Corporations: D tho B lut quc t
qun l cc Cng ty xuyn quc gia
Mt vn kin do nhiu bn ngh nhm mc ch hng dn hot ng ca cc tp on
xuyn quc gia nc ngoi. Cng vic d tho b lut bt u c tin hnh vo cui nhng
nm 1970. Bn d tho cui cng c a ra vo nm 1990. D tho c son tho chi tit
hn nhng cc nc tham gia m phn vn c nhiu bt ng kin, k c kin v phm vi
php l ca b lut
Drawback: Hon thu
Vic hon tr li thu hi quan, thu bn hng v thu tiu th c bit i vi hng tm nhp
ti xut sau khi c ch bin hoc c lp rp vo cc sn phm khc. Xem thm border
tax adjustments.
Dual pricing: Gi kp
Cch lm ca nhng nc ang duy tr nhiu gi khc nhau i vi mt sn phm, gi bn
trong nc v gi bn nc ngoi. Khi nim ny cng c gi l gi p.
Dual purpose exports: Xut khu nhm hai mc ch
Vic mua bn hng ho, dch v v cng ngh ph hp vi c hai mc ch, dn s v qun s.
Hin nay c nhiu quan im khc nhau v vic s dng cc sn phm ch to cho th trng
dn s vi mc ch qun s v d nh my tnh c nhn tin tin. Quan im ca mi ngi v
vn ny ph thuc nhiu vo nhn thc ca h v s cn bng chin lc vo tng thi im.
Xem thm COCOM, strategic exports v Wassenaar Agreement on Export Conrolss for
Conventional Arms v Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.
Dumping: Ph gi
Thc tin bn hng ca mt cng ty vi gi bn ra nc ngoi thp hn gi bn ti th trng
trong nc. C s ca vic so snh thng l gi xut xng ti nc xut khu v gi giao dch
hng ho ti ca khu ca nc nhp khu, tr ph vn ti v cc chi ph khc hng ho phi
chu sau khi ri khi ni sn xut. Tuy nhin, mt s ngi li ng nht hai khi nim gi bn
nc ngoi thp hn gi bn trong nc v gi bn thp hn chi ph sn xut vi nhau. iu
ny l hon ton sai. Cc nh bnh lun vin thng ch ra rng khi nim n gin v ph gi
dn n v s cc tranh chp trong thc t p dng. Ngay c vic so snh n thun gia hai
khi nim cng c khi khng th thc hin c v c ch nh gi v k ton ca mt cng ty
rt mp m nh th khng cho ngi ngoi hiu c c cu chi ph ca cng ty. i khi
nu so snh c th so snh li khng thch hp v sn phm xut khu hon ton khng
c bn trn th trng trong nc hoc ch c bn vi s lng nh. Trong mi trng hp,
mt s t cc ti chnh sch thng mi khc c xem xt bng cm tnh gang bng vi
c xem xt bng phn tch da trn l tr. Chnh v vy c rt nhiu ti liu vit v ch ph
gi. Ph gi vi t cch l mt vn thng mi tn ti trong mt thi gian di, nhng ph gi
ch tr thnh vn chnh trong chnh sch thng mi sau chin tranh th gii th nht v c

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bit l trong thi k i khng hong ca nhng nm 30. Vo thi gian m phn dn ti Hin
chng Havana, nhngnc tham gia chia ph gi thnh 4 loi: (a) ph gi v gi cui cng
c quy nh trong iu VI ca GATT; (b) ph gi dch v l mt sn phm c li th v
gi do c ph gi cung cp dch v vn ti bin; (c) ph gi hi oi da trn c s khng ch
t gi hi oi t c li th cnh tranh; (d) ph gi x hi xut pht t vic nhp khu
hng ho vi gi thp do t nhn hay lao ng kh sai sn xut. Hin nay cha c quy nh no
iu chnh ba loi ph gi sau.Thnh thong ph gi cng b nhm ln vi vic nhp khu sn
phm c hng tr cp. Vi mc ch l chnh sch thng mi, ph gi c gi thit l ch
hnh vi ca tng cng ty khi nhn thy s thu c li nu cng ty c nhng tho thun phn
bit i x v gi v cc cng ty s dng chnh ngun lc ca mnh tr gi. Ngc li, tr
cp c gi thit l c Chnh ph thanh ton trc tip hay gin tip cho ngnh cng nghip.
Tc ng ca c hai hnh thc ny ti th trng nhp khu c th l nh nhau. Robert Willig
(1995) ngh ra mt trong nhng phng php hu hiu nht phn tch vic ph gi, c
bit l cch nhn nhn hu ch i vi ng c tin hnh ph gi. ng ta chia ph gi thnh ph
gi khng c quyn v ph gi c quyn. Ph gi khng c quyn bao gm ph gi m rng
th trng (gi cao th trng trong nc h tr cho gi thp th trng xut khu), ph gi
c chu k (mc ch l loi b vic sn xut qu d tha dn cho n khi c thay i v cu).
Ph gi thng mi ca Nh nc (thc hin ch yu trong cc nn kinh t m t gi hi oi
c ngha nh b hoc cc tn hiu v gi c khng quan trng). Ph gi c quyn bao gm
ph gi chin lc (s thit hi gy ra trn th trng nhp khu thng qua mt chin lc tng
th hoc cc trng hp chng cnh tranh chung ang ph bin nc xut khu) v ph gi
cp ot (xut khu vi gi thp nhm mc ch y cc i th cnh tranh vo tnh trng ph
sn ginh c v tr c quyn nc nhp khu). Tt nhin lut chng ph gi ca cc
nc khng tp trung vo cc loi ph gi ny. i khi mt cng ty c th bn ra nc ngoi
vi gi cao hn, tnh trng gi l ph gi ngc. Deardorff (1990) ch ra s lin kt cht
ch gia ph gi v mc cnh tranh trn th trng trong nc. ng ta ghi ch rng nu c
th trng v cng ty u c bo h th hu nh chc chn cc cng ty phi bn vi gi thp
hn gi th trng ni a nu h mun xut khu hng ho. iu VI ca GATT gii quyt vn
chng ph gi v thu i khng thc s khng ngn cm hnh vi ph gi. iu khon ny
n thun ni rng cc thnh vin ca GATT cng nhn rng ph gi s b kt n nu n gy ra
hoc e da gy ra tn hi vt cht cho mt ngnh cng nghip thnh lp hoc lm chm li
vic thnh lp mt ngnh cng nghip ni a ti lnh th ca thnh vin khc. Nu vic thm
tra nc nhp khu ch ra rng vic ph gi ang xy ra v gy ra thit hi v mt vt cht i
vi mt ngnh cng nghip th khi Chnh ph c th p dng cc bin php chng ph gi.
Khi nim v ph gi ang c tip tc tinh chnh gii quyt mt thc t l mc d b
ngoi biu hin l khng c s ph gi theo ng nh cng thc so snh gi nhng cng ty li
c nhng hnh ng khc c th dn n nhng hu qu tng t. Cc loi ph gi c phn
chia chi tit hn gm: (a) ph gi n c nh ngha trong bn ph lc ca iu VI ca GATT
l nh nhp khu bn hng vi gi thp hn gi ghi trn ho n ca nh xut khu c mi lin
kt vi nh nhp khu v gi cng thp hn gi nc xut khu, loi ph gi ny l ph gi
thng qua chuyn dch gi; (b) ph gi gin tip l vic nhp khu thng qua thng qua mt
nc th ba ti sn phm khng b coi l ph gi; v (d) ph gi th cp l vic xut khu
sn phm c cha ng cc b phn c nhp khu vi gi thng c xem ph gi. K. W.
Dam (1970) thu ht s ch vo s mu thun r rt trong khi nim v ph gi. ng ta ni
rng theo quy lut th cc cng ty ni a chu thit hi khi gi nhp khu l tng ng hay
thp hn gi cc sn phm ca h. Tuy th, ng ta ni, thit hi khi c ph gi cng khng ln
hn khi gi nhp khu ch n thun phn nh li th so snh ca nh sn xut. Gabrielle
Marceau (1994) a ra mt tng kt kh hay khi b ta ni rng ph gi xut pht t s khc
bit gia chnh sch php l v kinh t quc dn gia hai th trng quc gia. B cn b sung
thm rng nhng khc bit quc gia l iu bnh thng v hp l tr phi cc nc c tho
thun v tiu chun quc t. Xem thm de minimis dumping margin, hidden dumping, indirect
dumping v secondary dumping.
Duty: Ngha v np; thu

- 68 -
Thu hoc khon thu do Chnh ph p t trong phm vi ton b quyn lc ca mnh nh vo
vic sn xut, kinh doanh v i khi l quyn s hu ti sn. Tr gi ca ngha v np thng
lin quan ti gi tr giao dch. Thu hi quan bao gm c thu nhp khu v thu xut khu l
mt phn ca cc khon thu nh vy. Cc khon thu ny c nh ti ca khu. Mt trong
nhng yu cu ca WTO l khng c s dng ngha v np phn bit i x i vi cc
sn phm nhp khu khi vt qua ca khu mt cch hp php. Cho d hai t "ngha v
np" v "thu" c s khc bit r rng nhng trong qu trnh s dng hng ngy, s khc bit
ny li khng r rng. i vi cc nh kinh t th nh hng ca hai loi thu l nh nhau,
nhng i vi cc lut gia th vic phn bit c th c cc kt qu quan trng. Xem thm
Lerner's symmetry theory.
Duty drawback: Hon thu
Xem border tax adjustment.
Dynamic comparative advantage: Li th so snh ng
Xem comparative advantage.
Dynamic non-member market economy (DNME): Nn kinh t th trng nng ng ca
cc nc khng l thnh vin
Thut ng c T chc Hp tc v Pht trin Kinh t (OECD) s dng biu th s tng
trng nhanh chng ca nhng nn kinh t khng nm trong OECD. OECD tham gia vo
cc cuc i thoi chnh thc vi Hng Kng, Malaysia, Singapore, i-loan v Thi-lan,
nhng mi ch bt u tip xc vi Trung Quc, n-, Indonesia v cc nn kinh t then cht
ca Chu M La-tinh.

EAEC (East Asia Economic Caucus): Din n Kinh t ng

Mt nhm mang tnh cht t vn kinh t do Malaysia ngh. Thnh vin l cc nc ng .
Early harvest: Thu hoch sm
c s dng m t tho thun gia cc bn v kt qu m phn ng thc hin cc mc
tiu h ra sm hn so vi d kin ban u.
East ASEAN Growth Area: Khu vc tng trng ng ASEAN
Xem BIMP-EAGA.
East African Cooperation (EAC): Hp tc ng Phi
Mt c ch trong phm vi Th trng chung cc nc ng v Nam Phi c thnh lp vo
nm 1996. Mc tiu l y mnh tc t do ho thng mi v u t. Hp tc ng Phi
cng nhm mc ch khuyn khch s quan tm t khu vc t nhn. C 3 thnh vin lp ra
EAC l Kenya, Tanzania v Uganda.
East-West trade: Thng mi ng - Ty
M t vic bun bn gia cc thnh vin ca Hi ng Tng tr Kinh t (Comecon) v cc
nc ang pht trin. Thut ng ny ngy nay khng dng vi ngha na.
East-South trade: Thng mi ng - Nam
M t thng mi gia cc nc thnh vin OECD v cc nc thuc Hi ng Tng tr Kinh
t. Thng mi ng - Ty a ra nhng vn c bit pht sinh ch yu do ng tin ca
cc nc Comecom khng th chuyn i c v vic chuyn giao cng ngh. Thut ng ny

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ngy nay cng khng dng vi ng ngha gc ca n nhng vn tip tc c s dng m
t thng mi gia ng v Ty u. Xem thm dual purpose exports.
ECAFE: U ban Kinh t Chu v Vin ng
Xem ESCAP.
ECDC (Economic Cooperation between Developing Countries): Hp tc kinh t gia cc
nc ang pht trin
Mt c ch vn hnh chnh trong h thng Lin hp quc c thit k thc y s tin b
v mt kinh t ca cc nc ang pht trin thng qua cc hot ng hp tc. Xem thm
Committee on Trade and Development v GSTP.
ECLAC
Xem Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean.
Eco-dumping: Ph gi sinh thi
Mt thut ng s dng trong cch ni chung m t vic sn xut hng ho xut khu theo
cc iu kin mi trng di mc tiu chun. Ph gi sinh thi khng c mt ch ng thch
hp trong vic ban hnh chnh sch thng mi. Ngi ta cho rng ph gi sinh thi s em li
cho ngi sn xut li th v chi ph th trng xut khu ni c p dng cc iu kin
nghim ngt hn. Tuy nhin dng nh chi ph sn xut pht sinh t nhng quy nh v mi
trng l mt yu t nh hn rt nhiu so vi cc chi ph sn xut khc trong tng chi ph. Ni
chung, chi ph loi ny khng chim qu 2% ca tng chi ph sn xut. Xem eco-duties.
Eco-duties: Thu sinh thi
c ngh nh vo cc sn phm nhp khu bi hon cho li th cnh tranh khng lnh
mnh pht sinh do nh sn xut c hot ng trong nn kinh t c cc tiu chun mi trng
i vi ngnh cng nghip t kht khe hn, v do chi ph s t hn. y l mt khi nim gy
ra nhiu tranh ci m c kh nng b lm dng lm cng c bo h. Xem thm eco-dumping v
trade and environment.
Eco-labelling: Nhn sinh thi
Mt c ch th trng t nguyn c thit k khuyn khch ngnh cng nghip sn xut
hng ho t nh hng n mi trng hn v khuyn khch ngi tiu dng u tin mua loi
hng ho ny. Mi quan ngi thng mi v cc c cu dn nhn sinh thi l ch chng c
th dng c cc tiu ch sn xut phn bit i x i vi hng nhp khu trong khi cc c
cu dn nhn sinh thi ch nn phn nh nhng u tin v mi trng cc nc nhp khu.
Xem eco-duties, genetic labelling, social labelling v trade and environment.
Economic and Social Commission for the Asia-Pacific: U ban kinh t x hi chu -
Thi bnh dng
Xem ESCAP.
Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA): U ban kinh t x hi cc
nc vng Ty
c thnh lp chnh vo nm 1973 di tn gi l U ban Kinh t cc nc vng Ty , sau
n nm 1985 n c tn nh hin nay. y l mt trong nhng y ban kinh t khu vc ca
Lin hp quc vi mc ch tng cng thnh vng kinh t ca cc quc gia thnh vin v y
mnh quan h kinh t vi cc nc khc. Ban th k c t ti Amman.
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA): U ban Kinh t chu Phi
Mt trong nhng y ban kinh t khu vc ca Lin hp quc thnh lp vo nm 1958 nhm thc
y tin b kinh t cc nc chu Phi. Ban th k c t ti Addis Ababa.

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Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE): U ban Kinh t Chu u
Mt trong nhng y ban kinh t khu vc ca Lin hp quc c thnh lp nm 1947. U ban
ny t c mt s thnh cng ng k, c bit l trong nhng lnh vc tiu chun nh
hng n thng mi quc t v thun li ho thng mi mt cch tng quat hn. Ban th k
c t ti Genve.
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC): U ban Kinh t
M La-tinh v cc nc vng bin Ca-ri-b
Mt trong nhng y ban kinh t khu vc ca Lin hp quc c thnh lp vo nm 1948 vi t
cch l U ban Kinh t M La-tinh v ly tn hin nay vo nm 1985 nhm mc ch thc y
tin b kinh t cc nc M La-tinh. Ban th k t ti Rio de Janeiro.
Economic Cooperation Area of Black Sea Countries (ECABS): Khu vc Hp tc Kinh t
cc nc Vng Bin en
Thnh lp nm 1992 gm cc nc Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Hy-lp, Rumania, Nga,
Th-nh-k v Ukraine.
Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO): T chc Hp tc Kinh t
Thnh lp nm 1991 nhm thc y s tng trng pht trin kinh t ca cc nc thnh vin.
Thng mi v thu quan, giao thng vn ti, thng tin, tin t, ti chnh l nhng phn chnh
trong chng trnh lm vic. Cc thnh vin ca ECO gm c Afganistan, Azerbaijan, Iran,
Kazakhstan, Cng ho Kyrgyz, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Th-nh-k, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
Ban th k t ti Teheran.
Economic impact criterion: Tiu ch tc ng kinh t
Mt hnh thc kim tra i khi c s dng trong GATT nh gi xem mt bin php ang
p dng trong nc c tun th theo nguyn tc i ng quc gia hay khng. Tun theo cc tiu
ch ny ngi ta phi da vo thay i dng thng mi tm bng chng chng minh ngun
tc i ng quc gia b vi phm. Trn thc t p dng tiu ch ny gp nhiu kh khn v vo
mt thi im nht nh c th c nhiu nguyn nhn lm cho vic nhp khu mt mt hng b
thay i. Ban hi thm gii quyt tranh chp ca GATT t chi vic s dng tiu ch ny
nh gi bnh ng v c hi cnh tranh.
Economic intergration agreements: Cc tho thun hi nhp kinh t
Thut ng c s dng trong iu V ca GATS quy nh cc tha thun t do thng mi dch
v. Ngi ta la chn thut ng ny v t do thng mi dch v i hi kh nng hin din
thng mi ti nc nhp khu cng nh s di chuyn t do ca ngi tiu dng v ngi sn
xut dch v. t c iu , lnh vc dch v cn c mc mc lin kt kinh t ln hn
so vi t do thng mi hng ho. Tha thun hi nhp kinh t phi bao trm nhiu lnh vc
khc nhau v phi loi b mi hnh thc phn bit i x tn ti gia cc thnh vin. Xem thm
free-trade areas v trade in services.
Economic international commodity agreements: Cc hip nh v kinh t hng ho quc t
y l nhng hip nh hng ho quc t nhm gy nh hng i vi gi hng thng qua kho
m, hn ngch xut khu v cc bin php khng ch s lng khc ginh ly th trng.
Xem thm administrative international commodity agreements.
Economic nationalism: Ch ngha dn tc v kinh t
Quan im cho rng tin b kinh t ch c th t c vi cc ph tn ca cc thnh vin khc
tham gia vo nn kinh t quc t. Xem thm beggar-thy-neighbour policies, mercantilism v
zero-sum nationalism.
Economic needs test: Th nghim nhu cu kinh t

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Mt c ch nm di s kim sot ca chnh ph, ca mt ngnh cng nghip hoc mt hip
hi chuyn nghip quyt nh vic gia nhp ca cc cng ty nc ngoi c c bo m
trn cc c s kinh t khng. Cc c ch nh vy thng khng r rng. Chng cng c th gy
ra mt hnh ng t do theo mun hoc cng c th c nhng tc ng bo h. i khi vic
kim tra nhu cu kinh t c ngha l bo v quyn li ca ngi tiu dng, th nhng
khng phi lc no ngi tiu dng cng c hi kin xem c mun c th trng cnh
tranh hn khng. iu XVI ca GATS quy nh nguyn tc m ca th trng cm s dng
th nghim nhu cu kinh t.
Economic summits: Cc cuc hp thng nh v kinh t
Cc cuc gp g hng nm ca nhng ngi ng u chnh ph hoc nhng ngi ng u
nh nc ca cc nc thuc nhm G-7. T nm 1996 Nga tham gia y cc phin hp
v kinh t. Nhn chung cc cuc hp thng nh gii quyt cc vn kinh t chnh v cc vn
v ti chnh m cc bn tham gia cng quan tm. Cc vn v mi trng nm trong
chng trnh ngh s t nm 1992. Php ch tr cuc hp thng nh u tin ti
Rambouillet vo nm 1975. Thp k u tin ca cc hi ngh thng nh v kinh t c th ni
l thi k hong kim nht ca nhm ny. Tuy nhin, ni chung cc hi ngh thng nh v
kinh t tr thnh nn nhn, phi cnh tranh vi cc cuc gp g khc c c s bn vng hn.
Th d vic tng cng hot ng ca h thng Lin hp quc k t khi kt thc chin tranh
lnh gip cho Lin hp quc c mt v tr mi trong vic tho lun cc vn i hi phi c
s hnh ng chung. Thm vo, Cng ng Chu u, Hoa K v Nht gp nhiu vn kh
khn trong thng ma ton cu v vic tm ra gii php cho cc vn ny trong cc hi ngh
thng nh v kinh t cng kh khng km trong T chc Thng mi th gii hoc cc hi
ngh song phng. Xem thm Quadrilaterals.
Economic unity theory: Hc thuyt thng nht kinh t
Mt ni dung ca chnh sch cnh tranh ca Cng ng Chu u. Hc thuyt cho rng thc
hin hnh ng chng c quyn theo lut ca Cng ng i vi cng ty con ca cc cng ty
c t tr s trong phm vi ca Cng ng, th phi coi cng ty con v cng ty m l mt thc
th thng nht. Ni mt cch khc, cng ty m c coi l cng c tham gia.
Economies in transition: Cc nn kinh t qu
Cc nn kinh t ang chuyn i t nn kinh t k hoch tp trung sang nn kinh t th trng.
i khi thut ng ny cng c s dng ch cc nc ang pht trin bt u vic ni lng
th ch kinh t hin ang tn ti. Xem thm partners in transition.
ECOSOC (United nations Economic and Social Council): Hi ng Kinh t x hi ca
Lin hp quc
Hi ng khng c chc nng ban hnh nhng quy tc, lut l. Phin hp cp cao thng nin
nhng ngi lnh o WTO, IBRD v IMF c coi l hu ch trong vic thc y ni lin
chnh sch kinh t gia cc nc. Xem thm ECOSOS v GATT.
ECOSOC and GATT: ECOSOC v GATT
Hin chng Lin hp quc quy nh phm vi trch nhim ca ECOSOC trong hp tc kinh t
v x hi quc t, trong ECOSOC c quyn triu tp hi ngh quc t v nhng vn nm
trong kh nng gii quyt ca ECOSOC. Hoa K, mt cng quc trong nhng nm hu chin
xc tin tho thun thng mi a phng, a ra ngh Hi ng Kinh t v X hi nn
triu tp mt hi ngh sau ny tr thnh Hi ngh ca Lin hp quc v Thng mi v Vic
lm. Tuy nhin, Hoa K phn bit r mc tiu thnh lp mt t chc thng mi quc t vi
mc tiu m phn hip nh thu quan a phng v Lut Hip nh Thng mi i ng quy
nh Hoa K c thm quyn m phn tho thun thu quan theo lut ny khng bt buc phi
thnh lp mt t chc lu di qun l thng mi quc t. ECOSOC ch c vai tr thng qua
gii php ku gi t chc hi ngh ch khng c vai tr g trong vic m phn. Ngay t u

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GATT thc s c lp vi h thng Lin hp quc. Nguyn tc ny c a trc vo
T chc Thng mi th gii. Xem thm United States Reciprocal Trade Agreements Program.
ECOWAS (Econimic Committee of the West African States): Cng ng Kinh t cc
Quc gia Ty Phi
c thnh lp u tin vo nm 1975. N bao gm cc thn vin ca Cng ng Kinh t Ty
Phi (Benin, Burkina Faso, B bin Ng, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal), cc thnh vin thuc
Lin minh Sng Mano (Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone), v Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana,
Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria v Togo. Cng ng kinh t cc quc gia Ty Phi ch thnh cng mt
phn trong vic t c cc mc tiu v t do ho thng mi ca h. Cng ng c bt u
li vo nm 1990 vi chng trnh nhm t do thng mi trong cc sn phm cha ch bin v
t do ho thng mi khng ngng trong cc sn phm cng nghip.
Ecretement: Ct gim thu
ngh ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u vo u Vng Kenedy (1963-1967) cn i thu
thng qua vic ct gim. Li ngh trn xut pht t quan im ca EEC cho rng biu thu
ca h hu nh ch trong phm vi t 10% n 20% trong khi biu thu ca Hoa K trong nhiu
trng hp l 30% n 50% v thu sut ca mt s mt hng ln ti 100%. Do vy, EEC
ngh h thp thu sut xung mt na t c thu sut mc tiu l 10% i vi hng ch
to, 5% i vi hng bn ch to v 0% i vi nguyn liu th. ngh khng c Hoa
K chp thun v n s buc Hoa K phi chp nhn vic ct gim thu qu ln trong khi EEC
khng mun lm mt iu g trong lnh vc nng nghip. Xem thm double ecrat formula
v thirty-ten formula.
EC-92 program: Chng trnh EC-92
Xem European Community Single Market.
EEC minimum import prices: Gi nhp khu ti thiu ca EEC
Mt v phc tp do Hoa K kin EEC vo nm 1978. Phi mt 2 nm gii quyt v ny.
Hoa K a ra 3 khiu ni: (a) h thng gi ti thiu ca EEC i vi c chua c c l khng
ph hp vi ngha v ca EECtrong GATT, (b) vic cp giy php ca EEC v cc h thng
bo lnh cng khng ph hp vi ngha v trong GATT, v (c) h thng gi ti thiu, cp giy
php v t cc c bo lnh lm mt hoc lm thit hi n cc li ch ca Hoa K. Hoa K
khiu ni EEC sau khi EEC thng qua mt lot cc quy nh t ra cho gi ti thiu i vi c
chua c c. Quy nh yu cu nh nhp khu phi c c giy chng nhn nhp khu v np
tin k qu bo m rng cc sn phm s c nhp trc mt ngy nht nh. Tin bo
m nhp khu s b tch thu nu hng ho khng c nhp khu trong thi gian quy nh.
i vi c chua c c li c thm mt khon tin bo m b sung m n nhm mc ch bo
m tng gi hng nhp khu t nht phi ngang bng vi gi ti thiu trong nc. Ban hi
thm trc tin xem xt giy php nhp khu cng h thng tin bo m. H pht hin ra
rng h thng cp giy php nhp khu ca EEC khng khc vi h thng tng t do cc nc
thnh vin khc ca GATT ang s dng v n ph hp vi cc quy tc p dng cho vic cp
php nhp khu t ng. V vic cp giy php t ng khng thuc phm vi iu chnh ca
iu XI (Loi b ton b hn ch nh lng) nn giy php nhp khu v h thng bo lnh
khng tri vi ngha v ca EEC theo iu khon ny. Ban hi thm sau xem xt tc ng
ca h thng ny theo ni dung ca iu VIII (Ph v cc th tc lin quan n nhp khu v
xut khu). c bit n kim tra cc loi ph ny c xp x bng gi tr dch v cung cp
theo ng nh quy nh ca iu VIII:1(a) hay khng. Ban hi thm thy ng l nh vy.
H cho rng vic tc ot tin t cc nhp khu khng nm trong phm vi ca iu khon
ny v n ch c p dng khi khng c nhp khu v ngha v ly giy php nhp khu cng
khng phi l mt yu cu kh khn. Ban hi thm kt lun rng kh nng ca EEC ngng
cp giy php p li hnh ng t v l khng tri vi ngha v cu h theo iu VIII. Lin
quan n iu II (Danh mc u i) Ban hi thm cho rng tin tr li v gi thnh lin quan
vi vic np tin bo m l khng vi phm quy nh ca iu II.2 (c), c ngha l cc loi ph

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hoc cc chi ph khc phi tng xng vi chi ph dch v c cung cp. Tip theo, Ban hi
thm xem xt n gi nhp khu ti thiu v h thng bo m b sung i km vi n. H
kt lun rng c chua c c thuc nhm "sn phm nng nghip v ng nghip c nhp
khu di bt k hnh thc no", v theo iu XI:2(c) cc nc c php, vi mt s iu
kin nht nh, ngng thc hin nguyn tc chung loi b hn ch nh lng. Mt trong nhng
iu kin ny l s cn thit tng cng hiu lc ca cc bin php ca chnh ph. Ban hi
thm nhn thy gi nhp khu ti thiu v h thng lin quan i vi c chua c c tho mn
tiu ch ny. H kim tra chi tit xem c chua ti v c chua c c c th c coi l cc
sn phm tng t hay khng. Sau khi cn nhc k, h cho rng c chua ti v nc c chua
khng phi l sn phm tng t v h thng ny khng ph hp vi ngha v ca EEC theo
GATT. Sau h cng thy tin tr li v cc chi ph v kh nng b mt tin t cc lin quan
n h thng vt qu thu sut trn cam kt ti ca khu nh c m t ti iu II. Cui
cng ban hi thm kt lun rng cho d nh nhp khu hay chnh ph nc xut khu ng ra
m bo th h thng ny khng gy ra phn bit i x nh iu I:1 (Quy ch ti hu quc
tng qut) nu nh iu l cn thit cho tt c cc hng nhp khu t tt cc nh cung cp
tim nng nc th ba. Xem thm variable levies.
EEP (Export Enhancement Program): Chng trnh tng cng xut khu
Mt chng trnh tr cp ca Hoa K c a ra vo nm 1985 m theo chnh ph dnh
phn thng cho cc cng ty bn mt s sn phm nng nghip nht nh nh ng cc, go v
gia cm n cc th trng c ch r. Phn thng thng c thc hin di hnh thc cp
giy chng nhn hng ho cng chng loi, gip cho cc cng ty c quyn mua ngay ti kho
nhng hng ho do Tp on Tn dng Hng ho (CCC) nm gi. C ch ny va gip gim
bt lng hng ho trong kho ca CCC, va gim tnh trng p gi trn th trng tiu th. Mc
ch ban u ca EEP l cng c th trng hng nng sn ca Hoa K bng cch i li cc
loi tr cp do EEC ang thc hin qua Chnh sch nng nghip chung (CAP), th nhng ngy
nay n li c s dng nh mt cng c nhm pht trin cc th trng nng nghip m ni
chung ngay c khi hng ho ca cc nc khc khng c tr cp. Chng trnh ny ni
chung c nh gi l ch gy mt tc ng rt nh i vi yu cu i hi EEC thay i
chnh sch CAP, th nhng n li c nh hng rt nhiu n th trng hng nng sn ca
nc khng c tr cp. Xem thm DEIP v United States Federal Agriculture Improvement
and Reform (FAIR) Act of 1996.
Effective rate of assistance (ERA): T l tr gip thc t
i khi cng c gi l t l bo h thc t. y l c s phn bit r s khc nhau gia
trng hp gi nh khng c s tr gip ngnh cng nghip trong nc v trng hp thc t
c tr gip. Khi nim ERA l c bit hu dng bi v n c kh nng o c s can thip
ca chnh ph nh tr cp v u i bun bn m iu ny c th nh hng n lung thng
mi cho d khng c hn ch thc s ti ca khu, nh bin php thu quan v phi thu quan.
Bng cch ny n cng ch ra cc chi ph ph m ngi tiu dng phi gnh chu do c s tr
gip trong nc. ERA khng phn bit gia cc bin php hp l v khng hp l theo cc hip
nh ca T chc Thng mi th gii. Trong Vng Uruguay, Australia ngh s dng ERA
trong m phn t do ho thng mi, nhng ngh ny khng c nhiu nc ng h. Xem
thm nominal rate of protection and tariff escalation.
Effective rate of protection: T l bo h thc t
Xem thm effective rate of assistance.
Effects doctrine: Hc thuyt tc ng
Hc thuyt a ra mt nguyn tc cho rng mt nc c th ban hnh lut chng c quyn
iu chnh nhng hnh vi ngoi phm vi lnh th ca mnh nu cc hnh vi, i x ang
c nh hng hay s c nh hng n thng mi trong nc. Th d nm 1986 Tuyn b li
ln th 3 ca Lut Quan h Ngoi giao ca Hoa K tuyn b rng "Tt c cc hip nh ca cc
nc khc c k kt hay thc hin ngoi phm vi nc Hoa K hoc cc hnh vi i x vi

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mc ch chnh l can thip vo thng mi ca Hoa K v c tc ng n thng mi ca
Hoa K u phi tun th theo lut php Hoa K". Tnh hp l ca hc thuyt tc ng cn cn
phi c kim nghim. Cc c quan php l khc, k c Cng ng Chu u, cng p dng
phin bn ca hc thuyt tc ng. Xem thm competition policy, extraterritoriality v
implementation doctrine.
Efficiency-seeking investment: u t tm kim hiu qu
Thut ng m t u t trc tip nc ngoi c thc hin cung cp cho th trng cc
nc khc theo kiu cnh tranh nht. Xem thm market-seeking investment.
EFTA (European Free Trade Association): Hip hi Thng mi t do Chu u
C hiu lc vo ngy 3/5/1960 thng qua Hip c Stockhom. Cc thnh vin sng lp c o,
an-mch, Na-uy, B-o-nha, Thy-in, Thy-s v Anh. Iceland gia nhp nm 1970, Phn-
lan tr thnh thnh vin y vo nm 1986 sau khi l thnh vin khng chnh thc. an-
mch v Anh rt khi Hip hi vo 31/12/1972 gia nhp Cng ng Kinh t Chu u. Sau
l B-o-nha nm 1985 v o, Phn-lan v Thy-in vo 1/1/1995. EFTA nay bao gm
Iceland, Liechtenstein, Na-uy v Thy-s. EFTA l mt tha thun u I thu quan ch khng
phi l mt lin minh hi quan v nguyn vng ca EFTA trong hi nhp kinh t th gii
khim tn hn rt nhiu so vi Cng ng Kinh t Chu u. Xem thm European Economic
Area.
Egregious: Kinh ngc; gy sc
Mc d vi nhng c gng ca cc nh lp php Hoa K, tnh t ny c th s hon ton khng
cn c s dng trong chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm Special 301 v Super 301.
Embodied services: Dch v hp thnh
Dch v c cha ng trong mt sn phm hu hnh, nh thnh phn tr tu ca phn mm
my tnh c bn di hnh thc cc a mm hoc CD-ROM. Theo mt s nh phn tch, t
l thng mi dch v trong tng tr gi thng mi ton cu s tng gp i nu nh s liu
thng k thng mi dch v c tnh c dch v hp thnh. D on ny c th l ng, nhng
chng minh c iu i hi phi c mt lng bo co b sung rt ln. Khi tng hp
bo co dch v hp thnh mt cch ring r c ngha l, th d, vic xut khu qung st s
bao gm t nht l thnh phn hng ho v thnh phn dch v c lin quan nh vn ti, tip th,
qun l. Tt nhin n cng cho cng ty bit c thnh phn dch v no trong sn phm ng
c thc hin. Xem thm trade in services statistics.
Emergency protection: Bo h khn cp
Xem escape clause.
Emerging Market Economies: Nhng nn kinh t th trng ang ln
Thut ng dng trong OECD ch cc nc pht trin tin tin nht trong s cc nc ang
pht trin, cc nc ny cng ang ni lng cc quy nh trong nn kinh t.
Emerging Market Economy Forum: Din n v nn kinh t th trng ang ln
Mt c ch do OECD thit lp vo nm 1995 vi mc ch tho lun cc chuyn c lin
quan n cc th trng ang ln xt trn kha cnh nguyn tc, mc tiu v quy nh ca
OECD.
Empire preferences: S u i ca ch
Xem imperial preferences arrangement.
Enabling clause: iu khon cho php
Mt trong nhng kt qu ca Vng Tokyo. N cho php cc nc pht trin l thnh vin ca
GATT c dnh u i cho cc nc ang pht trin m khng phi dnh cho cc nc khc

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nhng u i tng t. Mc tiu l thc y cc nc ang pht trin tham gia rng ri hn vo
h thng thng mi th gii, th nhng dng nh mc tiu khng t c. Xem thm
developing coutries and the GATT v Part IV of the GATT.
Energy Charter Treaty: Hip c Hin chng Nng lng
c k kt vo thng 12/1994 vi vic k kt o lut cui cng ca Hi ngh Hin chng
Nng lng ca Chu u. Thnh vin bao gm hu ht cc nc OECD, cc nc Trung v
ng u v thnh vin ca Cng ng cc quc gia c lp. Mc ch ca Hip c l thit
lp "mt c s php l y mnh vic hp tc lu di trong lnh vc nng lng da trn c
s b tr v hai bn u c li". Phm vi ca Hip c rt rng, bao trm c thng mi, u t
v cc vn khc lin quan n nng lng. Ti iu 3, cc thnh vin tho thun y mnh
tip cn th trng quc t theo cc iu khon thng mi v ni chung pht trin mt th
trng m v cnh tranh cho cc nguyn liu v sn phm nng lng.
Enlargement: M rng
Thut ng s dng c bit cho vic gia nhp ca cc nc thnh vin mi vo Lin minh Chu
u. Su nc thnh vin u tin ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u ti thi im nm 1958 l B,
CHLB c, Php, Italia, Luxembourg v H-lan. Ln m rng u tin vo 1/1/1973 khi an-
mch, Iceland v Anh gia nhp EEC, a s thnh vin ln 9 nc. Hy-lp gia nhp vo nm
1981. Ln m rng nm 1986 khi B-o-nha v Ty-ban-nha gia nhp a tng s thnh
vin ln con s 12. Ln m rng gn y nht din ra vo 1/1/1995 vi s gia nhp ca o,
Phn-lan v Thy-in a s thnh vin ln 15 nc. Cc nc khc ang ch n lt h.
EEC ch c mt vi tiu ch chnh thc xc nh t cch thnh vin nhng li c nhiu tiu ch
khng chnh thc v d nh vn dn ch hp php, c cu kinh t tng ng, v mt cch
tip cn chung i vi vn an ninh nc ngoi ang ngy cng tr nn quan trng hn. Vic
m rng l mt trong nhng nhn t chnh i hi ECC phi thay i chnh sch kinh t x hi.
Th d c quan im cho rng khng c s gia nhp thm ca Hy-lp, Ty-ban-nha v B-o-
nha th cc vn v c cu ca Chnh sch Nng nghip chung c th khng cn phi xem xt
li mt cch nghim tc, trong mt thi gian qu di nh vy.
Enquiry points: Cc im tip xc
Mt vi hip nh ca WTO yu cu cc thnh vin phi thnh lp cc a im u mi trong
qun l thng mi cc thnh vin khc c th thu thp thng tin v mt lnh vc c th
thuc Hip nh. i khi chng c gi l cc im lin lc. Vic trao i thng tin l cp
chnh ph. Cc v d v cc Hip nh ny l GATS, Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin
quan n thng mi, Hip nh v cc hng ro k thut i vi thng mi. GATS cng yu
cu cc nc pht trin thnh vin thnh lp cc im lin lc gip cc cng ty t nhn ca
cc nc ang pht trin tm c c hi thng mi.
Enterprise for the Americas Initiative: T chc kinh doanh cho cc nc Chu M
Chng trnh do Tng thng Hoa K Bush a ra thng 6/1990 cng c nn kinh t cc
nc chu M La-tinh v vng bin Ca-ri-b. Ni dung chnh ca chng trnh l thng mi,
u t v cc chng trnh ct gim n. FTAA c ngun gc t sng kin ny. Xem thm
Alliance for Progress v Caribbean Basin Initiative.
Entrept trade: Tm nhp ti xut
Giao hng qua cng ca mt nc ti xut sang nc khc, th d nh trng hp xut khu
cc sn phm ca Trung Quc qua Hng Kng. Hng ho vo v ra theo tm nhp ti xut
khng l i tng nh thu. C th c nhng d ng trong thng k thng mi song
phng do vic hng ho c th c ghi chp u tin khi vo mt nc trung gian v sau
khi ti xut sang nc nhp cui cng m khng th hin nc xut x tht s. Xem thm rules
of origin.
Environmental rules under the WTO: Cc quy nh v mi trng ca WTO

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Trong WTO, quy nh lin quan n mi trng cha pht trin. V c bn cc chnh ph c
quyn t do thc hin cc tiu chun v mi trng trong phm vi lnh th nc h nhng vi
mt iu kin vic thc hin phi da trn c s i ng quc gia. iu XX ca GATT (Cc
ngoi l chung) cho php vic nh ch cc ngha v theo Hip nh trong mt s trng hp
quy nh c th. Cc nc thnh vin c quyn c dn chiu n iu XX (b) thc hin
cc bin php cn thit bo v sinh mng v sc kho ca con ngi v ng thc vt. iu
XIV ca GATS cng c nhng quy nh tng t. iu XX (d) ca GATT c th c s dng
m bo vic tun theo cc lut l v quy nh ph hp vi GATT. iu XX (g) cho php
cc nc c thng qua hoc thc hin cc bin php lin quan ti vic bo tn cc ngun ti
nguyn thin nhin c th b cn kit nu trong nc cng hn ch sn xut v tiu dng ni
a cc sn phm ti nguyn thin nhin. Xem phn c trch, c hi, c ng (Canada - Hoa K
1982), c ng (Mexico - Hoa K 1991) v xng pha bit quan im ca ban hi thm gii
quyt tranh chp v vic din gii cc iu khon ny. Siu qu cng c cp n kha cnh
bo v mi trng th nhng nhng lp lun trong trng hp ny li tp trung vo ch i
ng quc gia. Mt U ban v Thng mi v Mi trng c thnh lp xc nh mi quan h
gia bin php thng mi v mi trng nhm thc y s pht trin lu di. Hoekman v
Kostecki (1995) a ra 4 l do khin cc nc thnh vin a vn ny vo chng trnh
ngh s ca WTO. Th nht, hot ng sn xut v tiu dng ca mt nc c th gy nh
hng nguy hi n mi trng nc khc. Th hai, mt vi nhm cc nh mi trng c
quan im cho rng chnh thng mi c tc ng khng tt i vi mi trng, thng mi
gip cho nhim mi trng lan rng. Th ba, mt vi ngi cho rng cc chnh sch v bin
php v mi trng l khng tt cho thng mi v cc nc c cc tiu chun thp v mi
trng c kh nng cnh tranh hn v mt chi ph so vi cc nc c tiu chun cao hn. Th
t, cc chnh sch v mi trng c th hn ch thng mi khng cn thit nh dn chng
trong cc trng hp nh bt c ng. Xem thm eco-labelling, general exceptions, race to the
bottom argument v sanitary and phytosanitary mesures.
Equality of competitive opportunity: Bnh ng v c hi cnh tranh
y l mt nguyn tc c bn da trn ngha v i ng quc gia quy nh trong iu III ca
GATT. iu c ngha l cc nc thnh vin phi xy dng lut l quc gia cc sn phm
nhp khu c kh nng cnh tranh c vi hng ni a. Thng thng, quy nh p dng cho
cc sn phm nhp khu phi ging quy nh i vi hng ni a. Xem thm thm competitive
neutrality, economic impact criterion v implicit discrimination.
Equitable competition: Cnh tranh bnh ng
Khi nim da trn gi thit cho rng gia tiu chun lao ng, tiu chun mi trng v cc
tiu chun quc t khc cn phi t c mc hi ho nht nh, cc tiu chun ny chc
hn s tc ng n v to c c cho cnh tranh bnh ng. ng sau khi nim ny chnh l l
thuyt cho rng nu cc nc p dng tiu chun khng y s to ra li th v gi cho cc
cng ty trong nc v nng cao kh nng cnh tranh quc t ca h. Xem thm fair
competition, social clause, trade and labour standards v trade and the environment.
Equitable share of the market: Th phn bnh ng
Mt khi nim kh nm bt ngha nm trong iu XVI:3 (tr cp) ca GATT v tr cp c
cho php i vi cc sn phm s cp. Khi nim ny cha c nh ngha c th v mt nh
lng. Thc t chng minh vic a ra mt nh ngha cho thut ng ny l rt kh do cc
nc thnh vin GATT cha nhn thc c nhiu v mong mun tho mn cc yu cu ca
th gii v cc hng ho c bn mt cch kinh t v hiu qu nht, v cn phi tnh n tt c
cc nhn t c bit lin quan ti th phn ca nc xut khu trong thng mi th gii v sn
phm c lin quan trong thi k tiu biu. Ban hi thm trong v la m v bt m ca Php
vo nm 1958 c nhng li nhn xt hu dng v khi nim "phn bnh ng", th nhng n
khng c cc ban hi thm v sau pht trin v tinh lc. iu 9 ca Tha thun v vic
hng dn thc hin cc iu VI, XVI v XXIII ca GATT trong Vng Tokyo (thng c
gi l B lut Tr cp) ghi ch rng xc nh "phn bnh ng trong thng mi xut khu

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th gii cn phi tnh n nhng vn lin quan n cc th trng mi, hnh thi cung cp
sn phm truyn thng vo khu vc th trng mi. iu XIII ca GATT (Qun l hn ch nh
lng khng phn bit i x) cng nhm bo m nguyn tc th phn cng bng. iu ny
i hi vic phn phi bun bn sn phm b hn ch nh lng phi gn ging th phn ca
cc nc xut khu c th ginh c nu khng c s hn ch nh lng, v iu khon ny
cng ch ra cch lm th no c th lm c iu ny.
Equivalent measure of support (EMS): Lng h tr tng ng
Mt thut ng s dng trong Hip nh v Nng nghip ca WTO, m t mc h tr hng nm
tnh bng tin cho cc nh sn xut nng nghip, i vi nhng loi tr cp khng th tnh bng
phng php lng h tr tng cng.
ESCAP: U ban Kinh t, X hi Chu - Thi bnh dng
Mt trong s cc u ban kinh t khu vc ca Lin hp quc, c thnh lp nm 1947 vi tn l
U ban kinh t Chu v Vin ng (ECAFE) v mang tn hin nay t nm 1974. Chng
trnh lm vic chnh ca ESCAP l hp tc kinh t khu vc, mi trng v s pht trin lu di,
gim bt i ngho, giao thng vn ti, lin lc, thng k v cc vn lin quan n chm
pht trin, cc nc ang pht trin t lin v vng o. Ban th k ESCAP t ti Bangkok.
Xem thm Bangkok Agreement.
Escape clause: iu khon d phng
Mt iu khon trong Hip nh thng mi cho php cc quc gia k kt nh ch vic thc
hin u i thu v cc u i khc nu hng nhp khu e do hoc lm tn hi nghim trng
n cc nh sn xut cc hng ho tng t trong nc. iu XIX ca GATT c quy nh iu
khon d phng i vi thng mi hng ho. iu ny c b sung bng Hip nh v T v
c quy nh chi tit cho vic s dng iu khon ny. Cc nc thnh vin ca GATS cng
ang tho lun mt iu khon tng t trong khun kh ca GATS, iu X ca GATS t
nhim v thc hin vic . Thng thng c hai l do chnh, v hai l do ny c lin quan vi
nhau, a quy nh t v vo cc hip nh. L do th nht l chng khuyn khch t do ho
rng ri hn v cc nc cam kt t do ho s c c hi rt b cam kt nu nh chng v tnh
thc y nhp khu gy hi cho ngnh cng nghip trong nc. L do th 2 l chng tng
cng tnh nng ng ca h thng thng mi a phng bng cch thc y s n nh lu
di ca h thng. Ngoi ra cn c mt l do gin tip, l Lnh thc hin s 9832 ca Hoa
K thng 2/1947 cho php cc nh thng thuyt thng mi ca Hoa K c quyn a vo
cc hip nh thng mi trong tng lai iu khon min tr tng t nh trong Hip nh
thng mi Hoa K - Mexico thng 12/1942. Xem thm safeguards v Section 201.
Establishment: Thnh lp
Xem quyn thnh lp (right of establishment).
ETMs (elaborately-transformed manufactures): Ch to lm thay i hnh thc mt cch
chi tit
Mt thut ng c B Ngoi giao v Ngoi thng Australia s dng trong cc n phm thng
k ch cc sn phm tri qua qu trnh ch to hay lm tng tr gi mt cch ng k.
ETMs c th l c cc sn phm trung gian (v d thanh nhm cn) hoc cc sn phm cui
cng (v d l in nng bnh). Xem thm STMs.
Euro-Mediterranian Economic Area (EMEA): Khu vc Kinh t a Trung Hi - Chu u
Mt khu vc thng mi t do c xut vo thng 11/1995 ti cuc hi ngh Barcelona
vi s tham gia ca 15 nc thnh vin Lin minh Chu u v cc nc quanh vng a Trung
Hi (Algeria, Sp, Ai-cp, Israel, Jordan, Li-bng, Malta, Ma-rc, Palestine, Xi-ry, Tuy-ni-di v
Th-nh-k). EMEA d kin c hiu lc vo nm 2010.
Europe agreements: Cc hip nh Chu u

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Mt dng hip nh lin kt m Cng ng Chu u s dng trong mi quan h vi cc nc
vng Trung v ng u, vi Th-nh-k, Malta v Sp. Cc tho thun ny cho php cc nc
kh nng s tr thnh hi vin y ca EC, nhng n khng bo m iu ny.
European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund: Qu Bo m v Hng dn
Nng nghip Chu u
Mt c ch m thng qua Cng ng Chu u cung cp ti chnh cho Chnh sch nng
nghip chung. Qu c 2 phn: (a) phn hng dn ti tr cho chnh sch c cu, v (b) phn
bo m m h tr cho th trng v gi. V mt lch s, qu dnh phn ln ngun lc
cho vic h tr th trng v gi c.
European Coal and Steel Community: Cng ng Than v Thp Chu u (ECSC)
Thnh lp nm 1951 khi Hip c Paris c k kt, to ra mt th trng duy nht v than v
st gia cc thnh vin. Trong lnh vc ny cc thnh vin y quyn cho C quan cp cao mi
c thnh lp - mt c quan quyn lc siu quc gia. Nhng thnh cng ca ECSC l mt
trong nhng yu t dn n m phn Hip c Rome thnh lp nn Cng ng Kinh t Chu
u. Nm 1965, Hip c Thnh lp mt Hi ng duy nht ca EC (Hip c st nhp) hp
nht C quan Ti cao vi U ban ca EEC. Hip c thnh lp ECSC ht hn vo nm 2001 khi
n c thay bng cc cng c mi hn ca EU. Xem thm European Communities.
European Commission: U ban Chu u
Mt trong nhng t chc ca EU c quyn lc v chnh tr. U ban c trch nhim bo m
rng cc iu khon ca cc Hip c to ra c s php l ca EU phi c tun th. U ban
Chu u l c quan chnh thc u tin a ra kin ngh v mt chnh sch v lp php v l c
quan thc hin chnh sch ca EU. Hin nay c hn 20 y vin hi ng, mi ngi c nhim
k l 4 nm v c trch nhim trong nhng lnh vc c th. Cc U vin hi ng c la
chn trn c s nng lc tng th v tnh c lp ca h. Mi mt quc gia thnh vin c quyn
c mt y vin, nhng Php, c, Italia, Ty-ban-nha v Anh th c 2. V mt hnh chnh, U
ban c chia thnh hn 20 ban ng u l Tng gim c (DG), th nhng khng phi tt c
trong s h u tham gia hot ng. DG-I lin quan n mi quan h kinh t quc t bao gm
c vic m phn trong WTO, DG-IV gii quyt cc vn cnh tranh v DG-VI gii quyt v
nng nghip. Theo iu 228 ca Hip c Rome v mt vi iu khc th cc hip nh vi
nc ngoi do U ban m phn v Hi ng cc B trng k kt. mc rng, Hi ng B
trng t ra ng li m phn chung m y ban sau s tun theo trong khi m phn
thc t. Cc quc gia thnh vin nhng li quyn m phn ca mnh cho U ban.
European Communities: Cc Cng ng Chu u
Thut ng c s dng sau khi Hip c St nhp c k kt (Hip c Thnh lp Hi ng
Thng nht ca EC) vo nm 1985 lp ra mt y ban duy nht cho cc Cng ng Chu u
trong s nhng thay i v mt t chc khc. U ban thng nht cc hi ng ring r v
qun l Hi ng Nng lng Nguyn t Chu u, Cng ng Than thp Chu u v Cng
ng Kinh t Chu u. Cc Hi ng ny tip tc tn ti nh l cc thc th php l ring.
Xem thm European Commission.
European Community: Cng ng Chu u
Mt ch th php l c thnh lp sau khi k kt Hip c Maastricht, l t chc k tc Cng
ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC hay Th trng chung). Thng c gi tt l EC. Thut ng
"Cng ng Chu u" thng c s dng trc khi Hip c Maastricht c hiu lc ch
EEC, th nhng cc tc gi khc li cho rng n c ngha l Cc Cng ng Chu u. Tu tng
hon cnh c th xc nh ngha chnh xc ca thut ng ny. Xem thm enlargement,
European Union v Treaty of Maastricht.
European Community legislation: Lut php ca Cng ng Chu u
EC c 5 lnh vc lp php thc hin quyn lc ca mnh. Quy nh l cc lut chnh thc ca

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EC, c tnh cht bt buc ton b v c p dng trc tip tt c cc quc gia thnh vin.
Cc quy nh do to nn s hi ha v mt php l v c mt im lu l quy nh ca EC
c gi tr php l cao hn lut quc gia trong trng hp quy nh ca EC v lut quc gia c
xung t. Ch th l cc lut chnh thc ca EC, mang tnh cht bt buc i vi tt c cc quc
gia thnh vin c ghi trong ch th. Ch th a ra nhng mc tiu c bn nhng cc nc
thnh vin c t do quyt nh hnh thc p dng ch th . Vi phng thc ny, cc nc
c th d chp nhn hn nhng bin php kh t c tho thun. Cc quyt nh c tnh cht
bt buc ton b i vi tt c cc nc thnh vin l i tng ca quyt nh. Kin ngh v
ng gp kin khng mang tnh cht bt buc nhng cng c hiu lc nh cc bin php
khc.
European Community Single Market: Th trng nht th Cng ng Chu u
c a ra nm 1987 thng qua Lut Chu u nht th - mt s sa i ca Hip c Rome,
v t c vo nm 1992. Lut ny quy nh loi b cc hng ro ang tn ti v mt vt l
(hi quan), k thut (cc tiu chun v cp giy php) v ti chnh gia 12 thnh vin ca Cng
ng Chu u. iu ny khng ch c ngha l cc hng ho v dch v c sn xut ti mt
nc thnh vin khng b gy tr ngi khi xm nhp th trng cc nc thnh vin khc m
cn c ngha l cc hng ho v dch v ca nc ngoi, mt khi c mt nc thnh vin
nhp khu hp php, c th c chuyn sang bt k nc thnh vin no khc. Ngay c vo
thi im ang hnh thnh, vn c mt quan im cho rng n s khng dn n c mt th
trng nht th, v rng nu khng c s ci t hn na th th trng EC s ch cn l s tp
hp ca 12 th trng quc gia m thi. nh gi thp n lc t c mt th trng nh
vy l mt chuyn, cn thc t c th thy rng Sch trng ca U ban Chu u nm 1985 c
282 ch th d tho c xem nh l cn thit t c th trng nht th. Xem thm
European Community legislation v four freedoms.
European Economic Area (EEA): Khu vc Kinh t Chu u
Gm 15 thnh vin ca EC v 3 trong s 4 thnh vin ca EFTA (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Na-
uy) to thnh th trng nht th gia cc nc ny. Thy-s, thnh vin th t ca EFTA,
quyt nh khng gia nhp EEA vo thng 12/1992. EEA c thnh lp vo 1/1/994. i vi
cc nc EFTA, y l mt bc trung gian gia mt khi EFTA ring r v vic tr thnh
thnh vin y ca EC. Trn thc t l cc nc khng phi l thnh vin EC chp nhn
Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng, nhng h ang p dng ch khong mt na ca n v cc
chnh sch nng nghip v ng nghip chung khng p dng i vi h.
European Economic Community (EEC): Cng ng Kinh t Chu u
Thnh lp theo Hip c Rome c k vo ngy 25/3/1957. Hip c c hiu lc vo
1/1/1958. Bn Hip c nhm "t cc nn mng cho mt lin minh cht ch hn gia cc
cng ng ngi Chu u". Trong cc mc tiu chnh ca n c vic loi b cc hng ro thu
quan v phi thu quan gia cc nc thnh vin v vic hnh thnh mt th trng chung cho
php s di chuyn t do v ngi, dch v v vn. EEC c mt s cc yu t bao gm c Chnh
sch Nng nghip chung v chnh sch giao thng vn ti chung. Xem thm enlargement,
European Community, European Union v four freedoms.
European Economic Community - Payments and subsidies paid to processors and
producers of oilseeds and related animal-feed proteins: Cng ng Kinh t Chu u -
Thanh ton v tr cp cho cc nh sn xut ht c du v cc cht m lin quan n thc
n gia sc
Xem oilseeds panel.
European Economic Community - subsidies on exports of pasta products: Cng ng
Kinh t Chu u - tr cp xut khu cho m si
Xem pasta case.

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European Economic Community - subsidies on export of wheat flour: Cng ng Kinh t
Chu u - tr cp xut khu bt m
Xem wheat flour case.
European Recovery Program: Chng trnh khi phc chu u
Xem Marshall Plan.
European Union: Lin minh Chu u
c thnh lp bi Hip c Maastricht k vo thng 2/1992. Hip c c hiu lc vo ngy
1/11/1993. Lin minh Chu u gm c 3 phn: (i) Cng ng Chu u (vn l tr ct chnh),
(ii) chnh sch an ninh v i ngoi chung v (iii) hp tc trong cc lnh vc php l v ni v.
Ch c Cng ng Chu u l c t cch php nhn v c th k kt cc tha thun quc t.
Mi lm nc thnh vin ca Lin minh Chu u gm c o, B, an-mch, Phn-lan, Php,
c, Hy-lp, Ireland, Italia, Luxemburg, H-lan, B-o-nha, Ty-ban-nha, Thu-in v Anh.
European Union-Mercosur Agreement: Hip nh Lin minh Chu u - Mercosur
c thng qua vo ngy 15/12/1995 ti Madrid. Hip nh khi u cho mt qu trnh hp
tc trong tng lai gia hai nhm. Cc lnh vc cp bao gm kinh t, thng mi, cng
nghip, hi quan, thng k, s hu tr tu, u t, nng lng, giao thng vn ti, khoa hc v
cng ngh, vin thng v cng ngh thng tin, mi trng, gio dc, vn ho v chng bun
bn ma tu. Cng vic s c thc hin thng qua Hi ng Hp tc cp b trng. Hip
nh hp tc c th dn n mt hip nh thng mi t do gia hai nhm, c kh nng l vo
nm 2005. Xem thm Mercosur.
Exchange dumping: Ph gi hi oi
c cp trong qu kh nh l mt hnh thc ph gi. Ph gi hi oi c gi thit l xy
ra thng qua cc th thut tc ng vo t gi hi oi mang li cho hng xut khu ca mt
nc no mt li th trn th trng nhp khu. Ci gi l ph gi hi oi c tho lun
vo thi gian m phn v Hin chng Havana, th nhng khng c lut l no c ra
gii quyt thc t ny. Mt vi s ku gi m phn v thng mi v ngoi hi xut hin da
trn c s quan im cho rng vn cn tn ti mt vi hnh thc ph gi hi oi.
Exchange of concessions: Trao i u i
Cc kt qu tha thun song phng t c do kt qu ca yu cu v cho cam kt trong
m phn thng mi a phng. u i theo ngha hp l mt rng buc, nhng n cng c
s dng gim thu ni chung. Xem thm bindings (goods).
Excise duty: Thu tiu th
Thu i khi do chnh ph nh vo vic sn xut, bun bn hoc s dng hng ho. Mt v d
tiu biu l thu nh vo vic chng ct v bn ru. Theo cc quy tc ca WTO v ch i
ng quc gia, cc sn phm trong nc v nc ngoi u cng b nh vi mt mc thu tiu
th.
Exclusive import rights: Quyn nhp khu c quyn
Vic dnh cho ngi nm gi cc bng pht minh, bn quyn v cc quyn s hu tr tu khc
kh nng ngng vic nhp khu ng thi cc sn phm cng th hin cc quyn s hu tr tu
. Mt vi nc quy nh quyn nhp khu c quyn cc sn phm c bit i vi thng
mi quc doanh. Xem thm trading rights.
Explicit harmonization: S hi ho r rng
Mt hnh thc hp tc gia cc chnh ph t c cc tiu chun v song phng, khu vc
v ton cu thng nht v c s rng buc v mt php l. S hi ho i hi phi loi bt mt

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vi tiu chun ph hp vi tiu chun trong c cu quc t hoc cc t chc quc t. Xem
thm harmonization v zero-margin harmonization.
Exon-Florio amendment: Bn sa i Exon-Florio
Mt iu khon trong Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh Hoa K nm 1988. Lut ny y quyn
cho Tng thng c ngn chn trn c s an ninh quc gia cc vic hp nht cng ty, mua li
cng ty v lin doanh c lin quan n u t ca nc ngoi. Bn sa i ny cho php mt s
linh hot ng k khi p dng. Xem thm foreign investment screening, national interest v
security exceptions.
Export cartel: Cartel xut khu
Xem Cartel.
Export control: Kim sot xut khu
Cc bin php do cc nc xut khu thc hin gim st cc lung xut khu. Nguyn nhn
ca vic kim sot c th l rt nhiu tuy khng phi l tt c nhng bao gm c vic tun th
s trng pht kinh t ca Lin hp quc, tn trng cc tha thun hn ch t nguyn, tun theo
hn ngch xut khu trong cc hip nh hng ho quc t, qun l hng xut khu chin lc
v gim st cc quy nh ca hng xut khu hai mc ch cng vi chnh sch bo tn mt s
nguyn liu th v cc iu mc khc i vi vic sn xut v tiu dng ni a. Xem thm
grey-area measures v Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms
and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.
Export credits: Tn dng xut khu
Vic gia hn thi hn thanh ton cho nh nhp khu (ngi mua) hng ho v dch v. Cc
thnh vin ca OECD qun l tn dng xut khu c chnh ph h tr theo Tho thun v
cc nguyn tc ch o tn dng cho xut khu c tr cp chnh thc. Thc tin c chp
nhn chung hin nay l coi thi hn thanh ton di 2 nm l ngn hn, t 2 n 5 nm l trung
hn v khong trn 5 nm l di hn. Rt nhiu nc xut khu c c ch qun l, h tr v bo
m cc khon tn dng xut khu, c bit l trong trng hp c cc hp ng ln nh nh
my in hoc phng tin thit b cho cng bin, bi v cc iu khon tn dng thun li c
th gy nh hng ng k n tnh cnh tranh trong u thu. Hip nh v Tr cp v Thu
i khng ca WTO cm cc khon tn dng xut khu nu chng c li sut thp hn li sut
thng mi. Tn dng xut khu ca OECD ph hp vi Hip nh ca OECD th c min tr
khi s cm on ny.
Export culture: Vn ho xut khu
S cng nhn gia cc c nhn, cc hng v cc chnh ph rng xut khu cnh tranh ng gp
ng k cho s thnh vng kinh t quc gia v vic tham gia ca xut khu cnh tranh vo th
trng quc t do c th c u tin cao hn. Vic thc y v duy tr vn ho xut khu
yu cu phi n lc lin tc loi b nhng tr ngi v mt c cu trong nc i vi xut
khu v m bo kh nng xm nhp th trng khng phn bit i x cc nc khc.
Export incentives: Khuyn khch xut khu
Cc bin php c chnh ph chp thun nhm thc y vic m rng xut khu ca cc cng
ty trong nc. Cc bin php c th bao gm tr cp trc tip, cc phn thng, gim thu
nhp khu cho cc b phn c lp rp vo cc sn phm xut khu, u i v thu... Hip
nh v Tr cp v thu i khng coi mt s loi khuyn khch xut khu l bt hp php k
c cc loi tr cp lin quan n vic xut khu cc sn phm. Xem thm bounty v export
subsidies.
Export inflation insurance schemes: Cc k hoch bo him lm pht xut khu
y l cc k hoch do chnh ph thc hin c bit l trong mi trng c lm pht cao vo
nhng nm 70. K hoch c lp ra nhm lm gim ti thiu hoc loi b cc nh hng ca

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lm pht tin t n gi ca cc hp ng xut khu. Cc nc khng duy tr cc k hoch nh
vy th cho rng h dnh cho cc nh xut khu hng li th cnh tranh bi v cc nh xut
khu ny c th u thu trn th trng quc t mt cch tch cc hn v h chc chn nhn
bit c rng h s khng phi chu gi lm pht mt mnh. Mt ban hi thm do GATT lp
ra vo nm 1978 kim tra vic cc k hoch c tng ng vi vic tr cp hay khng
v kt lun rng iu ny c th ng nu nh t l tin thng "r rng khng b p
cho chi ph iu hnh lu di v thua l". Ban ny cng ch thch rng ngha ca t "lu di"
cn cn phi xc nh. Trong mi trng lm pht thp hin nay th bt k mt k hoch no
theo kiu ny vn c th tip tc tn ti nhng khng c s dng n.
Exporting unemployment: Xut khu tht nghip
Mt quan im m h cho rng hot ng kinh t trong nc c th tng ln v do vy cng n
vic lm cng tng ln theo nu nh lung nhp khu b ngn chn bng mt cch no . Ni
mt cch khc, ngi xng tng ny cho rng c th chuyn gnh nng tht nghip sang
vi nc khc. Ni chung mt khi nim c th c chp nhn hn v vic thay th hng nhp
khu c s dng trong thc t ny. Cc chnh sch nh vy c th thc hin trong giai on
ngn nhng ch vi gi phi tr l tnh cnh tranh thp hn ca ngnh cng nghip trong nc.
Cc yu t c xem xt trong vic p dng cc chnh sch thay th hng nhp khu l nhiu
sn phm nhp khu l u vo qu trnh sn xut. Vic tng gi ca cc sn phm ny dn n
vic lm tng chi ph ca cc nh sn xut trong nc. Chi ph tng l khng khuyn khch
ngi mua v iu ny c th coi nh di go nc lnh vo hot ng kinh t. Mc ch ca
vic xut khu tht nghip v vy c th dn n tnh trng tht nghip gia tng. Xem thm
beggar-thy-neighbour policies, local content rules v optimal-tariff argument.
Export of domestically prohibited goods: Xut khu cc hng ho b cm tiu th trong
nc
Mt vi nc cho php vic sn xut cc hng ho b cm bn ti th trng ni a nc v
l do sc khe hay l do an ton. Khi bt u giao dch, cc hng ho ny c ch thch rng
cc mu thc t l rt kh kim. y c nhng quan im bt ng v mc cc nc nhp
khu s cho php m ca th trng cho cc nh sn xut . Mt vi quan im ni rng nu
nh mt nc c nhng lo ngi rt ln v mt o c i vi vic cho php cc sn phm nh
vy nhp vo th trng ni a ca mnh th cng c c sc mnh tuyn b cm xut
khu cc hng ho . Trong trng hp xu nht, nhng lp lun ng h ch ngha bo h
ng v pha nhng ngi chng li quyn ca cc nc khc tham gia vo nhng vic xut
khu nh vy, th nhng trong nhiu trng hp th thc t khng n gin nh vy. Vn
kh khn ny nm trong chng trnh lm vic ca GATT t nm 1982. WTO hin nay vn
ang phi vt ln vi vn ny v cha sn sng a ra mt gii php no.
Export participation rate: T l tham gia xut khu
Thng l mt php o ch r c bao nhiu hng trong mt ngnh cng nghip ca mt nn
kinh t tham gia xut khu hay ang c gng xut khu cc hng ho v dch v. T l tham gia
xut khu l mt phng php hu hiu nhm nh gi mc vn ho xut khu.
Export performance requirements: Cc yu cu thc hin xut khu
Cc iu kin do mt nc p t cho php vic u t nc ngoi trong phm vi lnh th nc
nhm m rng xut khu ca mnh. Ni mt cch n gin nht, mt doanh nghip c vn
u t ca nc ngoi phi xut khu mt s phn trm nht nh hng sn xut ra, th hin
bng tr gi hoc s lng. Trong trng hp i vi nh bun hoc nh bn l th h c th
buc phi cn bng lng hng nhp vi hng xut. Phn ln cc yu cu thc hin xut khu
s b loi tr dn theo Hip nh v Cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi.
Export pessimism: Ch ngha bi quan xut khu
Quan im thnh hnh c bit vo nhng nm 50 l thi k hong kim ca cc chnh sch thay
th hng nhp khu ca cc nc ang pht trin khu vc M La-tinh. Ch ngha ny da

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trn c s gi thuyt cho rng lng xut khu nh b ca h s khng th thc y c vic
pht trin kinh t v hi nhp quc t th n s lm xi mn tnh cnh tranh m nn kinh t c
th c c. Kt lun cui cng l vic thay th hng nhp khu l chnh sch hin thc nht.
Xem thm dependence theory.
Export propensity: Khuynh hng xut khu
Phn sn xut hng ho v dch v trong nc c xut khu sang cc th trng khc. Xem
thm export participation rate.
Export processing zone: Khu ch xut
Xem free-trade zones.
Export quotas: Hn ngch xut khu
Cc hn ch v gii hn trn do nc xut khu p t cho tng gi tr hoc tng khi lng
ca mt s sn phm nht nh. Hn ngch xut khu c dng bo v cc nh sn xut v
ngi tiu dng trong nc khi s thiu ht tm thi ca cc sn phm ny hay vic ci thin
gi ca mt s sn phm trn th trng th gii bng vic thu hp ngun cung cp chng. Kh
nng th hai ch c th thc hin mt nc hay mt nhm nc c u th xut khu v mt
sn phm. Hip nh hng ho quc t vi cc iu khon v kinh t c th ng h mc ch
bnh n gi ca h thng qua hn ngch xut khu, i khi cng vi kho m. iu XX(h) (Cc
ngoi l chung) ca GATT cho php cc thnh vin p dng cc bin php h tr cc ngha v
m h chp nhn theo cc Hip nh v hng ho lin chnh ph theo cc nguyn tc ca
ECOSOC nm 1947. iu ny cng c phn nh Chng VI ca Hin chng Havana.
iu XX(i) ca GATT cng cho php cc thnh vin duy tr "hn ch xut khu cc nguyn
liu trong nc cn thit m bo s lng cn c ca cc nguyn liu cho ngnh cng
nghip ch bin trong nc trong nhng thi k khi gi trong nc ca cc hng ho c
gi thp hn gi th gii nh l mt phn ca k hoch bnh n gi ca chnh ph", th nhng
nhng hn ch khng th s dng lm tng vic xut khu hng ho c lin quan hoc
dnh cho n mt s bo h ln hn. Cc l do m Chimni a ra (1978) chng li hn ngch
xut khu bao gm (a) xu hng ca n l phn bit i x i vi cc nh sn xut c chi ph
thp v nhng ngi mi gia nhp th trng, (b) chng khng c kh nng gim bt s thiu
ht, (c) chng c th dn n vic cc nh sn xut c cc phn on bt hp l v mc gi, (d)
chng c th i ngc li mc ch t coi trng th trng bng cch m bo mt gi ti thiu
cho cc nh sn xut km hiu qu, (e) gi cao khuyn khch cc nh tiu th tiu dng cc sn
phm thay th, sn phm tng hp hay sn phm sn xut theo cng ngh mi, (f) kh khn
chung ca vic m phn v cp hn ngch, c bit khi c s thay i c cu do th trng gy
ra, v d s thay i s thch ca ngi tiu dng hoc s tham gia ca nh sn xut da trn
cng ngh mi, (g) rt kh khn m bo rng tt c cc nh sn xut quan trng l thnh
vin ca mt hip nh vi hn ngch nhp khu, v (h) Trong thi gian cung ch tha mt cht
thi th vic gia nhp th trng ca mt nh xut khu nh cng c th gy nh hng mt cn
i. Mt vi l l cho rng Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng s a ra gii php i vi
hu ht nhng kh khn v n c s hi vin rt rng, nhng lch s ca hip nh hng ho
t 1976 khi chng trnh hi nhp ang c m phn, khng ng h l l ny. Xem thm
commodity policy.
Export restitution: Bi thng xut khu
Mt tr cp xut khu theo Chnh sch nng nghip chung nhm b p s chnh lch gia gi
c trong nc v gi c trn th gii.
Export restraint arrangement: Tho thun hn ch xut khu
Xem voluntary restraint agreement.
Export subsidies: Tr cp xut khu
Nhng khon chi ca chnh ph hoc nhng khon ng gp ti chnh ca cc chnh ph cho

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cc nh sn xut hay xut khu trong nc h xut khu hng ho hay dch v. Vic tr cp
ny c th tri vi Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng. Xem thm export
incentives.
Export targeting: nh hng xut khu
Vic mt nc xut khu la chn mt vi nc c th trng c bit ha hn xut khu
sn phm ca mnh. Thc tin ny gy b cc nh sn xut cc nc nhp khu ch trch khi
cc thng l thng mi khng lnh mnh c s dng. Lut Thng mi v Cnh tranh Hoa
K Khon 301 xp nh hng xut khu trong s cc o lut, chnh sch v tp qun bt
hp l. V nh vy, chng c th s l c s cho mt hnh ng theo Khon 301. Tht l th v
khi thy rng nhng ngi phn i vic nh hng xut khu li khng c nhng lo ngi
tng t v nh hng nhp khu hoc cc chng trnh m rng nhp khu t nguyn.
Export tariffs: Thu xut khu
nh vo hng ho hoc nguyn vt liu thi im chng ri lnh th hi quan quc gia.
Nhng l do nh thu xut khu l tng thu nhp cho ngn sch nh nc, y mnh hn
na vic gia cng hng ho trong nc v hnh thnh mt chnh sch m bo rng cc nguyn
vt liu khan him v cn thit cho nn sn xut trong nc phi c d tr mc ti a cho
cng nghip ni a. Xem thm double pricing v Lerner's symmetry theorem.
Extraterritoriality: p dng ngoi lnh th
Vic p dng lut l trong nc mt cch c hoc t nhin i vi nhng cng dn hay cng
ty ca mt nc do cng dn ca nc qun l, m nhng cng dn hoc cng ty ang c
tr hay hot ng kinh doanh trong nhng phm vi ti phn khc. Xem tuna case (Mexico-
United States, 1991) i vi quan im ca mt Ban hi thm GATT v vic p dng ngoi l
chung trong trng hp p dng ngoi lnh th. Xem thm antitrust laws, D' Amato legislation,
effects doctrine v Helms-Burton legislation.

Factor proportion theory: L thuyt t l t liu sn xut

Xem Heckscher-Ohlin theorem.
Failing-firm doctrine: Hc thuyt v cng ty tht bi
Mt hc thuyt c xy dng theo lut chng c quyn ca Hoa K v mt s nc khc. N
cho php hp nht nhiu cng ty li vi nhau (iu ny trong trng hp khc l khng c
php), nu p ng c cc iu kin: (a) kinh doanh thua l nghim trng, (b) khng c bt
k khch hng trin vng no v (c) c t c hi ci t thnh cng. Xem thm crisis cartel.
Fair and equitable treatment: i x cng bng v bnh ng
Mt ngha v c quy nh trong iu XVII (Doanh nghip Thng mi quc doanhNh
nc) ca GATT v hot ng ca thng mi quc doanh lin quan n vic nhp khu hng
ho ca Chnh ph. Ngha v ny khng c tnh bt buc nh i ng ti hu quc, nhng thc
cht n dnh s khng phn bit i x trong mc ti thiu c th.
Fair competition: Cnh tranh lnh mnh
Trong chnh sch thng mi quy nh rng thng mi quc t phi c tin hnh theo
nguyn tc khng phn bit i x ca h thng thng mi a phng. i khi iu ny cng
c hiu nh l sn chi bnh ng. Mt yu t ca cnh tranh lnh mnh trong thng mi l
cnh tranh c hn ch trong nhng gii hn nht nh. Nu khng, cc bin php chng ph
gi, thu i khng, ... c th c p dng. Trong chnh sch cnh tranh, cnh tranh lnh

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mnh c ngha l hot ng kinh doanh tun theo nhng quy nh lut php v cnh tranh hin
hnh. Xem thm equitable competititon v fair trade.
Fair labour standards: Tiu chun lao ng bnh ng
Xem core labour standards v social clause.
Fair trade: Thng mi lnh mnh
Khi nim ny c nhiu ngha khc nhau. N c th l mt h thng thng mi m trong
cc quyn li v ngha v ca cc bn tham gia ngang bng v c tun th nh nhau. Vi
mt s ngi khc, khi nim ny c ngha l thong mi khng da vo ph gi hay tr cp.
Vo nhng nm 1980, thng mi lnh mnh c ngi ta nh ngha l mt ci g na n
nh thng mi c qun l, nh l nhng n lc t c cn bng thng mi song phng.
Trong chnh sch cnh tranh, thng mi lnh mnh cp n vic tin hnh cc hot ng
mua bn khng da trn nhng hnh vi phn cnh tranh c quy nh trong lut cnh tranh
ca mt nc. ngha ca khi nim thng c lm r trong bi cnh c th.
Fair-trade-in-financial-services legislation: Lut v thng mi cng bng trong dch v ti
chnh
D tho lut c a ra xem xt ti Quc hi Hoa K vo mt vi thi im khc nhau. Tng
thng c trao quyn xem xt mc xm th ca cc c quan ti chnh Hoa K vo nc
khc khi nh gi mc nhng nc khc c kh nng thm nhp vo th trng Hoa K.
Xem thm financial services v reciporcity.
Fast-track timetable: Lch trnh nhanh
Mt c cu hnh thnh t khi thng qua Lut Thng mi Hoa K nm 1974, theo Quc hi
c th ph chun hoc bi b ton b nhng tho thun thng mi do USTR m phn. Nhng
iu kin ch yu l: (a) nhng kt qu d kin ca m phn phi c thng bo r rng cho
Quc hi trc khi quyt nh kt lun Quc hi c th tham vn vi Chnh ph, (b) cc u
ban ca Quc hi phi bo co v d lut trong thi gian ngn, v (c) hn ch vic tho lun v
d tho lut c hai vin. Mt s ngi cho rng quy nh lch trnh nhanh ny lm cho
USTR khng ch l mt c quan ca Chnh ph m cn l mt c quan ca Quc hi.
Final goods and services: Hng ho v dch v cui cng
Nhng hng ho v dch v c mua bi ngi s dng cui cng. Chng khng c s dng
trong bt k quy trnh sn xut no khc. Chng khc vi nhng hng ho dch v trung gian.
S phn bit ph thuc hon ton vo ngi mua chng. Mt b pha tr c mua s
dng trong gia nh l sn phm cui cng, nhng nhng b pha tr c cc khch sn
mua pha tr cho ba n sng r rng l hng ho trung gian cung cp dch v cui cng.
Financial services: Dch v ti chnh
Ngn hng, bo him ni chung, bo him nhn th, qun l qu, bun bn chng khon v cc
dch v t vn lin quan n nhng hot ng . Xem thm fair-trade-in-financial-services
legislation, financial services interim agreement, prudential regulation, Understanding on
Financial Services v Unites States-Japan financial services agreement.
Financial Services Interim Agreement: Hip nh lm thi v dch v ti chnh
Hip nh c p dng ngy 28/7/1995 nh du kt qu ca vng m phn u tin v dch
v ti chnh trong WTO. N bao gm cc iu kin m ca th trng v cam kt ca cc bn
tham gia. N khng c nhng quy nh mi v thng mi. Hip nh lm thi ny ht hn vo
1/11/1997. Mt im c trng ca Hip nh ny l tt c cc bn, tr Hoa K, u dnh cho
nhau i ng ti hu quc. V th, Hoa K s c hng quy ch MFN t tt c cc nc
thnh vin WTO. Mt khc, Hip nh ny bi b s min tr MFN i vi tt c cc nc
trong tt c cc dch v ti chnh, cho php n p dng nguyn tc c i c li quyt nh
mc m ca th trng cho cc t chc ti chnh nc ngoi. Xem thm free rides v MFN

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exemptions (services).
FIRA panel: Ban hi thm FIRA
c GATT thnh lp nm 1982 xem xt khiu ni ca Hoa K v o lut R sot u t
nc ngoi ca Canada (FIRA) 1973. Theo o lut ny, cc nh u t nc ngoi phi k
nhng tho thun vi chnh quyn Canada, theo cc nh u t nc ngoi phi dnh u tin
cho vic mua hng ca Canada ch khng mua hng nhp khu v phi p ng nhng yu cu
thc hin xut khu nht nh. Nhng cam kt mua hng ho trong nhiu trng hp i km
vi iu kin v tnh hnh hng ho c sn c, c , hoc c vi lng c th cnh tranh
Canada hay khng v cc mt gi c, cht lng, iu kin giao hng hoc nhng yu t khc.
Khng mt tho thun no phi thi hnh thng qua h thng to n. C hai bn nht tr rng
FIRA t n khng l mt vn , cng nh quyn ca Canaa qun l vic u t v m rng
u t trc tip nc ngoi. Ban hi thm thy rng nhng cam kt bt buc u tin mua
hng ho ca Canada thay v hng ho nhp khu cho thy r rng l hng ho nhp khu b
i x km u i hn l hng ho trong nc, iu ny khng ph hp vi iu III:4 ca
GATT (i ng Quc gia). Ban hi thm thy rng iu ny cng ng khi nhng cam kt l
khng chnh thc, v d nh iu kin hng ho tr thnh ph bin, bi v iu ny thc ra l
i hi phi dnh u tin cho hng ho ni a. Ban hi thm lu rng mc tiu duy nht ca
iu III:4 l m bo cho sn phm ni a v nhp khu c hng cc iu kin cng bng.
Ban hi thm cng thy rng nhng cam kt mua hng ho t cc nh cung cp Canada cng
khng ph hp vi iu III:4. Ban hi thm gi rng c th sa FIRA cho ph hp m
bo rng sn phm ni a v sn phm nc ngoi s c hng s i ng nh nhau.
First-difference negotiations: m phn v khc bit ban u
Mt cch gi khc ca k thut m phn song phng yu cu v cho cam kt c p dng
trong h thng WTO cho thng mi hng ho v dch v.
First-difference reciprocity: S tng h vi khc bit ban u
Xem first-difference negotiations.
First-order protectionism: Ch bo h hng u
Cc bin php hn ch thng mi thuc loi cc hip nh hn ch t nguyn. iu khon ny
da trn lp lun r rng rng bt k bin php no nh vy cng u mang tnh bo h. Xem
thm protectionism.
First regionalism: Ch ngha khu vc th nht
c Bhagwati s dng nm 1993 m t ln sng ca cc tho thun thng mi u i
c k trong nhng nm 1950 v 1960. T n nay, hai tho thun chnh cn tn ti l
Cng ng Chu u v EFTA.
First-to-file: Ngi ng k u tin
Mt th tc xc nh quyn c cp bng pht minh u tin. Phn ln cc nc, tr mt
s nc nh Hoa K v Philippines, dnh u tin cp bng pht minh cho ngi ng k u
tin ch khng tnh n vic pht minh ra i khi no. Hoa K v Philippines s dng
nguyn tc "ngi pht minh u tin" xt cp bng pht minh. Thun li chnh ca phng
php ngi ng k u tin l nu tranh chp xy ra, n chng minh r rng im khi u
quyt nh nh pht minh no c hng quyn u tin. Theo phng php ngi pht minh
u tin, c th rt kh khn chng minh ngy pht minh ra i thng qua vic s dng s ghi
chp hoc cc h s khc. Xem thm intellectual property rights.
First-to-invent: Ngi pht minh u tin
Xem First-to-file.
Flat-tariff structure: Cu trc thu quan mt cp

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Mt danh mc thu quan trong tt c mc thu bng nhau hoc gn bng nhau. V d in
hnh nht l nm 1997 Chile c mc thu 11% cho tt c hng ho nhp khu.
Flexibility provisions: iu khon linh hot
Nhng iu khon ny lin quan n s ct gim i vi nhng khon tr cp xut khu nng
sn theo kt qu ca cc cuc m phn Vng Uruguay. Nu tr cp xut khu ca mt nc
tng k t giai on 1986-90 l giai on c s ca cc m phn, ngi ta c th la chn giai
on 1991-92 l giai on c s. Tuy nhin, thi im kt thc hon thnh vic ct gim vn
nh nhau. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture.
Floating initial negotiating rights: Quyn m phn ban u th ni
Xem initial negotiating rights.
Floor price: Gi sn
Mt mc gi m bo cho cc nh sn xut hng ho. N c th cao hn hay thp hn gi trn
th trng th gii i vi hng ho . Trong cc hip nh hng ho quc t, gi sn c th
mc m ngi qun l kho m phi mua c gng gim vic cung cp v bng cch ny h
tr cho gi th trng. Xem thm Common Agricultural Policy, loan rate v trigger price
mechanism.
Florence Agreement: Hip nh Florence
Hip nh v nhp khu ti liu cho Gio dc, Khoa hc v Vn ho. c thng qua di s
bo tr ca T chc Gio dc, Khoa hc v Vn ho Lin hp quc (UNESCO) thng qua v
bo tr vo nm 1950. Cc bn ca Hip nh cam kt khng nh thu nhp khu i vi sch,
n phm, vn bn v cc ti liu gio dc, khoa hc, v vn ho lit k trong cc ph lc. Mt
ngh nh th gn vi Hip nh ny c thng qua nm 1977 cha ng nhng danh mc ti
liu mi cp nht.
Flying-geese formation: L thuyt n chim bay
Xem convoy proplem.
Food Aid Convention: Cng c Vin tr lng thc
Xem International Grains Agreement.
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO): T chc Nng nghip v Lng thc
c thnh lp nm 1945 nh mt trong cc c quan chuyn mn ca Lin hp quc. Mc tiu
ca n nh c quy nh trong li ni u ca iu l l: (a) nng cao mc dinh dng v
mc sng cho nhn dn cc nc thnh vin, (b) bo m nng cao hiu qu ca vic sn xut
tt c lng thc v nng sn, (c) ci thin iu kin ca nhn dn vng nng thn, v (d)
bng cch ny ng gp vo vic pht trin kinh t th gii v bo m vic gii phng nhn
loi khi nn i. FAO c cc u ban v cc vn hng ho, nng nghip, an ton thc phm
th gii. T chc ny hot ng tch cc trong vn pht trin t ai v ngun nc, cy
trng v chn nui gia sc, lm nghip v nh c. Cng vi T chc Y t th gii, FAO tham
gia qun l U ban Codex Alimentarius vi mc ch tng cng s hi ho ca yu cu v
thc phm v do lm cho thng mi quc t pht trin hn. Tr s ca FAO t ti Rome.
Xem thm World Food Programme.
Food-for-Peace program: Chng trnh Lng thc cho Ho bnh
Xem PL 480.
Food security: An ton lng thc
Mt vn hin nay tm thy ch ng trong chng trnh ngh s ca thng mi quc t,
v d nh quyt nh ca cc b trng WTO ti Marrakesh nghin cu kh nng v nhng nh
hng tiu cc ca chng trnh ci cch nng nghip WTO i vi cc nc km pht trin v

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cc nc ang pht trin phi nhp khu lng thc. Mt trong nhng trch nhim ca quc gia
l m bo cung cp lng thc cho nhn dn. Mt vi nc t sn xut lng thc hoc
xut siu lng thc, nhng mt s nc khc li phi nhp khu lng thc vi s lng nhiu
hoc t. Tuy nhin, mt s khc li tm kim an ton lng thc thng qua cc chng trnh ni
a bo v cc nh sn xut chng li s cnh tranh t bn ngoi thng qua thu quan, tr cp
v cc bin php phi thu quan khc. nh hng quc t ca nhng chng trnh ny khc
nhau. Vic a ra chnh sch thng mi l nhm m bo rng cc bin php nhm t c
an ton lng thc khng phi l cc phng php tr hnh nhm lm suy yu hoc v hiu ho
nhng ngha v pht sinh t Hip nh v Nng nghip ca WTO hoc ngn cn s cn thit
y mnh ci cch v t do ho thng mi trong lnh vc nng nghip. Mt lp lun mnh m
l thng mi t do hn trong nng nghip s tr gip cho cc nh sn xut sn phm nng
nghip cc nc ang pht trin thng qua vic gim tr cp xut khu, c bit l cc nc
OECD, nhng tr cp dm gi ca ngi sn xut trong cc nc nhp khu. Thng mi
t do hn cng s dn n cc c hi ln hn cho vic m ca th trng v gi c hng ho
quc t cao hn. Vic ci thin iu kin cho ngi sn xut cc nc ang pht trin thc t
s tng cng an ton lng thc quc gia. Bi vy, nhng l l cho rng cc nc ang pht
trin c li t vic tr cp cho xut khu lng thc l hon ton sai lm. Xem thm Food
and Agricultural Organisation v World Food Programme.
Foot dragger: Bn c tnh tr hon
Mt bn ca m phn thng mi a phng s dng nguyn tc nht tr ngn cn mt
quyt nh hoc lm gim bt tnh hiu lc ca mt iu khon cho ph hp vi mc ch ca
ring mnh. Xem thm consensus v convoy problem.
Footloose inducstries: Cc ngnh cng nghip lng chn
Mt thut ng ch cc ngnh cng nghip m a im l khng quan trng lm i vi sn
xut v bn hng bi v h khng ph thuc vo c s h tng vt cht k thut hoc u t c
nh. H c th d dng chuyn n ni khc tm mt mi trng hot ng r hn v tt
hn. i khi h phi lm iu p ng quy ch xut x mi. Mt s hot ng dch v
nh x l thng tin c cho l thuc loi cc ngnh cng nghip lng chn. Ton cu ho m
rng quy trnh sn xut ra nhiu nc cho nn n thc y nhng ngnh cng nghip ny pht
trin.
Fordism: Ch ngha Ford
Mt khi nim do Frobel v cc nh kinh t khc a ra ln u tin vo nm 1978 ch cc hot
ng sn xut v cnh tranh c bit l ca cc tp on xuyn quc gia ln. Khi nim ny
cho rng cnh tranh da trn gi l do tn dng c cc yu t nh tng cng vic c kh
ho, phn chia nhim v gia lao ng khng c tay ngh v lao ng c tay ngh, dy chuyn
sn xut v hng ho d phng. Nm 1993, Eden ch ra rng ch ngha Ford l h thng i
hi nhiu vn vi mc ch t c li ch kinh t ca quy m thng qua sn xut hng lot
cc sn phm c tiu chun ho. Ngi ta cho rng thi cc thnh ca n l giai on gia
nhng nm 1940 n gia nhng nm 1970. Xem thm Post-Fordism.
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA): o lut chng hi l nc ngoi
Mt o lut ca Hoa K c thng qua ln u tin nm 1977 quy trch nhim hnh s cho
cc t chc hay c nhn no lin quan n vic a hi l cho cc quan chc chnh ph nc
ngoi ginh c hay duy tr vic kinh doanh. Bi vy, FCPA lin quan trc tip ti nhng
quy nh v thng l mua sm ca Chnh ph. Xem thm trade and illicit payments.
Foreign direct investment: u t trc tip nc ngoi
c IMF nh ngha l "u t trc tip nhm t c quyn li lu di trong mt doanh
nghip hot ng trong mt nn kinh t khc vi nn kinh t ca nh u t, mc ch ca nh
u t l nhm t c hiu qu cao trong qun l doanh nghip". C nhiu kin v ngha
ca khi nim "quyn li lu di", theo OECD th nu quyn s hu chim 10% hoc hn th s

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tho mn yu cu ca khi nim . OECD cng nh ngha v dng u t trc tip nh sau
(i) vic nh u t trc tip mua phn vn gp hay nhng khon vay ngn hn ca cng ty v
nhng khon tn dng tr trc khc, v (ii) phn vn gp ly t nhng khon li nhun ti u
t ca nh u t trc tip. Xem thm none-equity-based investment, portfolio investment v
World Bank Guidelines on the Treatment of Foreign Direct Investment.
Foreign investment screening: Thm nh u t nc ngoi
Mt c cu m bo rng nhng d n c vn u t nc ngoi p ng c mc tiu pht
trin ca quc gia v th nghim nhu cu kinh t, v c phn ca nc ngoi trong nhng
ngnh hoc doanh nghip c th khng vt qu nhng gii hn lut php. Vic thm nh
cng nhm mc ch m bo khuyn khch nhng n u t c gi tr tht s. Tm quan
trng ca vic thm nh u t nc ngoi trong chnh sch thng mi xut pht t thc t
rng mt s ngi xem n nh kh nng lm cn tr thng mi trong trng hp u t nc
ngoi cn thit cho vic m ca th trng. Qu trnh thm nh c th dn n s khng chp
nhn n xin php u t v v vy t chi vic m ca th trng. Xem thm Exon-Florio
amendment.
Foreign parity: S cn bng nc ngoi
Xem thm most-favoured-nation treatment.
Formula tariff reductions: Gim thu theo cng thc
Xem thm linear tariff cuts.
Fortress effect: Hiu ng pho i
Ch kh nng cc hip nh hi nhp khu vc c th dn n vic c nhiu quan im bo v
cng nghip trong nc ca cc nc thnh vin i vi cc nc khng phi l thnh vin.
Nhiu phn tch cn thn v vn ny vn cha em li kt lun cui cng v cng cha a
ra c cch gii thch khc.
Fortress Europe: Pho i Chu u
Mt thut ng by t s lo ngi ca mt s ngi v s thnh lp Th trng nht th Cng
ng Chu u s lm cho Cng ng ny tr thnh th trng hng ni kh thm nhp. Cho
n nay, nhng s lo ngi nh vy cha thy c c s.
Four freedoms: Bn t do
Di chuyn t do v hng ho, vn, lao ng v dch v. Thnh ng ny thng c s dng
trong bi cnh ca Hip c Rome ti cc Phn I v III. Xem thm deep integration.
Framework Agreements: Hip nh khung
Tn c t cho bn vn kin ca cc Vng Tokyo lin quan c bit ti nhng vn ca cc
nc ang pht trin. Bn vn kin l (i) iu khon cho php, (ii) Tuyn b v cc bin
php thng mi p dng v mc ch Cn cn thanh ton, (iii) Quyt nh v Hnh ng t v
v Mc ch pht trin v (iv) Tho thun lin quan n c ch Thng bo, Tham vn, Gii
quyt tranh chp v Gim st. Xem thm Tokyo round agreements.
Freedoom-of-emigration provision: iu khon di c t do
Xem thm Jackson-Vanik amendment.
Freedom of transit: T do qu cnh
Theo iu V ca GATT, cc thnh vin WTO c quyn vn chuyn hng ho ca h khng
cn qua lnh th ca quc gia thnh vin n ch cui cng m khng b cn tr. Quyn
ny bao gm vic s dng tu thu hoc cc phng tin vn ti khc phc v vic chuyn
ch . Cc nc thnh vin khng c phn bit i x hng ho hoc phng tin vn ti,
v khng c nh thu hi quan i vi hng ho qu cnh. Tuy nhin, h phi tr chi ph

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hnh chnh cho vic cung cp bt k dch v no lin quan ti vic qu cnh .
Freedoms of the air: Cc quyn t do hng khng
Cc chuyn gia hng khng chia quyn ca my bay ca cc hng hng khng c bay qua
lnh th ca h thnh 8 loi khc nhau gi l quyn t do hng khng, tuy nhin thut ng
"quyn t do hng khng" thng ch c s dng cho 6 loi u tin. l (i) quyn c
bay qua mt nc, (ii) quyn c h cnh tip nhin liu hoc v cc l do tng t, nhng
khng c tr khch hoc n khch hoc hng ho, (iii) quyn c tr khch hoc hng ho
mt nc khc, (iv) quyn c n khch hoc hng ho mt nc v a h n nc
mnh, (v) quyn c chuyn ch hnh khch hoc hng ho gia cc nc th ba l nhng
nc s dng lnh th ca h nh mt trung tm, (vi) quyn c th kt hp cc quyn th ba v
quyn th t trong s cc quyn k trn, (vii) quyn c m dch v hng khng vi nc th
ba ngoi nc mnh, v (viii) quyn cung cp dch v hng khng trong mt nc thng c
gi l ni hnh. Nhng quyn t do ni trn thng c thng lng gia cc Chnh ph i
din cho cc hng hng khng. Xem thm Chicago Convention v open-skies agreements.
Free list: Danh mc hng ho t do
Mt danh mc cc loi hng ho c th nhp khu khng phi tr thu hi quan hoc nhng
hng ho khng thuc i tng phi c giy php nhp khu.
Free riders: Ngi n theo
Mt thut ng c s dng ch nhng ngi c hng li t t do ho thng mi, l
ngi t h khng c nhng hnh ng tng xng vi vic c hng li . i khi n
cng ch nhng nc khng mun tham gia vo nhng hnh ng chung nhm t do ho
thng mi, nhng li mun tip nhn nhng li ch . ngha ca thut ng ny, trong bi
cnh ca m phn thng mi, l da trn nguyn tc c i c li. Xt di gc kinh t,
"ngi n theo" t lm hi mnh v h t ph nhn nhng li ch do thng mi t do em
li. Xem thm financial services interim arrangement v most-favoured-nation treatment.
Free trade: Thng mi t do
V mt nguyn tc, hng ho, dch v, vn, v lao ng t do di chuyn qua bin gii. Trong
thc t, chnh sch v mc tiu iu chnh ca quc gia a ra ch ng nhiu hoc t i vi s
di chuyn . Xem thm customs union, economic integration arrangements, four freedom v
free-trade area.
Free trade agreement: Hip nh thng mi t do
Mt hip nh k kt gia hai hay nhiu nc, theo cc nc dnh cho nhau nhng u i v
tip cn th trng, thng gi l thng mi t do. Trn thc t, cc hip nh thng mi t
do c xu hng cho php tt c cc loi min tr i vi cc sn phm nhy cm. Trong mt s
trng hp, thng mi t do ch l mt mc tiu lu di, hoc n th hin mt dng t do ho
thng mi c qun l. Pomfret (1996) lu rt ng rng Hip nh NAFTA chim ti trn
900 trang bn tho, trong khi mt hip nh thng mi t do thc s ch cn c vi dng. Xem
thm customs union, free-trade area, regional integration arrangement v regional trade
arrangement.
Free-trade area: Khu vc thng mi t do
Mt nhm gm hai hay nhiu nc cng xo b thu quan v tt c hoc phn ln cc bin
php phi thu quan nh hng n thng mi gia h. Cc nc tham gia khu vc thng mi
t do c th tip tc p dng thu quan ca h i vi hng ho bn ngoi, hoc h ng xy
dng mt biu thu i ngoi chung. C th gi l nhng khu vc thng mi t do c i c
li. C nhng trng hp cc nc ang pht trin c min khng phi gim thu tng t
nh trng hp SPARTECA v Cng c Lom, mc d h c t do xm nhp th trng cc
nc pht trin. Ngi ta gi l nhng khu vc thng mi t do khng c i c li. Xem
thm customs union, trade creation, trade deviation v trade diversion.

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Free-trade zones: Vng thng mi t do
l nhng vng c xc nh, cn c gi l khu ch xut, thng th nhng vng ny
nm gn cc im nt giao thng v c cc chnh ph cho hng s min gim thu nhp
khu v ti xut khu cc nguyn vt liu th hay nhng b phn ch to dnh ch bin tip
hoc cho cng on lp rp cui cng. Nhng sn phm nh vy c xut khu n nhng th
trng cc nc khc. Nhng vng thng mi t do thnh cng thng cung cp y lao
ng r v c o to tt. Cc nc thnh lp vng thng mi t do thng c trng bi
cc ngnh cng nghip ni a khng c tnh cnh tranh, v l mt cch h tip cn vi u
t v th trng nc ngoi. Nhng vng nh vy i khi dn n vic chuyn giao cng ngh
cho nc ch nh, nhng thng th khng phi l mc ch ca cc cng ty trong cc vng
.
French assistance to exports of wheat and wheat flour: Tr gip ca Php cho xut khu
la m v bt m
Xem French wheat and wheat flour case.
French plan: K hoch Php
Xem Pflimlin plan.
French wheat and wheat flour case: V la m v bt m Php
Vo nm 1958 Australia trnh mt khiu ni ln GATT v nh hng ca vic Chnh ph
Php tr cp cho xut khu la m v bt m. Xut khu nhng sn phm ca Php ginh
mt ca Australia nhng th trng bt m truyn thng Ceylon, Indonesia v Malaya.
Australia cho rng Php lm tri vi nhng ngha v ca h c quy nh ti iu XVI:3
ca GATT. iu khon ny quy nh rng cc nc thnh vin phi trnh s dng tr cp xut
khu cho vic xut khu nhng sn phm s cp, v nu s dng chng th khng c nh
hng n phn chia cng bng ca thng mi th gii. Do trng hp ny tp trung vo
gii thch ngha ca cm t "phn chia cng bng". Vic xut khu la m v bt m ca Php
trong vng 25 nm trc dao ng rt mnh, nhng bt u t nm 1954 xut khu la m,
v c bit l bt m, tng t ngt. V mt tng th, gi bt m xut khu ca Php thp
hn gi bt m ca cc nh xut khu khc. Ban hi thm thy rng vic lm ca Php dn n
vic tr cp cho xut khu la m v bt m v do nm trong phm vi iu XVI:3. Sau
ban hi thm quay sang cu hi liu vic lm ca Php c ginh cho mnh qu phn chia
cng bng ca thng mi th gii v la m v bt m hay khng. Ngi ta lu rng iu
XVI ca GATT khng a ra nh ngha v "phn chia cng bng". Tuy nhin, c tho thun
ngm gia cc thnh vin ca GATT trong khi m phn v Hin chng Havana v Phin hp
r sot ca GATT nm 1955 rng "phn chia cng bng" c p dng cho th trng ton cu
ch khng phi xut khu n th trng ring bit no. Ban hi thm cho rng, iu cng
c hiu rng khng c b qua nhu cu v vic cung cp c hiu qu v kinh t ca cc th
trng trn th gii. Ban hi thm nhc li rng xut khu la m v bt m ca Php tng
ng k t nm 1954 vt qu cc mc t c trong 20 nm trc , v iu cng cho
thy s tng ln v th phn ca Php trong vic xut khu cc sn phm . Ngi ta kt lun
trn c s nhng bng chng v cc mc cc ph v gi m cc tho thun tr cp ca Php
lm tng th phn ca h trong xut khu trn th gii nhiu hn ng k so vi mc cng
bng. Ban hi thm ngh Php cn nhc cc bin php trnh vic to ra cc nh hng bt
li cho vic xut khu la m ca Australia sang th trng ng Nam . iu ny c th lm
c thng qua vic thay i h thng thanh ton ca h hoc tham gia tham vn vi Australia
trc khi cc nh xut khu Php k hp ng xut khu la m mi sang th trng . Kt
lun ny chnh thc kt thc s tham gia ca GATT. Thng 4/1960, Australia v Php t c
tho thun m h hy vng a ra mt mc n nh cho th trng. Vo thng 7/1961 tho
thun c gia hn thm mt nm na.
Frontloading: p dng trc; ct gim trc
cp n s m bo rng cc cam kt t do ho theo mt hip nh hoc tho thun tp
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trung vo giai on bt u thc hin. Xem thm backloading.
FTAA: Khu vc Thng mi t do Chu M
Cn c gi l Hip nh Thng mi t do Ty bn cu. c nht tr nh l mt mc tiu
ti Hi ngh Thng nh Miami ca Chu M vo thng 12/1994 bao gm tt c cc nc
Chu M, tr Cuba. Trong mt chng mc no , c th xem FTAA l mt s m rng ca
NAFTA, nhng v mt php l dng nh hai t chc ny s hon ton tch bit. Theo mc
tiu ra th nm 2005 n s i vo hot ng. 11 nhm cng tc c thnh lp chun
b cho cc vng m phn bao gm cc vn : m ca th trng, th tc hi quan v quy ch
xut x, u t, cc hng ro tiu chun v k thut i vi thng mi, cc bin php v sinh
dch t, tr cp, chng ph gi v thu i khng, cc nn kinh t nh, mua sm ca chnh ph,
quyn s hu tr tu, dch v, v chnh sch cnh tranh. Nhng k hoch hin thi l cc cuc
m phn s c bt u ti Hi ngh Thng nh Chu M t chc vo thng 3/1998 ti
Sanchiago de Chile. Xem thm Enterprise for the Americas Initiative.
Functioning of the GATT System (FOGS): Chc nng ca H thng GATT
Mt trong nhng nhm m phn c thnh lp ti u Vng Uruguay. Nhim v ca n l
tng cng s gim st ca GATT i vi cc chnh sch thng mi quc gia, nng cao ton
b tnh hiu lc v vic ra quyt nh ca GATT nh l mt t chc v tng cng s ng gp
ca GATT gn cht hn na vi vic hoch nh chnh sch kinh t ton cu. Mt trong
nhng thnh cng ca n l xy dng c C ch R sot chnh sch thng mi.

Gains-from-trade theory: L thuyt li ch thu c t thng mi

l mt phn ca l thuyt ca quan h kinh t quc t trong m t rng 2 nc c c cu
gi c khc nhau nu bun bn vi nhau thay v theo ui chnh sch t cp t tc (autarky) th
s thu c li ch kinh t ti a. Li ch nm trong kh nng mt nc mua c nhiu hng
ho hn vi chi ph thp hn l nu c gng t mnh sn xut ra. Kt qu ca l thuyt ny l
vic chuyn mn ho trong sn xut. Xem thm comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin
theorem, self-reliance v self-sufficiency.
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services): Hip nh chung v Thng mi trong
Dch v
Mt trong cc kt qu ca Vng Uruguay, c hiu lc t 1/1/1995. N bao gm tt c thng
mi trong dch v tr cc quyn hng khng song phng v cc dch v mua bn do cc c
quan chnh ph thc hin. N bao hm cc ngha v chung p dng cho tt c cc dch v
thng mi v vic trng pht v d nh i ng ti hu quc, minh bch, quy nh ni a, s
cng nhn v trnh bng cp, cc tho thun hi nhp kinh t, c quyn, nhng thng l
kinh doanh, thanh ton v chuyn giao, cc ngoi l chung v cc ngoi l an ninh. GATS cng
bao hm cc ngha v lin quan n cc cam kt thc hin Hip nh. l s m bo m ca
th trng v i ng quc gia. m phn v nhng vn lin quan n mua sm ca chnh
ph, t v khn cp v tr cp ang c tin hnh. Cc thnh vin ca GATS cng phi cung
cp mt danh mc cam kt trong h s khng p dng cc iu kin nghim ngt hn v m
ca th trng v i ng quc gia cho 3 nm. Ph chng 3 ca T in ny trch dn tm tt
GATS.
GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade): Hip nh chung v Thu quan v
Thng mi
C hiu lc vo 1/1/1948 nh l mt hip nh tm thi v tn ti nh vy cho n khi cc iu
khon ca n tr thnh mt phn ca T chc Thng mi th gii (WTO) vo ngy 1/1/1995.
N thit lp nn cc ngha v a phng cho thng mi trong hng ho, bao gm c i ng

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ti hu quc v I ng quc gia, tnh cng khai, t do qu cnh, chng ph gi v thu i
khng, nh gi hi quan, l ph v th tc xut nhp khu, nhn hiu xut x, hn ch nh
lng, cc quy nh cn cn thanh ton, tr cp, doanh nghip thng mi quc doanh, hnh
ng khn cp v nhp khu (t v), lin minh hi quan v khu vc thng mi t do, v.v...
Phn IV ca GATT c b sung nm 1964 min cho cc nc ang pht trin khng phi
dnh u i c i c li. Ph chng 2 ca T in ny trch dn tm tt GATT.
GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents (BISD): Nhng vn kin c s v ti
liu chn lc ca GATT
Cc bn tin c Ban th k ca GATT xut bn hng nm t 1952 n 1994 trong c cc
quyt nh, kt lun v bo co c thng qua trong giai on . BISD l khng th thiu
c trong vic iu hnh v nghin cu v GATT v lin quan n cc hip nh v b lut.
N c b xung nh k bi mt Sch phn tch ton din.
GATT - consistency of national legislation: GATT - tnh ph hp ca lut quc gia
Theo Ngh nh th gia nhp tm thi, lut php quc gia c hiu lc trc 1/1/1948 c php
tip tc c hiu lc thm ch nu n mu thun vi cc iu khon ca GATT. Ni cch khc,
nhng lut nh vy c bo lu. Nhng lut c thng qua sau ngy phi ph hp vi
GATT, tuy nhin c th c nhng ngoi l nht nh, v d nh di dng cc min tr c
hn ch rt kht khe. Trong trng hp iu khon ch to, ban hi thm thy rng nhng sa
i v lut php bo lu c th c nu chng khng lm cho lut mu thun thm vi
GATT, hoc nu chng khng mt i nguyn vng hp l ca cc nc thnh vin khc. Phn
quyt khc ca ban hi thm, ln ny thuc v trng hp Siu qu, cho rng s tn ti ca lut
php quc gia cho php hnh ng t tri vi GATT l khng vi phm nhng ngha v vi
GATT.
GATT Council of Representatives: Hi ng i din ca GATT
c thnh lp vo 4/6/1960 vic thi hnh GATT c hiu qu hn do vic m rng chng
trnh lm vic ca n. Cho n lc , mt u ban gia hai nhim k bao gm 17 thnh vin
m bo tnh lin tc gia cc hi ngh hng nm ca cc bn k kt. Chc nng chnh ca Hi
ng l xem xt cc vn i hi s quan tm khn cp gia cc hi ngh hng nm ca cc
bn k kt v gim st cng vic ca cc u ban, cc nhm cng tc v cc c quan ph tr
khc. Tt c cc thnh vin ca GATT mc nhin tr thnh thnh vin ca Hi ng v Hi
ng hp khong mi thng mt ln. Trong WTO, c quan thc hin cc chc nng gn ging
nh ca Hi ng GATT l i hi ng.
GATT plus: GATT cng
Ch s i hi hoc chp nhn nhng quy ch ca thng mi quc t cao hn nhng iu
c quy nh trong GATT hay vic m rng nhng quy nh ca GATT n cc lnh vc nm
ngoi thng mi hng ho. Mt trong nhng v d in hnh ca "GATT cng" l ngh ca
Hi ng i ty dng ca Hoa K (1975) v vic nn c mt b lut v t do ho thng
mi trong khun kh ca GATT vi cc quy tc nghim ngt cho vic tin hnh nhng quan h
thng mi gia cc nc cng nghip sn sng chp nhn chng. Theo nhng ngi xng,
li ch s m rng ra cho tt c cc thnh vin ca GATT theo iu khon ti hu quc. B lut
cng s m rng ra cho cc thnh vin mi no sn sng chp nhn nhng ngha v ca n,
nhng ch nhng thnh vin ca b lut mi c th xng m phn thu quan vi cc thnh
vin khc ca b lut. ngh khng c s ng h ca cc thnh vin ca GATT ni
chung. Xem thm most-favoured-nation treatment.
GATT review session: Phin hp r sot ca GATT
Phin hp th 9 ca cc bn tham gia GATT c t chc t thng 10 nm 1954 n thng 3
nm 1955. N r sot li tt c cc kha cnh hot ng ca GATT. Mt vi iu khon quan
trng c sa i, ng ch nht l iu XVIII gii quyt nhng vn lin quan ti
pht trin kinh t v cc quyn v ngha v ca cc nc ang pht trin. Phn ln nhng thay

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i khc l khng ng k. Thng th khng c s nht tr v cu ch nhng sa i. Cng
c mt phin hp m ti Hoa K t c s min tr ca h v nng nghip. Xem thm
developing countries and the GATT v Section 22 waiver.
GATT 1947: Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1947
cp n GATT c thng qua ti phin b mc ca K hp ln th hai U ban tr b ca
Hi ngh Lin hp quc v Thng mi v Vic lm nm 1947, v vic chnh l, sa i hay
iu chnh sau . GATT 1947 c hiu lc t 1/1/1948 cho n khi kt thc Vng Uruguay khi
n c thay th bng GATT 1994. Hai vn bn khc bit v phng din php l ch GATT
1947 l mt hip c quc t.
GATT 1994: Hip nh chung v thu quan v thng mi 1994
Tn chnh thc ca tp hp cc sa i, gii thch, b sung...k t khi GATT 1947 c hiu lc
v bao gm c GATT 1947. ch l mt phn ca hip nh thnh lp WTO, v n khng c
quy ch php l c lp. Ngoi cc quy nh trong GATT 1947 (khng phi bn thn hip nh
GATT 1947), n cn bao gm cc ngh nh th v giy chng nhn lin quan n u i thu
quan, cc ngh nh th gia nhp, cc quyt nh v s min tr vn cn hiu lc v cc quyt
nh khc ca cc bn tham gia GATT, nhng khng bao gm iu khon bo lu. N cng
bao gm 6 bn ghi nh gii thch mt s iu khon ca GATT v Ngh nh th Marrakesh v
GATT 1994 trong bao gm u i thu quan ca cc thnh vin. Cc nc gia nhp WTO
chp nhn tt c cc quyn v ngha v c quy nh trong GATT 1994, nhng h khng th
tham gia ring r i vi n.
Group on Basic Telecommunication (GBT): Nhm v Vin thng C bn
c thnh lp bi U ban v Thng mi dch v vo 15/1/1996 tip ni NGBT. Nhim v
chnh ca n l tip tc t vn v vin thng c bn. N chm dt vo 15/2/1997 vi s k Hip
nh v Dch v Vin thng C bn.
General Agreement on Trade in Services: Hip nh chung v Thng mi dch v
Xem GATS.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi
Xem GATT.
General Council: i hi ng
l mt c quan bao gm tt c cc thnh vin WTO. N c thm quyn chung gim st
cc hip nh khc nhau theo quyn hn ca WTO. N thc hin thm quyn ca mnh gia
cc Hi ngh cp B trng WTO hai nm mt ln v thay mt h. Xem thm dispute
settlement body v Trade Policy Review Mechanism.
General exceptions: Ngoi l chung
iu XIV ca GATS v iu XX ca GATT dnh cho cc thnh vin WTO quyn khng p
dng nhng iu khon ca cc hip nh ny trong nhng hon cnh c quy nh r. Nhng
nhng iu khon ny khng c s dng phn bit i x gia cc nc hoc nh l mt
s hn ch tr hnh i vi thng mi quc t. Theo GATT, quyn c th c s dng
nhm: (a) bo v o c cng cng, (b) bo v cuc sng hay sc kho con ngi, ng thc
vt, (c) bo v vic bun bn vng bc, (d) m bo vic tun theo lut php v cc quy nh
ph hp vi GATT, tun th cc quy nh thu hi quan, thi hnh i vi c quyn, bo v
quyn s hu tr tu v ngn nga nhng hnh ng di tr, (e) gii quyt vn nhng sn
phm ca lao ng t nhn, (f) bo v nhng di sn dn tc v ngh thut, lch s hay gi tr
kho c, (g) bo v ti nguyn thin nhin c th b cn kit, nhng ch trong s kt hp vi
nhng hn ch v sn xut v tiu th trong nc, (h) tun theo nhng ngha v ca cc hip
nh hng ho quc t, (i) hn ch xut khu nguyn vt liu ni a theo cc iu kin c
quy nh nghim ngt, v (j) thng qua cc bin php cn thit mua hoc phn phi nhng

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sn phm ni chung hay cung cp ngn hn a phng. Hip nh GATS, ngoi cc quy nh
ging nhau v o c cng cng v cuc sng con ngi, ng thc vt, cn cp n trt t
cng cng trong nhng trng hp e do nghim trng ti mt trong nhng li ch c bn ca
x hi. Mt s ngoi l khc ca n bao gm vic tun theo lut php v cc quy nh khng
mu thun vi cc quy nh ca GATT, vic thu thu trc tip v cc hip nh chng nh
thu hai ln. Trong v c ng (Mexico-Hoa K, 1991), ban hi thm nhc nh rng iu khon
ngoi l chung trong GATT l mt ngoi l hn ch v c iu kin i vi cc ngha v theo
cc quy nh khc ca GATT, v khng phi l mt quy tc xc thc thit lp nn cc ngha v.
iu khon thng c gii thch theo ngha hp, v bn dn chiu n phi bin h cho
hnh vi ca mnh. Cc tranh chp khc lin quan n iu khon XX bao gm trng hp c
ng (Canada-Hoa K, 1982), xng pha v c trch v c hi. Xem thm security exceptions.
Generic springboarding: Xut pht im ca hng ho c c im ging nhau
Thut ng ny m t qu trnh m mt cng ty bt u chun b cho vic tung ra th trng mt
loi hng ho c c im ging nh loi hng ho c trn th trng, v d ging mt loi
dc phm vn thuc din bo tr bng pht minh. nh ca hng l bt u sn xut v phn
phi sn phm ngay khi thi hn c bo v ca pht minh ht hiu lc. Bng cch , n c
gng trnh kh nng vi phm quyn s hu tr tu. Xem thm intellectual property.
Genetic labelling: Dn nhn xut x
Mt h thng dn nhn sn phm c mt s ngi tn thnh ch ra rng sn phm hoc
cc thnh t ca n c thay i xut x. Nhng ngi khi xng cho rng lm nh vy l
v li ch ca ngi tiu th v ngi s dng. Nhng ngi phn i cho rng iu l mt
hng ro k thut cho thng mi (technical barrier to trade) khng cn thit. V l do chi ph,
a s cc nc khng phn bit thay i xut x vi cc loi nng sn khc. Tt c cc nc
thnh vin Cng ng Chu u u c yu cu ban hnh lut v dn nhn xut x trc
31/7/1997 m bo rng cc cng ty c tr s cc quc gia thnh vin s dng nhn ny
khi cn thit. Xem thm eco-labelling v social labelling.
Geneva Convention: Cng c Genve
Cng c Bo h cc nh sn xut sn phm m thanh chng li s sao chp tri php sn
phm ca h. Bo h nh sn xut sn phm m thanh ca mt nc thnh vin khc chng li
vic sao chp tri php. "Sn phm m thanh" c ngha l mt s ghi m thanh, v d nh vic
thu m (on ghi m, a, bng...). Thut ng khng bao hm m thanh phim nh hay bng
Video. Cng c hin thi c 52 thnh vin.
Geneva Tariff Conference, 1947: Hi ngh Thu quan Genve 1947
Gm cc m phn thu quan gia cc bn tham gia U ban tr b Hi ngh Lin hp quc v
Thng mi v Vic lm. Khong 45.000 u i c trao i. l dp u tin cc m
phn v thu quan c tin hnh trn c s a phng. Cc m phn c tin hnh theo
nguyn tc ngi cung cp chnh. Ni cch khc, vic dnh u i ch phi cn nhc nu nc
cung cp phn ln nht ca sn phm nn ngh i vi mt s gim thu. Ngi ta cho rng
Hi ngh thu quan ny tr thnh vng u tin ca m phn thng mi a phng. Xem
thm principal supplier right.
Geneva Tariff Conference, 1955-56: Hi ngh Thu quan Genve 1955-56
Mt vng nh v m phn thu quan a phng, ch yu l v Quc hi Hoa K hn ch
quyn m phn ca on Hoa K. l hi ngh thu quan chnh thc cui cng, v c coi
l vng th t ca m phn thng mi a phng.
Geographical indications: Nhng ch du a l
Mi biu thc hoc k hiu c s dng ch ra rng mt sn phm hay dch v hnh thnh
mt nc, khu vc hay a phng, ni cht lng, uy tn hay cc c tnh khc ca hng ho
c quan h mt thit vi xut x a l ca n. Xem thm appellation of origin v Agreement

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on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
German imports of sardines: Nhp khu c mi ca c
Na-uy vo nm 1952 a ra GATT mt khiu ni lin quan n s phn bit i x ca c v
nhp khu c mi (sardines), c trch cm (sprats) v c trch (herring). Trong tin trnh ca
chng trnh t do ho kinh t ca mnh, c quyt nh xp c mi vo danh mc cho php
hn ch nhp khu, nhng c trch cm v c trch vn thuc i tng ca hn ch nh lng.
iu dn gim ng k vic xut khu c trch cm v c trch ca Na-uy sang c. Na-uy
yu cu ban hi thm xem xt cc bin php ca c liu c mu thun vi iu I:1 (i
ng ti hu quc) v iu XIII:1 (Khng phn bit i x v hn ch nh lng) ca GATT
trong yu cu nhp khu i vi cc sn phm tng t t cc nc khc nhau u c i
x tng t. Ban hi thm cn nhc xem liu c mi, c trch cm v c trch c nn xem nh
l cc sn phm tng t khng, v h lu rng c trong nhng m phn gia nhp lun
lun coi ba loi c l nhng sn phm tch bit nhau. Ban hi thm quyt nh rng bng
chng c a ra khng y cho thy c s phn bit i x. Xem thm Brazilian
unroasted coffee.
Glac cherries: Anh o ng lnh
Mt trng hp do Cng ng Chu u a ra GATT vo nm 1992 chng li Australia. C
quan chng ph gi ca Australia (ADA) p dng thu i khng vi anh o ng lnh
nhp khu t Php v Italia. i n kt lun v s thit hi vt cht i vi ngnh cng
nghip Australia, ADA nh ngha ngnh cng nghip bao gm vic trng anh o trng,
ngi ngm mui v ngi sn xut Anh o ng lnh. Cng ng Chu u khng nh rng
iu mu thun vi iu 6:5 ca B lut Tr cp, mt trong cc hip nh Vng Tokyo,
trong yu cu rng "cng nghip ni a" phi c gii thch l cc nh sn xut ni a
ca sn phm tng t ni chung. Cng ng Chu u cng khng nh rng v ngnh cng
nghip Australia sn xut anh o ng lnh li nhun tng ln 8% so vi 2 nm trc ,
do vy khng th ni l h ang phi chu thit hi vt cht. Ban hi thm hp 2 ln xem
xt trng hp ny, nhng trc khi h a ra quyt nh th Cng ng Chu u thng bo
cho trng ban hi thm rng h khng mun theo ui v ny na.
Glass-Steagall Act: o lut Glass-Steagall
Mt o lut ca Hoa K c thng qua nm 1993. N tch ri ngn hng thng mi v
ngn hng u t. Cc ngn hng, bao gm c cc chi nhnh v cng ty con ca ngn hng
nc ngoi khng c trc tip hay gin tip thc hin cc giao dch chng khon ca nhng
ngi pht hnh chng khon phi chnh ph. Xem thm financial services.
Global commons: Th gii chung
c nh ngha trong U ban th gii v mi trng v pht trin (1987) l cc i dng, v
tr v Nam cc, ngha l nhng phn ca hnh tinh khng thuc phm vi quyn ti phn ca
quc gia.
Global Information Infrastructure (GII): C s h tng thng tin ton cu
Mt ngh c Hoa K a ra nm 1994 cho hp tc quc t trong s pht trin ca h
thng vin thng ton cu v mt mng li thng tin c hiu qu hn, a nng hn. GII c
xy dng da trn 5 nguyn tc c bn: khuyn khch u t t nhn, tng cng cnh tranh,
truy cp t do, to lp mt mi trng iu chnh linh hot, v bo m dch v ton cu.
Globalisation: Ton cu ho
Khuynh hng gia tng tt c cc sn phm tr nhng sn phm n gin nht c cc b phn
cu thnh c ch to mt lot nc, vi cng ngh ph hp v chi ph thch hp nht. Mt
trong nhng nh hng ca n l vic b tr li v hi nhp ca qu trnh sn xut gi cc
nc. V vy, ton cu ho ng v mt mc ca hnh vi c i c li v ph thuc ln nhau.
l c im chnh phn bit ton cu ho vi quc t ho. Ton cu ho c tc ng ti

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cc quy nh v xut x. N gn vi s tng trng trong thng mi trong ni b mt ngnh
cng nghip v thng mi trong ni b cng ty. Xem thm borderless world.
Global negotiations: m phn ton cu
Tn y l m phn ton cu v n hp tc pht trin quc t (Global negotiations
Relating to International Cooperation for Development). K hoch m phn ton cu ny sinh
t ngh v mt Trt t kinh t quc t mi. Ngi ta hy vng nhng cuc m phn ny c
i hi ng Lin hp quc t chc vo nm 1980 sau hn 3 nm tham vn v d tho chng
trnh ngh s, cc th tc v khung thi gian. C nhiu quan im khc nhau v d tho chng
trnh ngh s, vi cc yu cu m phn v nguyn vt liu th, nng lng, thng mi, tin t
v ti chnh. Mt vi nc mun m phn ton cu trong khun kh cc c quan Lin hp
quc trong tng lnh vc c th, nhng mt s nc khc li gi rng nn to lp mt c cu
m phn ring v tng hp. Tuy nhin, i hi ng khng xc tin thc hin ngh
vo nm 1980, mc d ngh c xem xt hng nm, khng c du hiu no v kh
nng k kt mt hip nh v hu ht cc kha cnh c ngh m phn. T nm 1987, vn
m phn ton cu dng nh khng xut hin trong chng trnh ngh s ca i hi ng.
Xem thm Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States v North-South dialogue.
Global quota: Hn ngch ton cu
Gii hn s lng hng ho c th xut khu hay nhp khu ca mt nc trong mt khong
thi gian nht nh, thng l mt nm. Xem thm tariff quota.
Government procurement: Mua sm ca chnh ph
Cn gi l mua sm cng cng. L vic mua sm hng ho v dch v ca Chnh ph hoc c
quan Nh nc c thm quyn phc v cho mc ch s dng. Vic mua sm Chnh ph c
c tnh khong bng 10% tng sn phm quc ni ca nhiu nc, nhng cc c tnh khc
nhau rt xa. Cc quy nh trong GATT v GATS khng p dng cho mua sm chnh ph. Xem
thm Agreement on Government procurement v Working Group on Transparency in
Government procurement.
Graduation: Ch bi b u i
Vic rt li u i thu quan danh cho cc nc ang pht trin theo cc chng trnh GSP (H
thng u i thu quan ph cp) v mt nc t c tng sn phm quc ni trn u
ngi vt qu mt mc nht nh. Nhiu nc cng c c ch cho php thi khng p dng
biu thu u i dnh cho mt s sn phm nht nh mt khi cc nc cung cp sn phm
kim sot c th phn ln hn mt t l nht nh quy nh cho loi hng ho .
Grains Trade Convention: Cng c v Thng mi ng cc
Xem International Grains Agreement.
Grandfather clause: iu khon bo lu
c cp n trong Ngh nh th v vic p dng Tm thi c cc thnh vin sng lp
ca GATT thng qua nm 1947 vi vic tuyn b rng Phn II ca GATT s c p dng
"mt cch y nht min l khng mu thun vi lut php hin hnh". y l iu khon
cho php cc quc gia c duy tr lut l, quy nh tri vi cc iu khon ca GATT. iu
ny da trn quan im cho rng thi im c hiu lc ca GATT s b tr hon v thi hn nu
cc thnh vin trc tin phi thay i lut php trong nc cho ph hp vi cc quy nh ca
GATT. iu khon ny c gi l "iu khon bo lu" v n c chp nhn nh mt vic
ri, trc khi hip nh ra i. iu khon ny khng c p dng cho GATT 1994. Xem
thm GATT-consistency of national legislation.
Green box: Hp xanh
cp n nhng chnh sch h tr trong nc i vi cc sn phm nng nghip c
ngoi tr ra khi cam kt ct gim Vng Uruguay. Chnh sch hp xanh l vic tr cp cho

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ngi nng dn thng qua hng lot cc bin php h tr c tc ng ti thiu ti thng mi
nh: cu t khi b thm ho, nghin cu, kim sot dch bnh, c s h tng, bo v mi trng
v an ton lng thc. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture v blue box.
Greening the GATT: Lm xanh ho GATT
Tn mt cun sch ca Danienl Esty (1994) trong gii thch mt lot cc vn c xp
di tiu Thng mi v mi trng. Thut ng "Greenning of the GATT" cng c s
dng bi nhng ngi mong mun WTO quan tm nhiu hn n vn mi trng v c
nhng ngi nhn thc c s cn thit ca vic GATT phi phn nh mt cch r rng cc
mc tiu bo v mi trng.
Green labelling: Nhn hiu xanh
Xem eco-labelling.
Grey-area measures: Cc bin php min xm
Cc hn ch nhp khu v xut khu mang tnh cht phn bit i x do cc nc tho thun,
thng tri vi cc nguyn tc iu chnh h thng thng mi a phng, nhng li khng hn
tri hon ton vi nhng quy tc a phng. V d l cc Tho thun Th trng c trt
t v cc tho thun xut khu t nguyn. Tt c nhng bin php trn hin nay u tri vi
Hip nh v T v ca WTO. Cc bin php phi c xo b vo nm 1999. Gn y c
cc bin php min xm nh nhng tho thun phn chia th trng (cartel) gia cc hng t
nhn c cc chnh ph ngm chp thun v cc tho thun m rng xut khu t nguyn gia
cc chnh ph.
Group of Negotiation on Goods (GNG): Nhm m phn v hng ho
Mt nhm c thnh lp t khi bt u Vng Uruguay t chc tt c cc vn v m
phn lin quan n GATT v hng ho, bao gm c nhng kha cnh lin quan n thng mi
ca quyn s hu tr tu, v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi.
Group of Negotiation on Services (GNS): Nhm m phn v dch v
Mt nhm c thnh lp t khi bt u Vng Uruguay gii quyt tt c cc vn lin
quan n thng mi dch v.
Group of Three: Nhm ba nc
Tho thun thng mi t do gia Columbia, Mexico v Venezuela c hiu lc t 1/1/1995.
Xem thm free-trade aera.
Group of 77 (G77): Nhm 77
Mt nhm cc nc ang pht trin c t chc khng cht ch, c s thnh vin ban u l
77, c thnh lp ti cuc hp ln u tin ca UNCTAD vo nm 1964. G77 nhanh chng
ng vai tr ch o trong chng trnh ngh s, chng trnh lm vic ca UNCTAD. Hin
nay nhm ny c trn 130 thnh vin. Cc thnh vin hin nay cn c vo tiu ch kinh t,
chnh tr r rng xt kt np thnh vin mi. Ch tch G77 c n nh lun phin cc
nhm i din cho chu Phi, M La-tinh v cc nc Chu . G77 cng hot ng trong nhng
lnh vc khc ca h thng Lin hp quc. Xem thm group system.
Group system: H thng nhm
H thng m vic m phn trong UNCTAD da vo n mt thi gian di. Cc thnh vin
ca UNCTAD c chnh thc chia lm 4 nhm: Cc nc Chu v chu Phi (nhm A), cc
nc OECD (nhm B), cc nc M La-tinh v Ca-ri-b (nhm C) v cc nc XHCN (nhm
D). Vic phn cng trch nhim trong u ban ca UNCTAD c lun phin gia cc nhm
theo nhng ng dn c cc quy nh c cc bn nht tr. Nm 1964 ti UNCTAD I,
Nhm A v C quyt nh nhp lm mt nhm v gi l Nhm G77. Cc tho thun c tin
hnh thng qua nhng ngi iu phi ca nhm tm ra lp trng chung ca nhm. Thng

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thng iu lm cho h hi mt i tnh mm do. H thng nhm l mt trong nhng nhn
t ngn cn UNCTAD hot ng ng chc nng ca mnh bi v n chn trc s xut hin
ca nhng lin minh v mt vn c th m mt s nc pht trin v ang pht trin c
chung quyn li. V vy, s thnh lp nhng nhm nh l Cairns Group trong GATT khng
xy ra i vi UNCTAD.
Growth triangles: Tam gic pht trin
Vng kinh t tiu khu vc c cc chnh ph xc nh c nhiu ha hn c bit cho s pht
trin kinh t nhanh chng do c v tr a l thun li hay do c nhng nhn t thun li. Trn
bn , i khi chng trng ging nh nhng tam gic, nhng cng c th thy chng ging
nh nhng hnh -clit khc. Chng thng c hnh thnh trong khun mu ca vng thng
mi t do. Tam gic pht trin trong hu ht cc trng hp c lp nn do hai hay ba nc
hp tc cng pht trin, nhng cng c khi n nm gn trong lnh th ca mt nc. Xem thm
BIMP-EAGA.
GSP (Generalised System of Preference): H thng u i ph cp
Ln u tin c xut ti UNCTAD II vo nm 1968, v n c hiu lc t nm 1971. N
dnh cho cc nc ang pht trin mt s u i gii hn v t l thu i vi hng ho ca h
trn th trng ca cc nc pht trin lm tng tnh cnh tranh ca hng ho .T nm
1971 thu sut gim mnh l kt qu ca nhng cuc m phn thng mi a phng v
nhng hnh ng n phng, cng nh thay i v nng sut lao ng. i vi nhng nh
xut khu nhng nc ang pht trin, vai tr ca GSP gim nhng n vn l mt nguyn tc
ch yu trong chnh sch thng mi ca nhiu nc ang pht trin. UNCTAD l din n
chnh tho lun v nhng vn ca GSP. Xem thm Australian System of Tariff
Preferences.
GSTP (Global System of Trade Preferences): H thng u i thng mi ton cu
c xy dng vo gia nhng nm 1980 cho php cc nc ang pht trin dnh cho nhau
nhng mc thu u i. Cc cuc m phn c tin hnh di s bo tr ca UNCTAD. Kt
qu m k hoch ny c c cha p ng c nhng mong mun ca nhng ngi xng
ra n. Xem thm ECDC v trade negotiations between developing countries.
Guidelines for Mutual Recognition Agreements or Arrangement in the Accountancy
Sector: Hng dn cho Hip nh cng nhn ln nhau hay l Tho thun v k ton
Mt lot cc nguyn tc khng bt buc c WTO thng qua ngy 29/5/1997 vi mc ch
cc chnh ph d dng hn trong vic m phn v cng nhn ln nhau i vi cc loi bng
cp. Phn A ca hng dn nu ln vic tin hnh cc cuc m phn v nhng ngha v c
lin quan ca cc chnh ph theo quy nh ca GATS. Phn B ch ra mt lot cc vn c th
phi tin hnh trong m phn nh: nh ca cc bn tham gia, mc ch v phm vi ca tho
thun, nhng iu kin m s cng nhn ln nhau phi tun theo, c ch cho vic thc hin v
cc vn c lin quan khc. Xem thm mutual recognition arrangements v Working Party
on Professional Services.
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): Hi ng hp tc vng Vnh
Tn y l Hi ng hp tc cc nc A-rp vng Vnh. c thnh lp vo nm 1981, bao
gm A-rp X t, C-oet, Bahrain, Quata, cc Tiu vng quc -rp Thng Nht v Oman.
Trong s nhng mc ch kinh t chnh tr ch yu l vic a vo nhng h thng tng t
trong cc lnh vc kinh t v ti chnh, thng mi, hi quan v giao thng vn ti, thng tin v
du lch. Vo nm 1981 cc thnh vin ca GCC cng thnh lp khu vc thng mi t do i
vi cc sn phm cng nghip, nng nghip nhng khng bao gm cc sn phm du m.
G-7: Nhm G-7
Bao gm Hoa K, Nht, Php, c, Canada, Italy v Vng quc Anh. Nhm ny n lc a ra
nhng phng hng ln cho hot ng kinh t v tin t quc t. Cc nc thnh vin G-7

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tham gia vo cc hi ngh thng nh v kinh t hng nm gii quyt cc vn v chnh
sch thng mi. Nm 1995, tng sn phm quc ni ca G-7 chim 46% tng sn phm quc
ni ton cu.
G-15: Nhm G-15
Mt nhm gm 15 nc ang pht trin thuc h thng WTO. Cc nc thnh vin gm:
Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ai-cp, n-, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mexico,
Nigeria, Peru, Senegal, Venezuela v Zimbabue.

Haberler Report: Bo co Haberler

Vo cui nm 1957, cc thnh vin ca GATT quyt nh tin hnh kho st nhng xu
hng thng mi quc t v nh hng ca n trong thi gian qua v hin ti. Cuc kho
st ny c bit quan tm v: (a) s tht bi ca cc nc km pht trin trong vic tng trng
thng mi nhanh chng nh cc nc pht trin, (b) s bin ng mnh v gi ca cc sn
phm ch yu v (c) s dng ph bin cc bin php bo h nng nghip. y l cuc kho st
u tin ca GATT xem xt cn thn v cc vn m cc nc ang pht trin ang gp phi.
Mt ban gm cc nh kinh t ni ting c triu tp, ng u l Gottfried Haberler ca
trng i hc Harvard. Bo co ca ban ny c tiu 'Cc xu hng trong Thng mi Quc
t' c a ra vo thng 10/1958. Ngay sau n c bit n vi ci tn Bo co Haberler.
Bo co ny gm 60 kt lun. 15 kt lun u tin a ra nhng tnh ton thc t v s dao
ng ngn hn v nhng xu hng lu di trong bun bn hng ho v thnh phm ph bin ti
thi k . 8 kt lun tip theo gii thch v nhng xu hng trc , nhng yu cu v nhp
khu trong tng lai v nhng trin vng ca xut khu. Bo co khng kt lun c vic liu
trong nhng nm gn y cc nc cng nghip c tng vic bo h nng nghip khng, nhng
bo co cng bo trc nhng tnh ton v bt k s pht trin v thng mi ca cc nc phi
cng nghip tng kh nng ca h trong vic nhp khu. 33 iu khon tip theo l nhng
iu khon quan trng nht c gi l nhng iu khon vng chc ca nhng th trng hng
ho c bit, nhng khng phi bng cch qu tham vng. Bo co cng bn bc v s bo h
nng nghip thng k Bc M v Ty u. Mt tin on cng lin quan n s chuyn
hng ca thng mi trong vt liu th v thc phm cha ch bin khi nhng ngun t bn
ngoi n cc ngun Chu u trong khi li tc thc s ca Chu u tng ln. Ti 4 kt lun
cui cng, cc chuyn gia ng rng mc d cc vn trong bo co c th nh hng trc
ht ln cc chnh sch ca cc nc cng nghip ho cao, h cng s t c li ch t nhng
thay i c ngh. Cc chuyn gia kt lun trong bt k trng hp c mt vi bin h
trong quan im ca cc nc pht trin rng nhng quy nh v cc cng c hin thi v
chnh sch thng mi l tng i bt li i vi h. Bo co t c tc ng ngay ti vic nh
hnh chnh sch trong GATT, mc d n cung cp mt vi tng cho Chng trnh m rng
thng mi, c thng qua vo thng 10/1958, cui cng dn n Vng Dillon. Mt phn
ca l do c th xut pht t thc t rng cui nhng nm 1950 GATT vn ch c 37 thnh
vin, trong c 21 thnh vin l cc nc pht trin. Tuy nhin, bo co chng minh cho
cc quan im ca nhiu nc ang pht trin v nhng kha cnh nh hng n vic xut
khu nguyn liu th ca h. Nhiu kha cnh trong cc vn nu ln c cp trong
qu trnh chun b t chc hi ngh UNCTAD I (1964), mc d nhiu i biu tham d hi ngh
ny cho rng phm vi ca chng hi khim tn v chm chp. Xem thm commodity policy v
developing countries and the GATT.
Hard-core waiver: Min tr thit yu
Mt quyt nh ca GATT vo nm 1955 cho php cc thnh vin trong nhng trng hp nht
nh c duy tr s hn ch nh lng trong vi nm v nhng kh khn trong cn cn thanh
ton ko di lin tc. S min tr ph thuc vo mt s iu kin. V d nh, cc thnh vin

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phi chng minh rng s bi b t ngt hn ch nh lng s gy thit hi nghim trng cho
cng nghip trong nc, v h phi tin hnh mt chnh sch t do ho tin b.
Hard law: Lut cng
Trong chnh sch thng mi, l cc hip nh quc t i hi cc thnh vin ca n phi
thc hin bt buc cc quyn v ngha v. Nhng v d v lut cng l nhng ngha v ca
WTO nu trong GATT v GATS. Cc hip nh thng dng cc hip c, hoc chng c
quy ch nh mt hip c. Xem thm soft law.
Harkin Bill: D lut Harkin
Mt d lut c Thng ngh s Harkin a ra nm 1995 vi mc ch cm nhp khu vo
Hoa K nhng hng ho c lm ra bi lao ng tr em. D lut yu cu vic chm dt lao
ng tr em di 15 tui thng qua vic xo b vic nhp khu nhng hng ho do tr em sn
xut vo th trng Hoa K. N cng ngh tr cp cho nhng nc ci thin lut php v lao
ng tr em v gim bt di ngho. Mc d hin ti d lut dng nh khng c thng qua,
nhng n phn nh nhng quan im ca mt nhm i biu c th lc trong quc hi. Xem
thm social clause v trade and labour standards.
Harmonisation of standards and qualifications: Hi ho tiu chun v trnh
Hai hay nhiu nc cng chp nhn mt yu cu duy nht v tiu chun hoc trnh trong khi
trc mi nc c th c cc yu cu ring ca mnh. Hi ho c th l vic to lp tiu
chun hon ton mi, chp nhn tiu chun ca thnh vin c nh hng nht trong hip nh
hoc kt hp c hai. Xem thm Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, explicit
harmonisation, International Electrotechnical Commission, International Organisation for
Standardisation v mutual recognition arrangements.
Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System: H thng hi ho miu t v m
s hng ho
Mt h thng phn loi hng ho bun bn quc t c trnh by trong Cng c quc t v
H thng hi ho miu t v m s hng ho, ca T chc Hi quan th gii. Cng c ny c
hiu lc vo 01/01/1988. T n nay Cng c c sa i hai ln, ln sa i th ba c
th hon thnh vo nm 2002. H thng hi ho ch yu c dng cho hi quan. Nh vy, n
cng c lin quan n cc quy tc xut x. Mc ch ca H thng Hi ho l (a) t c s
thng nht quc t v phn loi hng ho phc v cho cc mc ch ca hi quan, (b) to iu
kin cho vic thu thp, phn tch v so snh nhng s liu thng mi th gii, (c) cung cp
mt h thng quc t chung v m s, m t v phn loi hng ho cho mc ch thng mi,
v (d) cung cp biu thu c cp nht theo s pht trin ca cng ngh v nhng thay i
trong cc loi hnh thng mi th gii. H thng ny gm 96 chng, 1241 mc v hn 5000
tiu mc c 6 ch s v chng c th c chia nh hn na p ng yu cu thng k v
qun l quc gia.
Harries Report: Bo co Harries
Bo co c chnh ph Australia thc hin nm 1978 kim tra mi quan h ca Australia
vi cc nc th gii th ba v a ra cc ngh pht trin mi quan h . Bo co c
cng b nm 1979 di tiu 'Australia v cc nc th gii th ba'. N ng gp mt cch
ng k cho vic hiu bit hn na i vi nhng vn c tp hp trong i thoi Bc-Nam
v Trt t kinh t th gii mi.
Hatters' fur case: V m lng th
V tranh chp xy ra nm 1950 gia Hoa K v Tip-khc v vic gii thch "s pht trin
ngoi d kin". y l mt trong nhng iu kin ca iu XIX ca GATT (Hnh ng khn
cp v nhp khu nhng hng ho c bit) iu kin ny phi c tho mn trc khi c hnh
ng ct gim nhp khu. Hoa K tranh lun ti nhm lm vic GATT rng mt s thay i v
kiu m l s vic khng c tnh n v bin minh cho hnh ng chng li vic nhp khu

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m lng th t Tip-khc. Pha Tip-khc cho rng vic thay i kiu m l bnh thng v c
th d tnh trc. Hoa K thng. Jackson (1969) ni v trng hp ny l mt iu hu nh
c th kt lun c l vic tng nhp khu t n l mt s pht trin ngoi d kin. Hip
nh v T v ca WTO hin ti gii hn hnh ng t v bi cc iu kin gy ra hoc e do
gy ra thit hi nghim trng cho cng nghip trong nc, v mt trng hp thuc loi ny s
khng c x thng kin na.
Havana Charter: Hin chng Havana
Bn d tho cui cng ca Hin chng ca T chc Thng mi quc t, c thng qua ti
Havana nm 1948. Phm vi ca Hin chng c th thy t ngay nhng tiu chng: vic
lm v hnh vi kinh t, pht trin kinh t v ti thit, u t, cc hot ng hn ch kinh doanh,
cc hip nh hng ho lin chnh ph, v chnh sch thng mi. Australia v Liberia l 2
quc gia u tin ph chun Hin chng, nhng Australia lm nh vy vi iu kin Anh v
Hoa K cng ph chun. Thc s cc nh m phn u ch Hoa K chnh thc tuyn b trc
khi bt u ph chun. V nhiu l do phc tp, Hin chng khng bao gi tr thnh mt phn
ca lut thng mi quc t. Hin chng bao gm mt lot cc iu khon bt buc, nhng
nhng vng m phn tip theo v ni dung ca n ngy cng bin nhng iu khon trn tr
thnh nhng ngha v kh thc hin. Cc nc ang pht trin phn i mt ch u t m.
Cui cng nhng mc ch ca Hin chng b vng vo nhng vn chnh tr ca Hoa K
v h lo rng n s nh hng n ch quyn quc gia. Ban iu hnh tr hon trnh Hin
chng trc Quc hi, nhng nm 1950 h quyt nh rng s khng trnh Hin chng cho
Quc hi thng qua na. iu ny l mt tn hiu cho cc nc khc khng tin hnh vic ph
chun Hin chng na. Ni dung ch yu ca chng v chnh sch thng mi tr thnh
GATT. GATT c m phn mt cch ring r vo nm 1947 v c hiu lc vo
01/01/1948. Nhng n lc cui cng trong UNCTAD thng lng v mt s chng trong
Hin chng lm tng thm s phc tp v cc vn cho cc nh m phn. Xem thm
protocol of provisional Application.
Hawley-Smoot tariff: Thu sut Hawley-Smoot
Xem Smoot-Hawley tariff.
Heckscher-Ohlin theorem: nh l Heckscher-Ohlin
Cho rng nhng nc s xut khu hng ho m vic sn xut ra chng lin quan cht ch n
cc yu t m h c li th. Gi thuyt c bn ca hc thuyt l vic yu cu cc mu hng
khng khc nhau nhiu lm gia cc nc. Hc thuyt ln u tin c Eli Philip Heckscher
trnh by vo nm 1919 v c Bertil Gotthard Ohlin cng b vo nm 1933, c hai u l
nhng nh kinh t Thu-in xut chng. Hc thuyt c chnh l mt cch ng k trong
sut nhiu nm nh l mt kt qu ca ca s phn tch thng k kin nhn. Trn thc t, hc
thuyt l mt s trnh by li l thuyt v li th so snh. Xem thm new trade theory v
Stolper-Samuelson theorem.
Helms-Burton legislation: o lut Helms-Burton
o lut v on kt t do v dn ch Cuba (LIBERTAD) ca Hoa K nm 1996. Mc tiu
chnh ca n l yu cu s cm vn quc t chng chnh ph Cuba ca Fidel Castro v lp k
hoch ng h mt chnh ph chuyn tip chun b cho vic thnh lp mt chnh ph c
bu c dn ch Cuba. o lut c mt s iu khon v kinh t. Khon 108 yu cu tng
thng phi trnh ln quc hi mt bo co chi tit hng nm v (1) m t ton b s tr gip
song phng ca cc nc i vi Cuba, (2) m t quan h thng mi ca Cuba vi cc nc,
(3) m t ton b cc lin doanh ca nc ngoi vi Cuba, (4) xc nh liu nhng quan h
c m t trong (3) c l i tng khiu ni ca cng dn Hoa K chng Cuba, (5) xc nh
v n nc ngoi ca Cuba, (6) m t nhng bc c thc hin m bo khng cho hng
ho Cuba vo Hoa K, v (7) pht hin nhng nc mua v kh t Cuba. Khon 110 cm vic
nhp khu vo Hoa K bt k hng ho no m ton b hay mt phn c sn xut ti Cuba
hoc vn chuyn t Cuba hay qua Cuba. Mc III bao gm cc iu khon kinh t hay tranh

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chp nht. N gii quyt vic bo v cc quyn v ti sn ca cng dn Hoa K v a ra mt
vi chi tit ca nhng bin php gii quyt c ngh. Cc quy nh mc ny l (a)
chnh ph Cuba tch thu ti sn ca nhiu cng dn Hoa K, (b) hin gi mt s ti sn
c bn cho cc nh u t nc ngoi, (c) vic "bun bn bt hp php" ny ph hoi chnh
sch nc ngoi ca Hoa K, (d) h thng t php quc t thiu nhng bin php c hiu qu
gii quyt vn loi ny, (e) lut quc t cng nhn rng mt o lut c th c p dng
mt cch c bit nu ngi ta cho rng n c nh hng ch yu bn trong lnh th ca n, v
(f) cc cng dn Hoa K c ti sn b tch thu c th trng cy vo to n Hoa K. Mc 306
ni rng c th i bi thng nhng ti sn b tch thu sau 01/11/1996 nu chng lin quan
n vic bun bn bt hp php. Xem thm effects doctrine v extraterritoriality.
Herring and Salmon: V c trch v c hi
Mt v kin ca Hoa K chng li Canada vo nm 1987 lin quan n nhng quyt nh ca
Canada cm vic xut khu hoc bn xut khu c trch, c hi hng v c hi cha qua
ch bin. Thc t l vic Canada cng b mt quyt nh cn c vo Lut nh c nm 1970
rng "khng ai c xut khu c hi hay c hi hng tr phi chng c ng hp, p
mui, hun khi, sy kh hay p lnh v c xem xt k theo Lut thanh tra c". Mt
quyt nh tng t c p dng cho vic xut khu t tnh Bristish Columbia i vi thc
phm l c trch hoc trng c trch. Canada vn duy tr sut t nhng thp k u tin ca th
k nhng bin php ca chnh ph bo v, qun l v pht trin ngun c hi v c trch
ngoi khi Bristish Columbia. Nhng bin php bao gm cc hip nh v cng c lin
chnh ph. Ti thi im xy ra tranh chp, ngh nh c hi , c hi hng v c trch chim
phn ln trong vic nh c mang tnh cht thng mi vng b bin min ty Canada. N
to vic lm cho gn 5/6 tng s cng nhn trong ngnh ch bin c ca Bristish Columbia.
Canada tuyn b rng cc bin php c lin quan l mt phn khng th thiu v tn ti lu i
ca ch qun l v bo tn ngh c b bin min ty. Bi vy chng hon ton ph hp
vi iu XX(g) ca GATT cho php cc nc thnh vin c quyn khng p dng nhng iu
khon ca hip nh khi m h mun bo tn nhng ngun ti nguyn c th b cn kit, nhng
phi kt hp vi vic hn ch sn xut v tiu th trong nc. Canada cng ni rng cc quy
nh nghim ngt v cht lng v th trng i vi 3 mt hng ni trn l cn thit duy tr
uy tn ca cc sn phm c an ton, cht lng cao. a ra phn quyt ca mnh, ban hi
thm lu rng vic Canada cm xut khu c khng t cc tiu chun ca h, nhng li
cm xut khu c hi v c trch cha ch bin ngay c trng hp nu chng p ng yu cu
xut khu ca Canada. Do vy ban hi thm thy rng vic cm xut khu l khng cn thit
duy tr nhng tiu chun . Ban hi thm nht tr rng ngun c hi, c trch l "ngun ti
nguyn c th b cn kit" v nhng gii hn vic nh bt l "nhng hn ch sn xut ni a"
nh ni dung ca iu XX(g). Tuy nhin, ban hi thm cn nhc rng trong khi mt bin
php thng mi khng cn thit bo v mt ngun ti nguyn c th b cn kit th n phi
nhm vo mc ch ch yu bo tn. Cui cng ban hi thm kt lun rng vic Canada
cm xut khu khng th coi nh l nhm vo mc ch ch yu bo tn ngun c hi v c
trch bi v chng ch lin quan n vic cm xut khu nhng sn phm di dng cha ch
bin. Canada ch hn ch cc nh ch bin v tiu th nc ngoi c hi v c trch cha ch
bin, nhng khng cm cc nh ch bin v tiu th trong nc. Do ban hi thm quyt
nh rng vic cm xut khu cng khng ph hp vi iu XX(g).
Hidden dumping: Ph gi che du
Mt kiu ph gi xy ra khi mt cng ty xut khu hng ho vi gi tng ng th trng
cho mt cng ty c lin quan. Cng ty ny sau bn hng ho cho mt nc nhp khu vi
gi thp hn gi th trng. Xem thm anti-dumping measures.
High-income economies: Nhng nn kinh t c thu nhp cao
Mt nhm gm 45 nn kinh t c IBRD phn loi nm trong danh sch ca Bo co Pht
trin th gii. Nm 1994 h c thu nhp quc dn trn u ngi hn 8.956$. 22 trong s l
cc thnh vin OECD. Thu nhp trung bnh gia cc nc ny khc nhau ng k, v khng

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phi tt c cc nc ny t h cho mnh l cc nc pht trin hay nc cng nghip ho.
Xem thm low-income economies v middle-income economies.
Horizontal arrangements: Tho thun ngang
Xem competition policy.
Horizontal commitments: Cam kt chung
Mt phn ca danh mc cam kt ca cc nc thnh vin WTO i vi GATS. Cc cam kt
chung p dng cho tt c cc dch v c nu ra trong danh mc cam kt. Nhn chung, cc
cam kt ny lin quan n u t, hnh thnh cc c cu hp tc, mua bn t ai, thuyn
chuyn nhn s, v.v... Xem thm commitment.
Horizontal keiretsu: Keiretsu ngang
Xem keiretsu relationship.
Hub and spokes: Trc v nan hoa
Mt khi nim c s dng trong vic phn tch v khu vc thng mi t do. N quy nh
rng mt nc ln c th l thnh vin ca nhiu hip nh thng mi t do, nhng nc b
hn ch c th l thnh vin ca mt trong hip nh . Nh vy cc nc ln l trc v cc
nc khc hnh thnh nn nhng nan hoa trong mt lot cc hip nh song phng mang tnh
phn bit i x. Khng ging trong trng hp khu vc thng mi t do, tt c cc bn
thng lng bnh ng, theo tho thun trc v nan hoa nhn chung cc nc ln nh ra cc
iu khon v iu kin cho cc thnh vin. Tuy nhin, c mt s l l cho rng tho thun trc
v nan hoa c th l bn p cho khu vc thng mi t do ln hn. Mt s khc cho rng,
nc hnh thnh nn trc s khng khuyn khch m rng nhng tho thun nh vy v cc u
i thng mi cho cc nc khc. S tranh lun vn cha c gii quyt. Tuy nhin, nh
bn nghin cu ca WTO nm 1995 v ch ngha khu vc v h thng thng mi th gii
lu , trong trng hp h thng trc v nan hoa, bn cht vn ging nhau, l dng hng ho
v dch v (v c l c vn v lao ng) di chuyn t do hn gia trc v nhng nan hoa so vi
gia cc nan hoa vi nhau.

IBRD: Ngn hng Ti thit v Pht trin quc t

Mt trong nhng t chc c thnh lp ti Hi ngh Tin t v Ti chnh ca Lin hp quc
nm 1944 t chc ti Bretton Woods. Thng c bit n vi ci tn Ngn hng th gii.
Mt trong nhng chc nng chnh ca n l cung cp ti chnh theo nhng iu kin hp l cho
cc d n pht trin kinh t ca cc nc thnh vin khi cc d n thiu vn. Hng nm
Ngn hng ny xut bn Bo co Pht trin th gii trong c nhng phn tch chnh sch
thng mi hu ch. Xem thm Bretton Woods Agreements, ICSID, high-income economies,
iddle-income economies, low-income economies v World Bank Guidelines on the Treatment of
Foreign Direct Investment.
ICC Guidelines for International Investment: Hng dn v u t quc t ca ICC
c Phng Thng mi quc t (ICC) thng qua nm 1972 c tc dng nh mt khun mu
cho cc hip nh quc t. Chng c OECD v mt vi t chc quc t khc s dng. Mt
c im ca hng dn ny l chng kt hp cc quyn v ngha v ca cc quc gia v cc
cng ty trong mt vn kin duy nht.
ICITO (Interim Commission for the International Trade Organisation): U ban lm thi
v T chc Thng mi quc t
c thnh lp nm 1948 chun b nhng tho thun hnh chnh cho ITO i vo hot ng.

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Cng thi gian ny, ngi ta nht tr rng ICITO lm Ban th k cho GATT. Do ITO khng ra
i nn l do duy nht cho s tn ti ca ICITO ch l l do th hai. Hin nay ICITO cng c
chc nng tng t i vi WTO.
ICSID (International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes): Trung tm quc t
gii quyt cc tranh chp v u t
C tr s ti Washington, ch tch ca trung tm l ch tch ng nhim ca IBRD. N c
thnh lp bi Cng c v gii quyt tranh chp v u t gia cc quc gia v cng dn ca
quc gia khc c hiu lc t 14/10/1966. ICSID to thun li cho vic ho gii v trng ti gii
quyt cc tranh chp. Mc ch chnh ca n l khuyn khch khng kh tin cy ln nhau gia
cc quc gia v cc nh u t nc ngoi cho php tng cc dng u t pht trin t
nc. C quan ny xut bn Tp ch ICSID: Lut u t nc ngoi trong cha ng ngun
t liu hu ch v bnh lun v phn tch php lut i vi u t nc ngoi, bao gm c cc
hip c u t. Xem thm foreign direct investment.
IFIOR (International Forum on the Indian Ocean Region): Din n quc t v khu vc
n dng
c t chc ti Perth, Australia nm 1995. Hi ngh ny dn n Sng kin ca Khu vc n
dng (IORI), mt c cu tay ba gm: cc hc gi, cc thng gia v cc quan chc chnh
ph tu vo kh nng ca h vi mc ch khuyn khch hp tc kinh t, thng mi v nhng
hp tc gia 28 nc trong khu vc n dng. Mt trong hai nhm cng tc ca n gii
quyt cc vn thng mi, u t v hp tc kinh t. Xem thm Indian Ocean Association
for Regional Cooperation.
ILO Convention No. 138: Cng c s 138 ca ILO
Xem thm child labour.
ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and
Social Policy: Tuyn b ba bn ca ILO v cc nguyn tc lin quan n cc cng ty a
quc gia v chnh sch x hi
Mt lot cc nguyn tc khng bt buc c T chc Lao ng quc t thng qua v c hiu
lc nm 1978. Tuyn b nhm khuyn khch s ng gp tch cc ca cc cng ty a quc gia
cho s pht trin kinh t x hi. N cng nhm hn ch ti mc ti a v gii quyt cc kh
khn pht sinh trong qu trnh hot ng ca cc cng ty . Tuyn b h ho cc cng ty a
quc gia xem xt mt cch nghim tc nhng chnh sch mc tiu c xy dng ca nc
ch nh. N cng vch ra cc nguyn tc qun l lao ng, o to, cc iu kin sng v lm
vic, v cc mi quan h ngnh. Do , Tuyn b c lin quan n vic xem xt cc tiu chun
thng mi v lao ng.
IMF (International Monetary Fund): Qu Tin t quc t
Mt trong nhng t chc c thnh lp ti Hi ngh Tin t v Ti chnh ca Lin hp quc
nm 1944 t chc ti Bretton Woods. Hin chng ca n l: (a) khuyn khch hp tc tin t
quc t, (b) to iu kin m rng s tng trng cn bng ca thng mi quc t, (c) tr gip
cc nc thnh vin khc phc s thm ht cn cn thanh ton v (d) thc y s n nh ngoi
hi. iu XXV ca GATT quy nh v vic tham vn v hp tc gia hai t chc v nhng vn
lin quan n d tr tin t, cn cn thanh ton hay cc tho thun v ngoi hi. Cc thnh
vin ca GATT phi tham gia vo IMF hoc tham gia vo tho thun trao i c bit vi cc
thnh vin khc ca GATT m bo rng cc iu khon ca Hip nh ny khng b cn tr
bi cc bin php trao i ngoi hi. Mi quan h ca WTO vi IMF da trn cc iu khon
nh cc iu khon iu chnh mi quan h ca GATT vi IMF. Xem thm Bretton Woods
Agreements.
Imperial preferences arrangement: Tho thun u i ca ch Anh
c chnh thc xy dng nm 1932 ti Hi ngh ch Ottawa, nhng t nht c bn

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ci gay gt ti hi ngh ch t nm 1917. Nt c bn ca tho thun l nhng cp nc
thuc ch Anh vo thi gian y trao i nhng u i thng mi vi nhau. Vng quc
Anh l mt bn trong hu ht cc tho thun. Tho thun tr thnh mc tiu ca chnh sch
thng mi ca Hoa K vo thi im son tho Hin chng Atlantic nm 1941, v trong iu
7 ca hip nh tr gip ln nhau gia Vng quc Anh v Hoa K k nm 1942. iu 7 yu
cu "xo b tt c cc hnh thc phn bit i x trong thng mi quc t". Khi GATT c hiu
lc vo nm 1948, n cm tt c vic tng cc mc u i. Mc trn ny, kt hp vi m phn
v gim thu theo GATT, m bo rng cc mc u i ny sm b loi b. Mt s u i cn
tn ti v chng thng c cc nc th hng bo v quyt lit. Vic tng cng s dng
thut ng "Khi lin hip thnh vng cc quc gia thuc Anh" trong nhng nm chin tranh
cng dn n vic s dng rng ri nhng u i ca Khi lin hip thnh vng Anh thay v
vic s dng nhng u i ch. Xem thm CANATA v preferential trade arrangements.
Implementation doctrine: Hc thuyt p dng
Nguyn tc trong lut cnh tranh theo hnh ng ca cc hng c th kin c nc hay
nhm nc ni s vic xy ra, cho d s vic c phn quyt mt ni khc. Xem thm
antitrust laws, competition policy v effects doctrine.
Implicit discrimination: Ngm phn bit i x
Lut php, thu hay cc bin php khc p dng i vi hng ho v dch v trong nc v
hng nhp khu c th phn bit i x mt cch khng trc tip i vi sn phm v dch v
nhp khu. Vic tun th cc quy nh ca nc nhp khu c th lm mt i li th canh tranh
ca hng nhp. Tht d dng cho cc chnh ph trong vic gii thch rng cc bin php thc
cht khng nhiu hn i ng quc gia, nhng nhng bin php ny c hnh thnh vi mc
ch lm gim li th cnh tranh ca hng nhp khu. Xem wine gallon assessment c v d
mt tin l thc t ca khi nim ny.
Import cartel: Cartel nhp khu
Xem cartel.
Import deposit schemes: Bin php np tin t cc nhp khu
Bin php ny do chnh ph hoc cc c quan thay mt chnh ph t ra, theo nhng nh
nhp khu phi np tin t cc vo thi im t hng nhp khu. Nhng bin php ny
thng thuc v h thng cp php nhp khu. Mc ch ca vic ny l m bo vic nhp
khu c thc hin trong thc t hay p ng c gi nhp khu ti thiu. Xem EEC
minimum import prices.
Import licensing: Cp php nhp khu
Vic cn phi c giy php nhp khu mt sn phm. Trong Hip nh v th tc cp php
nhp khu ca WTO, giy php nhp khu c nh ngha nh cc th tc hnh chnh ca ch
cp giy php nhp khu yu cu trnh n hoc cc ti liu khc cho c quan qun l
hnh chnh c lin quan nh l mt iu kin nhp khu. Trong mi trng hp cp php
nhp khu c coi l t ng khi n xin php nhp khu c thng qua. Xem thm import
deposit schemes.
Import market value: Tr gi th trng ca hng nhp khu
Mt h thng xc nh gi hng ho nhp khu da trn tr gi ca hng ho cng loi c
bn trn th trng ca nc nhp khu. H thng cha bao gi thc s ph thng v chng
c thay th bng phng php tr gi trao i c quy nh trong Hip nh ca WTO v
vic thc hin iu VII (nh gi hi quan) ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi.
Xem thm customs valuation.
Import quotas: Hn ngch nhp khu
Nhng s hn ch hoc mc trn do nc nhp khu t ra v gi tr hay khi lng nhp khu

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ca nhng loi hng ho nht nh c mang t nc ngoi vo. Bin php ny c quy nh
bo v cc nh sn xut ni a khi nhng nh hng do gi hng ho nhp khu thp gy
ra. Hn ngch nhp khu l mt hnh thc ca hn ch nh lng.
Import restrictions: Hn ch nhp khu
Bin php ca chnh ph lm lng hng ho nhp khu gim hn l khi khng c bin php
ny. V d nh vic hn ch ngoi hi, cp php nhp khu v hn ngch nhp khu. Cartel
nhp khu c th c nh hng tng t.
Import risk assessment: nh gi ri ro nhp khu
Xem risk assessment.
Import substitution: Thay th nhp khu
Mt chnh sch pht trin nng lc sn xut hng ho v dch v ni a nhm lm gim
hoc thay th hng nhp khu, iu ny thng i i vi hy vng tng vic lm v gim thm
ht ti khon vng lai. Nhng nc thc hin thay th nhp khu thng thy rng d tr ngoi
t ca h khng c ci thin cht no, mt phn bi v h vn phi nhp hng thit b. Xt v
mc hn ch v nhp khu hoc tr cp ni a, chnh sch ny lm tng gi hng ni a v
hn ch xut khu.
Import surcharge: Ph ph nhp khu
Khon tin tnh thm vo thu hi quan thng thng. Mt s nc thng p dng ph ph
ci thin vic thm ht ti khon vng lai, nhng thnh cng ch c gii hn v thm ht thng
mi trin min phn nh nhng vn kinh t su xa. Vic t ra mt khon ph thu c th hp
l nu n khng vt qu gii hn gia thu sut p dng v thu sut trn. Xem thm
primage.
Import target: Mc tiu nhp khu
Xem voluntary import expansion.
Import tariffs: Thu nhp khu
l thu hi quan nh vo sn phm nhp khu ti bin gii. Xem thm mutli-column tariff
v single-column tariff.
Inclusion list: Danh mc Gim thu
Mt phn trong c cu ca chng trnh CEPT thuc AFTA. Nhng mt hng trong danh mc
ny c hng thu sut u i ti a i vi thng mi trong ni b ASEAN. Xem thm
Sensitive List v Temporary Exclusion List.
Independence of protection: S c lp v bo h
Khi nim s hu tr tu c dng trong Cng c Paris. V d bt k bng pht minh no
ca Australia c cp theo Cng c Paris th c hng s bo h Australia mt cch
hon ton c lp i vi s bo h dnh cho pht minh theo bng pht minh cp cc nc
khc, cho d nhng nc c tham gia Cng c Paris hay khng.
Independent commission on International Development Issues: U ban c lp v cc vn
pht trin quc t
Xem Brandt Report.
Indian Ocean Regional Initiative: Sng kin Khu vc n dng
Xem IFIOR.
Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional cooperation (IOR-ARC): Hip hi cc nc
Vnh ai n dng v hp tc khu vc

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Mt t chc c xut ti cc cuc tho lun ca IFIOR nm 1955 khuyn khch hp tc
kinh t khu vc, tng trng bn vng v pht trin cn bng. Cc nc Vnh ai n dng
(IOR) gm 14 thnh vin (Australia, n-, Indonesia, Kenya, Madagasca, Malaysia,
Mauritus, Mozambia, Oman, Singapore, Nam Phi, Sri Lanka, Tanzania v Yemen). Cc nc
khc ang xem xt vic gia nhp.
Indicators of market openness: Ch s m ca th trng
Quan nim c bn cho cc ch s o lng v phm vi m th trng c th ch cho nhng
doanh nghip mi tham gia, c bit l nhng doanh nghip hot ng nc khc. C 3
phng php c bn xy dng nn nhng ch s nh vy. Th nht l nh gi nhng mc
ca cc hng ro thu quan, hng ro phi thu quan v tng ng thu quan. Th hai l
nhn vo nhng kt qu ca vic thay i chnh sch t do thng qua vic kim tra nh hng
ca nhng thay i i vi cc dng thng mi, m rng v tng trng ca thng mi trong
ni b ngnh. iu c thc hin thng qua m hnh. Mc ch ca phng php th 3 l
s tng tc gia cc hng ro v qu trnh cnh tranh trong mt th trng nht nh. Ni cch
khc, phng php ny c xem xt ti c cu m ca cc th trng cnh tranh. l mt
s dung ho v phng php h ph hp nht i vi 2 phng php u, nhng chng c th
khc bit nhiu i vi phng php th ba ca cc ch s. Xem thm international
contestability of market v trade and competition.
Indirect dumping: Ph gi gin tip
Ph gi thng c nh ngha nh l vic bn hng ho ra nc ngoi vi gi thp hn gi
th trng trong nc. nh ngha ny coi nh ch c 2 nc c lin quan, ngha l hng ho
c xut khu t nc A sang nc B. Mt lun im v ph gi gin tip cho rng iu gy
thit hi l vic xut khu ban u t nc A sang nc B ni n s khng c coi l ph gi,
v sau t nc B sang nc C. Xem thm dumping v anti-dumping measures.
Individual action plan: K hoch hnh ng ring
Xem AFEC individual action plan.
Industrial designs: Kiu dng cng nghip
Hnh dng, cu hnh, kiu cch, trang tr ca mt vt phm hu ch nhng khng phi l mt
phng php hay mt nguyn tc xy dng. Xem thm intellectual property.
Industry policy: Chnh sch cng nghip
Theo ngha rng, l thut ng ch nhng chnh sch c chnh ph thng qua hng v tt
c cc ngnh cng nghip hoc pht trin cng nghip ni chung. Theo ngha hp, th l
nhng chnh sch ca chnh ph hng v vic la chn cc ngnh cng nghip m bo s
pht trin hoc ti thit chng. C th thc hin bng nhiu cch, mt trong cc cch l bo h.
Xem thm infant-industry argument, learning-by-doing argument, picking winners, strategic
trade theory v structural adjustment.
Industrial property: S hu cng nghip
a phn ni n pht minh, thng hiu v kiu dng cng nghip, nhng cng ngn chn cnh
tranh khng cng bng. Xem thm intellectual property.
Industry-to-industry understandings: Tho thun gia ngnh vi ngnh
l mt cch ni ch tho thun hn ch t nguyn. Chng l nhng tho thun c
chnh ph ch nh gia cc ngnh cng nghip, mc d trong mt s trng hp cc ngnh vui
v chp thun chng bi v l nhng c hi a n nhng mi li kh ng.
Inertial policy determinism: Quyt nh chnh sch tr tr
Quyt nh b qua v b ngoi hu ch ca nhng chnh sch tr tr m ngi ta gn b sut
mt thi gian di. Xem thm conventional wisdom, QWERTY principle v vestigial thought.

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Infant-industry argument: Lp lun v nhng ngnh cng nghip non tr
Lp lun ny cho rng nu dnh cho mt ngnh cng nghip li th so snh tim tng s bo
h thng bng thu quan, tr cp, cc quy nh hm lng ni a... cho php chng tn ti,
c th khai thc nhng li th so snh trong mt thi gian di m khng cn thit phi c s
bo h c bit. Mt trong nhng im yu ca lp lun ny l nu nhng chi ph ca vic bo
h hin thi c th c tr li trong tng lai, sau khi ngnh cng nghip ng vng cn
phi c mc li trn mc trung bnh, v l iu cn phi bn bc nhiu. Trong thc t, mt
vi ngnh cng nghip non tr t vn ln bng ch ca chnh h thay v h c tm kim s
bo h vnh vin. Xem thm learning-by-doing argument, picking winners v strategic trade
theory.
Infant-industry provision: iu khon ngnh cng nghip non tr
iu XVIII ca GATT (Tr gip ca chnh ph pht trin kinh t) cho php cc nc ang
pht trin trong nhng iu kin nht nh c p dng cc bin php nhm mc ch thc
y s pht trin ca nhng ngnh cng nghip non tr. GATS khng c iu khon ny. Xem
thm Infant-industry argument.
Information Technology Agreement: Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin
Kt qu ca Hi ngh B trng WTO ti Singapore thng 12/1996. Cc bn nht tr xo b
thu hi quan v bt k mt loi thu no khc i vi mt lot cc sn phm cng ngh thng
tin thng qua vic gim thu vi t l u nhau bt u t nm 1997 v kt thc vo nm 2000.
H cng s chp nhn mc thu 0. Do cc thnh vin ng o ca mnh, Hip nh bao trm
trn 90% sn phm cng ngh thng tin trn th gii, bao gm my tnh, thit b vin thng,
cht bn dn, thit b ch to cht bn dn, phn mm v dng c khoa hc. Hip nh khng
bao gm sn phm in gia dng.
Information Technology Agreement II: Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin II
Mt ngh do B trng Thng mi T cng a ra vo thng 5/1997. Hip nh vch ra
vic m rng Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin bng vic thm vo cc iu khon v cc bin
php phi thu quan, m rng phm vi sn phm v chuyn giao cng ngh. Hip nh ny vn
cha a vo chng trnh ngh s m phn.
Initial negotiating right: Quyn m phn ban u
Quyn m mt thnh vin GATT yu cu mt thnh vin khc dnh u i thu quan trong mt
vng m phn mc d thnh vin khng phi l ngi cung cp chnh. Quyn m phn
ban u (INRs) l nhng cng c m phn hu hiu cho nhng nc c nhng li ch thng
mi quan trng v mt sn phm hay hng ho, mc d nhng quyn khng cn tm quan
trng trong m phn thng mi. Vn v ngi c quyn m phn ban u khng t ra
trong trng hp ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh bi v tt c cc thnh vin nht tr ct gim
thu quan i vi nhng loi sn phm c bit vi cng mt mc thu, bt k n quan trng
nh th no i vi bt k bn hng no. Tuy nhin, n c th c tip tc bn n sau trong
m phn song phng. Bi vy cc thnh vin ca GATT nht tr to ra ci gi l quyn
m phn ban u th ni. l nhng quyn m phn ban u c th c hng bi cc
thnh vin c quyn ca ngi cung cp ch yu ti thi im m phn li v mt mc thu
trc l i tng ca ct gim tuyn tnh. Nhng quyn c gi l "th ni" v chng
vn l gi thuyt cho n khi mt trng hp c th pht sinh. Xem thm principal supplying
interest.
Injury: Thit hi
nh hng bt li i vi nn cng nghip ni a gy ra bi nhng hnh ng ca cc nh
xut khu nc ngoi, v d thng qua ph gi, tr cp hoc tng nhp khu. Trong trng hp
ph gi, ngi ta c th c bin php i ph nu l thit hi vt cht. Trong trng hp t
v, thit hi nghim trng phi ang b e do hoc va xy ra. C hai thut ng thit hi

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nghim trng v thit hi vt cht u l nh gi ch quan, nhng dng nh thit hi nghim
trng th mc nng hn thit hi vt cht. WTO xy dng nhng nguyn tc nh gi
thit hi v bin php khc phc trong trng hp c thit hi hoc e do gy ra thit hi. Hip
nh v Hng dt v may mc cho php cc nc thnh vin p dng cc bin php t v qu
theo nhng iu kin nht nh trong nhng trng hp c thit hi nghim trng hoc e
do gy ra thit hi nghim trng i vi ngnh cng nghip ni a khi nhp khu tng. Hip
nh khng a ra khi nim th no l "thit hi nghim trng", mc d n lit k sn lng,
nng sut, hng tn kho, th phn, vic lm, li nhun, v u t..., nh l nhng bin s phi
c tnh n. Xem thm Agreement on Safeguards v anti-dumping measures.
Inland parity: T sut ngang gi ni a
Xem thm national treatment.
Input dumping: Ph gi u vo
Ngi ta cho rng sn phm c lm ra t n khng h gi, nhng vn y l sn phm
bao hm nhng thnh t (u vo) c mua vi gi h. Xem thm secondary dumping.
In-quota rate: Thu sut trong hn ngch
Thu quan p dng cho mt sn phm nhp khu trong gii hn ca mt hn ngch thu quan.
Integrated Programme for Commodities: Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng
Mt chng trnh c UNCTAD IV thng qua nm 1976 vch ra k hoch m phn cho
nhng hip nh quc t hoc nhng tho thun i vi 18 mt hng c th. l: chui, bxit,
ca-cao, c-ph, ng , bng v si bng, si cng v cc sn phm ca n, qung st, si ay
v cc sn phm ca n, mng gan, tht, pht pht, cao-su, sa, ch, g nhit i, thic, du
thc vt, bao gm c du liu v du ht. Cc sn phm khc vo thi gian bt k c th c
b sung vo danh sch ny. Chng trnh c mt s mc tiu bao gm trnh dao ng gi c
qu mc, t c mc gi tr cng cho ngi sn xut v hp l cho ngi tiu dng, tng
thu nhp xut khu pht trin t nc, ci tin vic m ca th trng v ngun cung cp
ng tin cy. Cng thi gian , mt ngh c thng qua cho vic thnh lp ca Qu
Chung cung cp ti chnh cho chng trnh. Xem thm buffer stocks, international
commodity arrangement, international commodity bodies v UNCTAD.
Intellectual property: S hu tr tu
Quyn s hu ca cc nh pht minh trong cc lnh vc cng nghip, khoa hc, cng ngh, m
nhc, v ngh thut. Cc quyn ny lin quan ti bng pht minh, thng hiu, kiu dng cng
nghip, thit k s vi mch, bn quyn, ch du a l v b mt thng mi (thng tin mt).
Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, WIPO v
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
Intellectual property right infringements: Vi phm quyn s hu tr tu
Cc vi phm vi quy m thng mi c xp vo loi sao chp lu nu cc vi phm c lin
quan n vic ti bn khng c php cc ti liu c bn quyn, hoc lm gi khi c s sao
chp nhn hiu thng mi vi mc ch a cc mt hng ra th trng nh hng ca nh sn
xut hp php. Bng pht minh b vi phm thng qua vic sn xut khng c php, s dng
hoc bn pht minh ng k ti nc ng k pht minh. Thng hiu b vi phm thng qua
vic s dng khng xin php mt nhn hiu ging ht hoc tng t nh nhn hiu ang tn ti
m c th lm cho ngi tiu dng b ln ln.
Interested parties: Cc bn c quyn li
Nhng ngi c quyn trong mt cuc thm tra hoc iu tra chng ph gi. Nhng ngi ny
phi c thng bo nhng thng tin m nh chc trch yu cu, c dnh thi gian rng ri
trnh by v trng hp ca mnh, v c c c hi y bo v quyn li ca mnh.
Hip nh v vic thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi ca

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WTO quy nh cc quy tc c th c p dng x l cc trng hp chng ph gi nh
ngha cc bn c quyn li l (a) nh xut khu hoc nh sn xut nc ngoi hoc nh nhp
khu sn phm ang l i tng iu tra, hoc l hip hi thng mi hoc kinh doanh c
thnh vin l phn ln cc nh sn xut, xut khu hoc nhp khu sn phm , (b) chnh ph
ca nc thnh vin xut khu v (c) nh sn xut sn phm tng t ti nc thnh vin nhp
khu hoc hip hi thng mi v kinh doanh vi phn ln s thnh vin sn xut sn phm
tng t trn lnh th nc thnh vin nhp khu. Hip nh WTO v T v cng yu cu cc
thnh vin ang chun b p dng hnh ng t v dnh c hi tham vn cho cc thnh vin c
quyn li thit yu i vi mt hng ang xem xt, tuy nhin Hip nh ny khng nh ngha
khi nim "quyn li thit yu" c hiu nh th no. Xem thm anti-dumping measures.
Interested third parties: Bn c quyn li th ba
Mt c cu trong Bn ghi nh WTO v gii quyt tranh chp cho php xem xt n quyn li
ca cc nc thnh vin trong mt tranh chp m cc nc ny khng c lin quan trc tip.
Cc thnh vin ny c quyn c trnh by trc Ban hi thm v gi iu trnh ti Ban, tuy
nhin c quyn cc nc ny phi chng minh thng qua s liu thng mi c rng
h c quyn li ng k trong s vic . Quyn li ch c lp lun v nguyn tc l khng
.
Interface theory: L thuyt giao ho
Mt d n tn ti vo nhng nm 80 cho rng trong quan h kinh t v thng mi quc t cn
phi c mt c cu kt hp no cho php cc h thng kinh t khc nhau c th bun bn
vi nhau m khng xy ra mu thun. Vic cc nn kinh t k hoch ho tp trung chuyn sang
cc nguyn tc kinh t th trng lm gim nhu cu phi c mt c cu nh vy, tuy nhin
vn tn ti nhng kh khn trong mi tng quan vi tr cp v ph gi. Xem thm East-West
trade.
Intergovernmental conference: Hi ngh lin chnh ph
Mt c cu tn ti trong Lin minh Chu u nhm xem xt vic sa i v b sung cc hip
nh khung cu thnh t chc ny. Cc hi ngh lin chnh ph thng dn n nhng bc tin
b ng k.
Interim Agreement on Trade in Financial Services: Hip nh lm thi v thng mi
trong dch v ti chnh
Xem financial services interim agreement.
Interim Co-ordinating Committee for International Commodity Arrangements: U ban
iu lm thi cc hip nh hng ho quc t
Xem commodity policy.
Intermediary nation embargo: Cm vn quc gia trung gian
Xem tuna (European Economic Community - United States, 1994).
Intermediate goods and services: Hng ho v dch v trung gian
Xem final goods and services.
Internal markets: Th trng ni
c s dng c cho th trng thuc mt quyn ti phn duy nht v th trng c to thnh
qua vic hnh thnh lin minh hi quan, khu vc thng mi t do hoc th trng chung, v d
nh Cng ng Chu u.
Internal taxes: Thu ni a
Cc khon thu ca chnh ph p dng i vi hng ho v dch v trong khun kh mt lnh
th hi quan. iu III ca GATT yu cu cc khon thu nh vy phi c p dng nh nhau

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i vi cc sn phm ni a cng nh cc sn phm nhp khu. Ni mt cch khc, i ng
quc gia l mt ngha v c bn trong lnh vc ny. Xem thm behind-the-border issues.
International accounting standards: Tiu chun k ton quc t
Cc tiu chun k ton do U ban Tiu chun k ton quc t (IASC) xy dng nhm nng cao
tnh tng thch ca cc thng tin ti chnh, ci tin vic thng bo s liu, gim chi ph thc
hin v khuyn khch cc cng ty a quc gia s dng h thng bo co ti chnh thng nht.
Do cc tiu chun ny c xem l cng c nhm phn phi ngun ti chnh c hiu qu
hn. Ngoi nhng ng gp cho pht trin thng mi ton cu, tiu chun quc t cn c
cc nh m phn thng mi quan tm bi v cc tiu chun ny c Ban cng tc ca WTO
v dch v ngh nghip - c quan nh gi nhng tr ngi trong thng mi dch v - u quyn
p dng. Xem thm Guidelines for Mutual recognition Agreements or Arrangements in the
Accountancy Sector v harmonisation of standards and qualifications.
International Agreement on Jute and Jute Products: Hip nh quc t v ay v cc sn
phm ay
C hiu lc t 1984 trong Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng. Hip nh ny c m
phn li vo 1989 v c hiu lc t 1991. Hip nh ny nhm mc ch ci thin th trng
cho ay v cc sn phm t ay, tnh r rng trong thng mi quc t v ci tin k thut sn
xut v ch bin. C quan iu hnh hip nh ny l Hi ng ay quc t t ti Dacca.
International Bauxite Association: Hip hi bo-xit quc t
Thnh lp nm 1975. Hip hi ny ch bao gm cc nh sn xut. Mc ch ca Hip hi ny l
s pht trin hp l v c trt t ngnh cng nghip bo-xit v m bo li nhun hp l v cng
bng cho cc nc thnh vin t vic khai thc, ch bin v tip th bo-xit v cc sn phm t
, c lu n quyn li ca ngi tiu dng. Ban th k ca Hip hi t ti Kingston,
Jamaica.
International Civil Aviation Organisation: T chc Hng khng dn dng quc t
Xem Chicago Convention.
international Cocoa Agreement: Hip nh Ca-cao quc t
c k kt ln u tin vo nm 1962 sau 17 nm m phn, v c m phn li vo 1975,
1980 v 1986. l mt hip nh c cc quy nh kinh t, k c quy nh v hot ng ca
kho m vi mc ch n nh thu nhp t xut khu cho cc nc sn xut v m rng hn na
ch bin ca-cao ti cc nc ang pht trin. Hip nh hin hnh c hiu lc t 1994. Ngoi
cc mc tiu khc, Hip nh ny bao gm c (a) pht trin v cng c hp tc trong kinh
doanh ca-cao quc t, (b) gp phn cn bng cung v cu ca-cao trn th trng th gii, v (c)
thc y tnh r rng trong nn kinh t ca-cao th gii thng qua vic thu thp v ph bin s
liu thng k v cc d liu khc v ca-cao. Hip nh ny khng cn quy nh v kho m.
C quan iu hnh l T chc Ca-cao Quc t t ti London.
International Coffee Agreement: Hip nh C-ph quc t
c k kt ln u tin vo 1962, v c m phn li vo 1968, 1976, 1983 v 1994 cho 5
nm tip theo. Hip nh ny khng cn nhm n nh gi thng qua vic p t hn ngch
xut khu v Hip nh ny khng c kho m. Mc ch ca Hip nh hin hnh l: (a) m
bo tng cng hp tc quc t trong cc vn c-ph, (b) to din n cho vic t vn v
m phn gia cc chnh ph v c-ph, (c) to iu kin m rng thng mi c-ph quc t
thng qua vic thu thp, phn tch v ph bin s liu thng k, (d) thu thp v trao i thng
tin kinh t v k thut v c-ph, (e) thc y nghin cu v c-ph, v (f) khuyn khch v
tng cng tiu th c-ph. Hip nh do T chc c-ph quc t t ti London iu hnh.
International commercial dispute resolution: Gii quyt tranh chp thng mi quc t

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Gii quyt tranh chp gia cc bn t nhn cc nc khc nhau ngoi khun kh to n. iu
ny c th thc hin thng qua m phn, iu nh ho gii, xc nh v nh gi ca chuyn
gia, trng ti v kt hp cc qu trnh . Phng php c la chn ph thuc vo quan im
ca cc bn. Xem thm ICSID.
International commodity agreements (ICA): Cc hip nh hng ho quc t
Cc hip nh lin chnh ph nhm nng cao cht lng hot ng ca th trng hng ho ton
cu. C hai loi hip nh: (a) cc hip nh qun l nhm thc y tnh cng khai trong iu
kin sn xut v th trng thng qua, v d, cng tc thng k, v (b) cc hip nh kinh t
nhm tc ng trc tip n gi c th trng ca mt hng c lin quan. Hip nh UNCTAD
thnh lp Qu chung nhm vo vic hnh thnh cc hip nh kinh t quy nh 4 yu t cn
thit i vi mt ICA: (a) cc hip nh phi c hnh thnh gia cc chnh ph, (b) cc hip
nh cn phi thc y hp tc quc t trong lnh vc mt hng , (c) phi bao gm c ngi
sn xut v ngi tiu dng v (d) hip nh phi bao trm phn ln thng mi mt hng c
lin quan ca ton th gii. Phn ln cc ICA c m phn cho giai on thi gian t 3 n 6
nm, sau chng s c xem xt li. Mt s, nh Hip nh Bo-xit quc t v OPEC, ch
bao gm cc nh sn xut. Cc ICA vi cc quy nh kinh t thng bao gm cc ngha v
nhm n nh gi, cung cp ti chnh cho kho m, thanh l d tr phi thng mi, cam kt ci
thin m ca th trng v thc y tiu th. Mt s hip nh cng nhm khuyn khch vic
ch bin tip theo ti cc nc ang pht trin, v cc hip nh ny bao gm cc quy nh v
trao i thng tin v sn xut, thng mi v tiu th. Phn ln cc hip nh cng bao gm cc
quy nh v tham vn v gii quyt tranh chp. Cc hip nh nm 1954 v ng v thic c
iu khon "cc tiu chun lao ng cng bng" quy nh rng lao ng tham gia vo sn xut
cc mt hng tng ng cn c thng hp l, bo him x hi y v cc iu kin lm
vic tho ng khc. Cc iu khon ny dn dn khng c s dng na, nhng mt s hip
nh sau ny, v d Hip nh quc t v cao-su t nhin, vn thc y cc thnh vin ci thin
mc sng ca ngi lao ng. Cc quy nh v d tr m c s dng nu gi ca mt mt
hng vt ra ngoi khung gi nh. xc nh c gi ng l rt phc tp. Nu gi sn
qu cao s thc y tng sn xut, iu ny c th y gi th trng xung v bt buc kho
m phi mua vo. Mt yu t quan trng m bo gi sn thc hin ng chc nng ca
mnh l tt c nhng nh sn xut ch yu phi l thnh vin ca hip nh. iu ny nhiu khi
rt kh t c. K t khi Hip nh Thic quc t chm dt hiu lc, kho m tr nn li
thi. Phn ln cc ICA c iu hnh bi mt c quan c thnh lp v mc ch . Cc
thnh vin c phn chia thnh nh sn xut v ngi tiu th, v hai loi thnh vin ny c s
phiu nh nhau. Cc nc sn xut thng cng nhp khu cng mt mt hng, v cc nc
tiu th cng xut khu. Do nh ngha nc sn xut hay tiu th c th c da trn thc
t nc l nc thc xut hay thc nhp. Biu quyt thng c da trn th phn mt hng
ca mt nc trn tng thng mi quc t. Cc ICA thng hot ng mt cch c lp,
nhng vic m phn hoc ti m phn thng tin hnh trong khun kh UNCTAD, mt c
quan k t khi thnh lp nm 1964 m nhn trch nhim v cc vn hng ho trong h
thng Lin hp quc. Tuy nhin, c hai hip nh c m phn trong khun kh GATT, v
hin nay cc hip nh l b phn ca cc hip nh nhiu bn WTO. Hai hip nh l
Hip nh quc t v cc sn phm sa v Hip nh quc t v tht b. C hai hip nh u
nhm m rng, t do ho v n nh thng mi hng ho trong phm vi ca mnh. Xem thm
buffer stock, commodity policy, Integrated Programme for Commodities v international
commodity bodies.
International commodity bodies (ICB): Cc c quan hng ho quc t
Cc t chc iu hnh cc hip nh hng ho quc t hoc l cc nhm nghin cu ngnh
hng. Qu Chung c thnh lp thng qua UNCTAD xc nh cc c quan ngnh hng
quc t sau y: T chc Ca-cao quc t, U ban t vn Bng quc t, T chc ay quc t,
Nhm nghin cu Ch v Km quc t, Nhm nghin cu ng quc t, Hi ng Du -liu
quc t, T chc Cao-su t nhin quc t, Nhm nghin cu Cao-su quc t, T chc ng
quc t, T chc G nhit i quc t, T chc C-ph quc t, Hi ng La m quc t, U

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ban UNCTAD v volfram, Nhm lin chnh ph FAO v chui, qu h chanh, si cng, tht,
du v ht c du, go, ch, Tiu ban lin chnh ph ca FAO v thng mi hi sn, v Tiu
nhm lin chnh ph v da cha thuc v da. Tt c cc c quan ny u c quyn c ti tr
cc d n c h tr ti chnh ca Qu chung. Xem thm cc mc ring v mt s hip nh do
cc c quan ny iu hnh.
International commodity-related environment agreement (ICREA): Hip nh quc t v
mi trng c lin quan n hng ho
Mt vn kin lin chnh ph t nguyn do UNCTAD khi xng nhm thc y cc mc tiu
mi trng trong sn xut hng ho v to iu kin hp tc gia cc nc sn xut v tiu th
trong lnh vc ny. Cc hip nh mi trng c lin quan n hng ho c th lin quan n
xy dng tiu chun hoc chng c th nhm ti tr cho vic chuyn i sang cc phng php
sn xut bn vng hn. Xem thm trade and environment.
International contestability of markets: Tnh kim nghim quc t ca th trng
Mt khi nim bao trm nhm nh gi mc th trng khng b bin dng thng qua quy
ch hoc cc hnh ng chng cnh tranh ca chnh ph hoc t nhn nhn t gc ngi
xut khu. Mt th trng hon ton c kim nghim l th trng trong cc hng c th
cnh tranh hon ton da trn c s gi v kh nng cung cp sn phm hoc dch v m th
trng c nhu cu. Tnh kim nghim quc t c xc nh bng cc yu t nh thu quan
v cc bin php phi thu quan, cc iu kin quy ch c nh hng n vic nhp khu dch
v, nhng cn tr v c cu di dng, v d, h thng phn phi, quy ch ni a v u t v
cnh tranh, v cc thng l chng cnh tranh t nhn. Xem thm indicators of market openness
v trade and competition.
International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants: Cng c quc t
v bo v cc ging thc vt mi
c k nm 1961 ti Paris v sa i nm 1978 ti Genve. Hip nh ny quy nh vic cp
bng pht minh v cc quyn c bit bo h nhng ngi gy ging thc vt mi. Hip
nh ny c iu hnh bi Lin minh quc t bo h ging thc vt mi (UPOV) ch khng
phi WIPO.
International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms
and Broadcasting Organisations: Cng c quc t bo v nhng ngi biu din, sn xut
a ht v cc t chc pht sng
Xem Rome Convention.
International Convention on the Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding
System: Cng c quc t v H thng hi ho miu t v m s hng ho
Xem Harmonised System.
International Convention on the Simplificaiton and Harmonisation of Customs
Procedures: Cng c quc t v n gin ho v hi ho th tc hi quan
Xem Kyoto Convention.
International Copper Study Group (ICSG): Nhm nghin cu ng quc t
Mt t chc lin chnh ph c thnh lp trong khun kh UNCTAD nm 1992. T chc ny
bao gm cc nc sn xut v tiu th i din cho hn 80% thng mi th gii. Chc nng
chnh ca ICSG l trao i thng tin v th trng ng quc t, thu thp v ph bin s liu
thng k cp nht v xem xt cc vn c bit c th pht sinh. Ban th k ca Nhm t ti
Lisbon. Xem thm CIPEC v international commodity bodies.
International Cotton Advisory Committee: U ban t vn Bng quc t

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Thnh lp nm 1939 nh l mt hip hi ca cc nc sn xut bng v c c cu li nm
1945 thu nhn c cc nc tiu th bng. U ban ny thu thp v ph bin thng k v sn
xut v thng mi bng v thc y cc bin php nhm pht trin kinh t bng ton cu. Ban
th k ca U ban t ti Washington. Xem thm international commodity bodies.
International division of labour: Phn cng lao ng quc t
S phn b qu trnh sn xut nhm thc y chuyn mn ho lao ng hn na, rt gim quy
m v sn phm tiu chun ho. Mc ch ca n l to iu kin cho cc cng ty cnh tranh
thng qua c ch gi c. H thng ny hot ng tt cho n khi mt s cng ty li nhm
n ngi tiu dng v bt u cnh tranh thng qua ci tin sn phm. Phn cng lao ng
quc t cng tng t nh phn chia qu trnh ch to sn phm ch phn ln nht c th ca
sn phm c ch to bi nhn cng r khng lnh ngh v bn lnh ngh. Xem thm
Fordism, globalisation, new international division of labour v product cycle theory.
International economic relations: Quan h kinh t quc t
Bn cnh thng mi quc t, bao gm trc tip cc hot ng v hp tc ti chnh v tin t
quc t nh lu thng vn v u t quc t. Gin tip hn, gn nh mi hot ng quc t c
kha cnh hoc nh hng kinh t.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC): U ban in k thut quc t
C quan quc t chnh dnh cho hp tc v tiu chun v nh gi tnh ph hp trong lnh vc
in, in t v cc cng ngh c lin quan. U ban ny l din n cho vic chun b v thc
hin cc tiu chun quc t t nguyn trn c s nht tr. IEC c lin quan n WTO thng qua
Hip nh v hng ro k thut cn tr thng mi. Ban th k t ti Genve. Xem thm
International Organisation for Standardisation.
International Energy Agency (IEA): C quan Nng lng quc t
Mt t chc lin chnh ph thnh lp nm 1974 sau cn sc du m ln th nht. Bao gm cc
nc thnh vin ca t chc OECD. Mi quan tm chnh ca t chc ny l nng cao hiu qu
nng lng, bo tn nng lng v pht trin ngun nng lng mi. Ban Th k ca IEA t
ti Paris.
International financial institutions: Cc nh ch ti chnh quc t
Thut ng ch cc t chc lin chnh ph nh IMF, IBRD hoc Ngn hng Pht trin Chu .
Cc t chc ny quan tm ch yu ti thc y qun l kinh t vng mnh ca cc nc thnh
vin hoc h tr ti chnh cho cc nc thnh vin cho mt s mc ch nht nh. Cc nc
ang pht trin thng nhn c tr gip ti chnh cho pht trin kinh t vi cc iu kin u
i, v d thi hn thanh ton rng v li sut thp hn li sut th trng. Xem thm structural
adjustment.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD): Qu Pht trin nng nghip
quc t
Mt trong nhng c quan chuyn mn ca Lin hp quc. Bt u hot ng nm 1977 vi
nhim v cung cp ti chnh cho cc d n nhm ci thin cung cp lng thc v an ninh
lng thc ca cc nc ang pht trin. Phn ln cc khon cho vay ca Qu dnh cho cc
nc c thu nhp thp, thng thng vi cc iu kin rt u i. Xem thm Food and
Argicultural Organisation v World Food Programme.
International Grains Agreement (IGA): Hip nh Ng cc quc t
Hip nh k tha Hip nh La m Quc t. Hip nh ny c hiu lc t 1/7/1995 trong thi
hn 3 nm, vi quy nh gia hn 2 nm mt. IGA c hai vn kin: Cng c Thng mi Ng
cc v Cng c Vin tr Lng thc. Cng c u nhm thc y hp tc quc t trong
thng mi la m v ng cc th, ch yu thng qua ci thin tnh r rng ca th trng.
Cng c th hai quy nh lng vin tr lng thc ti thiu c th hng nm cho cc nc

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ang pht trin di dng lng thc dnh cho tiu th ca con ngi, phn ln thng qua
Chng trnh Lng thc Th gii. IGA do Hi ng Ng cc Quc t t ti London iu
hnh. Xem thm Food and Agricultural Organisation v food security.
International Labour Organisation (ILO): T chc Lao ng Quc t
Thnh lp nm 1919 nh l mt b phn ca Hip c Versailles. Tr thnh c quan chuyn
mn ca Lin hp quc nm 1946. Mc tiu ca t chc ny l ci thin iu kin sng v lm
vic thng qua vic p dng cc cng c v khuyn ngh quc t quy nh tiu chun ti thiu
v lng, gi lm vic, iu kin lm vic, bo him x hi, v.v... Tr s t ti Genve. Xem
thm child labour, core labour standards v trade and labour standards.
International Lead and Zinc Study Group (ILZSG): Nhm Nghin cu Km v Ch Quc
t
Thnh lp nm 1960, k nhim U ban Nghin cu Km v Ch. y l din n t vn gia
cc nc sn xut v tiu th v cc vn lin quan n sn xut v thng mi km v ch,
k c thu thp thng k. ILZSG t ti London, nhng cc cuc hp li c t chc trong
khun kh UNCTAD. Xem thm international commodity bodies.
International Maritime Organisation (IMO): T chc Hng hi Quc t
Mt trong nhng c quan chuyn mn ca Lin hp quc. Bt u hot ng nm 1959 di
danh ngha T chc T vn Hng hi lin Chnh ph, v c tn nh ngy nay t 1982. IMO l
din n hp tc lin chnh ph trong cc lnh vc nh to iu kin cho giao thng hng hi
quc t, tiu chun an ton hng hi, cc vn v trch nhim v n b, v cc bin php
trnh gy nhim t tu thy. Tr s t ti London. Xem thm maritime transport services.
Internationally recognised labour standards: Cc tiu chun lao ng c quc t cng
nhn
Xem core labour standards.
International Natural Rubber Agreement: Hip nh Cao-su t nhin quc t
Hip nh Cao-su T nhin Quc t th nht c hon thnh nm 1979 v c k tha bng
Hip nh nm 1987, nhng hip nh ny ch c hiu lc t 1989. Hip nh chm dt hiu
lc nm 1995. N c ni tip bng mt tho thun lm thi c hiu lc gii hn v bng mt
hip nh mi cng vo nm . Hip nh ny quy nh kho m khng vt qu 550. 000 tn.
Mc tiu chnh ca Hip nh, ngoi cc mc tiu khc, l (a) t c tng trng cn i
trong cung v cu cao-su t nhin, (b) t c cc iu kin th trng n nh thng qua vic
trnh dao ng gi qu ln, (c) gip n nh thu nhp t xut khu ca cc nc thnh vin
xut khu, v (d) t c cung cp y cao-su t nhin nhm p ng c nhu cu ca
cc nc nhp khu. C quan iu hnh ca Hip nh l T chc Cao-su t nhin quc t t
ti Kuala Lumpur.
International Natural Rubber Study Group: Nhm nghin cu Cao-su t nhin quc t
C quan bao gm cc nc sn xut v tiu th, c thnh lp nm 1944. Mc tiu ca t
chc ny l hot ng nh mt din n tho lun v cc vn c lin quan n sn xut, tiu
th v thng mi cao-su t nhin v cao-su tng hp. Nhm ny cng xut bn hng lot ti
liu thng k. Ban Th k t ti London.
International Nickel Study Group (INSG): Nhm nghin cu Ni-ken quc t
Thnh lp nm 1986 trong khun kh UNCTAD v c hiu lc t 23/5/1990, tuy nhin khng
c quan h chnh thc vi bt k c quan Lin hp quc no. Nhm ny thc y quan h quc
t trong cc vn c lin quan n ni-ken, c bit l ci thin thng k v cc thng tin khc
v th trng ni-ken, v l din n tho lun cc vn ni-ken trong mi quan tm v quyn
li chung. S thnh vin ca INSG chim khong 80% sn lng ni-ken th gii. Ban th k
t ti Hague.

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International Olive Oil Agreement: Hip nh Du -liu Quc t
c k ln u nm 1956 v m phn li nm 1963, 1979 v 1986. c gia hn thm 5
nm k t 1/1/1994 bng mt ngh nh th. Hot ng ca hip nh ny tp trung vo mc
ch pht trin cc th trng di hn. Hip nh khng c c cu kho m. Cc nc thnh vin
phn ln thuc Cng ng Chu u v khong 12 nc khc, phn ln l cc nc a trung
hi. Hip nh c iu hng thng qua Hi ng Du -liu quc t t ti Madrid.
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO): T chc Tiu chun ho Quc t
Mt hip hi gm cc c quan tiu chun ton th gii, thnh lp nm 1947 nhm thc y
pht trin tiu chun ho v cc hot ng c lin quan to iu kin cho trao i hng ho
v dch v quc t. Mi nc ch c i din bng mt c quan. ISO cng thc y pht trin
hp tc trong cc hot ng tr tu, khoa hc, cng ngh v kinh t. T chc ny c lin quan
n WTO c bit l trong cng vic c lin quan n Hip nh v Hng ro k thut cn tr
thng mi - hip nh nhm m bo rng tiu chun khng c s dng nh mt hng ro
cn tr thng mi. Xem thm International Electrotechnical Commission, ISO 9000 v ISO
14000.
International political economy: Kinh t chnh tr quc t
Ngnh nghin cu c lin quan n mi quan h gia lnh vc kinh t v chnh tr trong x hi
quc t hin ti (Underhill, 1994). Chnh sch thng mi l mt kha cnh ca mi quan h
ny.
International Program for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC): Chng trnh quc t
xo b lao ng tr em
Chng trnh do T chc Lao ng Quc t khi xng nm 1992 nhm h tr cc nc thnh
vin trong n lc xo b lao ng tr em. Hot ng ca IPEC bao gm vic xy dng cc
chng trnh hnh ng quc gia, cc d n tuyn truyn v cc chng trnh nng cao nhn
thc cho chnh ph, cc t chc phi chnh ph, ngi lao ng v ngi s dng lao ng. Hin
nay c khong 20 nc tham gia IPEC. Xem thm child labour, core labour standards, social
clause v trade and labour standards.
International Sugar Agreement: Hip nh ng Quc t
Cc hip nh v ng u tin c lch s t nhng nm 1860. Mt hip nh mi c k
nm 1931 gia cc hip hi sn xut, v cc chnh ph ca h phi cng nhn cc iu
khon ca hip nh. ng thi Ban th k thng trc c thit lp ti Hague. Hip nh
nhm vo vic lu thng d tr d tha thng qua hn ngch xut khu, nhng tht bi v
cc nc khng phi l thnh vin nng sn lng ca h. Hip nh th hai c m phn
nm 1937. Hip nh ny quy nh c s i din ca ngi tiu th v sn xut. Hip nh
ng u tin sau chin tranh c k nm 1954 v m phn li nm 1958, 1968, 1973, 1977
v 1984. Hip nh ny duy tr kho m cho n 1977. Nhng nm u 1980 gi ng gim
mnh mt phn v Cng ng Kinh t Chu u chuyn t nhp siu sang xut siu nhng
khng chp nhn cc quy nh p dng cho nc nhp khu. Hip nh 1984 khng c cc quy
nh kinh t, nhng t n quy nh nhim v m phn mt hip nh mi thuc loi ny. Mt
hip nh iu hnh k nhim c hiu lc trong vng 5 nm t 1993, v khng hn ch s ln
gia hn. C quan iu hnh l T chc ng Quc t t ti London.
International Tea Agreement: Hip nh Ch Quc t
C hiu lc ln u tin nm 1933 nhng ch bao gm cc nc sn xut. Hip nh ny c
nh gi cao v thnh cng trong vic gi khng cho gi gim trong mt thi gian di, phn
ln bi v cc nc n-, Ceylon v Java u l thnh vin. Ba nc ny chim 96% sn lng
ch th gii ti thi gian . Ch l mt trong 18 mt hng trong Chng trnh thng nht cc
ngnh hng, tuy nhin cc c gng nhm m phn mt hip nh ch mi u khng thnh
cng. Mt trong cc l do tht bi ch yu l cc nh m phn khng th tm ra c mt

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cng thc x l nhng khiu ni ca cc nh sn xut ng Phi. Cc nc ny thy rng h
b bt li nu t l xut khu trong qu kh dc dng phn b hn ngch xut khu.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Lin minh Vin thng Quc t
Thnh lp nm 1865 v c c cu li nm 1947 nh mt c quan chuyn mn ca Lin hp
quc. Trch nhim ca n l (a) duy tr v m rng hp tc quc t nhm ci tin v s dng
hp l tt c cc hnh thc vin thng, (b) thc y pht trin cc c s k thut v hot ng
c hiu qu nht nhm nng cao hiu qu ca dch v vin thng, nng cao ch li, v trong
chng mc c th, m rng dch v n cng chng, v (c) hi ho hnh ng ca cc thnh
vin nhm t c cc mc tiu . Ban th k ca ITU t ti Geneve. Xem thm Agreement
on Basic Telecommunications.
International Tin Agreement: Hip nh Thic Quc t
c k ln u tin nm 1931 v gia hn nm 1934. Cc hip nh khng cho php c i
din ca cc nc tiu th. Hip nh th ba, k nm 1937, mi hai nc tiu th ln nht
tham gia cc cuc hp. Hip nh c m phn li nm 1954 bao gm c cc nc sn
xut v tiu th, sau nm 1961, 1966, 1971, 1975 v 1980 c hiu lc trong 5 nm. Tt c
cc bn hip nh u thit lp kho m v c h thng hn ngch xut khu. im ny tr
nn mt trong cc l do dn n s kt thc ca Hip nh vo nm 1985. Vic tin hnh cc
giao dch k hn ca ngi qun l d tr ti Th trng Kim loi London dng nh l yu t
ch yu dn n vic thiu qu. Mt l do khc l cc nc sn xut v tiu th ch yu khng
phi l thnh vin, v do cc nc ny khng b rng buc bi cc quy nh ca hip
nh. Tuy nhin, khng c s thng nht quan im v l do dn n kt thc ca Hip nh.
International Tin Study Group: Nhm Nghin cu Thic Quc t
Do Hi ngh Thic ca Lin hp quc thnh lp nm 1989, nhng khng hot ng v c qu t
nc tham gia thng bo chp thun. Mc ch ca Nhm l m bo tng cng hp tc quc
t v thic, ci tin thng tin thng k v trao i thng tin v sn xut v thng mi. Xem
thm International Tin Agreement.
International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO (ITC): Trung tm Thng mi Quc t
UNCTAD/WTO
Thnh lp nm 1964, l u mi trong h thng Lin hp quc v hp tc k thut vi cc nc
ang pht trin trong xc tin thng mi. Chng trnh hot ng hin nay ca Trung tm bao
gm pht trin sn phm v th trng, pht trin dch v h tr thng mi, thng tin thng
mi, pht trin ngun nhn lc, mua bn quc t v qun l cung cp v cc nhu cu xc tin
thng mi. Trung tm t ti Genve. Xem thm trade facilitation.
International Trade Commission: U ban Thng mi Quc t
C quan ca chnh ph Hoa K c trch nhim bo co v nh hng ca thu quan v cc
bin php phi thu quan ca cc nc khc i vi xut khu ca Hoa K. Nhim v ca n
cng bao gm vic xc nh ph gi, hnh ng c lin quan n tc ng ca tr cp xut
khu ca cc nc khc v hnh ng t v. U ban cng t vn cho Tng thng v vic nhp
khu nng sn c nh hng n cc chng trnh tr gi nng sn hay khng. U ban khng
xy dng chnh sch thng mi, nhng cc kt qu nghin cu ca n l mt trong nhng
nhn t c bn xc nh chnh sch thng mi ca Hoa K.
International trade law: Lut thng mi quc t
Mt b phn ca cc hip nh thng mi a phng, khu vc v song phng c quy nh
phng thc tin hnh thng mi quc t. Trong trng hp ca Australia, GATT, GATS v
cc hip nh WTO khc l nhng vn kin quan trng nht trong quan h thng mi vi cc
nc thnh vin WTO khc. Trong cc trng hp khc, cc hip nh song phng v cc vn
kin khc to nn phn lut thng mi quc t ng dng. Mt kha cnh khc ca lut thng

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mi quc t c lin quan n hot ng ca cc cng ty t nhn. Xem thm private
international law, public international law v UNCITRAL.
International Trade Organisation: T chc Thng mi Quc t
Xem ITO.
International Tropical Timber Agreement: Hip nh G Nhit i Quc t
c k nm 1983 trong khun kh Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng v c k tip
nm 1994 bng mt hip nh c hiu lc trong 4 nm v c th gia hn hai ln, mi ln 3 nm.
Hip nh ny khng c quy nh kinh t. Mc tiu chnh ca Hip nh l to mt khun kh
c hiu qu cho vic t vn, hp tc quc t v xy dng chnh sch gia cc nc thnh vin
trong tt c mi kha cnh ca kinh t g th gii. Cc mc tiu khc c lin quan n thng
mi bao gm (a) to din n t vn nhm thc y cc hot ng khng phn bit i x trong
thng mi g, (b) tng cng kh nng hoch nh chin lc xut khu ti nm 2000 ca cc
thnh vin, (c) xc tin m rng v a dng ho thng mi g nhit i quc t t cc ngun
n nh, (d) ci thin thng tin th trng, (e) thc y ch bin nhiu hn na ti cc nc sn
xut, (f) ci tin tip th v phn phi, v (g) khuyn khch s dng chung thng tin v th
trng g quc t. C quan iu hnh l T chc G nhit i Quc t t ti Yokohama. Xem
thm trade and environment.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Lin minh
Quc t Bo tn Thin nhin v Ti nguyn Thin nhin
Xem CITES.
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV): Lin minh
Quc t Bo v cc ging thc vt mi
Xem International convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants.
International Vine and Wine Office: Vn phng Nho v Ru Nho Quc t
Xem Office international development la vigne et du vin.
International Wheat Agreement: Hip nh La m Quc t
Phin bn cui cng bao gm hai vn kin: (a) Cng c v Thng mi La m 1986, l mt
din n tham vn vi chng trnh thu thp v ph bin thng tin, v (b) Cng c Vin tr
Lng thc c k cng thi gian . Ngy 1/7/1995, Hip nh c thay th bng Cng c
v Thng mi Ng cc trong khun kh Hip nh Ng cc quc t. Tt c cc bn tham gia
hip nh l thnh vin ca Hi ng La m quc t, nay l Hi ng Ng cc quc t t ti
London.
Intervention price: Gi can thip
Mt c cu trong Chnh sch Nng nghip chung, theo Cng ng Chu u mua nng sn
vi mt gi nht nh. Vic can thip vo gi th hin ch h tr mc thu nhp hin thi ca
nng dn ngay c khi sn lng vt qu nhu cu. Xem thm floor price.
Intra-firm trade: Thng mi ni b cng ty
Thng mi thc hin gia cc n v ca cng mt cng ty. Phn ln thng mi loi ny
c thc hin gia cc n v ca cc cng ty a quc gia. Mt nghin cu mi y (U ban
Phn tch Kinh t, 1995) c tnh rng trong nm 1993 khong 30% xut khu v 37% nhp
khu ca Hoa K l kt qu ca thng mi ni b cng ty. Mt s nh bnh lun cho rng
thng mi ni b cng ty l mt dng ca thng mi c qun l (managed trade) da trn gi
thit rng cc cng ty a quc gia mun mua bn vi cc n v ca mnh hn l s dng th
trng m, ngay c khi c chnh lch gi. Quan im v gi thit ny vn cn khc bit. Xem
thm globalisation.
Intra-industry trade: Thng mi trong mt ngnh cng nghip

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Vic xut khu v nhp khu ng thi mt sn phm ging nhau v c bn. V d, ngnh cng
nghip -t ca mt nc c th ng thi nhp khu v xut khu cc b phn -t. Thng
mi trong mt ngnh cng nghip c cc nh kinh t tranh lun si ni t nhng nm
1970, mt s cho rng y l mt trng hp c bit ca thng mi quc t. Tuy nhin
khng h c s bt ng v tm quan trng ca thng mi trong mt ngnh cng nghip trong
c cu lu thng thng mi quc t. Xem thm globalisation.
Investment promotion and protection agreements: Cc hip nh xc tin v bo h u t
Cc hip nh gia cc nc nhm thc y lu thng vn cho pht trin v cc hot ng kinh
t. Cc hip nh ny thng bao gm cc quy nh v p dng i ng ti hu quc, v t cc
iu kin lin quan n nhp cnh, tch thu v quc hu ho, chuyn vn, gii quyt tranh chp
gia cc bn tham gia, v.v... Xem thm bilateral investment treaties.
Investment services directive (ISD): Ch th dch v u t
Ch th ca Cng ng Chu u nhm ci thin quyn thnh lp v quyn t do cung cp dch
v trong lnh vc chng khon. Ch th ny c hiu lc t 1/1/1996. Theo ni dung ca ch th
ny, cc cng ty c php hot ng trong Cng ng Chu u nu h c php ca nh
nc ca h. Cc hot ng c php c th c tin hnh thng qua vic thit lp c s ti
mt nc khc hoc thng qua thng mi qua bin gii. Cc cng ty khng phi p ng thm
iu kin no khc nh giy php, vn t c hoc bt c bin php no c tc dng tng
ng. Xem thm European Community legislation v Consultative Group of Eighteen.
Invisible Group: Nhm V hnh
Nhm khng chnh thc gm cc quan chc cao cp t th cc nc thnh vin WTO, hp
vi ln mt nm, thng ti Genve. Nhm ny quan tm n vic khai thc cc vn ln
cng quan tm trong chng trnh hot ng ca WTO. Nhm ny khng c quyn quyt nh.
Xem thm Consultative Group of Eighteen.
Invisible Trade: Thng mi v hnh
Xem trade in services.
Iran and Libya Sanctions Act: o lut trng pht Iran v Libya
Xem D'Amato legislation.
ISO 9000
Mt chui tiu chun h thng cht lng do T chc Tiu chun ho Quc t xy dng. l
cc tiu chun nh gi phng thc lm vic ca mt cng ty. Khng nn nhm ln vi tiu
chun sn phm. Tiu chun h thng cht lng to iu kin cho cc cng ty xc nh c
cch tho mn lin tc cc yu cu ca khch hng.
ISO 14000
Mt chui cc tiu chun qun l mi trng do T chc Tiu chun ho Quc t xy dng,
bao trm 6 lnh vc: h thng qun l mi trng; kim tra mi trng; nhn hiu mi trng,
nh gi hot ng mi trng; nh gi vng i; tht ng v khi nim. Phn ln cc tiu
chun nhm cung cp ti liu hng dn v h thng v dng c mi trng gip cc cng
ty v cc t chc khc a mi quan tm v mi trng vo qu trnh kinh doanh thng thng
ca h. Ch c mt tiu chun - ISO 14001 v h thng qun l mi trng - l c cc quy nh
c th v chng nhn hoc ng k. Xem thm trade and environment.
Instanbul Convention: Cng c Istanbul
Cng c Hi quan v Chp nhn Tm thi, c hiu lc t 27/11/1993. Cng c ny to nn
khun kh php l cho vic chp nhn tm thi hng ho vo mt nc hoc mt lin minh hi
quan. Cng c ny do T chc Hi quan Th gii iu hnh.
Item-by-item tariff negotiations: m phn thu quan theo tng mt hng

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m phn v thu quan trong mi mt hng c xem xt ring bit. Phng php ny vt
v hn vic ct gim thu theo cng thc, ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh hoc m phn thng
mi theo ngnh, nhng c th l phng php duy nht c th s dng c t c kt
qu nu m phn v cc sn phm nhy cm.
ITO (International Trade Organisation): T chc Thng mi quc t
D n thnh lp mt T chc Thng mi quc t l mt trong cc kt qu ca Hi ngh
Bretton Woods. ITO c d nh bao gm mt din rng cc vn kinh t, k c u t, cc
thng l kinh doanh hn ch thng mi, cc tho thun ngnh hng, quy tc thng mi quc
t v cc vn thng mi lin quan n pht trin kinh t. Tt c cc ch trn y u
c tp trung m phn ti Havana nm 1947 v 1948. Cui cng t c mt lot nhn
nhng, nhng ch vi mt hip nh c t quyn lc hn nh nhng ngi xut mong mun.
Duy nht mt phn cn tn ti, l mt b quy tc thng mi v cam kt thu quan c
bit n vi tn GATT, c xy dng da trn chng v chnh sch thng mi nhng c
m phn ng thi. ITO do cha bao gi c thnh lp. Xem thm Bretton Woods
Agreements, Havana Charter, Organisation for Trade Cooperation v WTO.

Jackson-Vanik amendment: Sa i Jackson-Vanik

S sa i o lut Thng mi 1974 ca Hoa K do Thng ngh s Henry Jackson (ng
Dn ch) v H ngh s Charles Vanik (ng Dn ch) xut, v c ban hnh vi tn Mc
402. iu lut ny t chi dnh i ng ti hu quc i vi cc nc c nn kinh t phi th
trng nu cc nc ny (a) t chi quyn di c i vi cng dn ca h, (b) nh thu di c
cao hn mc thu danh ngha v (c) p dng mc thu cao hn mc danh ngha i vi cng dn
ca h nu h mun di c. Tng thng c th min tr yu cu tun th Mc 402 nu xc nh
c rng iu thc y ng k cc quy nh v di c t do, v nu Tng thng c m
bo rng cc thng l v di c ca mt nc s dn n mc tiu . iu khon min tr
c p dng vi ln. Sa i Jackson-Vanik ban u nhm vo cc thc hnh ca Lin x
(c). iu khon ny vn cn hiu lc v c s dng trong quan h thng mi gia Hoa
K v Trung Quc. Rt i ng ti hu quc MFN c ngha l thu sut cao trong o lut
Smoot-Hawley s c p dng. iu ny s lm cho nh xut khu km cnh tranh hn trn
th trng Hoa K. Xem thm conditional most-favoured-nation treatment.
Japanese measures on leather: Cc bin php ca Nht i vi da
Mt trng hp tranh chp do Hoa K khi kin nm 1983 trong khun kh GATT. Trc
c hai trng hp nhng khng qua ht ton b qu trnh gii quyt tranh chp. Trng hp
th nht do Hoa K khi kin nm 1978, kt thc bng mt tho thun song phng tng hn
ngch nhp khu cho da nhp khu t Hoa K. Trng hp th hai do Canada khi kin nm
1979 cng c gii quyt m thm theo cch tng t. Tuy nhin, cho ti 1983 Hoa K nhn
ra rng tho thun 1978 khng t c gia tng xut khu da sang Nht, v Hoa K khi
kin mt ln na. Trn thc t, Nht duy tr hn ch nhp khu i vi da b, da cu, da d
v da nga. Ngi nhp khu phi c giy php nhp khu. B Cng thng (MITI) phn b
hn ngch ton cu theo hai cch: (i) cng thc hn ngch "thng nhn" da trn ghi chp v
nhp khu ca mt s cng ty chn lc c lch s nhp khu, v (ii) cng thc hn ngch
"ngi s dng" phn b hn ngch cho mt s ngi s dng cui cng c chn lc hoc cho
cc cng ty i din cho h. H thng giy php ch p dng i vi da mu crm xanh t v
da thnh phm. Bun bn da th khng b nh hng. Nht da chi tit trn c s lch s,
vn ho v kinh t-x hi ca ci gi l "vn Dowa". Dowa l mt dn tc thiu s trong
truyn thng thng lm nhng cng vic t ngi mun. Nht cho rng l h qu ca x hi
phong kin trc Ci cch Minh tr (1868). Ngi dn ti cc huyn Dowa, mt th ch x hi
c thit lp, b xp ngoi v di cc tng lp qu tc samurai, nng dn, th th cng

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v thng nhn. H cng b phn bit i x nng n trong mi lnh vc ca cuc sng x
hi. T nm 1871, Chnh ph Nht tin hnh hng lot cc bin php gii phng h, tuy
vy vic xo b i ngho vn cn nhiu vic phi lm. Nh vy, Nht tha nhn rng s phn
bit i x trong tm l vn cn tn ti rng ri mc d gim ng k. Ngh thuc da Nht
theo truyn thng l ngh ca ngi Dowa, thu ht khong 12. 000 lao ng trong cc x
nghip nh v lc hu. Trnh cng ngh thp lm cho ngnh ny km cnh tranh. Nht
cho rng nu xo b cc hn ch nhp khu ngay lp tc s dn n "cc vn chnh tr, x
hi v kinh t khng lng trc c". Trong qu trnh iu tra, Ban hi thm ghi nhn
rng cch tip cn ca Hoa K ch yu da trn cc l l php l, trong khi l l ca pha
Nht hon ton da trn cc vn c th c lin quan n mt nhm dn tc gi l ngi
Dowa. Ban hi thm ni rng h khng th xem xt n tnh hnh c bit do pha Nht a
ra bi v ni dung nhim v ca h l kim tra vn "theo cc quy nh tng ng ca
GATT". Cc quy nh khng cho php p dng hn ch nhp khu da trn cc l l . Do
, Ban hi thm kt lun rng hn ch nhp khu ca Nht i vi da l tri vi iu XI
ca GATT (Loi b hon ton hn ch nh lng). Thc t cc hn ch tn ti rt lu v
khng th thay i c kt lun ny. Ban hi thm cng cho rng cc s liu thng k m h
c c cho thy rng c s v hiu ho hoc gy phng hi n li ch m Hoa K ng
l c hng. Ban hi thm khuyn ngh Nht loi b cc hn ch nh lng nhp khu
trong danh mc m Hoa K a ra. Xem thm Belgian family allowances.
Joint action: Hnh ng chung
Hnh ng do tt c cc bn tham gia GATT (thnh vin) cng tin hnh nhm thc hin cc
quy nh ca Hip nh hoc m rng mc tiu ca Hip nh. Hnh ng chung l cn thit, v
d trong trng hp dnh min tr. Trong cc ti liu chnh thc ca GATT cm t "cc bn
tham gia" vit hoa khi dn chiu n hnh ng chung do tt c cc bn cng thc hin.
Joint Trade Committee: U ban Thng mi Hn hp
Mt c cu thng thng c t ra trong cc hip nh thng mi song phng c cc cuc
hp nh k theo di dng thng mi song phng v cc vn pht sinh. Cc cuc hp
c th cp b trng hoc quan chc, a im hp thng lun phin thay i gia cc bn
tham gia. Xem thm mixed commission.
Joint venture: Lin doanh
Hip hi hp tc gia hai hoc nhiu hn cng ty hoc c nhn tin hnh mt hot ng c
th. Lin doanh c th c gii th khi nhim v, v d mt d n cu hoc nghin cu v pht
trin, kt thc. Trong trng hp c s sn xut, lin doanh c th c gii th sau mt s
nm nht nh, thng thng theo mt hng dn thng nht no . L do ch yu hnh
thnh lin doanh l tp trung ngun lc ti chnh, k thut v tr tu, cng chia s ri ro hoc
xy dng mt th trng mi. Nhiu khi lin doanh vi mt cng ty a phng l cch duy
nht thm nhp mt ht trng mi. Xem thm ASEAN industrial Cooperation Scheme.
Jones Act: o lut Jones
o lut Thng thuyn nm 1920 ca Hoa K. iu 27 ca o lut ny yu cu tt c hng
ho c vn chuyn bng ng thu gia cc cng ca Hoa K phi c chuyn ch bng
tu ng kim ti Hoa K, do cng dn Hoa K s hu v ton b i thuyn vin u l cng
dn Hoa K. Xem thm cabotage.
Juridical person: Php nhn
Mt thut ng c s dng trong GATS. l mt thc th php l, v d nh tng cng ty,
t-rt, cng ty trch nhim v hn, lin doanh, s hu ton phn, hip hi, v.v..., c thnh lp
vi mc ch cung cp dch v.

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Kaleidoscopic comparative advantage: Li th so snh i mu
Mt thut ng do Jagdish Bhagwati xut miu t tnh hnh trong cc ngnh cng nghip
m nhiu nc cng c li th so snh mng manh. Nhng thay i rt nh trong mi trng
ni a trong cc iu kin c th dn n vic dch chuyn cc ngnh cng nghip gia cc
nc v h mun duy tr li th cnh tranh ca mnh. iu c th dn n nhng ngnh cng
nghip "lng chn" hoc cc hot ng xoy trn c. Xem thm globalisation.
Keiretsu relationships: Quan h Keiretsu
Mt thut ng dnh cho cc h thng phn phi v t chc lin kt cng nghip phc tp ca
Nht, lm cho nhng ngi mi tham gia rt kh cnh tranh v gi c. V lch s, cc quan h
Keiretsu dng nh c da trn mong mun ca cc cng ty c c s lin tc trong t
hng v cung cp. Ngy nay cc quan h Keiretsu b cc nh xut khu Hoa K xem nh l
nhng bin php phi thu quan hoc hot ng hn ch kinh doanh chnh. Cc nh bnh lun
Nht thng lp lun rng th lc ca cc quan h ny b thi phng, v rng cc quan h
khng mnh c th iu tit tn hiu gi. Mt s ngi phn bit gia keiretsu ngang (t
chc gia cc cng ty trong mt s ngnh) v keiretsu dc (quan h gia cc cng ty thuc cc
mc sn xut v phn phi khc nhau trong cng mt ngnh). Xem thm market-oriented
specific sector talks v Structural Impediments Initiative.
Kennedy Round: Vng Kennedy
Vng m phn thng mi a phng GATT ln th 6 t 1963 n 1967. Vng ny c ly
tn Tng thng J. F. Kennedy cng nhn s ng h ca ng i vi vic ti hoch nh
chng trnh thng mi ca Hao k, vi kt qu l s ra i ca o lut M rng Thng
mi nm 1962. o lut ny dnh cho Tng thng quyn m phn rng ri hn bao gi ht.
Khi Vng Dillon tri qua qu trnh m phn tng mt hng rt vt v, t lu trc khi vng
m phn kt thc mt iu tr nn r rng rng cn c mt cch tip cn ton din hn
ng u vi nhng thch thc mi pht sinh t s hnh thnh Cng ng Kinh t Chu u -
EEC v EFTA, cng nh s vn ln ca Chu u nh l mt trung tm thng mi quc t.
T l tng trng kinh t cao ca Nht d bo Nht s tr mt nc xut khu ng vai tr
quan trng sau ny, nhng trng tm ca Vng Kenedy vn lun l quan h Hoa K - EEC.
Tht vy, vo thi im c mt quan im rt c nh hng Hoa K cho rng Vng
Kennedy s tr thnh s khi u ca quan h xuyn i ty dng v nht nh s dn n
mt cng ng kinh t xuyn i ty dng. Vi mt chng mc no , quan im ny cng
c tha nhn chu u, nhng qu trnh thng nht chu u to nn trng tm ring ca
n, v Vng Kennedy tr thnh trng tm th yu ca EEC. Mt v d l s ph quyt ca Php
nm 1963 v vic Lin hip Anh tr thnh thnh vin, trc c khi vng m phn bt u. Mt
v d khc l cuc khng hong ni b nm 1965 vi kt qu l Tho hip Luxemburg. Vic
chun b cho vng m phn mi b nh hng trc tip do Chin tranh G, l mt du hiu
ban u ca cc tc ng m cc khon thu bin i trong Chnh sch nng nghip chung c
th c sau ny. Mt s nc tham gia Vng m phn t lo ngi rng vic triu tp
UNCTAD c n nh vo nm 1964 c th s gy nn phc tp hn na, tuy nhin tc ng
ca n ln cc cuc m phn thc t l khng ng k. Thng 5/1965, cc B trng t
c tho thun trn 3 mc tiu t ra cho Vng m phn: (a) cc bin php m rng thng
mi ca cc nc ang pht trin thc y pht trin kinh t ca cc nc ny, (b) ct gim
hoc xo b thu quan v cc hng ro cn tr thng mi khc, v (c) cc bin php m ca
th trng cho nng sn v cc sn phm s cp khc. Gi thuyt cho m phn v thu quan l
ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh 50% vi s ngoi l t nht. Mt lp lun mi hnh thnh v tc
ng ca ct gim tuyn tnh thng nht ti thng mi c th c ti thu sut phn tn (thu
sut thp v cao khc nhau tng i nhiu) ca Hoa K so vi thu sut tng i tp trung
ca EEC nm trong na di ca thu sut ca Hoa K. Theo , EEC lp lun cho vic
ng u ho hoc hi ho ho mc cao nht v thp nht thng qua cc xut crtement,
double cart v nm mi: mi. Khi cc cuc m phn bt u, gi thit thc s c

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xc nh. Cc nc c c cu c bit (Australia, Canada, New Zealand v Nam Phi), gi nh
vy bi v xut khu ca cc nc ny ch yu l nguyn liu th v cc mt hng s cp khc,
m phn ct gim thu ca h hon ton theo phng php theo tng mt hng. Cui cng, kt
qu l thu quan ct gim bnh qun l 35%, tr hng dt, ho cht, thp v cc sn phm nhy
cm khc; cng 15 n 18% ct gim i vi nng sn v thc phm. Hn na, m phn v
ho cht dn n mt hip nh tm thi v xo b Gi bn M. y l mt phng php
tnh tr gi ho cht do Hoa K s dng nh thu nhp khu, phng php ny to ra bo
h sn xut trong nc cao hn rt nhiu so vi quy nh ti biu thu. Tuy nhin, kt qu ny
b Quc hi Hoa K bc b, v Gi bn M - ASP vn c duy tr cho n khi Quc hi
thng qua kt qu Vng Tokyo. Kt qu i vi nng nghip v tng th l ngho nn. Mt
thnh tu ng k l tho thun v Ghi nh v Hip nh v cc yu t c bn trong m phn
v Hip nh Ng cc Th gii m sau ny tr thnh Hip nh Ng cc Quc t. EEC cho rng
i vi h kt qu ch yu ca m phn nng nghip l "n gip cho h xc nh c
chnh sch chung ca ring mnh". Cc nc ang pht trin, nhng nc ch ng vai tr ti
thiu trong sut cuc m phn, c hng li t vic ct gim ng k thu quan i vi
nhng sn phm phi nng nghip m h c quyn li. Tuy nhin, thnh tu ch yu ca cc
nc ang pht trin vo thi gian l vic thng qua Phn IV ca GATT min trch cho h
quy nh c i c li i vi cc nc pht trin trong m phn, y l kt qu trc tip ca li
ku gi v mt nn thng mi tt hn i vi cc nc ang pht trin ti UNCTAD I. V vic
ny, c mt lp lun cha tng c rng c ch tng trng c phi l chin thng ca h hay
khng, hay l l vic loi tr h khi s tham gia c ngha trong h thng thng mi a
phng. Mt khc, mt iu chc chn l vic Tho thun di hn c lin quan n Thng
mi Hng Dt Bng Quc t, sau ny tr thnh Hip nh a si gia hn thm ba nm cho n
1970 s dn n nh hng lu di ti c hi xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin. Mt kt
qu khc ca Vng Kennedy l vic thng qua Lut Chng ph gi a ra hng dn chnh xc
hn v vic thc hin iu VI ca GATT. C th l Lut ny nhm m bo iu tra nhanh v
cng bng, v t gii hn i vi vic p dng hi t cc loi thu chng ph gi. Tuy nhin,
Lut cng gp kh khn bi v Quc hi Hoa K cn tr hot ng nh nh ca
n. Th nhng Hoa K li cho rng h tun th hon ton Lut ny. Xem thm anti-dumping
measures v multilateral trade negotiations.
Korean beef: Tht b Hn Quc
l 3 trng hp ring bit do Australia, New Zealand v Hoa K khi kin Hn Quc nm
1988 v hn ch nhp khu i vi tht b. Thc t chung cho c ba trng hp l k t khi gia
nhp GATT nm 1967, Hn Quc duy tr hn ch nhp khu i vi mt lot sn phm, k
c tht b, v l do cn cn thanh ton. Nhp khu tht b ca Hn Quc tng mnh k t
1978, mt phn l do gim thu trong nm t 25% xung 20%, v nh trn mc thp hn.
iu ny dn n p lc t pha nng dn i bo h chng cc nh hng ngc ca nhp
khu tht b. Thng 10/1984 Hn Quc ngng gi thu nhp khu thng mi tht b vo ton
b th trng, v thng 5/1985 nhp khu tht b vo th trng khch sn cng b dng li. Cho
n thng 8/1988, khi th trng c ti m ca, khng h c hot ng nhp khu tht b no
din ra. Hnh ng ny khng c bo co ln U ban Cn cn Thanh ton ca GATT.
Nhp khu tht b phi thng qua c cu giy php nhp khu trong nc, v b nh mt mc
gi c s nht nh i vi c u gi bn bun v bn trc tip. u tin gi c s c cng
b, nhng sau tr thnh mt trong cc iu kin nhp khu. Ti cuc hp ca U ban Cn
cn Thanh ton vo thng 12/1987 quan im ch yu ca cc nc, nhng tri vi quan im
ca Hn Quc, l tnh hnh hin hnh v trong tng lai ca cn cn thanh ton ca Hn Quc
khng th bin minh cho vic p dng iu XVII:B ca GATT (H tr ca chnh ph v pht
trin kinh t). iu khon ny cho php cc nc ang pht trin p dng v duy tr hn ch
nhp khu bo tn ngoi t v thc y pht trin kinh t. C ba nguyn co u lp lun
rng hn ch nhp khu tht b ca Hn Quc hon ton ch da trn cung v cu trong nc v
nhu cu bo h ngnh . Ni cch khc, cc hn ch khng da trn nhng yu t cn cn
thanh ton. Hoa K cn lu rng hn ch nhp khu tht b ca Hn Quc dng nh c quan
h nghch vi tnh hnh cn cn thanh ton. Do , hn ch nhp khu cn phi c nh gi

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theo quy nh ti iu XI (Loi b hon ton hn ch nh lng). New Zealand lp lun rng
mc d Hn Quc c quyn duy tr thu quan nh vo tht b, nhng thm vo Hn Quc
li duy tr mt mng li cc hn ch khc v cc hn ch ny dm nhp khu tht b xung
di mc nu ch c ch thu quan khng thi. Cc hn ch ny r rng l tri vi iu
XI:1. Australia, New Zealand v Hoa K cn lp lun thm rng h thng nhp khu ca Hn
Quc hot ng nh mt c cu bnh n gi vi kt qu li nhun c quyn qu ln v thc t
lm tng mc bo h vt qu mc bo h thng qua thu sut trn. Theo quan im ca h,
mt nh nhp khu duy nht tc l c quyn nhp khu c y quyn nh trong quy nh ti
iu II:4 ca GATT (Danh mc u i), v vic nh gi nhp khu ca c quyn l tri
vi iu v vt qu mc trn 20%. iu II:4 quy nh rng hot ng ca c quyn nhp
khu khng c to ra bo h vt qu mc bo h nh theo biu thu ca mt nc. Hoa
K cng lp lun rng vic Hn Quc p dng ph thu nhp khu l tri vi iu II:1(b) - iu
ny cm tt c cc loi thu nhp khu khc vi cc khon thu nu ti danh mc u i. New
Zealand cho rng vic qun l cc bin php c nh hng n nhp khu tht b ca Hn
Quc l thiu minh bch, v iu vi phm iu X (Cng b v qun l cc quy nh v
thng mi) ca GATT. Australia v Hoa K cn c khiu ni thm v s thiu minh bch,
cng nh New Zealand, h nghi ng mc i x khng phn bit m cc hn ch nhp khu
c p dng. Mi mt trong ba trng hp khiu ni ring bit trn y u c hai nc
khiu ni kia h tr vi t cch nc th ba. L do phn bc ca Hn Quc l chng no cn
c php duy tr cc hn ch nh lng c bin minh theo iu XVIII:B th cc hn ch
phi c qun l nh quy nh ti iu XIII (Qun l cc hn ch nh lng khng phn bit
i x). Nhng tham vn thng xuyn theo iu XVIII:B trong mi trng hp ngn chn
s thch thc v tnh ph hp ca cc bin php hn ch vi quy nh ca GATT, v Hn Quc
h tr l do ca mnh bng nhng lp lun chi tit v th tc. Ban Hi thm cho rng Hn
Quc duy tr hai loi hn ch nhp khu tht b: (a) cc bin php p dng nm 1984 v
1985 c ni lng sau , v (b) v cc hn ch da trn iu XVIII:B t 1967. Ban hi thm
kt lun rng loi hn ch th nht c p dng v l do bo h cc nh cung cp ni a, v
do tri vi iu II:1 - iu khng cho php hn ch nhp khu cng nh cm nhp khu. V
l do bo v cc bin php hn ch nhp khu ca Hn Quc theo iu XVIII:B, Ban hi thm
lu rng tt c thng tin m h c c cho thy rng cn cn thanh ton ca Hn Quc ang
tip tc c ci thin vi mc tt, v rng cc ch s kinh t hin hnh ca Hn Quc rt
thun li. Do , Ban hi thm kt lun rng cn c ngay thi gian biu xo b dn cc hn ch
nhp khu tht b v l do cn cn thanh ton. V c quyn nhp khu ca Hn Quc theo
iu II ca GATT, Ban hi thm cho rng vic p dng iu II:1(b) v II:4 trong trng hp
ny l khng ph hp trong khi c tn ti cc hn ch nh lng. Chnh lch gi s bin mt
khi cc hn ch b d b. Ban hi thm khng tip tc xem xt Hn Quc c p dng cc
hn ch mt cch phn bit i x hay khng v vic qun l c minh bch r rng hay khng
v Ban c kt lun chng li cc hn ch . Khuyn ngh ca Ban l (a) Hn Quc phi loi
b hoc sa i cc hn ch p dng t 1984-1985 v c sa i 1988 cho ph hp vi
cc quy nh ca GATT, v (b) Hn Quc phi tham vn vi Australia, New Zealand v Hoa
K xy dng thi gian biu loi b cc hn ch i vi tht b vi l do cn cn thanh ton
t nm 1967.
Kyoto Convention: Cng c Kyoto
Vit y l Cng c Quc t v n gin ho v Hi ho ho Th tc Hi quan. C hiu
lc t 1974. Cng c bao gm nhiu ph lc, mi ph lc quy nh th tc lin quan n mt
lnh vc c th trong qun l hi quan. Mi thnh vin t quyt nh tun theo ph lc no.
Khng phi tt c cc ph lc u c hiu lc. Cng c cng quy nh cc quy tc xc nh
xut x ca mt sn phm. Cng c do T chc Hi quan Th gii iu hnh. Hin nay Cng
c ang c sa i ph hp vi s pht trin ca thng mi, vn ti v k thut hnh
chnh. Cng vic ny c th c hon thnh vo nm 1999. Xem thm Harmonised System,
Istanbul Convention v rules of origin.

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 L

Labelling: Dn nhn
Xem eco-labelling, genetic labelling, marks of origin v social labelling.
LAFTA (Latin-American Free Trade Area): Khu vc Thng mi t do M La-tinh
Mt t chc lin chnh ph c hnh thnh theo Hip c Montevideo thng 2/1960, c
thit k nhm dn dn hnh thnh khu vc thng mi t do to c s cho Th trng chung
M La-tinh. Cho n 1980, ch c 14% lng thng mi ca cc nc thnh vin c thc
hin theo quy tc LAFTA. Sau khi LAFTA khng c kh nng to ra kt qu c th, ALADI
(Hip hi Thng mi t do M La-tinh) c hnh thnh vo nm .
Law of constant protection: nh lut bo h khng i
Mt tng do Jagdish Bhagwati (1988) miu t, c ngha rng nu ch ngha bo h
(protectionism) mt i dng ny hay dng khc th n li xut hin di mt dng khc ni
khc.
League of Nations: Hi Quc lin
Tin thn ca Lin hp quc, thnh lp nm 1919 nh l mt b phn ca Hip c Versailles.
Mc tiu chnh ca Lin minh l an ninh chung, trng ti cho cc tranh chp quc t, gii tr
qun b v ngoi giao ci m. Cho n nhng nm 1930, tnh hiu qu ca lin minh b nghi
ng nghim trng mc d n vn tn ti vi t cch php l cho n 1946 khi chnh thc gii
th. Lin minh c mt chng trnh v thng mi quc t, nhng s tn cng mnh m ca
cuc i Suy thoi vo cui nhng nm 1920 xo b hon ton nhit tnh tham gia hnh
ng c th v s phc hi ca thng mi quc t.
Learning-by-doing argument: Lp lun hc trong khi lm
Mt dng ca lp lun nn cng nghip non tr. Lp lun ny xut cn c bo h ca chnh
ph i vi mt ngnh cng nghip nu ngnh cng nghip c th hc hi trong qu trnh
hot ng vn ln cnh tranh. Xem thm import substitution.
Least-developed countries: Cc nc chm pht trin nht
Vit tt l LLDCs theo WTO v UNCTAD, nhng l LDCs theo ECOSOC. L nhm gm 48
nc ang pht trin do ECOSOC xc nh trn c s cc ch s sau y: GNP bnh qun u
ngi, t l sng ca tr s sinh, lng ca-lo bnh qun u ngi, t l nhp trng tiu hc v
trung hc, t l bit ch ca ngi trng thnh, t l ngnh k ngh ch to trong GDP, t l
ngi lm vic trong cng nghip, tiu th in nng bnh qun u ngi, v t l tp trung
xut khu. Cc ch s ny v danh sch cc nc LLDCs c ECOSOC xem xt li ba nm
mt ln. Hin nay danh sch ny gm: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan,
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Mi Verde, Cng ho Trung Phi, Sad, Comoros, Djibouti,
Guinea Xch o, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lo,
Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar,
Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, Sao Tome v Principe, Sierra Leone, Qun o Solomon,
Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen, Zaire, (Cng ho Dn ch
Cng) v Zambia. Mt s quy nh ca WTO tha nhn nhng kh khn v nhu cu c bit
ca cc nc LLDCs theo mt s cch. Trc ht, h c th p dng Phn VI ca GATT v
iu khon cho php cho cho php cc nc pht trin c cc bin php i x thun li i
vi cc nc ny m khng i hi c i c li. Hn na, Quyt nh c li i vi cc nc
chm pht trin nht a ra ti Marrakesh thng 4/1994 cho php cc nc ny c cc cam kt
v u i chng mc ph hp vi nhu cu pht trin, ti chnh v thng mi ca tng nc.
Quyt nh ny cng nhm thc hin nhanh cc bin php thu quan v phi thu quan c trong
quyn li ca cc nc LLDCs, v ci tin GSP. Cc nc ny cng s nhn c tr gip k
thut nhiu hn nhm to iu kin m rng thng mi. Mt s hip nh do WTO iu hnh

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c cc quy nh v LLDCs. V d, Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi
cho php LLDCs khng p dng cc quy nh ca hip nh trong vng 10 nm. GATS yu cu
cc thnh vin to iu kin LLDCs tham gia tch cc hn na vo thng mi dch v ton
cu. Xem thm food security.
Leather: Da
Xem Japanese measures on imports of leather
Leontief Paradox: Nghch l Leontief
Xem new trade theory
Lener's symetry theorem: nh l i xng Lener
nh l c t tn theo nh kinh t hc Abba Lener, ngi m nm 1936 chng minh rng
thu nh vo xut khu thng ng vi thu nh vo nhp khu.
Lesser-duty principle: Nguyn tc thu thp hn
Nguyn tc trong iu hnh cc bin php chng ph gi: thu b sung nh vo sn phm
c coi l c ph gi cn phi thp hn bin ph gi nu nh mc thu thp hn
xo b thit hi.
Less than fair value: Thp hn tr gi hp l
Theo lut chng ph gi ca Hoa K, ni chung, gi ca mt sn phm xut khu thp hn tr
gi ca sn phm ti th trng ni a ca nh xut khu. Nu gi xut khu thp hn gi
ni a, tr gi thp hn tr gi hp l c coi l tn ti. Chnh lch, gi l bin ph gi,
cng vi thit hi vt cht, nu nh xc nh c, s l mt phn ca nh gi c cn bin
php chng ph gi hay khng.
Lex posterior (ting La-tinh): Lut mun hn
Quy tc s dng khi din gii cc hip c quc t, ni rng nu mt nc tr thnh thnh vin
ca hai hip c c cc quy nh tri nhau, nhng ngha v m nc c c khi gia nhp
hip c sau l ngha v c p dng.
Leutwiler Report: Bo co Leutwiler
Vo cui 1983, khong mt nm sau Hi ngh B trng ca GATT khng thnh cng nm
1982 m nhiu ngi cho l im thp nht trong lch s GATT, Tng gim c GATT thnh
lp mt nhm gm 7 ngi xut chng i din cho gii kinh doanh, chnh ph v nghin cu
do Tin s Fritz Leutwiler, sau ny l Ch tch Ngn hng quc gia Thy-s, ng u. Nhim
v ca Nhm l nghin cu thc trng ca h thng thng mi quc t, nhng nguyn nhn c
bn ca nhng kh khn m n gp phi, v ra d n hnh ng. Bo co kt qu - Chnh
sch Thng mi cho mt tng lai tt hn - xut hin vo thng 3/1985. Mi lm khuyn
ngh ca bn bo co c nh hng rt ln n vic thc y mt vng m phn thng
mi mi v nhim v ca vng m phn . Phn ln cc khuyn ngh c phn nh qua
kt qu ca Vng Uruguay, tuy nhin khng phi vi cng mt mc tham vng. Ni tm tt,
cc khuyn ngh l (i) vic hoch nh chnh sch thng mi ca mi nccn phi c
ci m, (ii) thng mi nng sn cn phi da trn nhng quy tc r rng v bnh ng hn,
(iii) cn phi thit lp thi gian biu a cc bin php min xm vo khun kh quy tc ca
GATT, (iv) thng mi hng dt v may mc phi hon ton l i tng ca cc quy tc ca
GATT, (v) cc quy tc v tr cp cn c hiu qu hn, (vi) cc quy nh ca GATT v cc bin
dng phi thu quan cn phi c ci tin, (vii) cc quy tc cho php khu vc thng mi t do
v lin minh hi quan cn phi c lm r v cht ch hn, (viii) cn phi c gim st quc t
hn na i vi cc chnh sch v hot ng thng mi, (ix) bo h t v khn cp ch c p
dng ph hp vi quy tc, (x) cn tp trung khuyn khch hn na cc nc ang pht trin
ginh li th so snh ca h v hi nhp hon ton vo h thng thng mi, (xi) kh nng v
quy tc a phng trong thng mi dch v cn phi c kho st, (xii) cc th tc gii quyt

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tranh chp v vic thc hin cc khuyn ngh ca Ban hi thm cn c ci tin, (xiii) vng
m phn mi ca GATT cn c tin hnh, (xiv) mt c quan thng trc cp b trng
cn c thit lp khuyn khch vic m phn ngay v cc vn , v (xv) cc c gng t
c gii php tho ng v vn n th gii, dng ti chnh y cho pht trin, phi hp
quc t tt hn v chnh sch kinh t v m v c s thng nht hn gia chnh sch thng mi
v chnh sch ti chnh. Trong hai khuyn ngh cha c ch y ti Vng Uruguay (vii
v xv), khuyn ngh (vii) hin nay ang c xem xt ti WTO, v khuyn ngh (xv) c th s
khng t c gii php hon ton trong khun kh GATT. Mt c quan thng trc cp b
trng vn cn c thnh lp, nhng tho thun v Hi ngh B trng WTO t nht hai nm
mt ln l ang i theo chiu hng .
Level playing field: Sn chi bnh ng
Mt thut ng c s dng miu t thng mi bnh ng, vi tt c mi ngi tham gia
chi theo lut. C nhiu quan im khc nhau v sn chi bnh ng c ngha l g. Mt s cho
rng cc quy tc thng mi hin c khng thin v bn ny vi bn kia theo ng ngha php
l, tuy nhin nhng ngi ny cho rng c mt sn chi danh ngha thng c cho l c cc
bin php phi thu quan khng xc nh c. Do , mt s ngi chi s lun lun ng
u vi cuc chin ngc dc nu h ng chi theo lut. Do , sn chi bnh ng ngy
cng c nhng ngi nghing theo cc hnh thc bo h s dng xut rng c c
thng mi "bnh ng" cn phi loi b tt c cc bin php bin dng. Nu khng thc hin
c iu th can thip ca chnh ph ti nhp khu l c c s. Nu khng lm c iu
th khng tip tc tin hnh t do ho thng mi cho n khi cc nc khc thay i cch
ca h. Nh nhiu nh bnh lun ch ra rng c th c sn chi bnh ng trong mt nn
kinh t bi v tt c mi ngi u chi cng mt lut. iu kh t c hn khi lut ca
nhiu ngi c a vo. Cng cn nh li nhn nh ca Lawrence (1996) rng v c bn
thng mi qua bin gii l c gi tr bi v sn chi khng bnh ng. Tuy nhin, khi nim
sn chi bnh ng c nhiu gi nh khc nhau cho nn vic s dng n lm cng c phn tch
l rt hn ch.
Like products: Sn phm tng t
Khi nim ny xut hin trong mt s Hip nh WTO mc d phn ln n khng c nh
ngha. y l mt trong nhng tiu chun xc nh c phn bit i x i vi sn phm
nhp khu hay khng. Trong nhng tranh chp c lin quan n "sn phm tng t", ban hi
thm c khuynh hng xem xt n cc tiu chun nh s s dng quc t v cc phn loi hi
quan c chp nhn. Tuy nhin, xu hng va qua l t bng "tng t" vi "ging". Phng
php ny c chnh thc ho trong trng hp cc bin php chng ph gi. Ch c th c
hnh ng khi ngnh cng nghip sn xut sn phm tng t chu thit hi vt cht. Theo cc
quy tc tng ng ca WTO, thut ng "sn phm tng t" c ngha l mt sn phm ging
ht v mi kha cnh nh sn phm ang c xem xt. Nu khng c mt sn phm nh vy
th mt sn phm khc c th c s dng, sn phm ny tuy khng ging v mi kha cnh
nhng c cc c tnh gn ging nh sn phm ang c xem xt. Xem Brazilian unroasted
coffee v German imports of sardines v cc tranh chp da trn nh ngha "sn phm tng
t".
Linear country: Nc tuyn tnh
Thut ng c dng ring trong Vng Kennedy ch cc nc s dng phng php ct gim
thu quan tuyn tnh.
Linear tariff cuts: Ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh
Mt phng php ct gim thu theo cng thc. Ct gim thu quan vi cng mt mc ,
thng c th hin bng phn trm, i vi ton b cc hng mc sn phm. c chnh
thc a vo m phn thng mi a phng ln u tin ti Vng Kennedy (1963-1967),
nhng xut u tin ca EEC ti Vng Dillon (1960) cng bao gm cc ct gim loi ny.
Nguyn nhn phng php ny khng c p dng trc Vng Kennedy l thiu s ng

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m phn ca Hoa K. Hoa K phn i ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh i vi Vng
Uruguay. Xem thm Swiss formula c s dng ti Vng Tokyo.
Lisbon Agreement: Hip nh Lisbon
Tn y l Hip nh v bo h a danh xut x v ng k quc t a danh xut x. c
hon thnh ti Lisbon nm 1958 v s i nm 1967. Hip nh ny quy nh s bo h a
danh xut x (appellations of origin). Cc a danh ny c WIPO ng k theo yu cu ca
nh nc c quyn li. Tt c cc thnh vin phi bo v a danh ng k quc t cho n
khi n cn c nc xut x bo v, tr trng hp nu mt nc trong vng mt nm tuyn
b khng th m bo bo v mt a danh ng k. Xem thm intellectual property.
Loan rate: Sut vay
Mt phn trong khun kh h tr nng nghip do Tp on Tn dng Hng ho ca Hoa K
thc hin. Sut vay l gi m Tng cng ty sn sng mua ng cc m Tng cng ty cho vay.
Do y l mt dng ca gi sn (floor price).
Local content requirements: Yu cu hm lng a phng
Cc bin php ca chnh ph quy nh mc ti thiu nht nh s chi tit ch to ti a phng
trong hng ho hoc dch v c sn xut trong nc. Mc ti thiu hm lng a phng c
th c quy nh di dng trng lng, s lng, tr gi, v.v... Mc ch ca cc chng trnh
ny bao gm, ngoi nhng mc ch khc, khuyn khch pht trin cng nghip a phng,
m bo th trng cho mt ngnh cng nghip khng c sc cnh tranh, v thc y pht trin
vng. Tt c cc chng trnh hm lng a phng u bao hm mt mc bo h i vi
cc nh cung cp chi tit, v do lm tng gi i vi ngi tiu dng. iu ny l hin
nhin, bi v cc ngnh cng nghip c sc cnh tranh khng cn gi th trng. Tuy nhin, cc
chnh ph c th quyt nh rng li ch ca cc chng trnh ny mang li ln hn thit hi
gy ra cho ngi tiu dng. iu III:5 ca GATT (i x quc gia trong thu v quy ch trong
nc) cm cc quy ch nh lng trong nc c lin quan n t l, ch bin hoc s dng cc
sn phm vi lng c th hoc bt buc s dng sn phm trong nc. Xem thm Agreement
on Trade-Related Investment Measures v FIRA panel.
Local content rules in broadcasting: Quy tc hm lng a phng trong pht thanh,
truyn hnh
Cc quy tc ny ni chung yu cu cc i pht thanh v truyn hnh phi s dng t nht lng
ti thiu nh cc t liu sn xut ti a phng trong chng trnh pht sng. nh ngha
sn phm a phng c th da trn s kt hp gia tnh cht ni dung ca ti liu, quc tch
ca nh xut bn, ngi sn xut, o din v cc din vin chnh, ngun ti chnh, v.v... Xem
thm audiovisual services, audiovisual services in the Uruguay Round, broadcasting directive,
cultural specificity v trade and culture.
Lom Convention: Cng c Lom
Mt hip nh bao trm, k ln u tin nm 1975 v m phn li nm 1990 cho 10 nm tip
theo (Lom IV), ca mt hnh thc hip hi bao gm khong 70 nc chu Phi, vng bin Ca-
ri-b v Thi bnh dng (ACP) vi Cng ng Kinh t Chu u, hin nay l Cng ng Chu
u. Cc nc trong hip hi c c quyn thm nhp min thu vo th trng EEC i vi
hu ht tt c sn phm, v mt ngun vin tr ng k. H cng c quyn s dng chng
trnh bo m thu nhp t xut khu cho vay u i nu thu nhp t xut khu ca h b gim
t v nghim trng. Ngc li, EEC khng c c quyn thm nhp min thu vo cc nc
ACP. Xem thm ACP states, STABEX v SYSMIN.
Long-Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles (LTA): Tho
thun di hn v thng mi quc t hng dt bng
Mt tho thun trong GATT v thng mi c qun l hng dt v may mc bng bng, c hiu
lc t nm 1962 trong 5 nm, v l k nhim ca Hip nh ngn hn v thng mi quc t

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hng dt. Hip nh ny c gia hn thm 3 nm na nh l kt qu ca Vng Kennedy. Sau
khi gia hn thm mt ln na nm 1970, tho thun ny c thay th bng Hip nh a si
vo nm 1973. Thnh vin ca LTA l nhng nc quan trng trong xut khu v nhp khu
hng dt v may. N cho php cc thnh vin nhp khu c yu cu cc thnh vin xut khu
hn ch thng mi ca h. Cc thnh vin nhp khu cng c th p t hn ch nh lng
mc d cc loi hn ch ny b yu cu loi b hon ton theo quy nh ti iu XI ca GATT
(Loa b hon ton hn ch nh lng). Xem thm Agreement on Textiles and Clothing.
Low-income economies: Nhng nn kinh t c thu nhp thp
Nhm gm 64 nc do IBRD phn loi v ln danh sch trong Bo co Pht trin Th gii.
Nm 1994 nhng nn kinh t ny c GNP bnh qun u ngi bng hoc thp hn 725 USD.
Nhm ny bao gm nhiu nc chm pht trin nht, nht l cc nc khong di ca thang
thu nhp, Trung Quc v n- cng l mt phn trong nhm . Xem thm high-income
economies v middle-income economies.
Luxemburg Compromise: Tho hip Luxemburg
Gii php vo thng 1/1966 cho s khng hong ngay trong Cng ng Kinh t Chu u
km gi cc cuc m phn trong Vng Kennedy trong khong 6 thng. Nguyn nhn trc tip
ca cuc khng hong l Php v c khng th tho thun c v ti tr cho Chnh
sch nng nghip chung nh th no. Tuy nhin, vn ln hn th hin ch Php c nh
thay i truyn thng sn c t quyt nh thng nht sang biu quyt a s, iu c th cng
c kh nng s dng quyn ph quyt ca h. Tho hip bao gm s tho thun khng nht
tr v vn biu quyt v thng nht rng vic nh gi nng nghip c th s c xem xt
li trong bi cnh m phn v nng nghip.

Made-to-measure tariffs: Thu quan va vn

M t loi thu quan m mc thu sut ch va cao cho php cc nh sn xut ni a b
p chi ph v c li nhun bnh thng. Bi v cc ngnh cng nghip c c cu gi thnh
khc nhau, iu gy nn c cu thu quan rt phc tp v mi ngnh nhn c h tr bng
thu r rng l ph hp vi ngnh . Mt s ngi gi l thu quan va .
Madrid Agreement: Hip nh Madrid
Hip nh v chng ch nh gi hoc sai lch v ngun hng. c k ti Madrid nm 1891 v
c sa i mt s ln, ln cui cng nm 1958. Hip nh ny do WIPO qun l. Hip nh
quy nh mt s trng hp m vic thu gi c th c yu cu v c hiu lc i vi hng
ho mang ch nh gi hoc sai lch v ngun hng ho. Hip nh ny cm vic s dng tt c
cc loi ch nh cng khai c th nh la cng chng v ngun xut x ca hng ho. Mi
nc thnh vin c th quyt nh a danh no khng thuc phm vi ca Hip nh v tnh cht
ring bit ca chng. Xem thm appellations of origin v Lisbon Agreement.
Maghreb countries: Cc nc Maghreb
Bao gm Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia. Nm 1989, cc nc ny thnh lp
Lin minh Maghreb A-rp vi mc ch t c Th trng chung trc nm 2000.
Malevolent mercantilism: Ch ngha trng thng him c
Xem mercantilism.
Managed liberalism: Ch ngha t do c qun l

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Thut ng c Winters (1993) s dng miu t thng l ca cc nc thnh vin trong cc
hip nh thng mi t do loi tr cc ngnh c th khi phm vi hot ng ca hip nh,
nht l khi c thnh vin mi gia nhp hip nh. ng ta ni rng iu ny t nht l gim
nh mt s p lc cnh tranh mi ln cc thnh vin hin ti.
Managed trade: Thng mi c qun l
Mt loi thng mi quc t trong mt s ngnh hoc sn phm khng c bun bn theo
nhu cu ca th trng. Cc phng tin ca loi thng mi ny bao gm cc hip nh hn
ch t nguyn, tho thun th trng trt t, hn ch nh lng v cc bin php phi thu quan
khc. Mc ch ca thng mi c qun l trong cc trng hp ny lun lun l bo h
cng nghip ni a v l do ny hay l do khc. Cc dng hin i hn ca thng mi c qun
l khng nhm hn ch thm nhp m nhm gia tng xut khu thng qua cc ch tiu s hc,
thng l trn s thit hi ca cc nc xut khu th ba. Mt s nh bnh lun cng lit bun
bn gia cc n v ca cc cng ty a quc gia vo loi ny. Xem thm fair trade, grey-area
measures, Multi-Fibre Agreement v voluntary import expansion.
Mandatory but not compulsory: C quyn nhng khng bt buc
M t th trng ca hnh ng tr a theo iu lut Super 301, c s dng trong cc cuc
thm vn ca quc hi nm 1988 v Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh Hoa K. iu ny c
ngha i vi nhng ngi c lin quan.
Manila Action Plan for APEC: Chng trnh hnh ng Manila ca APEC
Chng trnh hnh ng c thng qua ti cuc hp ca cc nh lnh o APEC thng
11/1996 ti Manila. Chng trnh ny thng nht cc chng trnh hnh ng ring r, cc
chng trnh hnh ng tp th v cc chng trnh lm vic do cc c quan khc nhau ca
APEC chun b.
Mano River Union: Lin minh sng Mano
Khu vc thng mi u i thnh lp nm 1973. Bao gm Guinea, Liberia, v Sierra Leone.
Xem thm ECOWAS.
Mansholt proposals: Cc d n Mansholt
Hai d n mang tn Sicco Mansholt, U vin Nng nghip ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u
trong thi gian Vng Kennedy. D n th nht lin quan n vic thit lp ch nh gi ng
cc chung ca EEC. Cc nc thnh vin c gi b gim thng qua chng trnh hi ho d
kin s c n b bng chi tr trc tip ca EEC. D n th hai to nn khun kh cho
xut nng nghip ca EEC ti vng m phn. V c bn l xut gii hn montant de
soutien (mc tr cp ni a) trong ba nm trn c s c i c li. EEC t c thng nht
ni b v d n th nht, nhng gi tr ca n th hai khng thuyt phc c nhng
ngi bn m phn. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT.
Manufacturing Clause: iu khon ch to
Mt tranh chp do Cng ng Chu u a ra Hi ng GATT nm 1983. Thc cht l iu
601 (iu khon ch to) ca b Lut Cng 97-215 nm 1982 ca Hoa K cm, vi mt s
ngoi l, nhp khu hoc phn phi cng cng cc tc phm c bn quyn c cha ch yu t
liu phi bi kch tr khi t liu c ch to ti Hoa K v Canada. Khi nim "ch to" bao
gm ghi bng, in n v ng quyn. iu khon ch to c ban hnh ln u tin nm 1891
v sa i mt s ln. Sa i nm 1976 bao gm iu khon thi hn loi b c p dng
trc 1/7/1982. o lut ny ht hn v c ti ban hnh ngy 13/7/1982 vi ln ht hn
mi vo nm 1986. Quyn li ch yu ca trng hp tranh chp ny l o lut sa i c
nm trong phm vi Ngh nh th v gia nhp tm thi hay khng. Ngh nh th ny cho php
cc thnh vin ca GATT c duy tr lut php khng hon ton ph hp vi quy tc ca
GATT nu lut php c hiu lc vo ngy 30/10/1947. Ban hi thm cho rng cc thay i
lut php ca iu khon ch to khng nht thit loi tr iu khon nh l "lut php hin

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hnh". Tuy nhin, ban hi thm cho rng vic thm iu khon mt tri ln l mt thay i
chnh sch theo hng ph hp hn vi GATT. Vic ti ban hnh nm 1982 v li thi gian ht
hn l i ngc hng ph hp hn, do lm tng mc khng ph hp vi GATT. Theo
ban hi thm nghing v pha Cng ng Chu u v im ny.
Maquiladora industries: Cc ngnh cng nghip Maquiladora
Theo Hufbauer v Schott (1992), cc maquiladora l cc c s sn xut c giao ko tham gia
ch bin hoc lp rp th cp cc ph kin nhp khu ti xut, ch yu l sang Hoa K.
Chng trnh ny do Mexico thnh lp cui nhng nm 1960 gim nh cc vn kinh t v
x hi. Trong nhng nm u vic lp rp ch yu tp trung vo cc cng on n gin, nhng
hin nay i n th h th 2 vi cc hot ng phc tp v cn nhiu vn hn. NAFTA s to
thm ng lc cho s pht trin ca chng.
Margin of dumping: Bin ph gi
Mt khi nim c bn trong iu tra ph gi, xc nh mc ca cc bin php chng ph gi
c th c p dng. Bin ph gi l s chnh lch gia gi tr m nh chc trch cho l tr
gi thng thngv gi xut khu ca mt sn phm c xut khu t nc ny sang nc
khc. Th tc xc nh bin ph gi c quy nh ti Hip nh v vic thc hin iu VI
ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi ca WTO. Cc nh chc trch ch c th p
dng cc bin php chng ph gi vi mc cn thit b p bin ph gi. Xem thm
de minimis dumping margin.
Margin of preference: Bin u i
Chnh lch gia mc thu cn phi tr theo h thng u i trong mt tho thun mu dich t
do v mc thu phi tr trn c s i ng ti hu quc (MFN).
Marine Mammal Protection Act: Lut bo v ng vt bin
Xem tuna (Mexico-United States, 1991).
Maritime transport services: Dch v vn ti bin
Nm 1995 Hi ng Thng mi dch v thnh lp Nhm m phn v dch v vn ti bin
(NGMTS) vi mc ch nng cao cam kt trong GATS v vn ti quc t, cc dch v i km,
ra, vo v s dng cng. Nhm m phn ny nh kt thc m phn trc 30/6/1996, th
nhng n khng th i n mt kt qu thng nht no. m phn v dch v vn ti bin s
c ni li vo nm 2000 l mt phn ca vng m phn mi v dch v theo quy nh ti
iu XIX ca GATS. Xem thm cabotage, Jones Act v progressive liberalisation.
Market access: M ca th trng
Mt trong nhng khi nim c bn nht trong thng mi quc t. Khi nim ny miu t mc
m hng ho hoc dch v c th cnh tranh vi sn phm ch to ti ch mt th trng
khc. Trong khun kh WTO, vi ngha l mt thut ng php l bao hm cc iu kin do
chnh ph p t mt sn phm c th thm nhp mt nc trong iu kin khng phn bit
i x. M ca th trng theo ngha ca WTO c th hin bng cc bin php ca khu,
l thu quan v cc bin php phi thu quan trong trng hp hng ho v cc quy nh ngay
trong th trng trong trng hp dch v. Theo truyn thng, chnh sch thng mi a phng
nhm lm cho m ca th trng d tin liu v t do hn. iu ny c thc hin thng qua
ct gim thu v gii hn chng mc thp hn. Gii hn l mt ngha v hp ng khng
nng thu vt mc ghi ti danh mc u i. Vic loi b cc cn tr m ca th trng di
dng cc bin php phi thu quan l phc tp hn bi v mt s bin php trn trnh c nh
ngha php l chnh xc. Do cch thng thng l tuyn b chng l phi php thng qua cc
hip nh lin chnh ph. S pht trin nhanh chng ca thng mi dch v v qu trnh ton
cu ho gy ch ti cc cn tr m ca th trng ngay trong vng bin gii. Trong s cc
hip nh WTO, GATS i xa hn trong vic i ph vi cc bin php hn ch thng mi,
nhng cc hip nh khc, v d nh Hip nh v Tr cp v thu i khng, cng m rng

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quy tc thng mi ti lnh vc ni a. Tuy nhin, phm vi cc quy tc ny cn chp v, v c
nh ku gi a chnh sch cnh tranh vo h thng WTO. Trong khun kh cnh tranh, m
ca th trng c miu t nh l kh nng c th cnh tranh c hiu qu trong mt th trng.
Mc tiu ca n l cc quy ch hoc d b cc hot ng phi cnh tranh ca t nhn v quy
ch. S kt hp hai khi nim m ca th trng ny, nu tr nn kh thi, s to nn ng gp
mnh m cho vic nng cao tnh cnh tranh quc t ca cc th trng M ca i vi u t
trc tip nc ngoi cng c th c nh hng n m ca th trng. Mt trng phi cho
rng m ca th trng l mt khi nim qu hn hp, v rng khi nim ny cn c thay th
bng mt khi nim bao trm hn l hin din th trng. Xem thm equality of competitive
opportunity, market access for agriculture, market access for services, national treatment v
most-favoured-nation treatment.
Market access for agriculture: M ca th trng i vi nng sn
Mt thut ng a ngha bao trm thu quan v hn ngch thu quan c m phn trong cc
cuc m phn v nng nghip ti Vng Uruguay. Cc cuc m phn ny c ba yu t c bn
ca m ca th trng, tr cp trong nc v tr cp xut khu, tt c phi c chp nhn m
phn trn gi. Vng Uruguay hn ch vic m rng cc bin php bin dng thng mi v duy
tr hoc m ca th trng hn i vi nng sn.
Market access for services: M ca th trng i vi dch v
Hip nh GATS thc y mc tiu m ca th trng rng ri v khng phn bit i x i
vi cc loi dch v v cc nh cung cp dch v. Hip nh ny khng nh ngha m ca th
trng c hiu nh th no, nhng iu XVI a ra mt danh sch 6 loi bin php khng
c duy tr hoc p dng. V tng th l (i) hn ch s nh cung cp dch v, (ii) hn ch
tng tr gi cc giao dch dch v, (iii) hn ch tng s ln hot ng dch v, (iv) hn ch s
ngi lm, (v) hn ch s thc th hoc yu cu lin doanh, v (vi) hn ch mc vn nc
ngoi. Cc th nghim nhu cu kinh t xy dng iu kin m ca th trng phi loi b.
Market dominance: a v thng tr th trng
L do c bn ca nhiu nc hnh thnh nhu cu v chnh sch cnh tranh. a v thng tr
th trng l kh nng ca mt cng ty c th gy nh hng n s x ca cc cng ty khc,
bt k l ngc hay xui. Trong phn ln cc trng hp, chnh sch cnh tranh chp nhn s
tn ti ca a v thng tr th trng, nhng quan tm n vic loi tr s lm dng. Xem thm
antitrust law v market power.
Market economy: Kinh t th trng
Nn kinh t trong c cu gi xc nh sn xut g v bun bn g, mc d tn hiu gi cng
thng b bin dng bi tr cp) v cc loi can thip khc ca chnh ph. Xem thm centrally-
planned economies.
Market-expansion dumping: Ph gi m rng th trng
Xem dumping
Market failure: Tht bi th trng
Mt thut ng ca cc nh kinh t ch cc th trng hot ng khng hon ho. khng
c ngha l th trng sp . Tht bi th trng c th xy ra khi nhng ngi tham gia khng
c thng tin y , khi ch c mt s t ngi mua v ngi bn (cc iu kin c quyn -
monopoly v c quyn mua - monopsony) hoc khi chi ph v li nhun ca vic sn xut mt
sn phm ch ph hp vi mt s ngi tham gia th trng.
Marketing boards: Cc tip th
Nhng c quan t nhn hoc cng ch thnh thong c thnh lp ti cc nc sn xut
thc y, tip th v xut khu nng sn. Chc nng ca cc c quan ny c th bao gm ti tr
cho nghin cu phng php sn xut v ct gi c hiu qu hn, ch bin hoc xc nh cc

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loi hnh s dng mi. Cc tip th nhiu khi c t cch c quyn xut khu. Ngn sch iu
hnh cc c quan ny thng thng qua cc khon thu t ngi sn xut. Xem thm single-desk
selling v state trading.
Market-led integration: Hi nhp theo th trng
Hi nhp kinh t khu vc thng qua hoc thc y bng cc hot ng kinh doanh. iu ny c
th xy ra m khng cn n mt khun kh hi nhp lin chnh ph. Xem thm policy-led
integration.
Market-opening initiatives: Cc sng kin m ca th trng
Thut ng ch yu do Hoa K s dng miu t cc hot ng vi mc ch loi b cc hng
ro cn tr thng mi b cho l cn tr xut khu ca h. Mt s t cc nc khc c sc mnh
kinh t thnh cng trong nhng sng kin nh th. V d in hnh l cc cuc m phn
chuyn ngnh theo nh hng th trng nm 1985 v Sng kin Cn tr C cu nm 1989, c
hai u nhm chng Nht. Cc sng kin m ca th trng thng c qun l bng Khon
301.
Market-oriented specific-sector talks: Cc cuc m phn chuyn ngnh theo nh hng
th trng
Gi tt l m phn MOSS. Sng kin nm 1985 ca Hoa K nhm m ca th trng Nht cho
lm sn, dc phm v thit b y hc, in t, thit b v tuyn vin thng, ph tng -t v
my gia thng vn ti. Sng kin ny t c mt s thnh cng trong vic t do ho cc
chnh sch ca Nht i vi v tuyn vin thng cng nh gim thu cho khong 1.800 mt
hng, nhng v tng th kt qu ca n b coi l tht vng. Tuyn b ca Nht rng Hoa K
thm nhp vo Nht c min thu, tr mt s ngoi l hn ch, l khng ng k nu nh
gi mt cch tch cc. Xem thm structural impediments initiative v United States-Japan
Framework for a New Economic Partnership.
Market power: Th lc th trng
Mt gi thit c bn ca lut chng c quyn. Gi thit ny da trn quan im rng cc cng
ty c th c kh nng tng gi m lng hng bn khng b gim. Lut chng c quyn nhm
m bo c cnh tranh bng gi trn th trng. Xem thm competition policy v market
dominance.
Market presence: Hin din th trng
Thut ng phn nh thc t tt hn thut ng m ca th trng rng cc cng ty c th cn
thit lp mt loi hnh hot ng no ti nc nhp khu nu cc cng ty mun thnh cng.
Hin din th trng bao gm c khi nim cc cng ty mun u t v h cn c c hi y
cnh tranh. Xem thm commercial presence v right of establishment.
Market-seeking imvestment: u t tm kim th trng
Thut ng s dng ch u t nc ngoi trc tip thc hin vi mc ch ch yu l
cung cp cho mt hoc nhiu th trng. Xem thm tariff-jumping.
Market-sharing arrangements: Cc tho thun phn chia th trng
Cc chng trnh do chnh ph h tr hoc thit lp m bo rng t l ca ngnh cng
nghip a phng trong mt hot ng khng di mt mc nht nh. Cc chng trnh ny
c th p dng i vi hng ho v dch v. Mt v d c l tho thun v linh kin bn dn
gia Hoa K v Nht. Trong lnh vc dch v c hai v d quan trng l cc hip nh dch v
hng khng song phng v Cng c v o lut t chc cc hi ngh tu bin ca UNCTAD.
C th c cnh tranh rt mnh v th phn dnh cho cng nghip a phng. Cc tho thun
hn ch t nguyn cng l mt dng phn chia th trng.
Market transparency: Tnh r rng ca th trng

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Mc m nhng ngi tham gia c th thm nhp th trng trn c s thng tin m h c v
x s ca th trng. Thng tin cn thit to iu kin dnh gi tt phn ln l s liu thng
k, k c d liu sn xut, lng hng bn v gi c. Thng bo trc v cc d n u t cng
c th cn thit. Nhiu hip nh hng ho quc t ly tnh r rng ca th trng lm mc tiu
chnh.
Marks of origin: Nhn hiu xut x
Nhn hiu trn sn phm ch r nc xut x, thng bt u vi ch "Sn xut ti ...". Xem
thm certificate of origin v rules of origin.
Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation: Hip nh Marrakesh
thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii
Hip nh ny, i khi cn gi l Hip nh WTO, c thng qua ngy 15/4/1995 ti Hi ngh
B trng Marrakesh. Hip nh ny quy nh, trong 4 ph lc, cc hip nh a phng v
nhiu bn di quyn ti phn ca mnh. Hip nh c hiu lc t 1/1/1995. Ph lc 1 bao gm
cc hip nh a phng sau y: Hip nh chung v Thng mi v Thu quan 1994, Hip
nh v Nng nghip, Hip nh v vic p dng cc Bin php V sinh dch t, Hip nh
Hng dt v may, Hip nh v Hng ro k thut cn tr thng mi, Hip nh v Cc bin
php u t lin quan n thng mi, Hip nh v Thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v
Thu quan v thng mi [Thu chng ph gi v thu i khng], Hip nh v Thc hin
iu VII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v thng mi [nh gi hi quan], Hip nh
Kim tra trc khi xp hng, Hip nh v Quy ch xut x, Hip nh v Th tc cp php
nhp khu, Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng, v Hip nh v T v. Ph lc 2
gm Hip nh chung v Thng mi dch v. Ph lc 3 l Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu
lin quan n thng mi. Ph lc 4 gm Bn ghi nh v gii quyt tranh chp, C ch R sot
chnh sch thng mi v 4 hip nh thng mi nhiu bn ca WTO. Ph chng 1 ca T
in ny nu s lc cc iu khon ca Hip nh Marrakesh.
Marshall Plan: K hoch Marshall
K hoch khi phc kinh t chu u do George C. Marshall, B trng Ngoi giao Hoa K,
xut ln u tin trong mt din vn ti Trng i hc Harvard ngy 5/6/1947. K hoch ny
c a vo thc hin ngy 3/4/1948 khi Tng thng Truman k o lut tr gip nc
ngoi. Hoa K dnh khong 13.000 triu -la trong khong 1948 - 1952 cho mc ch ny. K
hoch Marshall c iu hnh thng qua T chc Hp tc Kinh t Chu u, tin thn ca
OECD. Bn cnh ng gp trc tip cho khi phc kinh t ca cc nc tham gia, K hoch
cng to nn c s cho hi nhp kinh t Chu u sau ny thng qua Cng ng Kinh t Chu
u v EFTA.
Mashreq countries: Cc nc Mashreq
Bao gm Ai-cp, Jordan, Li-bng v Xy-ri.
Material injury: Thit hi vt cht
Xem injury.
Maximum-minimum tariff: Thu quan ti a-ti thiu
Thu sut do lut php quc gia t t ra khng thng qua mt tho thun song phng hoc a
phng no. Xem thm conventional tariff.
Measure: Bin php
Thng thng l lut, quy tc, quy nh, chnh sch, thng l hay hnh ng do chnh ph thc
hin hay v li ch ca chnh ph.
Mercado Comn del Sur: Th trng chung Nam M
Xem Mercosur.

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Mercantilism: Ch ngha trng thng
L thuyt ca th k 17, hin nay vn cn sng ng, khng nh rng mc ch ca thng
mi quc t l tch lu ngy cng tng mt phn ca ci ca ton th gii di dng vng thi,
v trong th gii hin i - ngoi t. Ch ngha trng thng lun tm cch xut khu ti a v
nhp khu ti thiu. Nhng ngi theo ch ngha ny n cho rng ca ci ca ton th gii l
c nh. Do , h miu t thng mi l hot ng tng cng bng khng trong mt nc
ch c th thnh vng trn ci gi ca nc khc. Ch ngha trng thng do l mt dng
ca ch ngha dn tc kinh t. Gilpin (1987) phn bit gia ch ngha trng thng n ho
(nhm bo v li ch kinh t quc gia nh l iu ti thiu v an ninh ca mt nc) v ch
ngha trng thng him c (vi mc ch m rng quc v bnh trng quc gia). S pht
trin mnh m ca thng mi v ca ci th gii trong hn 200 nm va qua cho thy rng
thng mi thc cht l mt tng s dng. iu cng chng t rng tt c cc nc u c
th thch vng thng qua chuyn mn ho c hiu qu.
Merchandise trade: Thng mi hng ho
Nhp khu v xut khu hng ho vt cht, l nguyn liu th, bn thnh phm v thnh
phm. Xem thm trade in services.
Mercosur (hoc Mercosul): Th trng chung Nam M
Mt lin minh hi quan trong phm vi thng mi hng ho. c thnh lp nm 1994, bao
gm Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay v Uruguay. Chile k hip nh gia nhp ngy 1/10/1996.
Bolivia gia nhp ngy 1/3/1997. Ti y cng c k hoch hi ho ho quy ch v quyn s hu
tr tu trong khu vc, v cng nhn bng i hc ca nhau. Thng 12/1995, cc nc Mercosur
thng qua Mercosur 2000 - mt chng trnh hnh ng nhm thng nht thu quan v
chnh sch thng mi vo nm 2000. Ban Th k Mercosur t ti Montevideo. Mercosul l
tn ca Hip nh bng ting B-o-nha.
Merger Treaty: Hip c st nhp
Xem European Communities.
MFN exemptions: Ngoi l MFN
Trong GATS, l vic cho php mt thnh vin khng p dng i ng ti hu quc trong mt
ngnh no . Trong phn ln cc trng hp, ngoi l ny l cn thit v cc ngha v trong
cc hip c tn ti trc y, v d nh tham gia mt hip nh phn chia th trng, mt
tho thun u i hay mt hip nh hp tc no . Ngoi l MFN ti a l 10 nm, v phi
c xem xt li sau 5 nm. Nhiu thnh vin WTO ginh ngoi l MFN khi GATS c hiu
lc. Cc nc khc c hng ngoi l khi gia nhp. Mt thnh vin hin ti c th ginh
ngoi l mi, nhng ch khi c s ng ca 75% s thnh vin WTO ti mt Hi ngh B
trng WTO.
Miami Summit: Hi ngh Thng nh Miami
Xem FTAA.
Middle-income economies: Nhng nn kinh t c thu nhp trung bnh
Mt nhm gm 101 nn kinh t do IBRD xp loi v lp danh sch ti Bo co Pht trin Th
gii. Nm 1994, GNP bnh qun u ngi ca cc nc nay nm trong khong 726 USD n
8.955 USD. Nhm ny c chia thnh 66 nn kinh t c thu nhp trung bnh thp vi bnh
GNP bnh qun u ngi trong khong 726 USD n 2.895 USD, v 35 nn kinh t c thu
nhp trung bnh cao hn vi GNP bnh qun u ngi nm gia 2.896 USD v 8.955 USD. Tt
c cc nc c thu nhp trung bnh u l cc nc ang pht trin. Xem thm low-income
economies v high-income economies.
Midrand Declaration: Tuyn b Midrand

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Tuyn b khng rng buc c thng qua ti UNCTAD IX (thng 5/1996), nu ln nhim v
ca UNCTAD trong vng 4 nm ti. Ch chnh ca Tuyn b l nh hng ca qu trnh
ton cu ho v t do ho, cc mi quan h v pht trin thng qua hp tc gia cc nc ang
pht trin v cc nc pht trin, trng tm ca cng vic ca UNCTAD trong tng lai, cc
mi quan h hp tc c bao gm khu vc t nhn v ci cch th ch ca UNCTAD.
Millenium Round: Vng Thin nin k
Tn do Ngi Leon Brittan, Ph Ch tch U ban Chu u, xut cho vng m phn thng
mi a phng mi. Vng m phn ny d kin s c bt u vo khong 2001.
Minilateralism: Ch ngha tiu phng
u tin thc hin chnh sch thng mi gia mt s t nc. Khng c mt nh ngha chnh
xc no cho "tiu phng". N miu t cc mi quan h cao hn song phng, nhng thp hn
a phng, tt nhin cng khng chnh xc hn my. Thut ng "bn bn" c th ph hp hn.
Xem thm creative minilateralism v plurilateralism.
Minimum access tariff quotas: Hn ngch thu quan m ca th trng ti thiu
Mt c cu dnh mc c hi m ca ti thiu i vi nhng nng sn m cc bin php phi
thu quan c chuyn thnh thu. Cc cuc m phn ti Vng Uruguay dn n cng
thc m theo mc m ca th trng vi mt sn phm nht nh c da trn t s
nhp khu/tiu th trong giai on c s 1986-1988. nhng nc m nhp khu trong giai
on c s thp hn 3% mc tiu th th mc m ca th trng phi c nng ngay ln 3% v
m rng ln thnh 5% vo cui giai on thc hin cc cam kt ti Vng Uruguay v nng
nghip. Xem thm current access tariff quotas v tariffication.
Minimum labour standards: Tiu chun lao ng ti thiu
Xem core labour standards.
Mini-trading area: Tiu vng thng mi
c mt s ngi s dng miu t khu vc thng mi t do, nhng i vi mt s ngi
khc l tam gic pht trin. Bi cnh tng trng hp s lm r ngha ca n.
Mirror-image reciprocity: Tng h phn chiu
S mong ch rng li ch thng mi dnh cho mt nc khc s c p ng chnh xc. Xem
thm reciprocity v reciprocity at the margin.
Mixed commission: U ban hn hp
Thng l mt c quan c thnh lp trong mt hip nh thng mi song phng, bao gm
i din ca c hai bn. Nhim v ca u ban hn hp l xem xt nh k hot ng ca hip
nh. Xem thm Joint Trade Committee.
Mixed trade policies: Chnh sch thng mi hn hp
Vic p dng ng thi mt hn hp cc chnh sch thng mi ph hp nht vi nhng mc
ch khc nhau mc d tt c u c ngha m rng xut khu ca mt nc. Cc chnh sch
ny c th l (a) cc chnh sch n phng nhm tng cng sc cnh tranh ca cng nghip
trong nc thng qua cc bin php m ca th trng, (b) tp trung mnh hn vo m ca th
trng c i c li vi cc nc khc, c phi hp vi cc sng kn m ca th trng, v (c)
s dng bo h bt ng (cc bin php chng ph gi, i khng v t v) v thnh thong cc
bin php km r rng hn bo h cc nh sn xut ni a.
Modalities: Phng thc
Cc cch v dng t chc cng vic ca WTO, bao gm c m phn thng mi.
Modes of services delivery: Phng thc cung cp dch v

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Trong cc cuc m phn ti Vng Uruguay, nhng ngi tham gia thng nht chia thng
mi dch v thnh 4 hnh thc: (1) cung cp qua bin gii, trong ngi sn xut mt nc
cn ngi tiu th mt nc khc; (2) tiu th nc ngoi, trong ngi tiu th i sang
nc ca ngi sn xut nhn dch v; (3) hin din thng mi, trong dch v c cung
cp thng qua vic thit lp hot ng ti nc khc; v (4) hin din ca th nhn, trong
ngi sn xut i t nc ny sang nc khc sn xut hoc cung cp dch v. phng php
ny ph hp cho mc ch phn tch, nhng n lm cho vic ln danh mc cam kt
(commitments) phc tp hn l bnh thng. Xem thm cross-border trade in services, services
v trade in services.
Monetary Compensation Amounts (MCAs): Lng n b bng tin
Mt h thng thu v tr cp ti ca khu ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u c hiu lc cho n
31/12/1992. MCAs b loi b khi t c Th trng Nht th Cng ng Chu u loi b
bin gii ni b v mc ch hot ng kinh t.
Monitoring and Enforcement Unit: n v Theo di v Thi hnh
Mt n v c thnh lp ngy 5/1/1996 c t trong USTR vi nhim v theo di tt c cc
hip nh m Hoa K l thnh vin v tin hnh cc hot ng thc thi quyn ca Hoa K
trong cc hip nh . u tin ca n v bao gm cc hng ro c nh hng n nhng mt
hng c gi tr cao v nhiu, cc hng ro nh hng n to cng n vic lm, m bo rng
cc ngnh cng nghip ca Hoa K c sc cnh tranh, m bo rng cc hng ro ph bin
trong cc th trng ln v pht trin mnh c cp n, v rng cc x nghip va v nh
c tnh cnh tranh v c th m rng trn th trng ton cu. Xem thm Section-306
monitoring.
Monopoly: c quyn
S c tn ti cc iu kin m trong ch c duy nht mt nh cung cp hoc bn hng hoc
dch v, thng c duy tr bng cch lut php khng cho php cc cng ty khc thc hin
cc hot ng ging nh vy. c quyn c th xy ra thng qua s pht trin t nhin ca th
trng trong khu vc t nhn, nhng cc cng ty c quyn ny thng b p lc c nhng
cng ty mi tham gia.
Monopsony: c quyn mua
S tn ti ch duy nht mt ngi mua hng ho hoc dch v, thng c duy tr thng qua
lut php.
Montant de soutien (ting Php): Bin tr cp
Mt phn trong xut ca Cng ng Kinh t chu u cho m phn nng nghip ti Vng
Kennedy. Theo nh ngha do EEC a ra, "bin tr cp cho mt nng sn bng chnh lch
gia gi ca sn phm trn th trng quc t v lng th lao m ngi sn xut ca mt
nc thc s thu c". Evans (1972) lu rng nh ngha ny c li th t phng din ca
EEC l hng ch vo cc c cu tr cp ca cc nc khc, nhng n cng c nhiu im
yu nghim trng. Mt im quan trng l s thiu vng ca gi cnh tranh th gii ca nhng
nng sn ch yu bi v bn thn nhng gi ny cng b nh hng bi cc h thng tr gi v
tr cp.
Montreal mid-term review: Cuc hp Montreal r sot gia nhim k
Xem Uruguay Round.
Montreal Protocol: Ngh nh th Montreal
Ngh nh th Montreal v cc cht ph hu tng ozone, c thng qua nm 1987. Ngh nh
th ny cp n quan ngi v nh hng ca sn xut v tiu th khng gim st c ca
cc nc khng phi l htnh vin n hiu qu ca cc bin php gim st c cc thnh
vin nht tr. Ngh nh th c cc quy nh nhm hn ch s dch chuyn cng nghip sn xut

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hoc s dng CFC t cc nc k kt sang cc nc khng k kt. Cc quy nh ny c th tri
vi nguyn tc ti hu quc ca WTO.
Moral rights: Quyn o l
Mt tng c th hin ti iu 6bis ca Cng c Berne rng "khng ph thuc vo quyn
kinh t ca tc gi, v ngay c sau khi chuyn nhng quyn , tc gi vn c quyn s
dng quyn tc gi mt tc phm hay mt ch th khiu ni v s bin dng, ct xn hay
thay i khc, hoc hnh ng xc phm ti tc phm m c th lm phng hi n uy tn
hoc danh d ca tc gi". Do , quyn o l gn vi tc gi, cn bn quyn th ch gn vi
tc phm. Khng phi tt c cc bn k kt Cng c Berne u cng nhn quyn o l trong
lut bn quyn quc gia ca h. Xem thm intellectual property v WIPO.
More than an equitable share of the market: Nhiu hn th phn ngang bng
Xem equitable share of the market.
Most-favoured-nation treatment (MFN): i ng ti hu quc
Quy tc mt nc dnh cho cc nc i tc thng mi cng tham gia cc hip nh tng
ng i x tt nht i vi mt sn phm m n dnh cho bt k mt nc khc trong s .
MFN khng phi t n l ngha v m rng i x thun li cho mt thnh vin khc, m cng
khng phi l ngha v phi m phn t c i x tt hn. MFN n gin c ngha l
nu mt nc dnh i x thun li nht cho bt k mt nc khc th cng dnh i x nh
vy cho tt c cc thnh vin khc ca WTO. Do , im c bn ca MFN l i x bnh
ng, v trong mt s hip c c thc s n c gi l "bn nc ngoi". Mc d MFN c
tnh cht bt ng, n hot ng nh mt ng c mnh m thc y t do ho thng mi
khng phn bit i x. Cng vi i ng quc gia, MFN to nn nguyn tc khng phn bit
i x. Quy tc MFN, d dng ny hay dng khc, l nguyn tc c, v c th ln ngc
tr li th k 16. N c a vo Hip c Cobden-Chevalier nm 1860 gia Php v Anh,
v y c cho l thu t ca vic p dng hin i ngy nay. Vi mc khc nhau, quy tc
MFN sau c sao chp vo nhiu hip nh thng mi khc ca chu u. Trong nhng
nm trc Chin tranh th gii ln th nht, quy tc MFN b mai mt, v tnh hnh chnh tr
trong chin tranh lm cho n gn nh b mt hn. Khi chin tranh gn n kt thc, c
nhng c gng phc hi li tm quan trng ca MFN, nhng khng c c gng no thnh
cng. Ti im th ba trong chng trnh 14 im thng 1/1918 ca mnh, Tng thng Wilson
ku gi d b cng nhiu cng tt tt c cc hng ro cn tr kinh t v thit lp cc iu
kin thng mi bnh ng gia cc quc gia cng ng tm phn u v ho bnh v cam kt
duy tr ho bnh. iu ny c mt s ngi cho l tng ng vi li ku gi v MFN. Hi
ngh v ho bnh khng bn n hng ro cn tr thng mi, nhng trong hip c ho bnh
c v cc nc c quyn lc khc c yu cu m rng v iu kin MFN trong thng
mi vi cc nc ng minh trong 3 nm. Hip c Lin minh cc quc gia ch dn chiu ti
"i x bnh ng" trong thng mi gia cc quc gia thnh vin, iu ny cng tng ng
vi iu khon MFN. Hi ngh Kinh t Th gii ti Genve thng 5/1927 ng h mnh m
vic din gii iu khon MFN cng rng cng tt, v nhn mnh rng vic s dng iu khon
trong cc hip c thng mi phi tr thnh bnh thng. nm 1933, Lin minh cc Quc
gia xut bn mt vn bn mu vi khong 300 t v iu khon MFN. Cho ti thi im ,
tnh hnh kinh t tr nn rt kh khn trong vi nm, v nguyn tc MFN khng nhn
c s ng h rng ri. Hin chng i ty dng nm 1941 lm hi sinh li nguyn tc
ny v a n tr thnh nn tng ca h thng thng mi a phng sau chin tranh nh c
minh chng bng GATT. Trong WTO, MFN l ngha v rng buc chung quy nh rng bt k
mt u i no c dnh cho mt nc th ngay lp tc cng s c m rng ti tt c cc
thnh vin khc. iu ny c ti khng nh ti mt s hip nh di s qun l ca WTO.
V d, tt c thnh vin GATT dnh cho nhau i x thun li nh dnh cho bt k mt
nc khc trong vic p dng v iu hnh cc quy nh hi quan, thu quan v cc khon thu
khc c lin quan. Tuy nhin cng c mt s ngoi l i vi ngha v MFN. Ti y chng ti
ch cp n mt s ngoi l quan trng. Cc thnh vin WTO tho mn cc iu kin l

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thnh vin ca cc khu vc thng mi t do hoc cc lin minh hi quan c u i khng bt
buc phi dnh cc u i cho cc thnh vin khc khng thuc cng mt t chc. Cc nc
pht trin c th duy tr cc h thng GSP dnh i x u i cho hng ho nhp khu t cc
nc ang pht trin. Cc thnh vin c th s dng iu khon min tr, iu khon ny to
nn c s php l cho vic dnh i x thun li hn i vi mt s thnh vin. Cc thnh vin
cng c th p dng iu khon khng p dng, theo mt thnh vin hin ti ca WTO c
th t chi khng cho mt thnh vin mi gia nhp c hng quyn li ca hip nh. Hip
nh GATS cho php ginh ngoi l MFN c hn ch v thi gian. Mt nhc im ca nguyn
tc MFN l n to iu kin cho php nhng nc n theo c hng nhng li ch t hnh
ng t do ho thng mi ca cc nc khc m khng phi c c gng tng ng no.
Xem thm conditional most-favoured-nation treatment v Jackson-Vanik amendment.
Movement of natural person: Di chuyn ca th nhn
Thut ng c cc nh m phn GATS s dng ch vic nhp cnh tm thi ca nhng
ngi cung cp dch v vo mt lnh th ti phn khc vi mc ch bn hoc cung cp dch
v.
Multi-column tariff: Thu quan nhiu ct
Biu thu c phn bit gia cc i tc thng mi khc nhau. Thu sut ct th nht c th
dnh cho cc nc khng c hng i ng ti hu quc v ct th hai dnh cho cc nc
c hng MFN. Ct th ba v cc ct khc c th l thu sut p dng cho cc tho thun u
i thng mi, v d khu vc thng mi t do hoc thu sut dnh cho cc nc ang pht
trin theo H thng u i Ph cp. Xem thm single-column tariff.
Multidomestic corporation: Cng ty a ni a
Mt dng ca cng ty a quc gia p dng chin lc cho cc n v ca n tp trung vo tng
nc trong tng trng hp. thng thng, cc cng ty ny thit lp hot ng mt nc khc
ch yu l cung cp cho th trng ca ncs .
Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA): Hip nh a si
Tn chnh thc l Hip nh lin quan n thng mi hng dt quc t. y l hip nh gia
cc nc sn xut v tiu th hng dt, c hon thnh ln u tin nm 1973 v sau c
m phn li theo nh k, nhm qun l thng mi sn phm dt. Hip nh ny hm cha
vn c coi l "tn hi nghim trng" i vi cc nc sn xut pht trin do cng nghip
dt ngy cng tng sc cnh tranh ca cc nc ang pht trin. MFA nhm vo cc nc ch
c xc nh, v do vi phm quy nh khng phn bit i x ca GATT. Ngoi vic nng
gi ti cc nc tiu th b nh hng, MFA cn c tc ng bt buc cc nc ang pht trin
phi chuyn sang cc mt hng c gi tr cao hn, v do nng cao kh nng cnh tranh ca
cc nc pht trin. MFA c thay th bng Hip nh Hng dt v may ca WTO, theo
cc hn ch phi dn dn c loi b trong vng 10 nm k t 1/1/1995. Xem thm Short-
Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles v Long-Term
Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles.
Multilateral agreement on competition: Hip nh a phng v cnh tranh
Mt d n cho cc cuc m phn lin chnh ph trong tng lai, nhng cha c a vo
chng trnh ngh s m phn. Mt s ngi thy mc ch tng lai ca n l to iu kin
hp tc gia cc c quan chc trch v cnh tranh trong cc vn m bo thi hnh lut php.
Mt s li nghing v mt hip nh v qun l quc t i vi cc lut chng c quyn, bao
gm cc ngha v v quyn li chung. Xem thm Munich Group v trade and competition.
Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI): Hip nh a phng v u t
Hin nay ang c m phn ti OECD sau quyt nh ca Hi ngh Hi ng B trng
thng 6/1995. Cc cuc m phn c t lch hon thnh vo gia nm 1998. Cho n nay
mc chnh xc cc ngha v d kin vn cha c r. C s thng nht rng MAI s t

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tiu chun cao cho t do ho cc ch u t, v s c cc th tc gii quyt tranh chp c
hiu qu. Hip nh ny s m rng vi c thnh vin cng nh cc nc ngoi OECD.
Miltilateral agricultural framework: Khun kh nng nghip a phng
Mt tng xut hin vo giai on cui ca Vng Tokyo c mt c cu gim st vic m
phn trong nng nghip, v c cu ny c th l mt din n trao i thng tin nhm ngn
chn vic pht sinh cc vn trong thng mi nng sn. C th l khun kh cn loi b
bt ng chnh tr v thng mi ko di trong lnh vc ny. D n cng nhm thit lp Hi
ng tham vn nng nghip quc t trong khun kh GATT. Khi Vng Tokyo kt thc ngy
12/4/1979, cc bn tham gia vn cn xa mi t c tho thun v d n ny, v cc cuc m
phn sau Vng Tokyo cng khng dn n kt qu no.
Multilateral environment agreements: Cc hip nh mi trng a phng
Cc hip nh, cng c v ngh nh th c tho thun a phng v nhm xo b hoc
gim bt thit hi mi trng. C khong 180 hip nh c hon thnh. C t nht 18 hip
nh c cc quy nh c th v thng mi. C lin quan c bit n chnh sch thng mi l
Cng c Base, CITES v Ngh nh th Montreal c cha cc bin php hn ch thng mi
i vi mt s mt hng. Mt s hip nh khc c cc quy nh c th c tc ng n vic
hoch nh chnh sch thng mi, bao gm Chng trnh ngh s 21 v Tuyn b Rio v Mi
trng v Pht trin.
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA): C quan bo m u t a phng
c thnh lp ngy 12/4/1988 trong khun kh ca IBRD. Mc tiu ca c quan ny l
khuyn khch nng cao mc u t t nhn ti cc nc ang pht trin. n hot ng nh l
nh bo him u t chng cc ri ro chnh tr ti nc nhn u t. C quan ny cng dnh tr
gip k thut gip cc nc pht trin ci tin mi trng u t ca h v thu ht u t
mi. MIGA t ti Washington, DC. Xem thm foreign direct investment.
Multilateralism: Ch ngha a phng
Mt phng php thc hin thng mi quc t da trn hp tc, bnh ng v quyn v ngha
v, khng phn bit i x v s tham gia bnh ng ca nhiu nc bt k ln hoc t l
ca h trong thng mi quc t. cng l c s cho cc nguyn tc v quy tc c trong cc
hip c nh Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii v cc b phn ca
hip nh .
Multilateral procurement: Mua sm a phng
Vic mua sm hng ho v dch v ca cc t chc a phng (v d nh Lin hp quc, IMF,
WTO, v.v...) cho vic s dng ca chnh cc c quan hoc cho cc d n do cc c quan
ti tr.
Multilateral Specialty Steel Agreement (MSSA): Hip nh Thp c chng a phng
Mt d n c a ra u nm 1996 bi cc hip hi cng nghip chu u v Hoa K a
ra mt hip nh nhm (a) cm tr cp, (b) d b cc hng tro thu quan v phi thu quan v
(c) loi b cc thc hnh phi cnh tranh v bin dng thng mi thp c chng ton cu.
Hip nh ny cng c th cp n vn kh nng sn xut tha. D n ny cha c a
vo bt k chng trnh ngh s m phn no. Xem thm Multilateral Steel Agreement.
Multilateral Steel Agreement (MSA): Hip nh Thp a phng
Vo na sau ca cc cuc m phn ti Vng Uruguay, Hoa K d kin hon thnh mt hip
nh a phng v thp bao trm cc i tng nh gim thu, loi b hn ch nh lng, tr
cp, p dng cc bin php chng ph gi, thu i khng, v.v... c lin quan c bit n
thng mi thp. Cc cuc m phn c thc hin ring bit vi m phn ti Vng
Uruguay, c 36 nc tham gia m phn ny. Tuy nhin, cc cuc m phn b tan v vo

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thng 3/1992. Sau lin tc c cc xut lm sng li MSA. Xem thm Multilateral
Specialty Steel Agreement v sectoral trade negotiations.
Multilateral trade agreements: Cc hip nh thng mi a phng
Cc hip nh lin chnh ph nhm m rng v t do ho thng mi trong cc iu kin khng
phn bit i x, r rng v d nh trc c quy nh ti mt lot quyn v ngha v. Trong
WTO, thut ng "Hip nh thng mi a phng" dn chiu ti cc hip nh v cc vn kin
php l i km theo c a vo Ph lc 1, 2 v 3 ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T
chc Thng mi th gii. ng c thc y vic thc hin cc ngha v l tt c cc nc
s nng cao phc li ca h bng cch gn b vi mt tiu chun chung trong thc hin qun l
cc quan h thng mi ca h. Thng thng cc hip nh nh vy c rt nhiu thnh vin
i din cho cc quc gia tham gia bun bn cc mc nh, trung bnh v ln. Quy ch thnh
vin trong cc hip nh thuc loi ny l rng m, nhng cc nc mun gia nhp thng phi
th hin c rng ch thng mi ca h ph hp vi mc tiu ca hip nh, v cc iu
kin thm nhp th trng ca h gn gin nh iu kin ca cc thnh vin hin ti. Nu cn
thit h phi c iu chnh. GATT l hip nh thng mi a phng u tin c hiu lc t
nm 1948, v n vn duy tr tnh u vit ca n. Trc , cc hip nh thng mi phn ln
u l hip nh song phng, hoc l cc hip nh u i, v d nh tho thun u i ch.
Xem thm accession, bilateral trade agreements, plurilateral trade agreements v prisoner's
dilemma.
Multilateral trade negotiations (MTN): m phn thng mi a phng
Cng thng c gi l cc vng m phn. Mc ch ca cc cuc m phn ny l cng c
cc quy tc m bo thc hin thng mi quc te cng bng v c trt t v t c cc
hip nh v gim hng ro cn tr thng mi th gii. K t 1947, c 8 vng m phn
c thc hin trong khun kh GATT. Mi vng m phn u bao gm cc k m phn di
ngy. Tm vng m phn c thc hin v tn quen thuc ca chng l: Genve (1947),
Annecy (1949), Torquay (1950), Genve (1955-56), Dillon (1960-61), Kennedy (1963-67),
Tokyo (1973-79), v Uruguay (1986-94). ni dung ca cc vng m phn cho n Vng
Kennedy ch l ct gim thu. Cc vng m phn u ch yu l mt lot cc cuc m phn
song phng, kt qu ca chng sau c p dng ti tt c cc thnh vin trn c s ti hu
quc (MFN). T Vng Kennedy tr i, cc bin php phi thu quan v cc vn h thng
c a vo chng trnh ngh s. Ch vit tt "MTN" c s dng chung trong Vng Tokyo,
v thng c s dng dn chiu ring n Vng . Xem thm Annecy Tariff Conference,
Dillon Round, Geneva Tariff Conference, 1947, Geneva Tariff Conference, 1955-56, Kennedy
Round, Torquay Tariff Conference v Uruguay Round.
Multilateral Trade Organisation (MTO): T chc Thng mi a phng
T chc do Cng ng Chu u xut nm 1990 a kt qu m phn Vng Uruguay vo
c s php l vng vng hn v trong mt khun kh qun l duy nht. xut ny nhn c
s h tr rng ri t cc thnh vin GATT. Tuy nhin, vo thng 12/1993, ngay gn n kt
thc m phn chnh thc, Hoa K xut t chc mi nn t tn l T chc Thng mi
th gii (WTO). xut ny c thng qua.
Multilateral trading system: H thng thng mi a phng
Mt t chc khng phn bit i x i vi thng mi quc t tn ti cng vi GATT t 1947
v hin nay c i din bng h thng WTO.
Multinational enterprises: Cc cng ty a quc gia
Xem transnational corporations
Munich Group: Nhm Munich
Nhm cng tc v Lut chng c quyn quc t, gm 12 nh hc gi, nm 1993 son tho
D tho Lut chng c quyn quc t. nhm cng tc ny d kin D tho lut s c

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pht trin thnh hip nh nhiu bn trong WTO, i km vi vic thnh lp C quan Chng c
quyn quc t. D tho lut khng thu ht c h tr quc t y a ra xem xt
dp bt k hnh thc lin chnh ph no. Xem thm antitrust, competition policy v trade and
competition.
Mutual aid agreement: Hip nh vin tr ln nhau
Hip nh k ngy 23/2/1942 gia Vng quc Anh v Hoa K v cc nguyn tc p dng
trong vin tr ln nhau khi tin hnh chin tranh chng xm lc. Hip nh ny c xy dng
da trn Hin chng i ty dng v l mt trong nhng bc quan trng dn n vic triu
tp Hi ngh Lin hp quc v Thng mi v Vic lm nm 1947, m phn v GATT nm
1947 v s xut hin ca Hin chng Havana nm 1948. iu 7 ca Hip nh cp n
quan h kinh t quc t. N hng n hnh ng c tho thun gia hai nc, v c th "m
rng cho tt c cc nc khc c cng quan im, hng ti pht trin, bng cc bin php
trong nc v quc t thch hp, sn xut, vic lm, v trao i tiu th sn xut - l c s vt
cht ca t do v phc li ca tt c mi ngi; xo b i x phn bit di mi hnh thc v
ct gim thu quan v cc hng ro cn tr thng mi khc".
Mutual recognition arrangement: Tho thun cng nhn ln nhau
Cc hip nh gia hai hoc nhiu nc cng nhn tiu chun, trnh hoc cc yu cu
giy php ca nhau. Cc hip nh ny c th bao trm hng ho, dch v, gio dc v trnh
chuyn nghip. Cng nhn ln nhau c th gp phn pht trin thng mi thng qua vic d
b mt s cn tr k thut. t c cng nhn ln nhau c th yu cu cc bn p ng
c cc tiu chun ti thiu c cc bn nht tr, v c th n n cc cuc m phn rt vt
v. Cc thnh vin ca GATS cng nhn tiu chun v trnh ca nhau khng phi m rng s
cng nhn ti cc nc khc trn c s ti hu quc. Nu mt nc th ba mun chng t
rng nc cng c th p ng c cc yu cu v cng nhn th nc phi c dnh
c hi thc hin iu . Quyt nh nm 1979 ca To n cng l chu u trong v Cassis
de Dijon thit lp nguyn tc v cng nhn ln nhau ca Cng ng Chu u i vi cc
tiu chun sn phm tng t nh nhau ch khng phi l tiu chun ging ht nh nhau. iu
lm cho vic cng nhn ln nhau trong Cng ng c n gin hn, v n cng d b cc
tiu chun thuc loi rt kh. Xem thm Guidelines for Mutual Recognition Agreements or
Arrangements in the Accountancy Sector, harmonisation of standards and qualifications,
technical barriers to trade v zero-margin harmonisation.

NAFTA (North American Free Trae Agreement): Hip nh Thng mi t do Bc M

C hiu lc t 1/1/1994. Cc thnh vin bao gm Canada, Hoa K v Mexico. Hip nh bao
trm hng ho, dch v v u t. Phn ln thu quan s c loi b trong vng 10 nm. Tt
c cc phng thc cung cp dch v u c cp. i ng quc gia v i ng ti hu
quc c p dng i vi u t. NAFTA c cc quy nh v chnh sch cnh tranh v s hu
tr tu. Ba hip nh ring v nng nghip v cc hip nh ph v lao ng v mi trng cng
c k kt. Cc nc khc trong khu vc cng c th gia nhp NAFTA, nhng cc nc
khc thy FTAA c tnh logic hn. Xem thm North American Agreement on Labor
Cooperation.
Narrow competition policy: Chnh sch cnh tranh hp
Chnh sch ny cp n mt lot cc thng l thng c trong lut chng c quyn hoc
cc lut nhm kim sot cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch. Mc ch chnh ca chnh sch
cnh tranh hp l cc tho thun ngang v dc, lm dng quyn lc th trng v kim sot cc

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iu kin chng cnh tranh xut pht t vic st nhp v mua. Xem thm competition policy v
wider competition policy.
National champions: Cc nh v ch quc gia
Cc cng ty mt s nc c ch nh hot ng thc y cng ngh mi hoc quy trnh mi
v cc cng ty khc c th hc hi t cc cng ty ny. Thng thng cc cng ty ny c v
tr u vit khi chng c ch nh. Cc nh v ch quc gia thng c hng u i v thu
v cc bin php h tr khc. Cc cng ty ny cng c th c min tr lut cnh tranh. nh
hng ca cc cng ty ny n th trng ni a c th l ng k nhng vai tr ca chng trn
th trng quc t. Xem thm infant-industry argument, learning-by-doing argument v picking
winners.
National interest: Li ch quc gia
Thut ng m t mt lot tiu ch, khng phi bao gi cng c m t chnh xc, m vic
hon thnh cc tiu ch c coi l s thnh vng ca mt nh nc. Thut ng ny thng
c cc nhm quyn li s dng nh bng li ch quc gia vi mc ch ca ring h.
Theo ngha chnh xc, ch c cc chnh ph quc gia mi c kh nng nh gi v t ra quyn
li quc gia theo trch nhim m hin php v lut php giao cho h. Mt s lut quc hi c
cc quy nh v quyn li quc gia cho php chnh ph c hnh ng m i khi khc vi cc
nguyn tc ra trong cc lut . C nhng trng hp m vic s dng quyn lc tu tin
nh vy dn n tranh lun gay gt v tnh ph hp ca chng, c bit khi cc tiu chun c
th vin n iu khon quyn li quc gia khng c quy nh. Tuy nhin c s thng nht
rng ri rng vic qun l mt s lnh vc ca chnh ph yu cu c s linh hot trong quy nh
v quyn li quc gia. Xem thm Exon-Florio amendment, general exceptions, rule of reason
v security exceptions.
National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers: Bo co c lng thng
mi quc gia v hng ro cn tr ngoi thng
Bo co hng nm ca USTR cho Tng thng v Quc hi theo yu cu ca iu 181 Lut
Thng mi v Thu quan 1984, c sa i bng Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh 1988. Bo
co cp n (a) cc hng ro ch yu i vi hng xut khu, dch v, s hu tr tu v u
t trc tip nc ngoi ca Hoa K, (b) cc hiu ng bin dng thng mi ca cc hng ro
ny v tr gi ca cc c hi thng mi v u t b mt, (c) mt danh sch chiu theo Khon
301 v cc hnh ng loi b cc hng ro , hoc gii thch ti sao khng c bin php p
dng, v (d) u tin ca Hoa k nhm m rng xut khu. Bn bo co nm 1996 chia cc hng
ro thng mi lm 9 loi: chnh sch nhp khu, tiu chun, mua sm ca chnh ph, tr cp
xut khu, khng bo h s hu tr tu, cc hng ro dch v, cc hng ro u t, cc hng ro
chng cnh tranh v cc loi hng ro khc nh hi l v tham nhng. Cc nc khc cng theo
xut bn nhng bo co ca mnh, a s u nhm n nhng thiu st trong chnh sch m
ca th trng ca Hoa K. Xem thm United States Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act
v National Treatment Study.
National treatment: i ng quc gia
Mt nguyn tc c cp trong nhiu hip nh thng mi song phng v a phng.
Nguyn tc ny nhm m bo rng nhng sn phm nc ngoi v i khi l nh cung cp
nhng sn phm c i x trong th trng ni a khng km u i hn cc sn phm
ni a hay cc nh cung cp nhng sn phm . Trong nhng ti liu trc y, i khi
nguyn tc ny cn c gi l "s ngang bng ni a". y l vn n gin nhng nguyn
tc ny gy ra nhiu s tranh chp, mt phn l v s gii thch cht ch ca ch i ng
quc gia trn thc t c th khng thun li cho cc nh cung cp nc ngoi. Mt dn chng
c in ca trng hp ny l nh gi ru theo n v gallon. V l do ny, nguyn tc i
ng quc gia c chnh l qua nhiu nm cho php i x khc nhau hoc u i hn
mt cch chnh thc i vi cc sn phm nc ngoi nu nh l cch duy nht bo m
rng cc sn phm nc ngoi khng b km li th hn. Tt nhin, i khi cc nc c tnh

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dnh cho cc nh u t nc ngoi nhng u i hn so vi ch i ng quc gia nhm thu
ht cc cng ty mong mun. Trong nhng trng hp khc th tht kh khi phn bit gia cc
bin php ti bin gii i vi sn phm nhp khu vi sn phm ni a cng nh l vi cc
hn ch nh lng ring i vi hng nhp khu. Nguyn tc c bn ny trong iu III ca
GATT, c cp n ch i ng quc gia i vi hng ho, l bnh ng v c hi cnh
tranh. iu khon ny c bt u bng mt tuyn b chung rng cc nc thnh vin cng
nhn cc khon thu v ph ni a khc; cc lut php v quy nh nh hng n phn phi,
vn chuyn v bn trong ni a; v cc quy nh v s lng ni a khng c p dng i
vi sn phm nhp khu hay sn phm trong nc nhm bo h sn xut trong nc. iu
khon ny cng ni rng cc sn phm nhp khu khng phi chu bt k cc khon thu ni
a hay cc ph ni a khc vi mc cao hn mc p dng i vi sn phm ni a. iu
khon ny cng yu cu mi lut php, quy nh,... phi c p dng mt cch nh nhau vi
sn phm nhp khu v sn phm trong nc. Thm vo , cc hn ch nh lng ni a
cng phi c p dng khng phn bit i x. V vn s hu tr tu, theo iu 3 Hip
nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi, mt nc thnh vin WTO phi i x
vi cc cng dn ca quc gia thnh vin khc khng km u i hn so vi cc cng dn ca
chnh mnh. C th c mt s ngoi l theo iu ny bi l c mt s quyn c t trc
theo Cng c Paris, Cng c Berne, Cng c Rome hay Hip c v quyn s hu tr tu
i vi mch tch hp. V dch v, ch i ng quc gia c ni n ti iu XVII Hip
nh GATS, l ngha v bo m cho cc nh cung cp dch v nc ngoi v cc dch v
tng ng ca h c i x ngang bng so vi cc nh cung cp dch v trong nc v cc
dch v m h cung cp. Vic i x vi cc nh cung cp dch v nc ngoi c th khc nhau
v hnh thc nu nh l yu cu t c s bnh ng v c hi. Xem thm economic
impact criterion, implicit discrimination, most-favoured-nation treatment v non-
discrimination.
National treatment instrument: Vn kin i ng quc gia
Mt vn kin ca OECD. Bao gm phn v i ng quc gia trong Tuyn b nm 1976 v u
t Quc t v cc cng ty a quc gia v Quyt nh sa i ln th 3 v i ng quc gia c
thng qua vo nm 1991. Vn kin ny thit lp mt tiu chun c quc t cng nhn v s
i x nhm gip xo b s phn bit i x i vi cc nh u t nc ngoi trong cc nc
thnh vin OECD. y khng phi l s cam kt c tnh ch nh nhng da trn nhng th tc
nh ch c tho thun.
National treatment study: Nghin cu v ch i ng quc gia
Cng b nm 1988 trong Lut v tnh cnh tranh v thng mi ca B Ngn kh Hoa K. N
bao gm cc thng tin chi tit v a mc ch nhng khun kh iu chnh v cc iu kin th
trng trong dch v ngn hng v chng khon i vi phn ng cc nc. Cun nghin cu
v ch i ng quc gia tr thnh mt ti liu tham kho c bn cho vic nghin cu cc
dch v ti chnh ton cu. Ln ti bn gn nht vo nm 1994. Xem thm United State
Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act v National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade
Barriers.
Natural persons: T nhin nhn
Cng dn hay thng tr nhn ca mt nc thnh vin GATS. Khi l nhng nh cung cp dch
v cho cc nc thnh vin khc ca GATS, h c cc quyn theo quy nh ca GATS.
Natural resource-based products: Cc sn phm da vo ngun ti nguyn thin nhin
Trong khun kh ca GATT, cc sn phm ni trn bao gm khong sn, qung, c v cc sn
phm c, lm sn, g, giy. Trong Vng Uruguay c mt nhm m phn ring chuyn v
nhng mt hng ny.
Natural trading blocs: Cc khi thng mi t nhin hnh thnh

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Thut ng c Krugman (1991) s dng nhm a ra m hnh miu t cc nc gn cn,
c chi ph vn chuyn thp, v vy h trao i bun bn vi nhau.
Natural-trading-partners hypothesis: Gi thuyt v i tc thng mi t nhin
Gi thuyt l khu vc thng mi t do gia cc nc c quan h trao i thng mi quy
m ln em li li ch ti a. C Wonnacott v Lutz (1989) v Krugman (1991) c cng
nhn l ngi u tin a ra thut ng "i tc thng mi t nhin" d rng chnh ph cng
s dng n trc lu ri.
Negative comity: S thn thin tiu cc
Cn c gi l s thn thin truyn thng. y l thut ng c s dng trong qun l chnh
sch cnh tranh. iu c ngha l theo cc iu khon trong cc tho thun song phng c
lin quan, mt nc phi tnh n li ch ca cc nc khc khi nc bt u mt hnh ng
tun theo lut cnh tranh ca nc mnh. Xem thm positive comity.
Negative intergration: S hi nhp tiu cc
Do Wallance (1994) a ra nh l s xo b cc hng ro i vi thng mi xuyn bin gii
m khng to ra nhng khun kh iu chnh mi. Xem thm positive intergration.
Nagative listings: Danh mc ngoi l
Danh mc ny c s dng trong mt s danh mc cam kt theo GATS. Bng cch lp v a
ra mt danh mc ngoi l, mt nc ng rng tt c cc hot ng dch v phi chu s iu
chnh ca tt c cc iu khon ca GATS tr phi nc lp thnh danh mc ring, quy nh
nhng gii hn nht nh v m ca th trng hoc i ng quc gia. u im ca phng
php ny l tt c nhng dch v mi cng t ng s thuc phm vi bao trm ca cc quy tc
ca hip nh. Cc nc pht trin s dng phng php ny trong cc cam kt trong lnh
vc ti chnh.Australia v New Zealand chn danh mc ngoi l ny trong Ngh nh th
ANZCERTA v thng mi dch v. Xem thm positive listings.
Negotiating credits: Tn nhim m phn
Tn nhim m phn l thng l khng chnh thc trong WTO. Theo cch thc hnh ny cc
nc c xem xt n vic cc nc khc n phng gim thu tnh n mt ngy xc nh,
thng l gn vi ngy bt u cc cuc m phn. Thng l ny nhm m bo rng nhng
thnh vin tham gia khng phi h thp cc hng ro ca mnh m li khng nhn c s n
b tho ng di hnh thc h thp ro cn ca cc nc khc. Theo cch , thng l ny s
khuyn khch cc nc t do ho thng mi nc mnh bt k thi gian no ph hp.
Negotiating Group on Basic Telecommunications: Nhm m phn v vin thng c bn
Xem NGBT.
Negotiating Group on Maritime Transport Services: Nhm m phn v dch v vn ti
bin
Xem maritime transport services.
Neighbouring right: Quyn tng cn
Quyn tng cn l cc c quyn ca ngi biu din, nh sn xut n phm ghi m v pht
sng. Nhng quyn ny v lch s c xem xt l "tng cn" vi nhng lnh vc truyn thng
ca s bo h bn quyn. Nhng quyn tng cn ny c ngi ta cho l c lin quan n
cc ch ngun gc (chng hn mt cng ty thu bng ghi m mt tc phm m nhc) v vn
ny c th tng i kh khn hn khi xc nh ngi sng to xng ng c n
p. Xem thm Berne Convention v copyright.
New commercial policy instrument (NCPI): Vn kin chnh sch thng mi mi

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NCPI l mt quy nh c Cng ng Chu u thng qua vo nm 1984. Quy nh ny cho
php cc hng trong lnh th EU c kin ngh ln U ban chu u (European
Commission) i bi thng i vi cc thng l thng mi khng hp php do cc nc th
ba lm tn thng ngnh cng nghip ca cng ng. NCPI c vin dn n nu thc tin
thng mi bt hp php lin quan khng ph hp vi lut php quc t hay cc quy tc c
chp nhn chung v thng l ny phi quy c cho mt nc th 3. NCPI khng th c s
dng khi c nhng bin php khc phc thng mi khc hin ang tn ti. Chng hn nh
khng th i hi p dng cc bin php chng ph gi theo quy nh ny. Quy nh ny mt
mc nht nh dng nh ly mu t Khon 301 lut ca Hoa K. Tuy nhin, n cng khc
vi Khon 301 ch n nhn mnh vo s bo h ca Cng ng Chu u chng li cc thng
l ca nc ngoi hn l vic m ca th trng. NCPI ban hnh nm 1984 rt him khi c s
dng. n nm 1994 NCPI c iu chnh li, mt phn l s ph hp vi ngha v ca
Cng ng Chu u tun theo cc quyt nh php l ca WTO. Nhng thay i chnh l
nhng thc hnh "khng hp php" c thay i bng nhng "tr ngi thng mi", v lnh
vc dch v cng bao gm trong phm vi ca NCPI. Ni chung nhng thay i ny khng lm
bin i tnh cht ca NCPI. Xem thm European Community legislation.
New industrial policies (NIP): Chnh sch cng nghip mi
Thut ng i khi c s dng cho chnh sch pht trin cng nghip vi mc ch xc nh,
khc vi chnh sch mc ai ny lm tc l cho php th trng xc nh gii hn rng ca s
pht trin cng nghip v s bo h gin n nhm dnh cho cc ngnh cng nghip s che ch
chng li s cnh tranh t hng ho nhp khu. NIP gm cc bip php ca chnh ph nhm
tng tit kim v u t vn, chia s cng ngh mt cch bt buc hay c ch dn gia cc
doanh nghip, nhng s hp nht bt buc tng hiu qu, chia s nhng iu kin v nghin
cu v pht trin, c th c bao cp v.v..
New international division of labour: Phn cng lao ng quc t mi
S tin ho ca khi nim phn cng lao ng quc t, trong s cnh tranh v gi khng cn
l yu t quyt nh hay duy nht i vi vic mt cng ty sn xut sn phm ca h nh th
no. H thng ny phn no phn nh s cng nhn quyn ca ngi tiu dng nhng li to
cho h nhiu c hi gi. Kaplinsky (1993) ni rng trong nhiu yu cu, h thng ci tin ny
yu cu sn phm phi linh hot, ci tin nhanh, lc lng lao ng a nng, s ho nhp mt
cch cht ch hn ca lch trnh sn xut v pht trin sn phm ca nhng b phn sn xut
lin quan. Cc cng ty ln phn b sn xut ca h theo cch tho mn tt nht cc yu cu
cnh tranh ca h. Xem thm Fordism, globalisation, Post-Fordism, product cycle theory v
transnational corporations.
New international economic order (NIEO): Trt t kinh t th gii mi
Mt chin dch c cc nc ang pht trin pht ng vo u nhng nm 1970 nhm em
n s thay i cn bn trong trt t kinh t th gii. NIEO da trn s nhn thc rng tin b
kinh t v cng ngh k t sau khi kt thc Chin tranh th gii ln th II khng lm giu
ln cuc sng ca ngi dn cc nc ang pht trin mt cch c ngha v mi mt. Cc
nc ang pht trin ph thuc vo xut khu hng ho, c bit l trong nhng nm 1970 h
hon ton tht th gia ci gi l cuc cch mng ca nhng mong i nhiu hn trong khi gi
c hng ho gim. Khi hnh thnh s nhn nhn rng s pht trin nh vo nhng khon vay
n u i nhng c iu kin ch lm tng ln gnh nng v n ca cc nc ang pht trin v
v vy s a h vo th ngy cng b i x tu khng thng xt ca cc chnh sch v
hnh ng ca cc nc pht trin. NIEO t c ng lc ng k thng qua quyt nh
ca Hi ngh B trng cc nc OPEC vo nm 1973 l tng gi du ln gp 4 ln. S thnh
cng hin nhin ca chnh sch ny trong vic tng ngun thu ca cc nc thnh vin
khuyn khch quan im l c th lm nh vy c vi nhng hng ho khc p ng nhiu
hn cc mong i ca nc ang pht trin. Quyt nh ca OPEC c nhiu nc ang
pht trin xem rng l c cn c ng n. Mt mt, l vic cc nc rp c gng s
dng du nh l mt v kh chnh tr trong cuc chin tranh nm 1973 vi Israel. Mt khc, qua

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 h cng khm ph ra cch lm tng ngun thu ca mnh m dng nh l chi ph ch
yu do cc nc pht trin phi chu. Trong bi cnh , chng trnh NIEO ca Lin hp quc
c thng qua vo nm 1974. N bao gm "Tuyn b v s thit lp trt t kinh t quc t
mi", v "Chng trnh hnh ng thit lp trt t kinh t quc t mi" di hnh thc cc
ngh quyt tng ng 3201 (S-VI) v 3202 (S-VI) ca i hi ng. Bn Tuyn b quan tm
c bit n vn nguyn liu th vi pht trin, lu rng k t nm 1970, nn kinh t th
gii tri qua mt lot cc cuc khng hong nghim trng vi hu qu khc lit vi cc
nc ang pht trin. Tuyn b ny nhn mnh tnh thc t ca s ph thuc ln nhau gia tt
c cc nc v ngh mt trt t kinh t quc t mi da trn cc nguyn tc c nu tm tt
nh sau: (i) bnh ng v ch quyn gia cc quc gia v quyn t quyt ca tt c cc dn tc,
(ii) s cng tc rng nht gia cc quc gia, (iii) tham gia y v thc s trn c s bnh
ng, (iv) quyn ca cc nc chp nhn h thng kinh t v x hi m h thy ph hp hn,
(v) ch quyn y v vnh vin ca cc quc gia i vi ngun ti nguyn thin nhin v tt
c cc hot ng kinh t, (vi) gii phng khi s khai thc v chim ng ca nc ngoi, cc
quy nh v gim st ca cc cng ty xuyn quc gia, (vii) cc nc ang pht trin di s
thng tr thuc a c quyn dnh t do cho chnh mnh, (viii) m rng s tr gip cho cc
nc ang pht trin di s thng tr nc ngoi, (ix) mi quan h cng bng v bnh ng
gia gi c nguyn vt liu th, hng ho s cp v hng ho cng nghip c cc nc ang
pht trin xut khu v nhng hng ho t bn v cc hng nhp khu khc ca h, (x) tr gip
tch cc v v iu kin cho cc nc ang pht trin, (xi) mt h thng tin t c i mi
vi iu kin tr gip cho cc nc ang pht trin, (xii) tnh cnh tranh ca nguyn vt liu t
nhin c ci thin, (xiii) i x mt cch u i v khng c i c li cho cc nc ang pht
trin, (xiv) iu kin thun li cho chuyn i ngun lc cho cc nc ang pht trin, (xv) s
tip cn ca cc nc ang pht trin i vi nhng thnh tu khoa hc cng ngh, (xvi) chm
dt lng ph ngun ti nguyn t nhin, (xvii) cc nc ang pht trin nhm mc tiu pht
trin, (xviii) hp tc quc t c tng cng, (xix) thun li ho vai tr ca hip hi cc nh
sn xut trong vic thc y tng trng n nh. "Chng trnh hnh ng" cng y tham
vng. Chng trnh ny tm kim nhng gii php cho nhng vn c bn v nguyn liu
th v sn phm c bn lin quan n thng mi v pht trin cng nh khng hong lng
thc. Chng trnh ny cng a ra mt danh mc di cc hnh ng thng mi, bao gm cc
tho thun bi thng ti chnh, ch GSP c ci thin, v thnh lp kho m cho hng
ho. Nhng s ci tin ny cng c tm kim trong vn ti v bo him, ti chnh, h
thng tin t quc t. Nhiu trong s cc iu khon ny c tun theo trong t chc
UNCTAD, dn n ngh thnh lp mt Qu chung v Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh
hng vo nm 1976. Cc kha cnh ca NIEO vp phi s phn i quyt lit ca cc nc
pht trin, nhng mt s nh sn xut hng ho ca cc nc pht trin ln b d d bng
trin vng quay tr li xut khu nhiu hng ho hn nu nh cc bin php hng ho c th
c thc hin. Nhng t chc quc t khc, bao gm GATT trong Vng Tokyo gn y
phi lu nhiu hn n quan im ca cc nc ang pht trin, nhng NIEO nh l mt
chng trnh c tin hnh vo u nhng nm 1980. Xem thm Charter of Economic
Right and Duties of State v North-South dialogue.
New Independent States: Cc quc gia c lp mi
Nhm cc nc bao gm cc Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz,
Moldava, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ucraine v Uzbekistan vn l mt phn ca Lin bang X-
vit. Xem thm Commonwealth of Independent States, trong bao gm thm Nga.
Newly industrialising economies: Cc nn kinh t mi cng nghip ho
Cn c gi l cc nc mi cng nghip ho. Mt thut ng c bit c s dng trong
nhng nm 1980 ch nhng nn kinh t ang pht trin ang trong qu trnh chuyn i cc
ngnh quan trng ca nn kinh t sang mt giai on mang nhiu c im ca nhng nn kinh
t cng nghip ho. Chng hn nh Hong Kong, Mexico, Malaysia, Hn Quc, i-loan,
Singapore.
Newly liberalising countries: Cc nc mi t do ho

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Thut ng ch cc nc Trung v ng u, nhng nc to thnh Cng ng cc quc gia
c lp, v Trung Quc ang trong qu trnh chuyn i t nn kinh t k hoch tp trung trc
y sang nn kinh t th trng. Ch ngoi thng tp trung ca h cng ang c t do
ho.
New protectionism: Ch ngha bo h mi
Mt thut ng ph bin ca nhng nm 1980. Thut ng ny c s dng ch n nhng
bin php nh hn ch nh lng, tho thun hn ch t nguyn, tho thun tip th c trt t,
v.v... i ngc vi hnh ng bo h thng qua hng ro thu quan cao. Xem thm grey-area
measures.
New trade agenda: Chng trnh ngh s thng mi mi
Mt thut ng c mt s ngi s dng din t cc vn m ca th trng vn cn gii
php. T quan im ny, chng trnh ngh s thng mi truyn thng c hiu l nhng n
lc nhm gim cc bin php ti bin gii bao gm thu quan v cc bin php phi thu quan.
Mt khc, chng trnh ngh s thng mi mi ny ch yu nhm vo cc tr ngi bn trong
th trng, chng hn nh tiu chun, s s dng qu mc cc bin php v sinh dch t, nhng
thng l phn cnh tranh t nhn v nh nc. mt mc nht nh, chng trnh ngh s
thng mi mi bao trm c nhng vn thng mi mi, nhng trong nhng kha cnh khc
th n ang nhm t c kt qu ti a t nhng tho thun thng mi a phng hin ti.
Xem thm technical barriers to trade.
New trade issues: Nhng vn thng mi mi
Nhng vn mi pht sinh v s xut hin ca c cu thng mi mi, nhng sn phm mi,
nhng cng ngh mi hay l s gp nhau ca chnh sch kinh t v cc chnh sch x hi.
Thut ng "cc vn thng mi mi" thng c ngha n gin rng hin cha c mt khun
kh thng mi a phng chnh thng gii quyt nhng vn lin quan hoc cc vn
mi ch c xem xt n gn y trong khun kh WTO. Nhng vn thng mi mi
hin ang c bn ci bao gm thng mi v cnh tranh, thng mi v s thanh ton khng
hp php, thng mi v u t, thng mi v tiu chun lao ng. Mt vi ngun b sung
thm thng mi v mi trng vo danh mc ny, nhng quyt nh thnh lp U ban thng
mi v mi trng ca WTO cho thy rng hin nay y l vn c cp nhng
cha c gii quyt. i khi c mt vi khuyn ngh rng thng mi v vn ho, thng mi
v ngoi hi, thng mi v thu cng nn c xem xt n.
New trade order: Trt t thng mi mi
Trong cc vn bn hin nay, thut ng ny ni chung ch h thng thng mi ton cu xut
hin cng vi s ra i ca WTO nhng n khng c ngha chnh xc. Mt s ngi s dng
n miu t nhng g m trong quan im ca h c th l h thng thng mi mong mun
khi c mt vi vn kin hay nguyn tc nht nh c m phn.
New trade theory: Hc thuyt thng mi mi
Mt cch phn tch thng mi quc t c ngun gc t "nghch l Leontief". Vo nm 1953,
nh kinh t ngi M Wassily Leontief, trong phn tch s liu thng k u vo v u ra ca
Hoa k, pht hin ra rng Hoa K, l mt nc giu v vn, xut khu nhng sn phm
c hm lng lao ng cao thnh cng hn l nhng sn phm cn tp trung vn ln. y l
iu tri ngc vi nhng g m ng ta mong i theo mnh Heckscher-Ohlin - s khng
nh li ca hc thuyt li th so snh. Nhng n lc ca cc nh kinh t nhm gii thch vn
ny dn n mt hc thuyt thng mi mi c tnh n nh hng ca cc yu t nh
cng ngh, nghin cu v pht trin. Nhng yu t ny c th cho php mt nc t c li
th cnh tranh m trc y n khng c. Mt kt qu trung hn quan trng l hc thuyt chu
k sn phm c ra i vo nm 1967. Giai on cui cng l hc thuyt chin lc thng
mi m trong c nhiu s gii thch khc nhau. Hc thuyt ny tt nhin c s dng

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bo v cho quan im mc tiu v chn k thng. iu ny ni chung dng nh khng phi l
mc ch ca cc nh kinh t ng h l thut ny. Xem thm competitive advantage.
New Transatlantic Agenda: Chng trnh ngh s xuyn i ty dng mi
Chng trnh ngh s ny c thng qua vo 3/12/1995 ti Hi ngh Thng nh EU-Hoa K
ti Madrid cho php c 2 pha phi hp lc lng trn mt lot vn kinh t, chnh tr v x
hi quc t. Mc tiu III trong 4 mc tiu ca n l nhm tng cng h thng thng mi
quc t v vic t c hp tc kinh t cht ch hn. N nhm mc ch: (a) m bo rng
WTO hot ng nh d kin v hp tc trong cc vn thng mi mi, (b) cc n lc t
c ct gim song phng hn na hay xo b thu i vi cc sn phm cng nghip v y
nhanh vic ct gim theo Vng Uruguay, (c) xc nh cc bc i xa b cc quy nh v
nhng tr ngi khc i vi thng mi xuyn i ty dng bng cch thnh lp Th trng
xuyn i ty dng mi. Ba mc tiu khc l tng cng ho bnh, pht trin v dn ch trn
ton th gii, p li cc thch thc ton cu, thit lp cu ni xuyn qua i ty dng. Xem
thm Transatlantic Business Dialogue.
New transatlantic marketplace: Th trng xuyn i ty dng mi
Mt trong nhng mc tiu ca Chng trnh ngh s xuyn i ty dung mi vi chng trnh
lm vic bao gm cng nghin cu to iu kin cho thng mi hng ho v dch v v xo
b cc hng ro thu quan v phi thu quan; xy dng lng tin thng qua vic gii quyt cc
vn thng mi song phng; cc vn tiu chun, giy chng nhn v quy nh; cc vn
v sinh dch t; mua sm chnh ph; quyn s hu tr tu; m rng i thoi a phng v
dch v ti chnh; hon thnh cc tho thun v hp tc v tr gip ln nhau trong hi quan; m
rng i thoi x hi thng tin song phng v hp tc trong vin thng v cng ngh thng
tin; cng tc su hn na cc vn v cnh tranh; tho lun v vn bo v d liu; m rng
hp tc trong cc vn vn ti hng khng v vn ti bin; hp tc su sc hn v vn lin
quan n nng lng; cng ngh ho sinh; an ton v sc kho. Xem thm Transatlantic
Business Dialogue.
New Zealand Australia Free Trade Agreement: Hip nh Thng mi t do Australia -
New Zealand (NAFTA)
Hip nh thng mi ny iu chnh quan h thng mi gia 2 nc Australia v New
Zealand t nm 1966 n nm 1982. Hip nh ny t c t do ho v thng mi ng
k gia 2 nc nhng khng hon ton l thng mi t do. Vo 1/1/1983, hip nh ny
c thay th bng Hip nh thng mi v quan h kinh t cht ch hn gia Australia v
New Zealand (ANZCERTA).
NGBT (Negotiating Group on Basic Telecommunications): Nhm m phn v dch v
vin thng c bn
Do Hi ng Thng mi dch v thnh lp nhm t c t do ho nhanh chng thng mi
trong lnh vc cc mng vin thng. NGBT ln k hoch hon thnh bn bo co cui cng
ca mnh vo 30/4/1996 nhng cc cuc m phn c ko di n 15/2/1997 to iu
kin cho vic a ra cc xut cam kt cao hn. Cng thi gian , NGBT c i tn l
Nhm dch v vin thng c bn (GBT). Xem thm Agreement on Basic Telecommunications
Services.
NGMTS
Xem maritime trasport services.
Nominal rate of protection: T l bo h danh ngha
y l khi nim kinh t ch mc (thng tnh bng phn trm) gi ni a vt qu gi ti bin
gii ca mt sn phm. Xem thm effective rate of protection v price wedges.
Nominal tariff: Thu sut danh ngha

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Thu sut trong danh mc thu quan ca mt nc i vi mt sn phm. Thu sut ny c th
khc vi mc thu sut c p dng (l mc thu sut do c quan hi quan thc s nh vo
mt sn phm hng ho nhp khu). Xem thm bindings (goods).
Non-actionable subsidies: Tr cp khng dn n hnh ng
Mt loi tr cp c xc nh trong Hip nh v tr cp v cc bin php i khng ca
WTO. Tr cp ny bao gm s tr gip cho nghin cu v pht trin, tr gip cho nhng vng
km thun li v tr gip nhm tng cng s thch ng ca nhng c s hin hnh vi nhng
yu cu mi v mi trng hn nng gnh hn. Hip nh ny m t mt s chi tit cc loi tr
cp. Nu mt nc thnh vin khc tin rng mt loi tr cp, bnh thng thuc loi khng dn
n hnh ng, ang gy ra nhng hu qu nghim trng th h c th xc nh v a ra
khuyn ngh v vn ny. Hip nh ny khng p dng i vi tr cp nng nghip. Nhng
tr cp ny nm trong phm vi ca Hip nh nng nghip. Xem thm actionable subsidies,
prohibited subsidies v subsidies.
Non-application: Khng p dng
iu XIII ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp WTO ch ra rng hip nh ny v cc hip nh
khc ca WTO khng c p dng gia 2 nc thnh vin nu hoc mt trong 2 nc ny
khng ng vi vic p dng nhng hip nh ni trn ti thi im mt trong 2 nc gia
nhp WTO. V vy, vic khng p dng ny ch c ra ti thi im mt nc gia nhp
WTO.
Non-discrimination: Khng phn bit i x
y l mt nguyn tc c bn trong khun kh thng mi a phng. Mt nc khng c
phn bit i x gia cc nh cung cp nc ngoi, v khng p dng ch phn bit i x
bt li cho nhng sn phm thm nhp lnh th ca nc mt cch hp php. Nhng
nguyn tc ca WTO cho php c mt s nhng ngoi l theo nhng iu kin c nh ngha
cht ch. Chng hn nh, cc nc thnh vin ca khu vc thng mi t do hay lin minh hi
quan c th phn bit i x vi nhng nc khng phi l thnh vin trong vic p dng thu
sut. Cc nc ny cn c th duy tr chng trnh thu quan u i cho cc nc ang pht
trin. Xem thm GSP, most-favourved-nation treatment v national treatment.
Non-equity-based investment: u t khng c c phn
u t di hnh thc tho thun li-xng, hp ng qun l, tho thun chia s sn xut, hp
ng chia s ri ro, hp ng thu ph quc t. Xem thm foreign direct investment v
portfolio investment.
Non-market economies: Nhng nn kinh t phi th trng
Xem centrally-planned economies.
Non-reciprocal free-trade-area: Khu vc thng mi t do khng tng h
Xem free-trade area.
Non-tariff barriers: Hng ro phi thu quan
Xem non-tariff measures.
Non-tariff distortions: Nhng bp mo phi thu quan
S tn ti ca cc bin php phi thu quan l nguyn nhn ca nhng nh hng bt li i vi
cc dng thng mi.
Non-tariff measures: Cc bin php phi thu quan
Cc bin php ca chnh ph ngoi thu quan lm hn ch lung thng mi, chng hn nh
cc hn ch nh lng, cp php nhp khu, cc tho thun hn ch t nguyn v bin thu c
th thay i. Nhn chung, nhng bin php ny i ngc li vi cc nguyn tc ca WTO. Mt

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trong nhng kt qu ca Vng Uruguay l ngha v chuyn cc bin php phi thu quan nh
hng n thng mi trong nng nghip thnh cc loi thu. Xem thm tariffication.
Non-tradeables: Bt kh thng
Hng ho v dch v rt him khi hoc l khng c bun bn quy m quc t bi l chng
r v sn khp mi ni hoc l bi v chi ph dch v b tr cn thit bun bn chng vt
qu gi tr sn phm trn th trng nhp khu. Danh mc loi hng ho ny c th thay i
mt cch ng k qua nhiu nm v c th c rt ngn hn. Hai v d sau lm r. Cho
n gn y, ct v si c khai thc mang tnh cht a phng v c xem l hng ho bt
kh thng v tr thnh hng ho kh thng bi nhiu l do bao gm cc bin php v mi
trng nghim ngt hn. Dch v ct tc vn cn l mt dch v bt kh thng mc d mt
ngi no sng rt gn bin gii c th thy thun li khi i qua bin gii ct tc. Vic
mua bn dch v ct tc ny tt nhin s c phn nh trong con s thng k ca ti khon
vng lai nu n c lm chi tit. Xem thm semi-tradeables v tradeable.
Non-violation: Khng vi phm
Tnh hnh khi mt bn ca hip nh thng mi a phng (chng hn ca GATT hoc GATS)
khng hnh ng tri vi cc iu khon php l ca hip nh, nhng vn c gng lm v hiu
hay gy phng hi n cc quyn ca bn khc thng qua nhng hnh ng ca chnh mnh.
Nhng bin php vi phm phi thay i iu kin cnh tranh c thit lp bng cc cam kt
trn bt buc v thu quan tho thun. Mt v d gn y v vic khng vi phm l vic
phng hi thu quan rng buc thng qua cc tr cp trong nc chng hn nh trong trng
hp Cng ng chu u tr gip cho cc nh sn xut ht c du. Nhng trng hp ny c th
c gii quyt theo cc iu khon gii quyt tranh chp ca WTO. Gn y hn, mt tuyn
b c a ra ni rng cc chnh sch u t trong mt s trng hp c th ri vo danh mc
ny. Xem thm nullification or impairment v oilseeds case.
Nordic countries: Cc nc Bc u
Ch yu l Phn-lan, Na-uy, Thu-in, nhng c khi c c an-mch, Iceland tu theo din
n m phn v ch tho lun.
Normal value: Gi tr thng thng
Mt khi nim c bn trong vic xc nh khi no s ph gi s xy ra. iu VI ca GATT ph
phn vic a mt sn phm vo thng mi ca cc nc thnh vin thp hn gi tr thng
thng ca chnh sn phm . iu II ca Hip nh v thc hin iu VI ca GATT (Hip
nh chng ph gi) a ra khi nim ca "gi tr thng thng" v nhng th tc xc nh n.
Mt sn phm c xem l bn gi ph hoc c bn vi gi thp hn gi tr bnh thng nu
nh gi ca n khi c xut khu trong iu kin thng mi bnh thng thp hn gi so
snh ca sn phm ging nh vy khi n n tay ngi tiu dng ti nc xut khu. Nu nh
khng c vic bn sn phm trn th trng ni a ca nc xut khu hoc vic bn ny li
khng cho php c mt s so snh thch hp, th gi xut khu cho mt nc i din thch hp
th ba s c s dng. Phng php th ba l s dng gi thnh sn xut ca nc xut x
cng thm chi ph hp l ca vic qun l, bn hng, chi ph chung v li nhun. Nhng quy
tc chnh xc c quy nh nu sn phm c chng minh l khng c xut khu trong
nhng iu kin cnh tranh bnh thng hay l ch c trao i mua bn trong mt thi gian
ngn. Nu nh gi xut khu khng c, hoc mc gi l khng th tin cy do s lin kt
gia nh xut khu v nh nhp khu hay mt bn th ba th gi xut khu s c xy dng
da trn c s ca mc gi m theo sn phm hng ho s c bn cho nhng ngi mua t
do. S so snh gia gi xut khu v gi tr thng thng phi c thc hin trong nhng iu
kin tng t, vi s cho php nhng khc bit khng th trnh khi.
North American Agreement on Labour Cooperation: Hip nh Bc M v hp tc lao
ng

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y l hip nh cha ng nhng ngha v bt buc do cc nc thnh vin thuc khi
NAFTA (Hoa K, Canada, Mexico) k vi nhau vo thng 9/1993 vi mc ch chnh l ci
thin iu kin lm vic v mc sng trn lnh th mi nc thnh vin. Cc bn ca Hip nh
ny cam kt xc tin 11 nguyn tc lao ng, thm vo l tiu chun lao ng ct li, quyn
bi cng, tiu chun vic lm ti thiu, chi tr lng bnh ng gia nam v n, phng trnh tai
nn lao ng v bnh ngh nghip, bi thng trong nhng trng hp m au v tai nn lao
ng, bo v cng nhn di c. Cng vic qun l ca hip nh ny c t di s gim st
ca U ban v hp tc lao ng gm c Hi ng B trng v Ban Th k.
North American Free Trade Agreement: Hip nh Thng mi t do Bc M
Xem NAFTA.
North-South dialogue: i thoi Bc-Nam
Qu trnh m phn v tho lun, thng gay gt v khng mang li kt qu gia cc nc pht
trin hay cc nc cng nghip ho ( pha Bc) vi cc nc ang pht trin ( pha Nam).
Mt s ngi cho rng qu trnh m phn v thng lng ny c bt u t u nhng
nm 1960 vi vic Lin minh v Tin b v cc phong tro dn n thnh lp ca UNCTAD
(Hi ngh Lin hp quc v thng mi v pht trin) vo nm 1964 v s hnh thnh cng lc
ca Nhm 77. S khc cho rng thi im bt u khc ca cuc i thoi Bc - Nam l Hi
ngh Hp tc kinh t quc t c din ra nm 1975 ti Paris v t kt thc vo nm 1977
m khng t c bt k mt kt qu no. S kt thc t nhiu chnh thc ca cuc i thoi
ny n vi K hp c bit nm 1980 cu i hi ng Lin hp quc. C mt s bt ng
nh v vn ny. Bt k xut pht im chnh xc no c chp nhn cho i thoi Nam
Bc, n ch xut hin sau khi Lin hp quc thnh lp cng vi cc c quan chuyn mn ho
ca mt s ln cc nc ang pht trin mi c. S lng cc nc ny cho php h xc nh
hay gy nh hng ngy mt tng i vi chng trnh lm vic ca cc c quan ca. i i
vi quan im c cc nc ang pht trin ng h mt cch mnh m rng nhng quan tm
hp php ca h v s pht trin v s tng trng kinh t v s tham gia vo h thng thng
mi ton cu khng c cc nc pht trin thc hin mt cch nghim tc, xu hng ny
dn n vic min Bc phi cng nhn vo u nhng nm 1970 rng phi lm mt iu g
. Quyt nh ca OPEC nm 1973 tng gp 4 ln gi ca du la to ra s khuyn khch
thm cho xu hng ny. Tip theo l mt lot cc sng kin chnh tr v kinh t, rt nhiu trong
s khng tn ti lu. Bn cnh , nm 1974 i hi ng Lin hp quc thng qua
mt bn ngh quyt v trt t kinh t th gii mi, mt tuyn b ln c hiu lc v chuyn i
ngun ti nguyn t Bc sang Nam. Vic thng qua Hin chng v cc quyn v ngha v kinh
t ca cc quc gia, mt n lc xc nh li cc kha cnh ca lut quc t din ra cng
trong nm. Tip theo, u nm 1975 Cng c Lom u tin c thng qua, mc d to ra
nhng li th cho cc nc ang pht trin, cn cho thy rng h c th khng c quyn lc
bt buc c mt thay i nhanh c. iu ny tr nn r rng hn ti Hi ngh Hp tc kinh
t quc t c t chc cng trong nm. c nhng ng thi trong h thng Lin hp quc
k t nm 1977 pht ng mt chng trnh m phn ton cu c a ra vo nm 1980.
Vic Bo co Brandt c a ra vo nm 1980 dng nh a ra nhng ha hn ca mt
s khi u mi. Tuy nhin, cho n thi gian ny, khong cch gia 2 pha khng th ni
lin c, v tr ca h khng c kh nng to ra thay i, i thoi ang b ui dn. Hin vn
ang c nhng ku gi nh k khi phc i thoi Bc-Nam, nhng nhng tho lun lm nh
th no th vn lun b mc kt trong cc cuc m phn s b. Xem thm Harries Report.
Notification: Thng bo
Ngha v bo co cho c quan tng ng ca WTO v vic p dng cc bin php thng mi
c th gy nh hng cho cc nc thnh vin tham gia hip nh m n gim st. Thng bo
tng cng tnh cng khai v tr gip cho s gim st. Vic khai bo khng lin quan ti vic
liu nhng bin php ny s c nh gi l ph hp vi nhng quy tc hay khng. Quyt
nh v th tc khai bo c a ra ti Marrakesh thng 4/1994 bao gm mt danh mc nh
hng gm 20 loi bin php phi thng bo. N bao gm thu, hn ch nh lng, cc bin

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php phi thu quan khc, hng ro k thut trong thng mi, hnh ng t v, bin php
chng ph gi, v.v... a ra c danh mc ny, cc nh thng thuyt b tr mt mng li
rng, v nguyn tc ch c mt s t bin php c th lt qua. Ban Th k WTO duy tr mt
danh mc tt c cc bin php thng bo v nhc nh cc nc thnh vin khi cc nc ny
phi thng bo. Xem thm reverse notification, surveillance v transparency.
Not inconsistent with: Khng tri vi
Cch din t c cc ban hi thm s dng thng xuyn trong cc bo co gii quyt tranh
chp ca WTO. Ngha l trong chng mc Ban Hi thm c th kt lun c, cc bin php
c xem xt l khng i ngc vi bt k nguyn tc no ca WTO. Theo , bn ang
duy tr bin php khng b yu cu phi thay i chng. Vic s dng cch din t ny mt
phn xut pht t thc t l GATT 1947 ch c hiu lc tm thi, v mt phn xut pht t
mong mun ca cc Ban hi thm mun t bo v mnh trc kh nng c nhng thc t cha
c pht hin. Xem thm Protocol of Provisional Application.
Not-made-here syndrome: Hi chng hng ngoi
Xem techno-nationalism.
Not-on-the-whole-higher-or-more-restrictive criterion: Tiu ch "v tng th l khng cao
hn hoc khng hn ch hn"
Tiu ch c s dng trong nh gi rng liu mt lin minh hi quan c ph hp vi cc
nguyn tc ca GATT hay khng. iu XXIV yu cu rng thu quan i ngoi chung v tng
th khng c cao hn hay hn ch hn so vi thu quan trong nc ca cc nc thnh vin
trc khi h tham gia vo lin minh. Nhiu tranh ci ny sinh v phng php c s dng
trong vic khng nh nhng tiu chun ny c c tho mn hay khng, c bit l vn s
dng thu trung bnh hay thu trung bnh theo khi lng thng mi. Nhng kt qu r rng
c th khc nhau nhiu ph thuc vo phng php tnh. Bn ghi nh v gii thch iu XXIV
- mt phn ca Vng Uruguay - lm r vn trn. iu XXIV ni rng s nh gi cc
mc thu phi da trn s nh gi ton b mc thu sut bnh qun gia quyn v thu hi quan
thu c.
Nuisance tariff: Thu quy ry
Thu nhp khu thp n mc chi ph cho vic thu thu tng ng hoc vt qu tng s
thu thu c, hay thu khng c bt k mt tc dng bo h no. Xem thm revenue tariff.
Nullification or impairment: V hiu ho hoc gy phng hi
Vic xem nh cc ngha v hay hnh ng do mt nc nc thnh vin WTO thc hin c nh
hng v hiu ho nhng li ch m mt nc thnh vin khc c hng theo mt hip nh.
Nu vn khng th gii quyt thng qua tham vn th cc nc thnh vin c th tm n th
tc gii quyt tranh chp chnh thc. S v hiu ho hay gy phng hi c th xy ra do s vi
phm cc nguyn tc, nhng cng c th do khng vi phm.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development): T chc Hp tc v

pht trin kinh t
c thnh lp nm 1961 nh t chc k nhim ca T chc Hp tc kinh t chu u (OEEC).
i khi ngi ta cn gi l "cu lc b ca nhng nc giu". Mc tiu ca t chc ny l (a)
t c s tng trng kinh t v vic lm n nh cao nht, v tng mc sng ca cc nc
thnh vin, trong khi vn duy tr n nh v ti chnh, v v vy s ng gp vo s pht trin
kinh t th gii, (b) ng gp vo s m rng kinh t vng chc cc nc thnh vin cng
nh cc nc khng phi l thnh vin trong tin trnh pht trin kinh t, (c) ng gp vo s

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m rng kinh t th gii trn c s a phng, khng phn bit i x ph hp vi cc ngha v
quc t. OECD t c nhng thnh tu ng k trong lnh vc kinh t thng mi trong sut
30 nm qua mt phn nh s ng nht ca cc hi vin. S hi vin hin nay bao gm:
Australia, o, B, Canada, Cng ho Sc, an-mch, Phn-lan, Php, c, Hy-lp, Hungary,
Iceland, Ai-len, Italia, Nht, Hn Quc, Luxemburg, Mexico, H-lan, New Zealand, Na-uy, Ba-
lan, B-o-nha, Ty-ban-nha, Thu-in, Thu-s, Th-nh-k, Anh, Hoa K. C quan cao
nht ca OECD l Hi ngh hng nm ca Hi ng B trng, thng c t chc vo thng
5. Xem thm Arrangement on Guidelines for Officially Supported Credits, Multilateral
Agreement on Investment, OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, OECD
Recommendation on Trade and Competition, OECD shipbuilding agreement, Partners in
Transition, trade and illicit payments v dynamic non-member market economy.
OECD Guilines for Multinational enterprises: Cc hng dn ca OECD cho cc doanh
nghip a quc gia
Mt lot cc hng dn cho hnh vi ca cc cng ty a quc gia ln u tin c cc nc
thnh vin OECD thng qua vo nm 1976 v sa i ln cui cng vo nm 1984. Cc chnh
sch chung tip theo bao gm: (a) tnh n cc mc tiu chnh sch chung ca nc ch nh,
(b) quan tm y n cc mc tiu kinh t x hi ca cc nc ch nh, (c) m bo rng
cc b phn ca cc cng ty a quc gia tip cn c vi thng tin m chnh ph cc nc ch
nh c th yu cu, (d) hp tc cht ch vi cng ng a phng v li ch kinh doanh, (e)
cho php cc b phn ca cc doanh nghip ny khai thc li th cnh tranh trong cc th
trng ni a v nc ngoi, (f) chnh sch vic lm khng phn bit i x, (g) khng c hi
l bt k nhn vin nh nc hay ngi lnh o c quan nh nc, (h) khng ng gp cho
cc c quan chnh tr tr phi l hp php, (i) khng c s lin quan khng thch hp trong
cc hot ng chnh tr a phng. Cng c nhng iu khon chi tit hn lin quan n vic
tit l thng tin, quan h cnh tranh, quan h v thu, v vic lm, v quan h cng nghip,
khoa hc cng ngh. Xem thm Draft United Nation Code of Conduct on Transnational
Corporations.
OECD Recommendation on Trade and Competition: Khuyn ngh ca OECD v thng
mi v cnh tranh
Tn y l Khuyn ngh sa i ca Hi ng hp tc gia cc nc thnh vin v nhng
thng l phn cnh tranh nh hng n thng mi quc t. c thng qua ln u tin vo
nm 1986 v sau c sa i nhiu ln, v ln cui cng l vo nm 1995. L mt khuyn
ngh nn n l mt vn kin khng bt buc. Khuyn ngh ny a ra mt lot cc bin php,
bao gm cc tho thun th tc nhm mc tiu cng khai, tham vn v ho gii, cc nc thnh
vin ti thiu ho s mu thun gia chnh sch thng mi v cnh tranh thuc cc quyn ti
phn khc nhau.
OECD shipbuilding agreement: Hip nh ng tu OECD
Tn chnh thc l Hip nh v iu kin cnh tranh thng thng trong cng nghip ng v
sa cha tu thng mi. Hip nh ny c k vo 21/12/1994 nhng vn cha c hiu lc.
Hip nh ny nhm xo b vic s dng tr cp trong vic ng v sa cha tu i bin c
ng c, c trng ti trn 100 tn. Hip nh ny khng bao gm cc tu qun s v tu nh
c dnh s dng ring. Ph lc I bao gm danh mc cc bin php tr cp khng ph hp vi
hip nh, gm c tn dng xut khu hoc tr cp, h tr trong nc v mt vi bin php h
tr khc cho nghin cu v pht trin. Cc bn ca hip nh cn phi tin ti mt c ch
gii quyt gi gy phng hi da trn cc bin php chng ph gi c quy nh ti cc hip
nh WTO. Cng c mt c ch gii quyt tranh chp. Hip nh ny cng m cho cc nc
ngoi khi OECD.
Office international de la vigne et du vin (OIV): Vn phng quc t v nho v ru vang
c thnh lp nm 1924 vi mc tiu l thu thp v ph bin thng tin v khoa hc, cng
ngh, kinh t, lut php lin quan n nho. Cng vic ca Vn phng lin quan n thng mi

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quc t v ru vang bi v nhiu nc trng nho quan trng thng qua tiu chun ca h v
ngnh cng nghip ru ca mnh. Ban Th k OIV t ti Paris. Xem thm applellation
contrle.
Offsets: B p
Nhng bin php c s dng khuyn khch pht trin cng nghip a phng hay ci
thin cn cn thng mi bng cc bin php yu cu v hm lng ni a, giy php cng
ngh, yu cu v u t, bun bn i lu hay l cc yu cu tng t. Mt vi trong s nhng
bin php k trn l bt hp php theo Hip nh v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng
mi. Hip nh v mua sm ca chnh ph cm tt c cc yu cu b p cho cc nc thnh
vin. Ging nh tt c cc hnh thc bo h, vic b p c th lm tng gi trong nc v v
vy c hi cho nhng n lc xut khu ca mt nc. Cc chnh ph thng thng vn ang thu
ht s n b nh l mt hnh thc ca pht trin cng nghip non tr. Xem thm infant-
industry argument.
Oilseeds case: V ht c du
y l mt cuc tranh chp ko di, xut pht t vic Hoa K kin EEC vo nm 1989. y l
mt v d ca vic p dng nguyn tc khng vi phm ca GATT. Bo co ca Ban hi thm
u tin v trng hp ny c thng qua vo nm 1990 cho thy rng cc quy nh EEC cho
php thanh ton cho cc nh my ch bin ht vi iu kin l ht c du c xut x t EEC,
iu ny khng ph hp vi ngha v i ng quc gia ca GATT. Ban hi thm cng nhn thy
rng chng trnh tr cp cho ht c du do EEC hot ng tch cc nh sn xut EEC hon
ton ra khi s thay i ca gi trn th trng quc t. V vy, nhng u i v thu theo hnh
thc gii hn trn 0% do EEC a ra khng c bt k tc ng no n sc cnh tranh ca
ht c du nhp khu. Mc gii hn trn 0% l cam kt nhm xo b thu i vi mt sn
phm nht nh. Vo thng 9/1991, Ban hi thm c triu hi theo yu cu ca Hoa K
xc nh rng liu nhng thay i do EEC to ra nh kt qu ca ban hi thm trc c th xo
b nhng kh khn ny. Trong trng hp tip theo sau, thc t l h thng h tr mi lin
quan trc tip n vic chi tr theo hc ta cho cc nh sn xut u tng, ht ci du, ht
hng dng khng k s lng c sn xut. H thng ny hin nay bao gm 2 yu t. Yu
t th nht l gi c nhn c t vic bn ht c du trn th trng EEC hin c xc
nh mt phn theo cc mc gi nhp khu. Yu t th 2 l s chi tr trc tip theo hc ta da
vo sn lng trung bnh ca v trc trong vng m nh sn xut ng ti . Cc phng
php chi tit cho vic tnh ton gi h tr c p dng cho c hai cng c ni trn. Ban hi
thm cng ch ra rng nhng thay i do EEC to ra l sa cha vn ch i ng quc
gia. V khiu ni v hiu ho hay gy phng hi n cc u i v thu, Ban hi thm nhc li
cc kt lun ban u l: (a) nhng li ch m Hoa K c hng theo u i v thu c p
dng ca EEC gm c hy vng rng nhng iu kin hin hnh nm 1962 s c duy tr, (b)
chng trnh tr cp sn xut ca EEC bo h hon ton cho cc nh sn xut ca h khi hng
nhp khu v v vy m bo rng mc thu quan h thp s khng c bt k nh hng g
c, (c) Hoa K c th gi nh rng khng lng trc c vic p dng nhng tr cp ny,
(d) Hoa k chc chn ngh mt cch hp l rng c s chuyn i cc bin php tr gip
cho nh sn xut quc gia trc y thnh chng trnh h tr ca EEC nhng chng trnh
ny s phi bo tn c li ch ca h, (e) nhng tr cp lin quan gy phng hi n cc
quyn ca Hoa K bi v rng h lm o ln quan h cnh tranh gia ht c du trong nc
v nhp khu, ch khng v phi v bt k nh hng no i vi cc lung thng mi. Ban
hi thm cng thy k hoch h tr sa i vn a ra mc sn xut ca EEC v thc t khng
nhy cm vi s thay i ca gi c th trng th gii. V vy, n tip tc s gy nh hng ti
cc li ch m Hoa K hy vng s c c t cc u i thu lin quan. Ban hi thm cng thy
rng trong h thng mi EEC t h tr cho ht c du gn vi h tr cho sn xut ng cc
thay th c bo h bng bin thu hon ton cch ly cc nh sn xut EEC ra khi gi c th
trng th gii. V vy, ban hi thm thy rng iu ny kh ho hp vi d on cu Hoa K
ti thi im mc thu 0% c m phn. V vy, cc quyn ca Hoa K theo iu II (Danh
mc u i) vn cn b phng hi. Sau , ban hi thm nhc li rng hn 2 nm tri

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qua k t khi bo co ban u c thng qua, v vn khuyn ngh rng EEC nn hnh ng
khn trng loi b s gy phng hi ti cc u i v thu. Ni cch khc, quyn ca EEC
tin hnh tr cp i vi mt s sn phm nht nh v mc ca nhng tr cp ny t n
khng c vn v khng tri vi cc quy tc ca GATT. Tuy nhin, vn l ch vic s
dng tr cp c nh hng n cc nh sn xut ht c du l lm v hiu hay lm suy yu cc
quyn li ca GATT. y l c s ca l l "khng vi phm" trong trng hp ny. Quyt nh
ca ban hi thm tuy nhin khng phi l s kt thc ca vn . N vn l mt im nhc
nhi trong mi quan h thng mi gia Hoa K v Cng ng Chu u trong sut thi gian
cn li ca Vng Uruguay. Vn ny ch c gii quyt nh l mt phn ca Hip c Blair
House trong thng 11/1992 khi Cng ng Chu u ng t gii hn din tch cho sn xut
ht c du.
OMA (Orderly marketing arrangement): Tho thun marketing c trt t
c cng nhn theo Lut Thng mi Hoa K nm 1974. OMA l mt thut ng n d ch
vic p t nhng hn ch nhp khu t cc nc. Nhng gii hn ny thng c kim sot
bi nc xut khu. OMA nm trong cng danh mc nhng bin dng thng mi nh l VRA
v VIE.
Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act: Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh a mc ch
Xem United States Omnibus Trade and Competiitveness Act.
OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries): T chc cc nc xut khu
du m
c thnh lp vo nm 1960 vi cc sng lp vin l Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
Venezuela. T chc ny nhm mc tiu iu phi v thng nht cc chnh sch sn xut v
xut khu. 8 nc khc l Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, UAE (Cc tiu vng quc A-rp thng
nht), Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Gabon sau cng tham gia vo t chc ny. Quy ch
thnh vin m cho cc nc c khi lng xut khu du th ng k. Ban th k ca t
chc ny t ti Vienna.
Open Markets 2000: M ca th trng 2000
Sng kin do Hoa K a ra ti hi ngh G-7 vo thng 7/1994 nhn mnh vo t do ho
thng mi trong vin thng v cng ngh thng tin, i hi c s thng nht v chnh sch
thng mi v cng ngh. Mt phng n thu nh ca ngh ny c a ra G-7 xem xt
tip, nhng vn cha c kt qu no. Xem thm Global Information Infrastructure.
Open regionalism: Ch ngha khu vc m
Mt thut ng m ch rng bt k mt tho thun khu vc no cng nn hng ra bn ngoi v
h thp nhng hng ro i vi cc nn kinh t bn ngoi cng nh cc nn kinh t trong phm
vi tho thun . Mt s kin cho rng, ch ngha khu vc m ngha l ch i ng ti hu
quc y s c p dng i vi vic ct gim thu ca cc nc thnh vin. i vi mt
s khc, n cho php kh nng t c mt tho thun u i i i vi vic gia nhp d dng.
Open-season negotiations: m phn thi gian m
C hi 3 nm mt ln dnh cho cc nc thnh vin GATT tin hnh m phn thu quan khi
nhng rng buc ht thi hn. Nhng rng buc ban u c to ra cho thi hn 3 nm.
Nhng cuc m phn ny c th dn n nhng sa i hay rt b cc u i. Cch thc m
phn ny ngy nay km ph bin v cc rng buc thng l vnh vin. Xem thm renegotiation
of tariffs.
Open-skies agreement: Hip nh bu tri m
Nhng hip nh gia cc chnh ph dnh cho nhau c tip cn khng hn ch sn bay ca
h cho cc chuyn bay nh k ch hnh khch v hng ho. Hu ht cc ng bay quc t v
tn sut bay vn c vch ra da trn c s cc hip nh dch v hng khng song phng.

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Nhng hip nh ny thng nu r s lng hnh khch ti a c tip nhn v cc sn bay
c th c s dng.
Opinion: Quan im
Xem European Community legislation.
Optimal-intervention principle: Nguyn tc can thip ti u
c Roessler (1996) m t nh vic s dng cng c t c mc tiu ca chnh sch vi
t nht nh hng ph khng mong mun, thng l mt cng c gii quyt tn gc r ca vn
.
Optimal-tariff argument: Lp lun thu quan ti u
Mt kha cnh cu hc thuyt kinh t cho rng mt nc ln nh hng n gi xut
khu hay nhp khu c th ti a ho li ch t c bng vic hn ch thng mi trong
chng mc c nh gi k lng. Nc c th lm nh vy thng qua vic p t bo h
bng thu xut khu hay nhp khu. Theo nh gii thch ca Lawrence (1996) th cch lm vic
ca l thu lm gim phc li bng cch bp mo sn xut v tiu dng. Nhng trong thc
t, i khi chng tng phc li thng qua vic ci thin ch s thng mi. S mo him ca
phng php ny l ch n s to ra s bo h khng cn thit i vi mt s lnh vc trong
nn kinh t. Harry G Johnson (1968) lu rng ch c lp lun thu ti u mi c th bin
minh v kinh t cho thu, cn tt c nhng lp lun khc v s bo h u l nhng lp lun v
tr cp. C mt quan im khc v thu quan ti u, nhng khng c c s bng chng, cho
rng trong mt s trng hp nc nhp khu c sc mnh mua chim u th th chi ph ca
thu do nc nhp khu p t s b hp th bi nc xut khu.
Orderly Marketing Agreement: Tho thun tip th c trt t
Xem OMA.
Organisation for European Economic Cooperation: T chc Hp tc kinh t chu u
(OEEC)
c thnh lp vo nm 1948 nh mt c quan iu hnh K hoch Marshall, v c thay th
bi t chc OECD vo nm 1961.
Organisation for Trade Cooperation: T chc Hp tc thng mi
T chc ny c xut vo nm 1955 ti bo co ca mt nhm lm vic ca GATT, l c
ch c nh nhm iu hnh GATT. S mng ca t chc ny ch l mt phn s mng m ITO
d nh. Tt c thnh vin GATT mc nhin tr thnh thnh vin cu t chc ny. Mt im
th v c nu ln trong bo co ca nhm cng tc rng cc nc c b nhim vo U
ban giao thi, ti thi im y ch l phng tin duy nht gii quyt cng vic gia cc k
hp hng nm, c th cn nhc n vic b nhim nhng i din c nng lc ph hp v
quyn lc cn thit h sng ti Genve hoc cc th gn h c th ng gp cng
vic ca t chc ny. Mt im khc trong nhng khuyn ngh l t chc ny phi c chuyn
thnh c quan chuyn mn ca Lin hp quc. ngh v T chc Hp tc thng mi
khng t c s ph chun ca Quc hi Hoa K v n b mt hiu lc. Xem thm GATT
Council of Representative, United Nations specialized agencies v WTO.
Original membership of the WTO: Quy ch Thnh vin ban u ca WTO
Cc nc thnh vin GATT 1947 chp thun (a) Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc
Thng mi th gii, (b) cc hip nh thng mi a phng i km, (c) danh mc u i theo
GATT 1994 v danh mc cc cam kt c th theo GATS. Cc nc p ng c nhng yu
cu ny khng phi tri qua nhng th tc gia nhp, nhng quy ch thnh vin ban u cng
khng ban cho bt k nhng quyn no khc.
Osaka Action Agenda: Chng trnh hnh ng Osaka

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Chng trnh ngh s cho t do ho thng mi v u t v hp tc kinh t c cc v lnh
o APEC tho thun ti cuc hp Osaka ngy 19/11/1995. l mt bc trong vic a
nhng mc tiu ca Tuyn b Bogor 1994 vo thc t. Chng trnh hnh ng ny bao gm 3
tr ct: (a) t do ho thng mi v u t, (b) thun li ho thng mi v u t, (c) hp tc
k thut v kinh t. Mc tiu ca chng trnh hnh ng ny s t c thng qua khuyn
khch v phi hp nhng n lc t do ho t nguyn trong khu vc, thc hin cc hnh ng tp
th thc y mc tiu t do ho v thun li ho, khuyn khch v ng gp hn na cho t
do ho ton cu. Cc nguyn tc ch o chng trnh ny l tnh ton din, tnh cng khai,
khng thay i, khng phn bit i x, khi u cng lc, qu trnh lin tc, thi gian biu
phn bit, tnh linh hot v s hp tc. K hoch hnh ng ring l s c trnh ln Hi
ngh B trng APEC nm 1996. S thc hin tng th ca cc nc ny bt u vo thng
1/1997, sau l cc cuc r sot hng nm. Xem thm comparability, APEC individual action
plan v cc t mc khc bt u bng APEC.
Out-of-cycle reviews: R sot ngoi chu k
y l c ch do USTR a ra iu hnh Special 301. Theo cc iu khon ca Lut cnh
tranh v thng mi a mc ch, USTR phi a ra bn bo co hng nm v vic iu hnh
v s thc thi cc hot ng v vic cc nc khc tun th cc hip nh thng mi trong
Hoa K l mt thnh vin. Khi mt vn c xem l mc nghim trng, USTR s bt u
mt cuc r sot m khng cn phi ch i chu k bo co hng nm. gi l r sot ngoi
chu k. Xem thm Monitoring and Enforcement Unit.
Out-of-quota rate: Thu sut ngoi hn ngch
Thu sut p dng i vi nhng sn phm nhp khu khi vt qu mc hn ngch thu quan.
Thu sut ny nhm khng khuyn khch nhp khu trn gii hn hn ngch. Thu sut ny
thng cao hn nhiu mc p dng cho hng nhp khu nm trong gii hn hn ngch. Xem
thm in-quota tariff.

Pacific Free Trade Area (PAFTA): Khu vc Thng mi t do Thi bnh dng
tng v mt tho thun thng mi u i khu vc c a ra t nhng nm 1960. Phn
ln cc ngh khc nhau c a ra trong cc nm qua u coi Hoa K hoc Nht, thng l
c hai, l trung tm. Khng mt xut no tin n c giai on m phn. Mt s ngi
ni rng s hnh thnh APEC lm cho PAFTA tr nn tha. Xem thm PBEC v PECC.
Panel: Ban hi thm
Mt nhm cc chuyn gia, thng gm 3 ngi, c triu tp nhm xem xt mt tranh chp
theo cc nguyn tc ca WTO. i khi c s dng mt cch tng trng cho vic ra mt
quyt nh. Hudec (1990) ch ra rng trong thng l ca GATT, s ch nh mt ban hi thm
cho thy mt cam kt v p dng cc nguyn tc mt cch chnh xc v khch quan. Ni cch
khc, cc ban hi thm khng c ch dn bi nhng yu t bn ngoi hoc nhng nguyn tc
t ra ngoi phm vi WTO. Xem thm dispute settlement, dispute settlement body v WTO
understanding on dispute settlement.
Parallel importation: Nhp khu ng thi
l vic nhp khu mt sn phm vi ni dung s hu tr tu t nc khc, ni sn phm
c a ra th trng mt cch hp php bi ngi s hu quyn s hu tr tu hoc l vi
s ng ca ngi s hu . Vic nhp khu ng thi vo Australia loi sch khng c
xut bn ti Australia trong vng 30 ngy sau khi xut bn ti nc ngoi c coi l hp php.
Para-tariffs: Cc khon thu tng ng thu quan

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i khi c s dng ch nhng ph nh vo hng nhp khu thay cho hoc l thm vo
thu quan. Chng bao gm ph dch v, ph ph nhp khu, hoc nhng ph khc nh vo sn
phm nhp khu trong th trng. Cc khon thu tng ng thu quan c xem l bt hp
php nu nh mc thu ny khc vi mc thu i vi cc sn phm ni a v chng khng th
hin i ng quc gia.
Pareto optimum (or efficiency): Ti u Pareto
Nguyn tc do Vilfredo Pareto nh ngha rng nhng ngun lc c phn b mt cch c
hiu qu khi khng mt ngi no c li hn trong khi mt ngi khc khng b bt li hn.
Khong trung gian gia giai on hin ti v giai on ti u gi l hiu qu Pareto.
Paris club: Cu lc b Paris
Mt din n ch yu gm cc nc thnh vin OECD c thnh lp nhm mc tiu dn xp
gia cc nc con n v ch n trong cc trng hp c nhng kh khn khi thanh ton li cc
khon vay. Cu lc b Paris nhm trnh s v n ca cc khon vay thng qua vic iu chnh
lch trnh tr n v cc c ch khc. Cu lc b Paris c mt ban th k gip vic do B
Ngn kh Php cung cp.
Paris Convention: Cng c Paris
Tn y l Cng c Paris v bo h s hu cng nghip. Cng c ny c hiu lc nm
1884 v c sa i mt vi ln. Bn sa i cui cng l bn sa nm 1967 ti Stockholm.
Cng c ny a ra s bo h i vi bng pht minh, thng hiu, kiu dng cng nghip v
c p dng mt cch rng ri c i vi s hu cng nghip, bao gm ch du a l, tn gi
xut x. Vn ct li ca Cng c ny l ch i ng quc gia, quyn u tin (mt ngi
ng k mt pht minh mt nc th c quyn u tin ng k mt nc khc trong vng
mt nm), s c lp ca bo h (nhng bng pht minh c cng dn ca cc nc thnh
vin c cp l c lp vi bng pht minh c cp cho cng mt pht minh cc nc
khc). Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
Part IV of the GATT: Phn IV cu GATT
Ngh nh th ca GATT c ngun gc t Vng Kennedy v c hiu lc vo 22/6/1966. Phn
IV ny b sung iu XXXVI v XXXVIII ca GATT. Trong 3 iu trn, cc nc pht trin
ng mt cch rng ri rng h s khng i hi tnh tng h cho gim thu v xo b cc
hng ro thng mi khi thng mi ca cc nc ang pht trin b nh hng. Cc nc pht
trin s thc hin cc bin php m bo rng thng mi ca cc nc ang pht trin s
khng tr nn mt li th do nhng hnh ng do cc nc pht trin tin hnh, v cc nc
ny s cng lm vic vi cc nc ang pht trin thc y v m rng thng mi ca cc
nc ang pht trin. Mc d 3 iu khon ny ch p t mt s t iu kin hp php cho cc
nc pht trin nhng chng nh hnh h thng thng mi mt mc ng k k t
nm 1965 thng qua vic gim bt nhng i hi m cc nc ang pht trin c th hoc phi
thc hin. Xem thm enabling clause v developing countries and the GATT.
Partners for progress: Cc i tc v tin b
Mt c ch ca APEC da trn s h tr song phng v ch t nguyn nhm thc y hp
tc kinh t v k thut hiu qu hn trong ni b khi APEC. Nhm nhng i tc ny c
thnh lp ti Hi ngh B trng APEC thng 11/1995. C ch ny nhm t c nhng hot
ng h tr trc tip cho qu trnh t do ho v thun li ho thng mi v u t. Xem thm
Bogor Decleration v Osaka Action Agenda.
Partners in Transition (PIT): Cc i tc trong thi k qu
Thut ng ca OECD ch cc nc Ba-lan, Hungary, Cng ho Sc v Slovakia, thng c
vit gn li l PIT. OECD cam kt m phn kt np cc nc ny. Vo thng 12/1995,
Cng ho Sc tr thnh nc PIT u tin gia nhp t chc ny, sau l Hungary (3/1996).
Passive reciprocity: Tng h b ng

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Mt khi nim do William R Cline a ra vo nm 1983 cho rng hai nc c th cng ng
rng t do ho thng mi tng h c li cho c hai. Theo cc nguyn tc ca WTO, t do ho
nh vy sau s c m rng cho tt c cc nc thnh vin WTO da trn c s i ng ti
hu quc. Xem thm aggressive reciprocity v reciprocity.
Pasta case: V m si
Trng hp ny c bt u khi Hoa K kin Cng ng Kinh t chu u (EEC) nm 1982
da trn c s nhng tr cp xut khu cho cc sn phm m si (m ng, m spaghetti, v cc
sn phm tung t) c sn xut t bt ng cc khng ph hp vi iu 9 Lut Tr cp ca
Vng Tokyo. iu ny quy nh rng cc bn k kt khng c tr cp xut khu cho nhng
sn phm ngoi cc sn phm s cp nht nh. EEC l gii rng cc sn phm m si l mt
loi sn phm s cp. Thc t l EEC iu hnh mt h thng chung i vi th trng ni
a ca sn phm ng cc v sn phm t ng cc. EEC a ra mt h thng gi ni a cho
c Cng ng v mt h thng thng mi chung vi cc nc th ba nhm trnh nhng dao
ng v gi ca th trng th gii nh hng n gi ng cc trong nc. H thng ny quy
nh giy php xut khu v hon gi xut khu. Hon gi xut khu c dnh trang tri
cho s chng lch gia gi ni a v gi trn cc th trng th 3 i vi cc sn phm ng cc
c xut khu theo dng t nhin hoc theo hnh thc hng ho xc nh. Cc sn phm m si
nm trong danh mc cc hng ho xc nh. Vic thanh ton hon gi xut khu cho bt ng
cc di dng m si c thc hin t ngn sch EEC, v cng p dng i vi hon gi xut
khu cho sn phm ng cc. Trong nhng pht hin v kt lun ca mnh, ban hi thm cho
rng m si khng phi l mt sn phm s cp m l sn phm nng sn ch bin. Ban hi
thm cng kt lun rng h thng hon gi ca EEC phi c xem l mt hnh thc tr cp
theo iu XVI GATT (Tr cp). Ban hi thm cho rng cc iu XVI nh gii thch trong
iu 9 v iu 10 ca Lut Tr cp loi tr kh nng vic xem xt xut khu mt sn phm
ch bin theo nhng iu kin ging nh xut khu cc b phn hp thnh. Theo , ban hi
thm tng kt rng hon gi xut khu ca EEC l dnh cho xut khu cc sn phm m si
v c tin hnh nhm tng xut khu cc sn phm ny v tr cp ca EEC cho xut khu
cc sn phm m si c a ra khng ph hp vi iu 9 ca Lut Tr cp.
PATCRA (Papua New Guinea-Australia Trade and Commercial Relations Agreement):
Hip nh v quan h thng mi gia Australia v Papua New Guinea
Hip nh ny t ra khun kh chnh thc cho cc quan h thng mi song phng gia hai
nc ni trn.
Patent: Bng pht minh
Quyn dnh cho cc nh pht minh khng cho php nhng ngi khc c lm, s dng hoc
bn mt pht minh mi khng r rng trong mt giai on xc nh. Xem thm intellectual
property v Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
Patent Cooperation Treaty: Hip c hp tc v bng pht minh
Hip c ny quy nh vic ng k p dng bng pht minh quc t cc quc gia thnh vin.
Vic ng k c tin hnh thng qua c quan pht minh trong ngi np n c th l
mt cng dn hay mt c dn v n cng c nh hng tng t trong cc nc thnh vin nh
vic ng k p dng cho mt c quan pht minh quc gia ca mt nc khc. Hip uc ny c
73 thnh vin v do WIPO gim st. Xem thm intellectual property v interllectual property
right infringements.
Pauper-labour argument: L lun v lao ng ngho tng
L lun cho rng cng nghip cc nc tr lng cao s khng th chng li s cnh tranh t
cc nc tr lng thp, do cn mt vi hnh thc bo h. Xem thm core labour standars,
race-to-the-bottom argument, social clause v trade and labour standards.
PBEC (Pacific Basin Economic Council): Hi ng Kinh t lng cho Thi bnh dng

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T chc phi chnh ph c thnh lp vo nm 1967 bao gm 1100 cng ty nm 19 nn kinh
t xung quanh b Thi bnh dng, trong c c Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Nht, Hoa
K. T chc ny nhm thc y mi trng thng mi c ch i vi m ca thng mi v
u t v khuyn khch cnh tranh. T chc ny cn ng gp pht trin cc chnh sch trong
APEC. Ban Th k PBEC t ti Honolulu.
Peace clause: iu khon ho bnh
iu khon ny dn chiu n cc quy nh trong Hip nh v nng nghip ca WTO, theo
cc nc thnh vin ng rng (a) khng p dng cc bin php chnh sch hp xanh v cc
tr cp trong nc v xut khu hin c theo Hip nh v tr cp v cc bin php i khng
c duy tr ph hp vi cc cam kt, (b) "kim ch ng mc" s c s dng trong vic p
dng cc quyn v thu i khng theo GATT, (c) h chp nhn gii hn t ra cho cc hnh
ng lm v hiu hay gy phng hi. Nhng iu khon ny s c ko di trong 9 nm, n
31/12/2003.
Peak tariffs: Mc thu nh
Nu mc thu quan trong danh mc thu quan quc gia tiu biu c sp xp theo tng
chng nh mt ng lin tc trong mt th, th kt qu c th l mt lot nhng on
thng nm ri rc vi nhng nh tng t bin. Mi mt nh c ngha l mt sn phm hay
mt nhm sn phm c hng li nhiu t bo h hn l nhng sn phm biu th trn on
thng. Thu sut nh, trong mt mc ln, l mt khi nim tng i mc d trong sut
Vng Uruguay chng c xc nh cho cc mc tiu m phn l ln hn 15%. Mc thu sut
10% trong mt biu thu c mc bnh qun l 4%, ging vi thu sut ca cc nc pht trin
khi kt qu Vng Uruguay c thc hin y , c th l mc nh, trong khi vi biu
thu c thu sut trung bnh 20% thu sut 40% mi l mc nh. Mc thu nh ch xut hin
khi c bo h cho cc nh sn xut ni a. C trng hp chng c che y bi mt lot cc
bin php phi thu quan vi nh hng tng t hoc hn th. Xem thm sensitive products.
PECC (Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference): Hi ngh Hp tc kinh t Thi bnh
dng
Hi ngh ny c thnh lp vo nm 1980, bao gm i din thng mi, hc gi, i din
chnh ph t 22 nc thnh vin chia s nhng trin vng v kinh nghim ca h v cc vn
hp tc kinh t trong khu vc chu - Thi bnh dng. Din n chnh sch thng mi di
s bo tr ca t chc ny tr thnh c bit thch hp trong sut cc cuc m phn Vng
Uruguay. PECC l mt trong nhng t chc ng gp ch yu cc quan im chnh sch cho
qu trnh APEC. Ban Th k ca t chc ny t ti Singapore. Xem thm AUSPECC.
Peril points: Nhng quan im nguy hi
Mt iu khon c a vo trong Lut m rng cc Hip nh thng mi Hoa K nm 1948
v c xo b nm 1949. Sau iu khon li c a li trong Lut m rng cc Hip
nh thng mi Hoa K nm 1955. iu khon ny yu cu U ban thu quan ca Hoa K,
thng qua qu trnh iu trn cng khai, t ra mt mc thu sn cho mi sn phm m vic
gim xung thp di t l c th gy ra hay e do gy thit hi cho cng nghip trong
nc. Tng thng c th quy nh nhng im thp hn so vi nhng im nguy hi nhng ng
ta phi gii thch quyt nh ca mnh trc Quc hi. iu khon ny khng c a vo
Lut Thng mi m rng nm 1962. Xem thm United States trade agreement legislation.
Permanent group of experts: Nhm cc chuyn gia thng trc
C quan c thnh lp theo Hip nh tr cp v thu i khng ca WTO. C quan ny bao
gm 5 chuyn vin c lp, c chuyn mn trong cc lnh vc tr cp v cc quan h thng
mi. Chc nng ca nhm ny l tr gip cho cc ban hi thm xt x cc trng hp tr
cp b cm v a ra nhng kin tham vn v nhng tr cp hin hnh hay nhng tr cp
ang c ngh.

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Per se conduct: Hnh ng c hu
c s dng trong Lut chng c quyn ch hnh vi ca mt hng thng xuyn vi phm
cc quy tc. Xem thm competition policy v rule of reason.
Pflimlin plan: K hoch Pflimlin
y l ngh ca Php vo nm 1951 ct gim thu trung bnh 30% i vi tt c cc nc
thnh vin. K hoch ny cho php nhng min tr rng ri i vi cc nc ang pht trin
vn c min tr khi nhng ct gim ln tng t. iu ny c tho lun mt cch k
lng, nhng cui cng c quan thng thuyt ca Hoa K, vn ch cho php gim thu theo
tng mt hng, ng vi k hoch ny. ng Pierre Pflimlin l B trng B Quan h kinh
t i ngoi Php vo thi gian . Xem thm waiver.
Phase-in periods: Cc giai on a vo
S p dng theo tng giai on mt hip nh mi hay cc cam kt mi, i khi theo mt thi
gian biu c nh. im cui cng l c nh. Chng hn nh, vic gim thu c thng
nht trong sut Vng Uruguay c th chia thnh 5 ln gim thu u n hng nm mc d c
th c hnh ng nhanh hn. Nhng v d khc ca giai on a vo l nhng giai on c th
c p dng theo Hip nh v hng dt may hoc Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin.
Picking winners: Chn ngi thng cuc
Thin theo tng thi k ca Chnh ph xc nh mt s hot ng cng nghip c nhiu ha
hn c th cho tng lai lp nn khun kh h tr nhm thc y s pht trin ca nhng
ngnh cng nghip ny. Nhng thnh cng xt v ton cu t nht cn bng vi nhng tht bi
v trong hu ht cc trng hp nhng ngnh cng nghip c la chn khng hot ng
tt hn cc ngnh cng nghip hay nhng cng ty khng c hng u i vi mi quan tm
c bit. Cng cn phi nhc li li rn ca Adam Smith rng: "do mt h thng m n c
gng, d l bng cch khuyn khch vt bc ko mt phn t bn ca x hi cho mt ngnh
cng nghip c th ln hn ng l n c hng mt cch t nhin, hoc bng cch ngn cn
tt ly i mt phn t bn ca mt ngnh cng nghip m ng l ra n phi c s dng,
c th ph v mc ch ln lao m n nhm thc hin. H thng cn tr, thay v y nhanh,
qu trnh tin b ca x hi tin ti thc s giu c v v i; v lm gim, thay v lm tng, gi
tr thc ca sn lng hng nm m t ai v lao ng ca n lm ra". Xem thm strategic
trade theory.
Pipeline sanctions: Trng pht v ng ng dn du
l mt vn quc t nm 1982 lin quan n vic p dng ngoi vi ca Hoa K. Mc ch
l nhm ngn cc nh cung cp ca Hoa K, cc chi nhnh ca h v cc cng ty nc ngoi s
dng cng ngh ca Hoa K khng c tham gia xy dng ng ng dn du ca Nga. Cc
cng ty ca chu u b nh hng mt cch nng n v hnh ng ny cu Hoa K dn
n tnh hnh cng thng ng k trong cc quan h vi Cng ng Chu u. Vn ny
c gii quyt ng lc mt cch m thm.
Piracy: Sao chp lu
Vic c ti bn cc sn phm ghi m trn quy m thng mi bn i tr m khng c
php ca ngi ch bn quyn hay quyn tng cn. Xem thm bootlegging, intellectual
property v intellectual property right infringements.
Plurilateral trade agreements: Cc hip nh thng mi nhiu bn
Ch 4 hip nh WTO khng phi l iu kin tin quyt khi gia nhp WTO. Xem thm WTO
plurilateral trade agreements.
Plurilateralism: C ch nhiu bn

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Thc hin cng vic trong nhng nhm nh nhiu hn c ch song phng (2 bn) nhng t
hn c ch a phng (nhiu bn tham gia). Xem thm miniliteralism v WTO plurilateral
agreements.
PL 480
Lut tr gip pht trin v thng mi nng nghip nm 1954 ca Hoa K. Lut ny a ra c
s cho vic xut khu phi thng mi cc sn phm nng nghip Hoa K, k c chng trnh
Lng thc cho ho bnh. C mt s cch thc hin vic ny nh quyn gp khc phc thm
ho v pht trin kinh t, vic s dng d tr thng d quyn gp cho cc nc ngoi i ly
cc dch v, hng ho, nguyn vt liu chin lc v xut khu c tr cp tn dng. Sn phm
xut khu theo Lut ny ch yu l bt m, bt dinh dng, go, bng, ht c du v sn phm
sa. Xut khu phi thng mi theo Lut ny nh hng ng k n nhng dng thng mi
nng nghip ton cu v cc ngun li kinh t.
Policy competitiveness: Tnh cnh tranh ca chnh sch
Mc ch ca cc chnh ph l m bo rng cc cng ty chnh thnh lp c s sn xut mi
trong khun kh quyn xt x ca h thng qua vic a ra nhng iu kin v iu khon tt
hn ch ha hn khc. N l hu qu ca quan im c th thu li trn ci gi ca ngi khc.
Thng th ngi tr thu l nn nhn v tnh ca cnh tranh chnh sch.
Policy-led intergration: Hi nhp theo chnh sch
S hi nhp kinh t khu vc c thc y thng qua mt tho thun chnh thc, thng l
thng qua mt tho thun thng mi khu vc u i. Xem thm market-led intergration.
Political will: ch chnh tr
Theo quan im ca cc nh m phn thng mi, ch chnh tr l c tnh trong s nhng
ngi m khng ng vi v tr ca mnh v nhng ngi khng sn sng thay i lp trng
cu mnh. Vic ku gi th hin ch chnh tr thng tng ng vi mt yu cu v tnh
linh hot hn.
Portfolio investment: u t chng khon
S s hu s t cc c phn, cc tri phiu v cc chng khon khc l mt phn ca mt danh
mc u t ni chung. S khc nhau chnh gia u t c phn v u t trc tip nc ngoi
ni chung th hin trong tng s vn u t lin quan. Vic nm di 10% c phn thng
c xem l s u t chng khon. Xem thm non-equity-based investment.
Positive comity: Thn thin tch cc
Thut ng c s dng trong qun l chnh sch cnh tranh. Ngha l mt nc, theo cc quy
tc ca cc tho thun song phng tng ng, c th yu cu nc khc tin hnh mt hnh
ng theo lut cnh tranh ca nc mnh. iu ny c th dn n hnh ng ng l khng
c cc c quan chc trch ca nc kia thc hin. iu IX ca GATS (Tp qun kinh doanh)
c bao gm nguyn tc thn thin tch cc. Xem thm negative comity.
Positive intergration: S hi nhp tch cc
c Wallace (1994) miu t nh l thnh tu ca s hi nhp kinh t thng qua vic to ra
nhng th ch mi v cc khun kh quy nh c thnh lp cho mc ch . Xem thm
negative intergration.
Positive listings: Danh mc chp thun
Cc nc c th a ra cc cam kt ca mnh theo GATS di dng danh mc chp thun.
Theo cch ny, ch ring nhng hot ng c trong danh mc ni trn s thuc phm vi bao
trm ca cc iu khon ca GATS, quan trng l ngha v m ca th trng v i ng quc
gia. Mt khng thun li y l tt c cc dch v phi c a vo trong danh mc thm ch
nu nh khng c cc hn ch i ng quc gia v m ca th trng theo nh trong Hip nh.

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Hu ht cc nc lp tt c cc danh mc ca h theo hnh thc ny. Xem thm negative
listings v market access for services.
Post-Fordism: Hu ch ngha Ford
Thut ng miu t s sn xut hin thi v hot ng cnh tranh ca nhiu cng ty sn xut
ln, c bit l cc tp on xuyn quc gia. Kaplinsky (1993) lu rng theo h thng ny,
cnh tranh bng cch i mi sn phm thay th cnh tranh bng gi vn l c tnh ca ch
ngha Ford. H thng ny yu cu lc lng lao ng a chc nng, i mi sn phm ng
lc, s i mi nhanh chng, v s hi nhp cht ch ca lch trnh sn xut v pht trin sn
phm.
Precautionary principle: Nguyn tc phng
Ch nguyn tc 15 ca Tuyn b Rio v Mi trng v Pht trin. N quy nh rng khi c
nhng nguy c thit hi khng th khi phc hay nghim trng (i vi mi trng), th vic
thiu chc chn trong khoa hc s khng c s dng nh l mt l do i vi vic tr hon
cc bin php nhm ngn cn s xung cp ca mi trng. Xem thm trade and environment.
Predatory pricing: nh gi n cp
Vic t ra gi c mc tng i thp. y l khi nim lm c s cho vic x l ph gi
trong GATT nhng thc ra khng c cp trong cc iu khon ca GATT. Khng c mt
nh ngha no v hnh vi n cp c thng nht ng h, nhng li c nht tr rng
iu kin c xem l nh gi n cp, mt hnh ng phi nhm mc tiu gt cc nh cnh
tranh hiu qu ra ngoi th trng. Vic xc nh ranh gii gia gi cnh tranh v gi n cp
lun l vic kh khn. n cp l hot ng tn km v n ch ng gi i vi ngi n cp
nu nh cui cng tt c chi ph v thu nhp b mt c th thu li c. l mt mc tiu y
nghi ng.
Predatory-pricing dumping: Ph gi n cp
Xem dumping.
Preferential investment arrangements: Tho thun u t u i
Nhng tho thun chnh thc hoc khng chnh thc a ra nhng iu khon m ca tt hn
cho vn u t t cc nc hoc cc nhm nc c la chn. Tho thun ny bao gm s
xem xt xc tin cc ngh u t, s cho php u t trong cc hot ng b ng ca vi
cc nc khc, mc gii hn trn cao hn i vi c phn nc ngoi.
Preferential market access: M ca th trng u i
Bt k nhng iu kin m ca th trng no dnh cho mt i tc thng mi l u i hn
so vi ch i ng ti hu quc khng phn bit i x. M ca u i c th l tng h
hoc i xng nh trong lin minh hi quan, khu vc thng mi t do, hoc thng qua cc u
i c bit cn li hin nay. Cng c th khng phi l tng h hay khng i xng nh
trong trng hp Sng kin lng cho Ca-ri-b, Cng c Lom, SPARTECA v cc c ch
khc.
Preferential rules of origin: Quy tc xut x u i
H thng cc quy tc v tiu chun xc nh liu mt sn phm xut khu t mt i tc thuc
thuc hip nh thng mi t do ti mt i tc khc s c xem xt l mt sn phm ca i
tc hay khng v c c tha nhn theo cc nguyn tc u i c p dng hay khng,
chng hn nh l khng phi chu thu hi quan. Nu nh quyt nh l sn phm khng
phi xut x t mt nc i tc khc, v d nh khng qua qu trnh chuyn i c bn hoc
ch c mt t gi tr gia tng, mc thu p dng s l mc thu MFN. Cc quy tc xut x, d
c u i hay khng, u khc nhau tu mi tho thun thng mi t do. NAFTA trn thc t
c nhiu quy tc xut x. Tnh phc tp ca quy tc xut x u i l ng k v tt c nhng
n lc nhm hi ha v hp l ho cho n nay kt thc trong tht bi.

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Preferential trade arrangements: Tho thun thng mi u i
Nhng tho thun m theo mt bn ng , n phng hoc do kt qu m phn, s dnh
cho mt hoc nhiu bn khc s i x u i trong thng mi hng ho hay thng mi dch
v. Phm vi i vi vic thit lp nhng tho thun u i c gii hn trong nguyn tc ca
WTO mc d cc nc ang pht trin c nhiu s linh hot hn. Cc nc ny c th dnh cho
nhau nhng u i theo hnh thc gim thu, xo b hon ton v thu, hoc nh trong trng
hp dch v th t do ho tng phn. Cc nc pht trin phi thit lp hoc l khu vc thng
mi t do, lin minh hi quan, hoc hip nh hi nhp kinh t i vi dch v. iu c
ngha l h phi xo b mt cch ng k tt c hng ro cn tr thng mi gia cc nc
tham gia. Chng hn nh, nu cc nc mun dnh cho nhau u i ch trong mt s dng sn
phm, h phi dnh nhng iu kin m ca nh vy cho tt c cc i tc thng mi ca
mnh theo nguyn tc i ng ti hu quc. Theo cc nguyn tc ca WTO, cc tho thun
thng mi u i di dng GSP c cc nc pht trin lp ra v s tham gia vo chng
trnh GSTP ca cc nc ang pht trin cng l hp php. i vi nhng tho thun u i
ngoi nhng tho thun ni trn, cn phi c min tr. Mt s ngi phn loi cc hip c
hu ngh, thng mi v hng hi l cc tho thun u i bi v cc bn ca cc hip c ny
bo m cc mc hnh vi nht nh i vi bn khc m khng a ra nhng u i thng
mi. Xem thm Caribbean Basin Initiative, imperial preference arrangements, Lom
Convention, preferential market access v SPARTECA.
Prepatory work: Cng vic tr b
Xem travaux prparatoires.
Preshipment inspection (PSI): Kim tra trc khi xp hng xung tu
S kim tra hng ho do mt s hng c ch nh thc hin trc khi hng xung tu n cc
nc khc. PSI c nh ngha trong Hip nh v kim tra trc khi xp hng xung tu ca
WTO l tt c nhng hot ng c mt thnh vin WTO thc hin lin quan n s xc nh
s lng, cht lng, gi c, k c tin t, t gi hi oi, cc iu kin ti chnh v/hoc s
phn loi hi quan ca hng ho c xut khu n lnh th nc mnh.
Price dumping: Ph gi v gi
Mt loi ph gi c xc nh trong cc cuc m phn Hin chng Havana nay chu s iu
chnh ti iu VI ca GATT. Ph gi c da vo khi nim l cc nh xut khu bn hng
ho ra nc ngoi vi gi thp hn gi ti th trng trong nc, v iu ny c th gy nh
hng c hi cho ngnh cng nghip nc nhp khu sn xut sn phm tng t. Xem thm
anti-dumping measures v dumping.
Price equalisation mechanism: C ch cn bng gi
Mt c ch c thit lp nhm m bo rng gi th trng i vi hng ho, v do thu
nhp ca ngi sn xut, khng bin ng qu mc. Mc tiu ny c xem nh l thc y
cc ngnh cng nghip pht trin mt cch c trt t bng cch bo m cc khon thu nhp c
th tnh trc c cho cc nh sn xut. ng thi, cho ngi tiu dng cng c li bi v h
c th hy vng vo gi ch thay i t vo bt k lc no. C ch ny hot ng theo nhiu cch
khc nhau. Tr ngi chnh ca tt c cc cch ny l lm sao phi m bo khng chuyn
thnh tr cp. iu ny c th thc hin c nu nh nhng ngi sn xut chu trch nhim
ti chnh cho c ch ny. Theo cch ny, nhng du hiu ca gi s khng b b qua. Xem
thm buffer stock, common agricultural policy, floor price v international commodity
agreements.
Price undertaking: Cam kt v gi
Qu trnh chng ph gi s c dng li hay kt thc nu nh xut khu cc hng ho b buc
ti l ph gi ng tng gi ti mc m nc nhp khu tho mn. Nhng cam kt v gi nh
vy khng c vt qu bin ph gi v thng chng mc thp nht loi tr

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nhng nguy c hoc thit hi cho cng nghip trong nc. Xem thm anti-dumping measure,
lesser-duty principle v trade harassment.
Price wedge: Nm gi
S chnh lch gia gi ca mt hng ho trong th trng bo h v gi ca n trong mi
trng cnh tranh hon ho.
Primage: Cc ph ph
Thut ng biu th vic p dng tm thi ph thu nhp khu hay bin php tng t c tc ng
tng thu hi quan thng thng.
Primary dealers: i l chnh
Trong h thng ngn hng Hoa K, l nhng hng thit lp mi quan h thng mi vi
Ngn hng D tr lin bang New York. tiu chun l i l chnh, hng phi sn sng
a ra th trng loi tn phiu kho bc cho nhng nhm khch hng a dng mt cch hp
l v n phi tho mn cc yu cu v vn ti thiu. Mt s lut ca Hoa K nh lut D'Amato
c th dn n vic hu b giy php i l chnh nu hng lin quan n cc hot ng b
coi l vi phm php lut.
Primary nation embargo: Lnh cm vn cc quc gia chnh
Xem tuna (European Economic Communication - United States, 1994).
Primary products: Cc sn phm s cp
c nh ngha trong iu XVI:4 ca GATT xc nh cc ch tr cp c th p dng
nh: bt k sn phm nng nghip, lm nghip, hi sn hay bt k sn phm khai khong trong
cc dng t nhin ca n hay qua x l nh khch hng yu cu chun b a n ra th
trng vi mt s lng ln trong thng mi quc t. T khong sn b b st khi Hip
nh v gii thch v p dng iu VI, XVI v XXIII ca GATT (Lut Tr cp) c ph chun
nm 1979 nh mt phn ca kt qu Vng Tokyo. Vo nm 1957, cc thnh vin GATT t
chi gi ca Hoa K rng tr cp c th c php i vi vic xut khu vi bng nu tr
cp v c bn l thanh ton c th c tr cho bng th khi nguyn liu th c xut
khu di dng t nhin ca n. Sau Hoa K dnh quyn ca h thc hin iu ny.
Trong v m si, Ban hi thm thy rng m si khng phi l sn phm s cp m l sn phm
nng nghip c ch bin. Cng ng Kinh t chu u ch r rng hon gi xut khu
gy tranh chp trong trng hp l dnh cho bt ng cc c s dng, rng vic hon
gi khng bao gm bt c thnh phn tr gip cho ch bin no, v rng bt ng cc r rng l
mt sn phm s cp. Cc sn phm s cp ngy nay phi tun theo cc quy nh ca Hip nh
v nng nghip ca WTO.
Principal supplier right: Quyn ca ngi cung cp chnh
Mt c im chnh ca h thng kim sot cc qu trnh m phn v thu quan trong GATT,
c bit trong cc vng m phn trc y, theo ch cc nh cung cp chnh cc sn phm
c lin quan mi c quyn yu cu u i thu quan i vi mt thnh vin c th ca GATT.
Quy tc ny da trn gi thit rng quc gia thc hin u i s ch c th c bi thng mt
ln, v rng cc quc gia dnh u i s c th ti a ho li ch qua vic m phn vi cc nh
cung cp ln nht. Trong thc t, h thng ny dn n s loi tr cc quc gia ang pht trin
v nh hn khi qu trnh m phn. Phng php gim thu quan tuyn tnh trong Vng
Kennedy v Vng Tokyo cng nh thc tin m phn cho mt din rng cc loi sn phm, v
d nh Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin, gim tnh quan trng ca quy tc nh cung cp
chnh. Xem thm initial negotiating rights, principal supplying interest v sectoral trade
negotiations.

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Principal supplying interest: Li ch cung cp chnh
Quyn tham gia vo cc m phn thu quan i vi cc mt hng c th da trn vic xp
theo th t li ch xut khu trong mt sn phm nht nh. Cc thnh vin WTO c t l xut
khu mt hng cao nht l nc nm gi quyn ny. Do y l mt quyn da trn lu
lng tng i ca lung thng mi. Li ch cung cp chnh khc vi quyn ca nh cung
cp chnh ch quyn ca nh cung cp chnh da trn lu lng tuyt i ca lung thng
mi. N cng khng ging nh quyn m phn ban u c chp thun bi mt thnh vin
vi cc thnh vin khc thng qua m phn. Trong vic xc nh liu mt quc gia c li ch
cung cp chnh hay khng, Ban th k WTO ch c th tnh n cc sn phm c bun bn
trn c s ti hu quc. Mt trong nhng mc ch ca khi nim li ch cung cp chnh l cho
php cc bn hng c nh v va c c hi khi xng cc m phn thu quan v cc sn
phm quan trng nht i vi h. Xem thm substantial supplying interest.
Prior informed consent: Chp thun c thng bo trc
Mt th tc kim sot bun bn ho cht hay thuc tr su b chnh ph bi b hoc nghim
khc cm bi mi nguy him v mi trng v sc kho do chng gy ra. Th tc i hi phi
thng bo cho c quan trung ng ra lnh cm hoc hn ch . Thng bo ny sau c
lu hnh v cc chnh ph khc s thng bo cho c quan ny liu h c chp thun nhp
khu cc ho cht v thuc tr su c lit k hay khng. Cc quc gia xut khu sau s
cam kt ch xut khu cc cht ti cc quc gia cho php nhp khu. Xem thm trade and
environment.
Priority foreign country: Nc ngoi c u tin
Thut ng c s dng trong phn 1302 v 1303 ca Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh Hoa K
nm 1988. Hai phn ny thng c gi l Super 301 v Special 301. Super 301 yu cu
USTR thng bo cho Quc hi Hoa K cc nc u tin ang duy tr cc thng l m nu nh
c xo b cc thng l s tr thnh th trng tim nng ln nht cho xut khu ca Hoa
K. Special 301 yu cu mt danh sch tng t cc quc gia - gi l danh sch u tin theo
di, m cc quc gia t chi vic bo h c hiu qu v y quyn s hu tr tu cho cc
hng Hoa K. Trong trng hp ny, cc quc gia u tin l cc quc gia c (a) phn ln cc
o lut nng n, phin h, cc chnh sch hay cc th tc t chi quyn s hu tr tu y
v hiu qu hay t chi vic m ca th trng bnh ng v cng bng i vi cc cng dn
Hoa K tin cy vo vic bo h s hu tr tu v (b) khng chun b tham gia vo cc m
phn song phng v a phng tm ra cc gii php. Mt khi quc gia c coi nh l mt
quc gia u tin, USTR cn phi bt u iu tra theo Khon 301. Cc quc gia c th c
xo khi danh sch nhng USTR cn phi a ra cc l do.
Priority watch list: Danh sch u tin theo di
Xem priority foreign country v Special 301.
Prisoners Dilemma: Th lng nan ca nhng ngi t
Mt v d c s dng chng minh rng cc quyt nh tm vi m hp l r rng khng
nht thit dn n cc kt qu hp l tm v m. N thng c s dng trong l thuyt tr
chi gii thch thc cht ca cc hnh ng tp th c thc hnh trong h thng thng
mi a phng. Th lng nan xy ra trong vi bin th c mt vi c im sau. Mt s t
nhn b thm vn ring bit. Mi ngi bit rng nu khng mt ai trong h th nhn ti th tt
c c t do. Mi ngi cng bit rng nu mt ngi th nhn ti cn tt c nhng ngi cn
li khng lm th ngi th nhn cng s c t do. Tt c nhng ngi cn li s nhn bn n
nghim khc. Nu tt c th nhn th h s b trng pht nhng nh hn nu nh ch mt ngi
th nhn. Quyt nh hp l r rng ca c nhn ngi t v vy s l th nhn m khng nh
hng nhiu n ngi khc. Tinh thn y l nu nhn ti h s lm vo tnh trng xu hn
l c s nht tr trong ni b l tt c khng th nhn.

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Prison labour: Lao ng t
iu XX(e) ca GATT cho php cc thnh vin WTO cm nhp khu cc hng ho do cc t
nhn sn xut. Nhiu quc gia chp nhn lut cho php cm nhp khu nhng sn phm nh
th nhng tu thuc mc khc nhau. Xem thm core labour standards v social dumping.
Private cartel: Cartel t doanh
Xem Cartel.
Private international law: T php quc t
Lnh vc lut gii quyt mi quan h gia cc c nhn c tr cc ni c cc quyn ti phn
khc nhau. Bi v khng c hai quc gia c cng h thng php lut, vn t ra l lut no s
thng th. Lnh vc lut ny do c xem nh s phn tranh lut php. Xem thm public
international law.
Privatisation: T nhn ho
Qu trnh theo cc ti sn cng cng trc do nh nc s hu v qun l c c cu li
thnh cc n v cng cng cng vi vn c phn c bn cho cng chng. Thnh thong
chnh ph gi li mt phn nht nh trong cng ty c t nhn ho. Thut ng ny i khi
cng c dng m t vic chuyn i mt cng ty cng cng thnh mt cng ty t nhn.
Xem thm deregulation.
Processes and production method: Quy trnh v phng php sn xut
Thut ng c s dng trong cc tho lun lin quan n thng mi v mi trng. N lin
quan n cc tc ng n mi trng ca cc quy trnh sn xut hng ho v dch v. Mt nh
hng tiu cc c th xy ra theo hai cch sau: (a) thng qua vic bin i ca bn thn sn
phm, v (b) thng qua qu trnh sn xut cc sn phm m khng nh hng cc c tnh ca
hng ho cui cng.
Process Protectionism: Ch bo h x l
Thut ng c I. M. Destler (1995) s dng m t mt h thng theo cc bin php sa
cha thng mi c thc hin d dng hn so vi cc quy tc tiu chun WTO.
Producer subsidy equivalent (PSE): Tr cp tng ng cho nh sn xut
Mt thut ng c s dng trong m phn nng nghip. PSE c nh ngha l tr cp cn
thit b cho cc nh sn xut nng nghip i vi vic xo b s h tr ca chnh ph. c
tnh bng phn trm, n l t l ca tng gi tr chi tr cho nh sn theo chnh sch ca chnh
ph trn tng thu nhp ca nh sn xut. Khi t l ny dng, PSE biu th nh sn xut nhn
c tr gip. Khi t l ny m, nh sn xut b nh thu. Xem thm consumer subsidy
equivalent.
Product-by-product negotiations: m phn tng sn phm
Xem item-by-item tariff negotiations.
Product cycle theory: L thuyt chu k sn phm
Do Raymond Vernon xut (1966). L thuyt ny cho rng cc quc gia cng nghip ho cao
c nhng li th so snh trong vic nghin cu v pht trin cc sn phm mi bi v h c vn
v ti nguyn lao ng tt hn. Chu k sn phm c gi thit gm c mt vi giai on, bt
u vi sn xut trong th trng nh hng n khch hng, sau tr thnh phm vi mt
cng ty a quc gia v vn n nh im ca n vi vic sn xut sn phm cc quc gia
c chi ph nhn cng thp hn m t cc sn phm ny s c xut khu tr li th trng
ni n c sinh ra ban u. Xem thm comparative advantage v Heckscher-Ohlin theorem

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Profit-shifting tariff: Thu chuyn li nhun
Mt khi nim trong l thuyt kinh t tm thy trong ch ngha trng thng ngh rng c
th dch chuyn li nhun c quyn t mt nc ngoi sang lnh th ca mt nc thng qua
vic nh thu. Thu quan s lm gim li nhun qu mc ca cc hng nc ngoi. Nh Dixit
ch ra (1986), thu quan chuyn dch li nhun cng l mt lun im khc ca cc nh kinh t
theo ch ngha trng thng v vic hn ch nhp khu v khuyn khch xut khu.
Progrramme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order:
Chng trnh hnh ng v thit lp trt t kinh t quc t mi
Xem New International Economic Order.
Progressive liberalisation: T do ho nhanh chng
Mt nguyn l quan trng c s dng trong GATT. N xut pht t tuyn b Punta del Este
trong Vng Uruguay. Ti tnh cng khai v tng trng kinh t c coi l mt trong
nhng mc tiu cho cc m phn sp ti v cc dch v. Nguyn l ny c pht trin tip
theo trong iu XIX ca GATS yu cu cc thnh vin tham gia vo cc hip m phn tip
theo trong vng t nht l 5 nm. Hip u tin phi c tin hnh mun nht l 1/1/2000.
Xem thm WTO build-in agenda.
Prohibited subsidies: Cc tr cp b cm
Mt khi nim c s dng trong Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng ch cc
tr cp c iu kin theo kt qu xut khu hay tr cp c iu kin theo vic s dng cc hng
ho trong nc thay cho nhp khu. Cc nc thnh vin khng c php p dng loi tr cp
ny. Xem thm actionable subsidies, local-content rules, non-actionable subsidies, subsidies
v Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures.
Proportionality: Tnh cn i
Mt khi nim c s dng so snh chi ph thng mi ca mt bin php vi li ch m
bin php ny c c t cc lnh vc khc ca chnh sch chnh ph. tng chnh l c mi
lin h hp l gia s tc ng n chi ph ca mt bin php v li ch m n c th mang li.
y l mt phng php c th c s dng xc nh s cn thit ca mt bin php
thng mi.
Protection: Bo h
Mc cc nh sn xut ni a v sn phm ca h c bo v khi s cnh tranh ca th
trng quc t. S tc ng hay chi ph ca vic bo h c th o hay c tnh vi mt chnh
xc cao. Thu quan l im bt u trong trng hp hng ho, nhng vn s phc tp hn
khi thu quan i km vi cc bin php phi thu quan hoc nu vic bo h ch bao gm cc
bin php phi thu quan hay cc quy nh ca chnh ph trong trng hp cc dch v. Cng c
phng php c tnh chi ph bo h i vi cc ngnh dch v nhng nhng phng php
ny km chnh xc hn so vi cc trng hp ca hng ho. Bo h khc ng k so vi ch
ngha bo h. Xem thm assistance, effective rate of protection, international contestability of
markets, optimal tariff v subsidy.
Protectionism: Ch ngha bo h
Mi trng hnh thnh chnh sch kinh t trong t ra cc bin php cc nh sn xut
trong nc trnh phi i chi vi th trng quc t khc nghit. Bin php c bn t c
iu ny l thu quan, tr cp, cc hn ch xut khu t nguyn v cc bin php phi thu
quan khc, cc bin php t r rng thng c a dng hn. Cc trng hp phc tp hn c
th bao hm c cc lnh vc vn ho, mi trng v cc mi quan tm khc. Ch ngha bo h
c th cng xut hin thng qua vic s dng nhiu bo h c iu kin. Trong phn ln cc
trng hp, ch ngha bo h ch lm tr hon vic iu chnh tt yu trong cc ngnh khng c

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hiu qu i vi th trng. Xem thm cultural speccification, structural adjustment v trade
and environment.
Protection of fisheries resources: Bo v ti nguyn c
Xem herring and salmon, tuna (Canada-United States, 1982), tuna (European Economic
Community-United States, 1994) v tuna (Mexico-United States. 1991).
Protocol: Ngh nh th
Mt ngh nh th l mt hip c c son tho b sung cc hip c hay cng c khc.
N bao gm ton b cc thnh phn c trong cc loi hip c khc (li ta, nh ngha, ch
k, ph chun, ngy hiu lc, v.v...) v n c cng tnh bt buc php l. Mt ngh nh th cn
phi ph hp vi hip c gc. Nu c s mu thun, hip c gc s ph nhn ngh nh th.
Mt ngh nh th l cn thit trong khi kt qu ca m phn a phng cn phi c b
sung vo cc vn kin ca WTO.
Protocol of accession: Ngh nh th gia nhp
Vn kin t ra cc iu khon v iu kin cc quc gia tr thnh thnh vin ca WTO hay
mt s t chc quc t. Trong WTO, cc ngh nh th a s c chun ho nhng thnh
thong chng phn nh cc trng hp ring bit ca cc quc gia gia nhp. Xem thm
accession.
Protocol of Provisional Application (PPA): Hip nh p dng tm thi
c cc thnh vin gc ca GATT thng qua nm 1947 p dng Hip nh ny trong khi
ch p dng chnh thc. Quyt nh ny khng bao gi c thc hin. PPA khng phi l mt
phn ca GATT 1994.
Provisional anti-dumping duties: Thu chng ph gi tm thi
Thu hoc ph b tnh khi c bng chng v mt trng hp ph gi. Cc quy nh ca WTO v
cc bin php chng ph gi cho php cc chnh ph c nh thu chng ph gi tm thi
theo ba iu kin: (a) c iu tra xc ng, (b) xc nh s b chc chn l c ph gi v kt
qu l gy ra thit hi i vi ngnh cng nghip trong nc, v (c) c quan thm quyn cho
rng cc bin php ny cn thit ngn nga nhng thit hi gy ra trong qu trnh iu tra.
Cc bin php v thu chng ph gi tm thi c th khng vt qu bin ph gi c c
tnh tm thi. Tuy nhin cc quy nh ca WTO nhn mnh rng vic yu cu n b bng tin
mt hoc tri phiu l thch hp hn. V nguyn tc, thu ph gi tm thi nn c p dng
khng qu 4 thng, mc d n c th c m rng ti tn 9 thng trong mt s trng hp.
Provisionnal countervailing measures: Thu i khng tm thi
Mt khi chnh ph tin hnh vic iu tra trng hp c coi l tr cp do mt nc thnh
vin WTO khc p dng, chnh ph nc c th p dng cc bin php thu i khng tm
thi. 3 iu kin chnh cn c p ng l (a) vic iu tra phi c tin hnh ph hp vi
quy nh, (b) cc kt qu iu tra ban u cho thy rng c tn ti tr cp v do gy ra
thit hi cho ngnh sn xut trong nc v (c) c kh nng xy ra nhng tn tht khc nu vic
tr cp vn c duy tr trong qu trnh cn li ca cuc iu tra. Cc bin php i khng tm
thi nn c s dng di dng tin mt hoc tri phiu tng ng vi mc tr gi. Cc
bin php tm thi khng c p dng sm hn 60 ngy k t khi tin hnh iu tra v chng
khng c p dng qu 4 thng.
Provisional safeguard measures: Cc bin php t v tm thi
Xem Agreement on Safeguards
Prudential regulation: Quy tc cn trng
Cc yu cu v hng dn do Chnh ph t ra m bo s ha nhp ca h thng ti chnh
v cc nh cung cp dch v ti chnh. Cc bin php thn trng, v d, yu cu cc ngn hng

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v cc cng ty bo him duy tr mt mc d tr ngoi t nht nh v t l ti sn c nh
bt buc. Ngoi ra cn c thm cc yu cu cht ch v c ch bo co. C kin ng h cc
bin php r rng v c th thc thi c tuy nhin cc bin php ny khng ngn nga c
vic cc cng ty dch v ti chnh tn dng bin php ny mt cch khn kho. Khng c mt
tho thun hay mt quy nh no v mc kim sot. Cc bin php thn trng thng khng
b coi l gy tr ngi cho thng mi trong dch v ti chnh v khng cn phi a vo danh
sch cc bin php c kh nng gy nh hng ti vic m ca th trng v i ng quc gia
trong khun kh GATS.
Public cartel: Cartel quc doanh
Xem cartel.
Public international law: Cng php quc t
Lut lin quan n cc mi quan h gia cc quc gia v gia cc quc gia vi cc t chc
quc t. Xem thm Private International Law.
Public procurement: Mua sm ca cng
Xem Goverment procurement.
Punta del Este Declaration: Tuyn b Punta del Este
Xem Urugoay Round.

Quadrilaterals: Bn bn; Nhm 4 nc

Cc cuc m phn v chnh sch thng mi nh k gia Hoa K, Cng ng Chu u, Nht
v Canada. Nay c s dng ch nhm 4 nc ny. Thng c gi tt l T cng -
Quads. Xem thm minilateralism.
Quantitative restriction: Hn ch nh lng
Cc hn ch hoc hn ngch v nh lng cho mt sn phm hoc mt hng ho c th c th
nhp khu hoc xut khu trong mt giai on no . Chng thng c tnh bng khi
lng nhng i khi bng tr gi. iu XI ca GATT cp vic s dng cc hn ch nh
lng trong mt s ngoi l c th, bao gm c nhng ngoi l c lit k trong iu XX v
cc ngoi l chung. Xem thm export quotas, import quotas v tariff quotas.
Quarantine measures: Bin php cch ly
Xem sanitary and phytosanitary measures.
Quint forum: Din n 5 nc
Cuc gp mt khng nh k, khng chnh thc ca B trng Nng nghip cc nc thuc
Cng ng chu u, Canada, Nht, Hoa K v Australia. Ti cuc hp ny cc B trng tho
lun cc kha cnh ca thng mi nng nghip ton cu. Din n ny c thnh lp ti Vng
Urugoay.
QWERTY principle: Nguyn tc QWERTY
Khng phi l mt khi nim thng mi c chp nhn, nhng n minh ho s nguy him
trong vic chp nhn nhng t tng m ta khng th ph bnh c. c a ra ln u tin
bi nh s hc kinh t Paul Davis vo nm 1982 v c ph bin rng ri vo nhng nm
1990 bi Paul Krugman (1994). N c bt u t cu trc bn phm QWERTY ca my tnh
rp theo kiu ca my ch thi trc. My ch rt d b kt phm khi ngi nh my nh qu
nhanh v cu trc bn phm QWERTY lm ngi nh my phi nh chm li. Cc ci tin v

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c kh sau ny khin cho cu trc QWERTY tr nn li thi nhng nhng nhng t tng tr
tr vn lm cho n tn ti trong k nguyn my tnh bi v n tr nn "c hu". Krugman
ghi ch rng iu ny d dn ti vic phn i t tng cho rng th trng nht nh s a
mt nn kinh t ti mt gii php tt p duy nht v trn thc t kt qu ca cnh tranh th
trng thng da vo nhng c hi ngu nhin c tnh lch s. Nguyn tc ny cng bao hm
t tng rng vic kim tra s nh hng ca nhng t tng v hnh ng thc tin l ng
lm. Xem thm conventional wisdom v vestigial thought.

Race-to-the-bottom argument: Lp lun chy ua ngc

Din t ni lo lng, e ngi trc thc t phi cnh tranh vi hng nhp khu t cc nc khc c
chi ph lao ng v tiu chun lao ng thp s h thp lng v iu kin lao ng ti cc
nc pht trin. Lp lun ny l mt phn c s ca cc cuc tho lun v iu khon x hi v
cc tiu chun lao ng v thng mi. Mt lp lun tng t c nu ra lin quan n cc
tiu chun v mi trng v ngi ta cho rng cc yu cu v mi trng thp hn mt s
nc c th em li cho h li th cnh tranh. Xem thm core labour standards, social
dumping, trade and environment v worker rights.
Recidivist dumping: Ph gi ti phm
i khi c s dng, c bit bi cc nh m phn Hoa K, ch cc cng ty lun tin
hnh ph gi hng ho ca h v cho rng ph gi l mt cch kinh doanh. Xem thm anti-
dumping measures.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Program: Chng trnh cc Hip nh thng mi c i c
li
Xem United States Reciprocal Trade Agreements Program.
Reciprocal: C i c li; tng h
Thng l ca WTO ch khng phi l yu cu c tnh cam kt, theo cc chnh ph dnh u
i tng t cho nhau v d nh khi mt chnh ph gim thu hoc ct gim cc hng ro khc
gy tr ngi cho nhp khu i li cc u i tng t ca mt nc bn hng thng mi
khc. iu ny c gi l cn bng u i. Cc u i t c t kt qu m phn c i c
li cn phi c m rng trn c s MFN cho tt c cc thnh vin ca WTO. Xem thm
mirror reciprocity v reciprocity at the margin.
Reciprocity at the margin: C i c li tng xng
Mt thut ng ngi M s dng m t rng ton b tng gi tr ca cc u i dnh cho cc
bn hng thng mi cn phi c gi tr tng xng vi gi tr cc u i nhn c trn c s
c i c li. Xem thm mirror-image reciprocity.
Recognition: S cng nhn
Vic mt nc cng nhn cht lng, tiu chun v cc yu cu v giy php ca mt nc
khc. Vic cng nhn ny c th c nh hng ng k ti cch tin hnh thng mi. Theo
GATS, vic cng nhn ny c th c tin hnh n phng, song phng hoc thng qua vic
hi ha. Nu mt nc cam kt cng nhn tiu chun, cht lng, hoc yu cu v cp giy
php ca mt nc no th nc ny khng cn phi m rng s cng nhn ny trn c s
MFN. Tuy nhin nc ny cn phi dnh cho cc nc khc c hi cc nc chng minh
rng h cng c th p ng c tiu chun yu cu. Xem thm Agreement on Technical
Barriers to Trade, harmonisation of standards and qualifications v mutual recognition
arrangements.
Re-exports: Hng ti xut

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Hng ha vn chuyn tm thi ti lnh th ca mt nc, ti i khi hng ho cn c gia
tng thm tr gi na, vi mc ch vn chuyn ti th trng ca mt nc khc. Xem thm
entrept trade v free-trade zones.
Reformulated gasoline: Xng pha
Brazil v Venezuela a trng hp ny ra kin Hoa K nm 1995. Vo nm 1990, Quc
hi Hoa K ch nh C quan Bo v mi trng (EPA) ban hnh cc quy nh mi v tc
hi ca thnh phn ca xng v kh thi xng qua vic sa i Lut Khng kh sch (CAA)
nm 1963. Mc ch ca vic ny l ci thin s trong lnh ca khng kh ti cc vng b
nhim nht ca t nc bng cch gim cc cht thi c gy nhim mi trng t khi -t
v cc thnh phn hp cht hu c cu to nn ozone. CAA chia Hoa K thnh hai phn: 9
vng ln b nhim nng chim khong 30 % th trng xng ni ch bn xng pha, v phn
cn li ca t nc ni bn xng thng dng. C hai loi xng u c quy nh thnh phn,
s khc nhau gia hai loi xng ny l trong xng pha khng c php c mt s thnh
phn nht nh. Thm vo , cc quy nh m bo rng cc cht c hi b cm trong
xng pha khng c chuyn thnh xng thng dng. Brazil v Venezuela khiu ni rng
cc quy nh ny phn bit i x cc sn phm xng nhp khu, c bit khi cc sn phm ny
l sn phm ca cc nh sn xut mi thm nhp th trng gn y. Ban hi thm kt lun
rng sn phm xng nhp khu v sn phm xng sn xut trong nc l cc sn phm tng t
nhau. Theo phng php thnh lp c s tiu chun, xng nhp khu b cm khng c
hng cc iu kin bn hng thun li tng t nh nhng iu kin ginh cho xng sn xut
trong nc thng qua mt c s tiu chun c nhn rng buc cc nh sn xut mt loi sn
phm no . Xng nhp khu do khng c i x u i nh xng sn xut trong nc.
Ban hi thm m rng phm vi iu tra sang kim tra tnh nht qun ca cc quy nh v
xng vi iu XX ca GATT (Nhng ngoi l chung). Ban hi thm ghi nhn kt lun ca
Hoa K rng nhim khng kh, c bit l ozone gn mt t v cc cht c hi, gy ra
mi him ha v sc khe cho con ngi, ng v thc vt, nhng khng cho rng cc bin
php Hoa K s dng l cn thit nhm mc ch thc hin quy nh v xng du. Hoa K
khng chng minh c rng cc mc ch tng t khng th t c bng cch s dng cc
bin php nht qun vi GATT. Do , Ban hi thm tip tc xem xt cc lp lun ca Hoa
K lin quan n iu XX (d). iu khon ny cho php cc thnh vin WTO tm thi cha
phi thc hin cc ngha v theo GATT nu iu ny l cn thit cng c lut php trong
nc hoc l phi nht qun vi GATT. Ban hi thm nhn nh rng nu h thng c s v
tiu chun t n l nht qun vi GATT th h thng ca Hoa K c th "khng tri" vi
GATT. Tuy nhin, ban hi thm thy rng vic phn bit i x gia xng nhp khu v xng
sn xut trong nc khng m bo s tun th c s v tiu chun - mt kha cnh cn thit
ca iu XX (d). Cc bin php c s dng khng phi l mt c ch hnh php. V iu
XX (g) (bo tn mt ti nguyn c th b kit qu), Ban hi thm khng thy c mi quan
h trc tip gia vic i x km u i hn i vi xng nhp khu ging vi xng sn xut
trong nc v mt ha hc v mc tiu ci thin cht lng mi trng Hoa K. Do ,
khng th ni rng cc bin php p dng cho xng nhp khu ch yu nhm vo mc ch bo
tn ti nguyn thin nhin. Hoa K c t do qun l cht lng ca mi trng m h mun
t c, nhng phi bng cc chnh sch bo tn khng phn bit i x. Hoa K khng
ngh li quyt nh ny. V mt s kha cnh k thut trong quyt nh ca Ban hi thm, Hi
ng phc thm nghing v pha Hoa K, nht l Ban hi thm ng l phi xem xt liu
cc quy nh ca Hoa K v xng thng thng v xng pha ch c th c gii trnh theo
iu XX(g) ca GATT hay khng, nhng Hi ng phc thm ng tnh vi quan im rng
cc bin php ca Hoa K l khng nht qun vi nguyn tc i ng quc gia. Xem thm
general exceptions.
Refusal to deal: T chi khng hp tc
Xem boycott.
Regionalism: Ch ngha khu vc

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Hnh ng ca cc Chnh ph nhm t do ha hoc thun li ha thng mi trn c s khu
vc, i khi vi s thnh lp khu vc thng mi t do hoc lin minh hi quan. Nhiu ngi
coi ch ngha khu vc l b sung cho ch ngha a phng bi v n gip cc nn kinh t hi
nhp nhanh hn qu trnh hp tc a phng. Tuy nhin iu ny khng hn nh vy. Thng
th vic t do ha khu vc nhanh hn ch l do c a vo thc hin t do ha vi cc sn phm
nhy cm. Xem thm hubs and spokes v open regionalism.
Regional integration arrangement (RIA): Tho thun hi nhp khu vc
Mt hip nh kinh t song phng hoc khu vc vt qu phm vi ca mt tho thun thng
mi khu vc. RIA thng nhm t c mt mc hi nhp kinh t no , v d da trn
vic hi ha nhiu chnh sch quc gia hoc chp nhn cc chnh sch c lp ra nhm t
c nhng mc tiu tng t.
Regional trade arrangement (RTA): Tho thun thng mi khu vc
Mt hip nh thng mi t do, lin minh hi quan hoc th trng chung gm hai hoc nhiu
nc (v d ANZCERTA, NAFTA, hoc Cng ng Chu u). Mt s nh phn tch coi RTA
nh nhng vin gch xy nn mt h thng thng mi a phng khng phn bit i x, t
do hn; mt s khc th cho rng l nhng yu t lm suy yu h thng . T trc n nay
rt nhiu RTA gia cc nc ang pht trin u khng tin xa hn c giai on lp k
hoch ban u hoc cng khng c mt tha thun thng mi no c bin thnh cc tha
thun mang tnh hu ch thc s. Mt vi tha thun thng mi gn y c v thnh cng hn.
Khong 100 tha thun thng mi khu vc c thng bo cho GATT theo iu XXIV
(quy nh cc min tr php l vi vic dnh i ng ti hu quc) t nm 1947 n nay. Vo
u nm 1996 WTO thnh lp U ban v cc Hip nh thng mi khu vc kim tra tnh
hiu qu ca cc tha thun ny i vi h thng thng mi ton cu. Xem thm first
regionalism, hub and spokes v second regionalism.
Regulation: Quy nh
Mt khi nim tng th bao gm tt c cc hot ng cng khai v cc hot ng kn, hoc cc
th tc do chnh ph ra vi mc tiu gy nh hng i vi mt ngnh cng nghip hoc
ngi tiu dng ca mt ngnh cng nghip no bng cc cch thc c bit. Quy nh ca
chnh ph c t ra nhm sa cha nhng tht bi th trng hoc phn phi li thu nhp
v phc li x hi. Quy nh cng c th c coi l mt h thng thng pht t ra x l
hnh vi ca cc cng ty hoc cc khch hng. Cc hnh thc khc ca quy nh gm c cc
bin php nh cc tiu chun an ton v mi trng, cc hn ch thm nhp th trng v qun
l gi c. Trong lut php ca Cng ng Chu u, quy nh c coi l mt o lut rng
buc tt c cc nc thnh vin mt cch trc tip. Xem thm deregulation, privatisation v
prudential regulation.
Remission: Min gim
Xem border tax adjustments.
Renegotiation of tariffs: m phn li v thu quan
Hu ht cc cuc m phn v thu quan u c tin hnh nh l mt phn ca cc cuc m
phn thng mi a phng hoc nh cc tho thun tng lnh vc, v d Hip nh Cng
ngh thng tin, nhng GATT t ra mt s cch m phn li v thu quan trong cc giai
on khc. Danh mc do Jacson v Davey (1986) lp c bit c ch. Th nht, iu XXVIII:1
cho php cc bn c quyn li cung cp chnh hoc cc bn tng tin hnh cc cuc m
phn song phng v thu quan c tin hnh m phn li 3 nm mt ln. Giai on 3 nm
phn nh thc tin ca Hoa K gia hn quyn m phn ca Tng thng 3 nm mt ln, v giai
on ny c chp nhn l giai on trong nhng cam kt rng buc v thu quan
khng c thay i. Th hai, iu XXVIII:4 cho php cc bn yu cu mt bn khc m
phn li cc trng hp c bit. c th l cc cuc m phn quy m nh gii hn trong
mt s t mt hng, c kt qu nhanh chng, v chng c ngha gip cc nc ph thuc

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nhiu vo mt s t hng ho s ch h c th a dng ha nn kinh t. Th ba, iu
XXVIII:5 c quy nh m phn li c bo lu. iu c ngha l cc bn m phn c
th bo lu quyn sa i danh mc thu quan ca mnh trong giai on 3 nm tip theo, ph
hp vi cc th tc thng thng v c ngha v bi thng cho bn b nh hng. Th t, khi
m hai hay nhiu nc ng thnh lp mt lin minh hi quan vi mt h thng thu i
ngoi chung, mt phn ca danh mc thu quan ca cc thnh vin tham gia nht nh cn phi
sa i. Do iu XXIV:6 yu cu m phn li v thu quan m bo rng mc chung
v thu quan ca cc nc thnh vin thuc mt lin minh hi quan khng vt qu cc mc
thu quan ang c hiu lc khi c cc mc thu ring bit. Th nm l theo iu XXVIII:7 cc
nc ang pht trin c quyn thay i danh mc thu quan, theo cc iu kin c nh
ngha r rng, pht trin cc ngnh cng nghip non tr. Th su, iu XXVII dnh cho cc
bn quyn thay i cc u i thu quan c m phn vi mt nc cha l thnh thnh
vin ca WTO hay l khng mun gia nhp na. Th by, vic m phn li thu quan cng c
th thc hin c di dng nhng sa cha nh v k thut nhng li phm phi. Cc
thnh vin ca GATT thng rt cn thn m bo rng cc thay i v k thut khng
dn n vic tng thu tr hnh khin cc thnh vin khc c th i n b. Xem thm tariff
negotiations.
Repeat dumping: Ph gi lp li
Xem recidivist dumping.
Requests and offers: Yu cu v cho cam kt
m phn v m ca th trng ca WTO i vi hng ho v dch v thng c tin hnh
trn c s cc yu cu v cho cam kt song phng, tr trng hp m phn gia nhp ch hn
ch trong cc yu cu ca cc nc l thnh vin. Cc yu cu thng c cc nc c
quyn li thit yu n mt hng ho no a ra. Cc cho cam kt c th c a ra
p li cc yu cu hoc c a ra song song vi cc yu cu. Khi hai bn t c tha
thun mi v m ca th trng m h sn sng chp nhn v thc hin th kt qu cn c
m rng cho tt c cc nc thnh vin WTO khc c hng trn c s ti hu quc (MFN).
Xem thm first-difference negotiations, initial negotiating rights, most-favoured-nation
treatment, principal supplier right v principal supplying interest.
Reserved negotiations: m phn c bo lu
Xem renegotiations of tariffs.
Resources diplomacy: Ngoi giao ti nguyn
M t cch thc chnh ph m bo cch tip cn vi cc nguyn vt liu th v th trng cho
cc vt liu ny, nhng thut ng ny mang mt ngha c bit vo nhng nm 1970. m bo
vic a cc sn phm nguyn liu th v nguyn liu ch bin vo th trng vi gi c hp
l l mt trong nhng mc ch ca cc nc c mt c s cng nghip, bt k l ang pht
trin hay n giai on pht trin cao. Ngc li, mt trong nhng mc ch ca cc nh sn
xut v ch bin cc nguyn vt liu th l c tip cn vi th trng m v khng phn bit
i x vi gi c u i. Cc nh sn xut v ngi tiu dng ni chung ng v tnh hp
php ca hai mc ch ny nhng i khi bt ng v chi tit. Tuy nhin, c hai nhm sn sng
tun th th trng t c nhng mc ch ca h. H cng nhn rng v mt s mt, sc
mnh ca th trng thng b kim ch, trong mt s mt khc n li b hn ch bi cc tha
thun quc t cng nh b lm bin dng i bi cc chnh sch trong nc. Th trng ti
nguyn c th bin ng mnh. Do cc cng ty ang n lc tng cng v tr cnh tranh ca
mnh qua cc hp ng c k hn v cc hot ng khc tng t. H thng hn hp cc chnh
sch ca Chnh ph vi cc thc hnh thng mi phn nhiu hot ng tt, nhng c th b ri
lon bi s cnh tranh gia hon cnh kinh t v chnh tr nh xy ra trong nhng nm 1970,
v lm ny sinh khi nim ngoi giao ti nguyn. Tuy nhin khng nn cho rng ngoi giao ti
nguyn l mt khi nim g mi. Trc y khng lu c cc gi rng vic tip cn vi cc
nguyn liu th nn tr thnh mt mc trong Hip c Hi Quc lin. Sau , cc nc

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ng minh tha nhn rng vic cnh tranh m ca th trng cc nguyn liu th chnh l
mt nguyn nhn quan trng trong vic bng n th chin th hai. Do Hin chng i ty
dng ku gi c s tip cn bnh ng ti nguyn liu th trn th gii. Chin tranh Triu
tin gy ra s khan him tm thi cc nguyn liu th, nhng nhng mi lo ngi ny c v
c gii to ngay khi tnh hnh tr li bnh thng. Ngoi giao ti nguyn trong gn 20 nm
sau tr thnh mt ti t mang tnh quc t hn. Tnh hnh t ngt thay i khi c mt s
yu t hi t li vi nhau. u tin l vic bng n kinh t th gii t nm 1972 n 1974
dn n vic khan him tm thi cc nguyn liu. Th hai, nhiu nc mi ginh c c lp
phi, v mt s nc cho n nay vn th, ph thuc nng n vo kim ngch xut khu
nguyn vt liu cha ch bin. Cc nc ny sn sng thi hnh vi mi gi cc chnh sch gip
h tng li nhun kinh t ca mnh. Cc nc mi ginh c lp ny phn ln l cc thuc a
c ca cc nc chu u. iu ny khin cho cc nc thc dn c cm thy an tm hn v
ngun cung cp v vic tin hnh bun bn thng mi khng b thay i d c cc thay i v
iu kin chnh tr. Th ba, vic cc nc ang pht trin gia nhp Lin hp quc cho thy rng
cc nc ny by gi c th tr thnh a s trong nhiu t chc quc t khc. Vic thnh lp
Nhm 77 vo nm 1964 cng dn n vic ra i cc chnh sch chnh tr chung mc d kinh
nghim cho thy rng hin thc kinh t thng l c sc mnh ni lc ca n. C quan im
rng ri rng tnh hnh ny c th gii quyt c mc d c nhng phn t bi quan cc nc
ang pht trin b thuyt phc rng tnh hnh chnh tr mi i hi phi c cch gii quyt no
. Quyt nh ca cc nc OPEC vo nm 1972 v vic tng gi du gp 4 ln l tm thi
gii quyt trc mt v dn dn tin ti cc gii php no . Vic ny khin cho cc
nc ang pht trin, nhng nc thy rng th gii ngy cng dn su vo cc cuc xung t
chnh tr, ngh rng vic tng gi du gy nh hng n cc nc pht trin nhiu hn l
chnh bn thn h. Nhng ngi tnh to ngay sau nhanh chng nhn ra rng nh hng
ca gi du cao khng h phn bit gia cc nc pht trin v ang pht trin. V kha cnh
kinh t, quyt nh ca OPEC dng nh ch cho cc nc ang pht trin mt cch thc
hu hiu t c mc tiu tng kim ngch xut khu. Ti Lin hp quc, tnh hnh ny
lm ny sinh nhiu sng kin nh Hin chng v Cc quyn v kinh t v ngha v ca cc
quc gia, Trt t kinh t quc t mi v ngh v cc cuc m phn ton cu. Mt vng m
phn mi m c th gi l vng m phn ngoi giao ti nguyn c tin hnh. Vic ny
khin cc nc pht trin lo ngi rng cc nc giu ti nguyn s c gng t c nhng
thnh cng ca OPEC i vi cc nguyn liu th khc. Cc nc sn xut, phn ln l cc
nc ang pht trin, ngc li tm kim ngun thu cao hn v dn ti vic h c chuyn
giao cng ngh ch bin. Australia v Canada vi t cch l cc nc pht trin v cc nh sn
xut hng ho ln c gng duy tr tnh on kt vi cc nc pht trin khc trong khi by t
s thng cm vi cc mc ch, xu hng ca cc nc ang pht trin nhm tng ngun thu
xut khu ca h. Phn ln nhng s phn khch trong hot ng ngoi giao v thng mi
din ra sau l da trn nhng phn tch su sc cc thc tin nhng b khch ng bi hng
lot s trng dng ca Chnh ph v cc hnh ng d gy kch ng ca cc nc ang pht
trin. Mt trong nhng thc tin l (1) vic chia s cc nguyn liu ca cc nc ang pht
trin tnh n nm 1973 l 20 nm (2) thnh cng ca cc nc xut khu du l do cc yu t
a l v cc yu t s dng khng th c lp li i vi cc nguyn liu th khc (3) hnh
ng chung ca cc nh sn xut cc nguyn liu th khc kh c th duy tr c cho d c s
chng minh hng hn v s thng nht v chnh tr ca cc nc ny. (4) do s bng n kinh t
cc nc pht trin to ra nhng iu kin thng thng hn, cc nc ang pht trin tr
nn lng l hn khi tham gia vo cc hot ng a phng em li nhng kt qu to ln.
ng lc ca m phn ngoi giao v ngun lc vn c duy tr cho n n tn Hi ngh
UNCTAD IV nm 1976 khi Qu chung v Chng trnh thng nht cc ngnh hng c tin
hnh nhng hot ng ca chng trnh ny cn chm v by gi hu nh m nht hn. Xem
thm commodities policy.
Restrictive business practices (RBP): Hot ng kinh doanh hn ch
Nhng hot ng phn cnh tranh ca cc cng ty t nhn thuc loi b lut v chnh sch cnh
tranh quc gia iu chnh. Cc hnh vi c th bao gm s cu kt, lm dng v th thng tr,

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t chi hp tc, phn bit i x v gi, duy tr gi bn li, bun bn c quyn, cc tha thun
dc v ngang. Khng c mt tiu chun quc t c chp nhn no quy nh th no l RBP
v iu chnh chng nh th no. Hin chng Havana c mt chng v vn ny nhng
Hin chng ny khng c hiu lc. Vo nm 1980, UNCTAD thng qua mt B cc
nguyn tc v quy tc cng bng trn c s a phng v kim sot cc hot ng kinh doanh
hn ch, nhng khng c cc ngha v rng buc. OECD cp nhiu v ch ny. Xem
thm antitrust law, competition policy v trade and competition.
Retaliation: Tr a
Hnh ng do mt nc tin hnh hn ch nhp khu ca mt nc tng thu hoc p t
nhng bin php c nhng nh hng tiu cc ti xut khu ca nc ny. C nhng quy nh
v cc th tc cht ch yu cu vn dng c ch gii quyt tranh chp ca WTO i vi hnh
ng tr a nhng i khi cc nc vn hnh ng bn ngoi cc quy nh ny. Hoa K cng
dnh cho mnh quyn tr a theo Khon 301. Xem thm cross-retaliation.
Revenue tariff: Thu quan v ngun thu ngn sch
Mt loi thu quan ch c chc nng bo h ti thiu m ch yu nhm to ra ngun thu n
nh cho chnh ph. i vi mt s nc ang pht trin thu ny l mt trong nhng ngun
thu nhp chnh v do cc nc ny c th min cng trong vic ct gim thu. Xem thm
nuisance tariff.
Reverse engeenering: Thit k ngc
Mt khi nim gy tranh ci v vic c c mt cng ngh no bng vic bt chc sn
xut mt loi sn phm, thng thng bng cch ly sn phm ra nghin cu xem cu to
ca sn phm . Sn phm c sn xut theo cch ny s khng b coi l vi phm quyn s
hu tr tu. Xem thm decompilation.
Reverse notification: Thng bo ngc
Cch thng thng t c tnh cng khai ca GATT v nay l WTO l yu cu cc chnh
ph thng bo cho cc thnh vin khc v cc bin php thng mi m nc mnh tin
hnh hoc chun b tin hnh. Mt phng php khc c chp nhn cui Vng Tokyo khi
mt c s d liu c thnh lp Ban th k GATT da trn cc thng bo ca cc chnh ph
v cc bin php ca cc nc khc, c ngha l thng bo ngc.
Reverse preference: u i ngc li
Nhng u i m cc nc ang pht trin dnh cho cc nc pht trin. Nhng u i ny
thng l mt phn trong cc hip nh lin kt gia Cng ng Kinh t chu u v cc nc
ang pht trin, nhng mt s ngi nghi ng rng nhng u i ngc c tnh cht cam kt
ny vn cn tn ti. Xem thm GSP v GSTP.
Reverse special and differential treatment: i x c bit v khc bit ngc li
Mt thut ng do Jagdish Bhagwadi (Bhagwadi v Hudec, 1995) a ra m t mt quan
im rng cc nc ang pht trin cn thc hin cc bin php m bo cc tiu chun lao
ng v mi trng ti thiu. tng y l vic ny c th lm cho mi quan h gia chi
ph m cc nc ang pht trin v chi ph ca cc nc pht trin, nhng nc tun th cc
tiu chun ny, tr nn thc t hn.. Xem thm core labour standards v trade and
environment.
Reverse transfer of technology: Chuyn giao cng ngh ngc li
Mt thut ng c bit c s dng Lin hp quc m t vic di chuyn ca cc nh
khoa hc v cc chuyn gia cao cp t cc nc ang pht trin sang cc nc pht trin. Hin
tng ny c gi l chy mu cht xm. Rt nhiu cuc hp v vn ny khng i n
c nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny cng nh cc bin php khc phc. Cc khuyn ngh ca

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cc nc ang pht trin cho rng cc nc pht trin nhn cht xm ny nn thc hin mt
hnh thc n b no cng khng em li kt qu g.
Revised Recommendation Concerning Cooperation Between Member Countries on
Restrictive Business Practices Affecting International Trade: Khuyn ngh sa i v hp
tc gia cc nc thnh vin v cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch c nh hng n
thng mi quc t
Mt vn kin ca OECD thc hin nm 1995 da trn mt khuyn ngh c thng qua ln
u tin vo nm 1967 v c sa i vi ln sau nhm y mnh vic hp tc gia cc
nc thnh vin thng qua (a) thng bo v yu cu c cc kim ch trong trng hp lin quan
n cc cng ty ca cc nc thnh vin khc; (b) phi hp hnh ng gia mt hoc nhiu
nc thnh vin cng chng li mt cng ty; (c) thng bo ca mt nc thnh vin v yu
cu tin hnh cc hnh ng trong mt s trng hp; (d) cc th tc ha gii. Khuyn ngh
ny khng mang tnh rng buc. Xem thm nagative comity v positive comity.
Right of establishment: Quyn thnh lp
Quyn thnh lp mt thc th thng mi mt nc khc vi mc ch sn xut hng ho
cung cp cho th trng ni a hoc nhp khu hng ho t mt nc khc v phn phi
chng. Vic thnh lp ny thng thng yu cu mt hnh thc u t no k c mua, st
nhp hoc chuyn nhng. Xem thm commercial presence, foreign direct investment v joint
venture.
Right of priority: Quyn u tin
Mt quyn dnh cho cc nc k kt Cng c Paris. iu c ngha rng mt ngi ng k
pht minh mt nc c quyn u tin ng k pht minh mt nc khc trong vng mt
nm. Trn thc t iu ny c ngha rng khi mt cng ty ng k pht minh nc h v
sau h li ng k chnh pht minh mt nc khc, bng pht minh s c bo h t
ngy np n sm hn ti nc xut x ca cng ty ny ch khng phi t ngy np n
nc ngoi. Xem thm intellectual property.
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Tuyn b Rio v Mi trng v Pht
trin
Mt h thng cc nguyn tc nhm mc ch bo v tnh thng nht ca cc h thng mi
trng v pht trin ton cu c thng qua ngy 14/6/1992 ti Hi ngh UNCED (Hi ngh
Lin hp quc v Mi trng v Pht trin) Rio de Janeiro. Nguyn tc 12 c lin quan n
thng mi quc t. N quy nh rng "cc quc gia cn phi hp tc thc y mt h thng
kinh t quc t h tr v m c th dn ti tng trng kinh t v pht trin bn vng tt c
cc nc v gii quyt tt hn cc vn xung cp ca mi trng. Cc bin php v chnh
sch thng mi v mc ch mi trng khng c bao gm cc bin php phn bit i x
tu tin v v cn c hoc l hn ch tr hnh i vi thng mi quc t. Cc hnh ng n
phng gii quyt cc thch thc mi trng bn ngoi phm vi quyn lc php l ca nc
nhp khu cn phi trnh. Cc bin php mi trng gii quyt vn mi trng xuyn quc
gia hoc ton cu phi c da trn nguyn tc nht tr quc t cng nhiu cng tt. Nguyn
tc 12 ca Tuyn b ny c ni n nh mt vn bn tng ng trong phng thc hot ng
ca U ban v Thng mi v Mi trng ca WTO. Xem thm Agenda 21.
Rio Group: Nhm Rio
Mt nhm lin Chnh ph bao gm tt c cc nc Nam M c thnh lp nm 1983 xem
xt cc vn an ninh trong khu vc nhng m rng vai tr ca mnh vo nm 1986 thm
chc nng tng cng dn ch v nhn quyn. Trong phm vi quyn hn mi ny, nhm ny
cng tho lun cc vn v kinh t v m.
Risk assessment: nh gi ri ro

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Thnh vin ca WTO c th p dng cc quy nh v an ton thc phm, sc kho ng thc
vt i vi thng mi quc t nhng h khng c s dng cc bin php ny phn bit
i x mt cch tu tin v khng chnh ng gia cc nc thnh vin c nhng iu kin
tng t nh nhau. Hip nh ca WTO v vic p dng cc bin php v sinh dch t t ra
cc quy nh thc hin mc ch ny. Hip nh ny khuyn khch cc thnh vin hi ha
cc bin php v lm cho cc bin php ph hp vi cc tiu chun, cc hng dn v cc
khuyn ngh quc t, nu c. Nu cc thnh vin mong mun duy tr cc tiu chun c mc
cao hn, cc nc ny cn phi tin hnh nh gi ri ro. Vic nh gi ri ro c th l vic
nh gi kh nng xut hin hoc lan truyn mt loi su bnh hoc mt bnh dch no ca
cc bin php v sinh dch t c p dng. N cng c th l vic kim tra kh nng gy ra
cc nh hng xu i vi sc khe con ngi v ng vt do s xut hin ca cc cht ph
gia, cc cht gy nhim, cc cht c hi hoc cc t cht gy bnh c trong thc n, ung
hoc thc n cho gia sc. Vic nh gi ri ro cn xem xt cc bng chng khoa hc c v
vn ny, cc phng php sn xut v ch bin c lin quan, vic iu tra, phng php ly
mu v kim tra, s lan trn ca mt s bnh dch v su bnh, s tn ti ca cc khu vc
khng c bnh dch v su bnh, cc iu kin v sinh thi v mi trng tng ng, cc bin
php cch ly hoc cc bin php x l khc. Vic nh gi cc yu t v kinh t c lin quan
cng c yu cu nhm mc ch ti thiu ha cc nh hng xu n thng mi nu cc
bin php ny c tin hnh. Vic ny c cn bng bng cch tnh n cc nguy hi gy ra
cho sn xut nu bnh dch thm nhp vo t nc, chi ph cho vic kim tra v xa b cc
bnh dch ny v cc hiu qu v kinh ph ca cc bin php c th dng thay th. Xem thm
sanitary and phytosanitary measures.
Robinson-Patman Act: o lut Robinson-Patman
y l sa i ca on 2 ca Lut Clayton. Sa i ny cm vic phn bit i x v gi gia
nhng ngi mua hng ho c cng phm cp hoc cht lng. o lut ny ch yu ch p
dng cho bun bn bn trong Hoa K. Xem thm antitrust law v competition policy.
Rollback: Gim dn
Hnh ng n phng hoc a phng tin hnh loi b cc hng ro thng mi qua vic
tho g cc bin php ang tn ti. Thng i cng vi khi nim standstill. Xem thm trade
liberalisation.
Rolling specificity: C th ha cun chiu
Mt thut ng c s dng trong APEC m t tin trnh thc hin cc k hoch hnh ng
ca cc nc nhm t c t do ha thng mi vo nm 2010/2020. T tng c bn y
l cc nc c th nhn bit rt r rng cc k hoch ngn hn, nhng li m h hn v cc k
hoch hnh ng trung v di hn. Do cc k hoch hnh ng cn phi c cp nht theo
nh k v nn c c th ha trn c s quay vng. Xem thm Bogor declaration v APEC
individual action plans.
Rome Convention: Cng c Rome
Cng c quc t v vic bo h cc nh biu din, nh sn xut sn phm ghi m v cc t
chc pht sng. Cng c ny c 46 thnh vin. Cng c Rome bo v quyn li ca cc nh
biu din. Cc nh sn xut a ht c quyn cho php vic sao chp li cc sn phm ca h,
v cc t chc pht sng c cc quyn lin quan n vic pht sng cc sn phm ca h. Cng
c c iu hnh bi WIPO. Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights v neighbouring rights.
Round: Vng m phn
Xem multilateral trade negotiations.
Rule of reason: Nguyn tc xem xt tnh hp l

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Mt phng php c s dng trong vic iu tit cc chnh sch cnh tranh chc chn
rng liu cc hot ng kinh doanh phn cnh tranh c tc ng v cnh tranh cn bng hay
khng. Nu ng nh vy th cc c quan c thm quyn c th quyt nh khng tin hnh
hnh ng nu lut php ginh cho h s linh hot ny. Xem thm antitrust laws v per se
rules.
Rules of origin (ROO): Quy ch xut x
Cc iu lut, quy nh v cc quy tc qun l do cc chnh ph s dng xc nh nc xut
x ca hng ho, dch v hoc u t. Nu mt nc c th iu hnh tt c cc mi quan h
thng mi trn c s ti hu quc (MFN) th nc ny khng cn quy ch xut x. Cc nh
nhp khu ca nc ny c th mua cc sn phm bt k nc no p ng c nhu cu ca
h. Tuy nhin, gi nh rng nc ny thc hin cm vn do Lin hp quc ra. Nc ny cn
phi xc nh r rng mnh ch cm cc hng nhp khu t nc b cm vn ch khng phi t
cc nc khc. thc hin vic ny, nc ny cn phi s dng mt s tiu chun nht nh
di dng quy tc xut x. Nhiu nc, ni ting nht l Hoa K, s dng biu thu nhiu ct.
Mt ct gm cc mc thu p dng cho cc nc c hng MFN. Mt ct khc l mc thu
ginh cho cc nc khng c hng MFN. Mt ln na quy tc xut x li c s dng
th hin s phn bit ny. Trng hp th ba yu cu c quy ch xut x l trng hp dnh u
i c bit cho mt i tc thng mi. Trong tt c cc trng hp, quy tc xut x u mang
tnh k thut v kh phc tp. Xut x ca mt sn phm hoc ngun u t c th c nh
hng vic n c i x ti bin gii hoc ti th trng nh th no. V d, khi mt nc
ang pht trin mun c hng mc thu thp hn theo ch GSP th nc nhp khu s
xc nh r rng cc sn phm c sn xut hoc hoc chuyn i c bn ti nc xut
khu c hng u i. Trong trng hp ny, mt trong nhng mc ch ca ROOs l nhm
m bo tun th cc quy tc ca GSP. ROOs ngy cng tr nn phc tp do vic ton cu ha
cc qu trnh sn xut v s ph bin ca cc khu vc thng mi t do v cc lin minh hi
quan. Do xut x ca mt sn phm c th nh hng nhiu n chi ph v mc canh tranh
ca sn phm ti th trng nhp khu (do sn phm ny c th c thm nhp th trng
min thu nu n xut pht t mt khu vc c bit no ) nn ROOs c th l mt trong
nhng yu t c cn nhc a ra cc quyt nh v u t. C ba cch chnh xc nh
xut x ca mt sn phm. Th nht l s thay i trong tiu ca mc thu s c phn
loi trong mt chng khc trong danh mc thu quan ca quc gia nu sn phm ny c tri
qua qu trnh chuyn i c bn. Th hai, c th tin hnh nh gi mc gi tr c a
thm vo sn phm ti nc xut khu. Th ba, xut x c th c quyt nh da vo qu
trnh ch bin c th to ra cc c tnh c bn ca sn phm. Hip nh ca WTO v Quy ch
xut x lp ra mt chng trnh nhm hi ha ha cc ROOs trn c s lu di. i vi
trng hp dch v v u t, tiu ch quan trng nht xc nh xut x bao gm c ni t
cng ty, quc tch ca ngi ch, a ch ca c quan u no ca cng ty v ni m cc hot
ng kinh doanh s c tin hnh. Mt s cc tiu ch ny c th khng c kh nng a ra
cc nh ngha r rng v vic tham gia ca cc tp on a quc gia. Xem thm change in
tariff heading, Kyoto Convention v preferential rules of orgin.

Safeguards: T v
Cc bin php tm thi c t ra gim bt nhp khu nhm gip mt ngnh sn xut no
t iu chnh mnh thch ng vi s cnh tranh ngy cng tng t cc nh sn xut nc
ngoi. Theo WTO, cc hnh ng t v c th c thc hin theo 6 cch khc nhau, tt c cc
cch ny u phi tun theo cc iu kin c th m bo rng hnh ng t v ch c
thc hin nu c cc nguyn nhn chnh ng. Ngoi ra cng c mt s cc bc th tc khc
cn phi tun th trong mi trng hp. Trong 6 cch nu trn, cch th nht c nu trong
iu VI ca GATT, cho php cc Chnh ph c tin hnh hnh ng t v nu c xy ra ph

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gi. Cc quy nh ca iu khon ny c lm r thm trong Hip nh v Thc hin iu VI
ca GATT (Hip nh v chng ph gi). Cch th hai, theo iu XII, trong trng hp ca cc
nc ang pht trin theo iu XVIII:B, cc nc ang pht trin c th hn ch nhp khu
bo v v th ti chnh i ngoi v cn cn thanh ton. Th ba, iu XVIII:A v XVIII:C cho
php cc nc ang pht trin c tr gip ca Chnh ph nhm y mnh pht trin kinh t.
Th t, iu XIX cho php mt nc tm hon khng thi hnh cc ngha v ca mnh hoc sa
i cc cam kt t do ha trong cc trng hp khng lng trc c v nu bt c mt sn
phm no c nhp khu vi s lng ngy cng tng c th gy ra hoc e do gy ra cc
thit hi nghim trng cho cc nh sn xut trong nc cng sn xut mt loi hng ho tng
t hoc loi hng ho cnh tranh trc tip. chnh l nhng g c nh ngha l hnh ng
t v. C mt tn gi khc cho hnh ng ny, gi l iu khon ni lng. Tr mt s trng
hp c nh ngha c th, cc bin php t v c tin hnh theo iu khon XIX cn phi
nhm vo mt loi hng ho c th, bt k chng c ngun gc t u. Cc hnh ng phn
bit i x chng li cc nc c coi l ang c cc vn ln l tri vi cc quy nh. Nu
hnh ng c tin hnh, nc thc hin c ngha v n b cho cc bn b nh hng di
hnh thc cho hng thu thp v/hoc cc iu kin tip cn th trng tt hn. Hip nh v
cc bin php t v nh ra cc quy nh cho vic p dng cc bin php t v nh quy nh
trong iu XIX ca GATT. Th nm, c th tin hnh m phn li cc cam kt theo iu
XXVIII ca GATT vi mc ch gim gnh nng t nhp khu. Th su, cc ngoi l chung v
cc ngoi l v an ninh theo GATS v GATT cng c th coi nh mt hnh thc t v. Xem
thm anti-dumping measures, Hatters' fur case v selectivity.
Safe-haven agreement: Cc tho thun an ton
c s dng bi cc nh bnh lun m t cc tho thun thng mi khu vc m cc nc
nh hn tham gia vi hy vng m bo chc chn tip cn th trng cho hng ho nhp khu
ca mnh.
SAFTA (South American Free Trade Area): Khu vc Thng mi t do Nam M
Nhm t mc tiu hi nhp kinh t ca Nam bn cu thng qua vic m rng Mecosur, c
Brazil nu ra ti cuc hp cc nc ALADI. Brazil ngh rng thnh lp SAFTA, Mercosur
nn m phn vi cc thnh vin ALADI v vic xa b t nht 80% thu quan v cc hng ro
phi thu quan trong thng mi hng ho trong vng 10 nm ti. Xem thm FTAA.
SAPTA (South Asian Preferential Trading Arrangement or SAARC): Tha thun u i
thng mi ca cc nc Nam (hoc SAARC)
c a ra nh mt bc tin u tin hng ti vic hnh thnh mt khi thng mi khu
vc vo nm 1993 vi chng trnh gim thu cho cc sn phm v hng ho c th. Hn cui
cng hon thnh khu vc thng mi t do l nm 2005, nhng mt s nc ngh nn
sm hn vo nm 2001. SAPTA bao gm cc nc Bangla Desh, Bhutan, n-, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan v Sri Lanka l cc nc to nn Hip hi Nam v hp tc khu vc (South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation - SAARC).
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures: Cc bin php v sinh dch t
Cc bin php kim sot bin gii cn thit bo v sc khe ca con ngi, ng v
thc vt. Thng thng chng c gi l cc bin php cch ly. Cc bin php ny khng
c p dng vi cch thc to ra s phn bit i x tu tin v khng chnh ng gia cc
nc thnh vin c cng cc iu kin nh nhau, hoc l cc hn ch tr hnh i vi thng
mi quc t. Hip nh WTO v vic p dng cc bin php v sinh dch t (SPS) quy nh cch
thc thc hin cc yu cu ny.
Schedule of commitments on services: Danh mc cc cam kt v dch v
Mt yu cu v b phn ch cht ca GATS. Chng thc hin chc nng tng t nh danh
mc thu quan cho hng ho theo GATT. Danh mc ny cho php cc nh xut khu dch v

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nghin cu mc tip cn th trng m h c m bo v hng li t i ng quc gia.
Xem thm market access for services.
Schedule of concessions: Danh mc u i
Cc danh mc cam kt ca quc gia c m phn di s gim st ca WTO, nh ra cc
thi hn, iu kin v cht lng m hng ho nhp khu s phi p ng. Khng c thm bt
c cc loi thu hoc ph ca khu no khc ngoi thu ni a nh vo hng ho ni a
tng t, thu chng ph gi, thu i khng hoc cc ph dch v. Xem thm tariff.
Screwdriver operations: Cc hot ng "tuc-n-vt"
Mt thut ng xu dnh cho cc hot ng sn xut ch yu lin quan n vic lp rp cc b
phn cu thnh. N t lin quan hoc khng lin quan n vic chuyn giao cng ngh. Hot
ng "tuc-n-vt" thng xut hin nhng ni c ngun cung cp nhn lc r. Cc hot
ng ny mt phn l kt qu khng th trnh khi ca vic ton cu ha xut pht t nhu cu
tm kim phng thc sn xut c hiu qu nht. Quy ch xut x u i cng khuyn khch
cc cng ty thit lp cc hot ng nh vy ti cc khu vc thng mi t do trnh cc tr
ngi tip cn th trng. Xem thm export processing zones, footloose industries, maquiladora
industries v rules of origin.
Secondary dumping: Ph gi th cp
Vic xut khu mt loi hng ho c cc b phn c ph gi. V d nh khung xe p c
mt cng ty xut khu xe p nhp vi gi thp hn gi th trng. Do vy cng ty ny c
hng li th v gi thm ch ngay c khi cng ty ny bn xe p hon chnh vi mc gi nh
gi th trng trong nc. Thit hi gy ra do vic ph gi th cp ny kh c th chng minh
c. Xem thm dumping, hidden dumping v indirect dumping.
Second banking coordination directive (SBCD): Ch th th hai v iu phi hot ng
ngn hng
Mt ch th ca Cng ng Chu u a ra vo nm 1989 cho php mt ngn hng, k c cc
chi nhnh ca ngn hng nc ngoi, c quyn hot ng ti bt k mt nc thnh vin no
ca EU trong 14 hot ng nh, nhng ch khi c c quan cp php cho ngn hng
cho php. Cc hot ny bao gm c cc hot ng ngn hng truyn thng, bo m, kinh
doanh v phn phi chng khon. Chnh quyn ti cc nc ch nh khng c hn ch hot
ng ca cc ngn hng c php hot ng theo phng thc ny ngay c khi cc ngn hng
trong nc ca nc ch nh khng th tham gia vo cc hot ng nh vy. Xem thm
European Community Legislation.
Second beer panel: Ban hi thm th hai v bia
Mt v tranh chp vo nm 1991 ti GATT gia Hoa K v Canada lin quan n vic nhp
khu, phn phi v bn mt s ung c cn ca mt c quan tip th cp tnh Canada. Mt
v vic tng t cng tng xy ra vo nm 1998, do v ny mi c tn nh vy. C quan
marketing ca Canada ("liquor board"), c thnh lp theo lut php a phng, c c
quyn trong vic cung cp v phn phi loi ung c ru trong phm vi bin gii ca mt
tnh. H cng c c quyn nhp bia t cc tnh khc hoc t nc ngoi. sn xut v bn
bia ti mt tnh th cn phi c giy php do tnh cp v hu ht cc loi bia ni a cn phi
c sn xut ti ni m sau n c bn. Tt c cc tnh u c cc ca hng ru ca
Chnh ph nhng h cng cho php c bn bia ti cc ca hng bn l v ca hng ca nh
my bia. Ban hi thm c thnh lp nm 1998 kt lun rng vic nh phn trm li kinh
doanh i vi bia nhp khu cao hn bia ni a l chnh ng ch trong nhng trng hp c
quy nh r rng, rng trch nhim chng minh l thuc v Canada, v rng vic lp danh sch
cc yu cu v cc im bn hng phn bit i x i vi ung nhp khu l nhng hn ch
thng mi c thc hin thng qua hot ng kinh doanh ca nh nc tri vi iu khon
XI (Xa b ton b hn ch nh lng). Vo nm 1988, sau ln thnh lp Ban hi thm th
nht, Canada c mt hip nh vi Cng ng Chu u nhm mc ch gii quyt mt s

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kha cnh ca vn ny. Hip nh ny phi c cc tnh thc hin trn c s ti hu quc.
Ban hi thm kt lun rng, ngoi tr mt tnh, Hoa K khng chng minh c y
khiu ni ca mnh v vic lp danh sch hay loi ra khi danh sch ca Canada. V cc hn
ch tip cn cc im bn hng, Ban hi thm cho rng bia nhp khu c bn mt s t hn
cc im bn hng. Ban hi thm thy rng cc hn ch ny tri vi cc quy nh ca GATT v
ra kt lun rng ch mt thc t l bia nhp khu v bia ni a chu hai h thng phn phi
khc nhau khng chng minh tnh khng nht qun vi GATT bi v i ng quc gia
ging nhau mt cch cu n c th s lm cho sn phm nhp khu lm vo tnh cnh ti t
hn. Tuy nhin, Ban hi thm quyt nh rng d sao i na th iu cng l tri vi
GATT. Sau , Ban hi thm xem xt n phng php nh gi t l li kinh doanh v thu
nh vo bia nhp khu v thy rng cc phng php ny l khng nht qun vi iu III:4
(i ng quc gia). Ban hi thm tip tc chuyn sang vn v gi ti thiu v kt lun rng
vic mt cng ty c quyn nhp khu duy tr gi ti thiu cho mt sn phm nhp khu khu
mc m sn phm ni a trc tip cnh tranh c bn vi gi cao hn l khng nht qun vi
iu III:4. Ban hi thm cho rng rng thu nh vo container bia nhp khu c gii
quyt trong phn phn quyt ca Ban hi thm v hn ch vic bn hng ca t nhn. Ban hi
thm kt lun rng cc th tc thng bo cc tnh l khng vi phm iu X (cng b v
thc hin cc quy nh v thng mi). Cui cng, Ban hi thm kt lun rng Canada trong
trng hp ny c mt s mt tri vi ngha v theo iu XXIV:12 ca GATT quy nh
rng cc nc thnh vin phi c cc bin php hp l m bo cc chnh quyn a phng
tun th cc quy nh ca Hip nh trong phm vi bin gii ca a phng mnh. Xem thm
implicit discrimination.
Second-level obligations: Cc ngha v loi hai
Cc ngha v theo cc Hip nh WTO ca cc chnh quyn trung ng ca cc nh nc lin
bang v vic xy dng lut php ca chnh quyn cc bang v a phng. Hai v d sau minh
ho im ny. Cc quy nh ca GATT yu cu cc nc thnh vin WTO c cc bin php c
th c m bo cc chnh quyn khu vc v a phng thc hin cc quy nh ca GATT
trn lnh a cc a phng . GATS p dng cho cc bin php ca c chnh quyn trung
ng v a phng.
Second regionalism: Ch ngha khu vc th hai
Do Bhagwati s dng nm 1993 m t xu th hng ti cc tha thun thng mi khu vc
bt u t nm 1985 vi vic hon thnh Hip nh thng mi t do gia Hoa K v Israel.
Xem thm first regionalism.
Section 22 waiver: Min tr Khon 22
Dn chiu ti Khon 22 ca Lut iu chnh Nng nghip Hoa K yu cu chnh ph p dng
cc bin php hn ch nh lng hoc ph thu (cao hn mc thu bnh thng) khi nng sn
nhp khu gy nh hng ti chng trnh lng thc ca Hoa K. Nm 1955, Hoa K c
dnh min tr v thi hn iu khon ny khi cc quy nh ca GATT. Vic chuyn i hn
ngch p dng theo iu khon ny thnh bo h bng thu ch c thc hin nh l kt qu
ca Vng Urugoay. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT v tarification.
Section 201: Khon 201
Mt iu khon, thng c gi l iu khon d phng, ca Lut thng mi nm 1974 v
cc bn sa i sau ca Hoa K. iu khon ny cho php cc cng ty Hoa K c gim
nh gnh nng t nhp khu c coi l gy ra hoc e do gy ra thit hi nghim trng cho
mt ngnh no . N c p dng cho cc sn phm c bun bn mt cch lnh mnh.
Ni cch khc, khng phi l sn phm c tr cp hoc ph gi. Vic gim nh tn tht
ny c th c thc hin thng qua vic tng thu tm thi, hn ngch nhp khu, m phn
cc tha thun hn ch hoc tr gip trc tip cho ngnh sn xut c lin quan. Xem thm
safeguard v voluntary restraint agreement.
Section 301: Khon 301

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Mt iu khon ca Hip nh thng mi Hoa K nm 1974. iu khon ny c sa i
vo nm 1979 (Lut v cc Hip nh thng mi), 1984 (Lut v Thng mi v Thu quan),
1988 (Lut v Thng mi v Cnh tranh) v nm 1994 (Lut v Hip nh Vng Urugoay).
Khon 301 c nh ra thc thi quyn ca Hoa K ti cc hip nh thng mi v cho
php c cc hnh ng p li cc hot ng thng mi khng lnh mnh sau khi c n t
gic v tin hnh iu tra. Cc hot ng thng mi khng lnh mnh c th xy ra ti Hoa
K, ti nc vi phm hoc nc th 3. Khon 301 c th c s dng nhm tng cng m
ca th trng cho hng ho v dch v ca Hoa K, m bo cc iu kin tt hn cho cc nh
u t nc ngoi, v tng cng bo h c hiu qu hn na i vi quyn s hu tr tu ca
Hoa K cc nc khc. N cng cho php c quan i din thng mi Hoa K (USTR) hn
ch nhp khu t mt nc m nc hn ch thng mi i vi mt s hng ho c th ca
Hoa K mt cch khng cng bng. Ni chung n c dng cho cc ngnh sn xut mt loi
hng ha. Khon 301 bt ngun t Khon 252 ca Lut M rng thng mi nm 1962 cho
php Tng thng quyn rng ri tr a chng li cc hng ro nng nghip khng chnh ng,
v mt t thm quyn trong vic gii quyt cc hng ro thng mi khc. iu 252 mi ch
c s dng hai ln, mt ln trong Chin tranh tht g nh du s ra i ca Vng Kennedy.
Khi tr thnh Khon 301 ca Hip nh Thng mi nm 1974, iu khon ny xa b s phn
bit gia nng sn v phi nng sn, v n cng p dng cho dch v lin quan ti thng mi
quc t. Lut v Cc hip nh thng mi nm 1979 quy nh rng Tng thng cn s dng
quyn lc ca mnh tng cng vic thi hnh cc hip nh thng mi. Ti cc phin bn
ban u ca Khon 301, USTR c php tin hnh iu tra v khuyn ngh cc hnh ng hp
l vi Tng thng. Vic thng qua Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh nm 1988 chuyn quyn
c tr a t Tng thng sang USTR, nhng phi c s ch o ca Tng thng. Hnh ng
tr a by gi tr thnh bt buc trn nguyn tc, nhng vn c phm vi tng i ln cho
s tu tin. Mi e do c hnh ng tr a theo Khon 301 khng c cc nh lm chnh
sch thng mi hoan nghnh khng ch v iu c ngha l phi xem li cc quy nh m
hnh ng tr a nhm vo, m cn v vic phn bc li hnh ng tr a i hi nhiu n
lc nu khng th s khng c tc dng g. Thc hin hnh ng tr a cng i hi tp trung
nhiu ngun lc khng km i vi ngi M, do USTR c xu hng chn cc trng hp
m h cho l c th ginh thng li, nu h c s la chn. S linh hot ny b gim i nhiu
trong cc nm va qua. Mt s ngi cho rng lch s cc hnh ng theo Khon 301 chng li
Cng ng Kinh t Chu u, Nht v Hn Quc chng minh rng vic p dng hnh ng
tr a c th khng mang li hiu qu nu cc nc m Hoa K nhm vo khng c xu hng
thay i iu kin m ca th trng i vi ngnh chu tr a. Quan im ny chc chn
nh gi thp nh hng ca Khon 301. Mt s ngi khc cho rng Bn ghi nh v Gii
quyt tranh chp ca WTO "nh rng" Khon 301. iu khng ng. Khon 301 vn cho
php tr a nu mt thnh vin WTO khng thc hin kt qu ca qu trnh gii quyt tranh
chp. Khon 301 cng c th c s dng nh d tnh ban u trong nhng trng hp khng
c cc quy nh ca WTO i vi cc hnh ng c coi l khng lnh mnh. Xem thm
Special 301, Super 301 v United States Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act.
Section-306 monitoring: Gim st Khon 306
Mt c ch c quy nh trong Lut Thng mi v Cnh tranh Hoa K. C ch ny yu cu
USTR gim st vic thc hin cc bin php c tin hnh theo Khon 301. Nu USTR thy
rng mt nc khng thc hin mt bin php hoc mt tha thun mt cch hp l, tha mn,
th USTR cn phi quyt nh nn tin hnh bin php b sung no. Mt quyt nh nh th
c coi l tho mn cc yu cu v vic tin hnh hnh ng b sung theo Khon 301. Ni
cch khc, khng cn phi iu tra thm gii trnh cho hnh ng b sung. Xem thm
monitoring and inforcement unit.
Section 337: Khon 337
Mt quy nh ca Lut Thng mi nm 1930 ca Hoa K cho php vic tin hnh cc bin
php nhanh chng lm gim nh cc thit hi ang xy ra hoc c kh nng xy ra do vic
nhp khu khng lnh mnh gy nn. Khon 377 c phm vi p dng kh rng ri nhng n

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c c bit s dng cho cc trng hp vi phm quyn s hu tr tu. Ban hi thm ca
GATT nhn thy rng iu 337 vi phm quy nh v i ng quc gia ca GATT v Hoa K
b p buc phi sa i iu ny. Xem thm Smoot-Hawley Act.
Sectoral commitments: Cc cam kt chuyn ngnh
Cc mc bao gm cc ngnh v phn ngnh dch v trong danh mc cam kt theo GATS
(Hip nh chung v thng mi v dch v). V d ngnh k ton, vn chuyn hng ho hoc
bo him sc kho. Mi cam kt theo ngnh c mc quyn v ngha v cao hn so vi
quyn v ngha v m ca th trng v i ng quc gia. Mt khi cc cam kt c a ra, cc
iu kin v m ca th trng c p dng cho cc cam kt khng c tr nn hn ch
hn trong vng t nht 3 nm. Xem thm market access for services.
Sectoral custom union: Lin minh hi quan chuyn ngnh
Xem thm Sectoral free trade area.
Sectoral free-trade area: Khu vc thng mi t do chuyn ngnh
Mt khu vc thng mi t do hoc mt lin minh hi quan ch bao trm mt s lnh vc
thng mi. Loi hnh ny ch dnh cho cc nc ang pht trin theo iu khon Cho php.
Cc nc pht trin c th tin hnh m phn thng mi chuyn ngnh, nhng kt qu ca t
do ha thng mi trong ngnh ny cn phi c m rng cho cc nc khc trn c s ti
hu quc.
Sectoral trade negotiations: m phn thng mi chuyn ngnh
Mt tng nhm t c tnh hiu qu trong m phn thng mi bng cch m phn v
thu quan cho nhiu mt hng ch khng phi m phn tng mt hng c thc hin trong
cc vng m phn u tin. tng ny c th nghim trn quy m rng ri ti Vng
Kennedy. Cc lnh vc chnh c p dng l nhm, ha cht, hng dt bng, st v thp, bt
giy v giy. Mc d kt qu khc nhau nhiu, Preeg (1970) c mt nhn nh su sc rng
vng m phn ny t c tin b ng k trong t do ho thng mi cc ngnh chn
v rt c th s tr thnh phng php gim thu trong tng lai. Sau , ti Vng Tokyo,
Canaa ng h vic gim v xa b cc hng ro quan thu v phi thu quan theo ngnh.
Canada lp lun rng, mt s ngnh, bng cch ny c th t c t do ha thng mi
mnh hn l bng cc k thut m phn c chp nhn trc y. c bit, Canada tin
rng c th xa b tt c cc hng ro quan thu v phi thu quan cho cc sn phm trong giai
on t nguyn liu th sang sn phm hon thin. Cc nc ang pht trin thy rng n
ny rt hp dn vi h bi v n c th p dng mt cch d dng i vi cc sn phm m h
quan tm, v n ny cng c th tr thnh gii php cho vn leo thang thu quan. Tuy
nhin, s phn khng ca cc nc khc lm cho phng php m phn theo ngnh khng
c p dng. Ti Vng Urugoay, m phn thng mi theo ngnh c tin hnh theo hai
cp. Th nht, cp rng, m phn v nng nghip, hng dt may v dch v dn ti vic
k kt cc Hip nh v Nng nghip, Hip nh v Hng dt may v Hip nh v Thng mi
dch v. Tt c cc hip nh ny t c mt mc t do ha no , mc d vn cn t
trong lnh vc dch v. Cc hip nh ny cng quy nh thi gian biu cho t do ha thng
mi trong tng lai. Th hai l m phn ti cc nhm chuyn ngnh nh hn. Vic ny dn
n vic xa b thu quan i vi cc mt hng nh dc phm, thit b xy dng, thit b y t,
bia, my mc nng nghip, g v sn phm giy, cc sn phm c v chi gia cc i tc
thng mi chnh. Hn na, Hoa K v Cng ng Chu u ng gim thu i vi ha
cht xung cn khong 3%. N lc m phn Hip nh Thp a phng khng thnh
cng. Cc cuc m phn thng mi theo ngnh c tip tc tin hnh sau Vng Urugoay
trong lnh vc dch v. Cc cuc m phn v dch v ti chnh em li kt qu hn ch v dn
n Hip nh tm thi v Dch v ti chnh. Cc cuc m phn v dch v vn ti bin c
hon n nm 2000 bi v cc nc tham gia chnh khng c kh nng a ra cc cam kt ng
k. Hip nh Dch v vin thng c bn l mt kt qu kh quan, nhng vn cn nhiu vic
phi lm. Mt v d ni bt v nhng g c th t c qua m phn v thng mi theo

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ngnh l Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin. Nguyn nhn chnh cho s thnh cng rc r ca Hip
nh ny l n c s h tr c ca ngnh v Chnh ph hu ht cc nc sn xut v
thng mi ch yu. Vo thng 5/1997, B trng cc nc APEC quyt nh thm d kh
nng t do ha thng mi theo ngnh. nh ca h l xc nh cc lnh vc m tt c cc
thnh vin APEC u c th ng gim thu v hng ro phi thu quan. l cc ngnh m
m phn theo ngnh l cch tt nht t c t do ha thng mi hn na. Nu cch ny
ph hp th thng t nhiu hiu qu. Cc tr ngi chnh ca h l gnh nng iu chnh s
ch t ln mt ngnh m sau ny ngnh s phi chu ton b ph tn. Nu mc phn
khng qu ln th Chnh ph c th quyt nh khng tip tc. iu ny xy ra mc d ai cng
bit t do ha thng mi l mang li li ch cho nn kinh t. V vy, dng nh t do ha a
phng v nng nhip, mt lnh vc nhy cm nhiu nc, ch c th thc hin c khi tin
hnh mt vng m phn thng mi a phng. Cc vng m phn ny cho php Chnh ph
t c s cn bng gia cc ngnh bi v h c th "c" ngnh ny v "mt" ngnh
khc. Cc ngnh cng th, h c th nhn thy rng h khng b loi ra ngoi nh "vt hy
sinh". Xem thm zero-for-zero tariff reductions.
Security exception: Nhng ngoi l v an ninh
Quyn ca cc thnh vin WTO theo GATS (iu khon XIV bis) v GATT (iu khon XXI)
c quyn tm hon thc hin ngha v ca mnh theo cc hip nh ny nu cc vn v an
ninh quc gia quan trng ang b e do, nh trong trng hp chin tranh xy ra. Cc iu
khon ny rt t khi c s dng. Xem thm general exceptions.
SELA (Latin American Economic System): H thng Kinh t M La-tinh
Mt t chc kinh t khu vc t tr s Venezuela gm 27 nc M La-tinh v vng Ca-ri-b.
T chc ny c mc ch xc tin hp tc lin khu vc y nhanh vic pht trin kinh t x
hi ca cc nc thnh vin v xy dng c cu t chc vng chc thng qua cc chin lc
thng nht ti cc din n quc t.
Selectivity: S chn lc
Vic p dng hn ch nhp khu chng li mt hoc nhiu nc c coi l cc mi e da
chnh cho cc nh sn xut trong nc thay bng s dng cc bin php t v khng phn bit
i x c yu cu trong phn ln cc trng hp theo cc quy nh ca WTO. Theo iu 5
(b) ca Hip nh v cc bin php t v, s chn lc c php nu (i) c th thy r rng
rng nhp khu t mt s nc tng mt cch khng cn i trong giai on c em ra xem
xt, (ii) tt c cc iu kin khc tin hnh bin php t v c c tho mn v (iii) nu
vic ny l cng bng i vi cc nh cung cp. Xem thm escape clause v safeguards.
Self-reliance: T lc
Mt chnh sch pht trin kinh t ch yu da trn cc ti nguyn thin nhin, vn v cc k
nng c sn ti ch. Mt trong nhng c tnh ch yu ca chnh sch ny l s min cng chi
ngoi t cho cc t liu sn xut khng em li nhiu ngoi t hn ngay lp tc hoc trc tip.
Mt trong cc hu qu l cc x nghip trong nc v cc c quan nghin cu phi mt nhiu
thi gian v tin bc vo vic tm cch sng ch li cc sn phm v cc cng ngh ch bin
c sn u , nhng h dng nh khng bao gi ui kp c. Cc nn kinh t hng
ngoi trnh c sai lm ny v thay vo tm kim tm c v tr ca mnh trong h
thng chuyn mn ho quc t thng qua thng mi quc t v u t nc ngoi. Xem thm
autarky, comperative advantage, self-sufficiency v techno-nationalism.
Self-sufficiency: T cung t cp
Mt chnh sch kinh t theo mt nc quyt tm sn xut p ng n mc ln nht cho nhu
cu tiu th. Ngoi thng cng din ra cc nc thc hin cc chnh sch ny, nhng ch
yu l nhp khu cc nguyn liu th cn thit khng c sn trong nc v xut khu cc
nguyn liu th v cc sn phm khc khng cn thit trn th trng trong nc. Chnh sch
kiu ny khng tnh n nhng li ch thu c t chuyn mn ho quc t v chnh sch ny

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lm km hm s m rng ca thng mi v nn kinh t trn din rng hn. Xem thm autarky,
comperative advantage, international division of labour, self-sufficiency v techno-
nationalism.
Semi-conductor: Cht bn dn
V tranh chp vi Hoa K v Nht c Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) a ra trc Hi
ng GATT vo nm 1986, EEC c cc nc Australia, Canada, Hng Kng, Singapore v
Brazil ng h. Trng hp m EEC a ra, nh c nu trong ti liu BISD 35, ny sinh t
tha thun gia Hoa K v Nht vo nm 1986 lin quan n vic bun bn cht bn dn. Tha
thun ny mang li nhng iu kin m ca th trng tt hn cho cc cht bn dn nhp khu
vo Nht v vic gim st gi xut khu ca Chnh ph Nht ngn nga vic ph gi Hoa
K. Cc quy nh v gim st v ph gi cng c p dng cho cc th trng th ba. Nht s
dng c ch thc thi COCOM gim st gi xut khu gy ra vic tr hon trong vic cp
php xut khu. EEC khiu ni rng (a) cc bin php gim st ca Nht, c bit nhng bin
php p dng cho th trng cc nc th ba l vi phm iu VI (Chng ph gi) v iu XI
(Loi tr hon ton cc hn ch nh lng); (b) cc quy nh v vic tip cn th trng Nht
l vi phm iu I (i ng quc gia); v (c) thiu tnh cng khai xung quanh cc vn vi
phm iu X (Thng bo v thc hin cc quy nh v thng mi). EEC lp lun rng vic
gim st mt nc th ba nhm mc ch m bo rng cc cng ty ca Hoa K khng b bt
li ti cc th trng khi m tha thun ny lm tng gi Hoa K. Nht cho rng vic
gim st ch yu l theo di. Trong trng hp gi xut khu thp hn chi ph sn xut qu
nhiu, MITI (B Cng thng ca Nht) c th by t mi lo ngi ny ti cc nh sn xut.
EEC nghi ng vic theo di ny liu c th ngn nga c hnh ng ph gi. Vic gim st
nc th ba trong mi trng hp l tri vi iu VI quy nh nc nhp khu c ton quyn
quyt nh liu h c tin hnh cc bin php chng ph gi hay khng. Nht phn ng rng
iu VI v Lut v chng ph gi khng c cc quy nh lin quan n cc hnh ng do cc
nc xut khu tin hnh ngn nga vic ph gi; v cng khng ngn cm cc bin php
ny, nu chng khng phi l cc bin php hn ch. EEC cho rng vic gim st th trng cc
nc th ba l tri vi iu XI bng cch to ra vic tng gi nhp khu cu Nht i vi cht
bn dn thng qua s can thip ca Chnh ph v cc hnh ng gy ra hn ch ny c cng
nhn ton cu. Nht cho rng vic gim st khng nhm ngn cn hoc hn ch thng mi.
EEC cng cho rng iu I b vi phm v Nht ch p dng c ch gim st ti mt s nc
v vic iu hnh c ch ny ca Nht l khng r rng. Nht tr li rng cc th trng c
gim st thc t l tt c cc th trng xut khu cc cht bn dn ca h. Hoa K cho rng h
khng nhn c s tip cn c u i vi th trng Nht, v li khiu ni ca EEC cho rng
gim st khng ph hp vi iu XI l khng c c s c v mt thc t v theo lut nh; v
cho rng tha thun khng yu cu, v ngay c khng c ng hn ch nh lng trong
phm vi quy nh ca iu XI, rng Nht gim st tt c xut khu, do khng vi phm iu
I, v rng c hai bn n lc rt nhiu trong vic m bo tnh cng khai. Trc tin, Ban hi
thm xem xt khiu ni lin quan n iu XI v thy rng vic yu cu cc cng ty ca Nht
khng c xut khu cht bn dn vi gi thp hn gi sn xut thc ca cng ty sang th
trng cc nc thnh vin khc ngoi th trng Hoa K, kt hp vi h thng kim tra gi
phc tp l khng nht qun vi iu XI v l h thng iu hnh cp giy php xut khu.
Ban hi thm cng thy rng bng chng a ra khng chng minh c vic Nht ginh i
ng v vic tip cn th trng ca Nht cho Hoa K l vi phm iu khon v i ng quc
gia. Ban hi thm cng cho rng iu VI khng c cp g n cc hnh ng ca cc nc
xut khu nhm ngn nga hnh vi ph gi v do khng phi l bin minh cho vic p
dng cc bin php hn ch xut khu hoc cc bin php v gi xut khu. Ban hi thm cng
ghi nhn rng iu VI khng quy nh v quyn ca nc xut khu c p dng cc bin
php chng ph gi i vi hng ha xut khu ca h.
Semi-tradables: Bn kh thng
Hng ha v dch v c cc c im c th xp vo loi kh thng v c cc c im khc
c th a vo loi bt kh thng. S phn bit gia hai loi ny trn thc t rt kh khn.

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Sensitive list: Danh mc nhy cm
Danh mc ca cc nc thnh vin AFTA gm cc hng nng sn cha ch bin. Vic t do
ha i vi cc sn phm trong danh mc ny khng phi thc hin cho ti nm 2010. Tt c
cc sn phm khc cn phi t c thu sut u i t 0-5% vo nm 2003. Xem thm
Temporary Exclusion List.
Sensitive products: Cc sn phm nhy cm
Cc sn phm d b p dng hn ch nhp khu hn l cc sn phm khc. C th ly v d
in hnh nh hng nng sn, hng dt may, hng may mc v giy dp, cc loi xe -t ch
ngi, ha cht v i khi l thp. Cc l do coi cc sn phm ny l nhy cm rt phc tp.
Nguyn nhn c th l bo h cc ngh truyn thng ca mt dn tc thiu s trong nc
nh trong trng hp cc xng thuc da ca Nht. Trong mt s trng hp khc, vic thay
i v k thut v u t mi c th dn n vic cc nh cnh tranh nc ngoi c chi ph thp
hn. Lnh vc nng nghip, nh v d ca EU cho thy, l rt phc tp. Cc th lc chnh tr
truyn thng cng vi s nhn thc m h ca cng ng cho rng nng nghip l c trng
cho tinh thn ca dn tc v do cn phi bo h lm cho lnh vc nng nghip tr nn rt
mong manh, nhy cm. Xem thm sensitive sectors.
Sensitive sectors: Cc lnh vc nhy cm
Cc b phn ca nn kinh t trong nc t ra cc thch thc cho cc nh lp chnh sch
thng mi v rt nhiu l do, trong c c l do lc hu v k thut, cc yu t v vn ha,
cc nh hng ca chnh tr v vic sn xut thi qu. Trong s cc lnh vc c nng nghip,
dch v nghe nhn v cc hot ng vn ha, cc ngnh cng nghip quc phng, dch v ti
chnh, ng tu, hng dt v giy dp. Trn thc t hu nh bt c ngnh no cng c th tr
thnh nhy cm nu nh ngnh phi chu sc p ca nhp khu v nu ngnh mun t t
chc hot ng. Gii php lu di gii quyt cc vn do cc ngnh nhy cm gy ra c
tm ra trong qu trnh iu chnh c cu hoc nu khng th qua s li thi, lc hu mt cch
ngu nhin v vic bin mt ca mt s ngnh. Xem thm sensitive products v sectoral trade
negotiations.
Seoul Declaration: Tuyn b Seoul
Tuyn b v cc mc tiu ca APEC a ra ti Hi ngh B trng APEC 11/1991 ti Seoul.
Bn mc tiu l: (i) duy tr s tng trng v pht trin ca khu vc t c s thnh
vng chung cho cc nc thnh vin v bng cch ny ng gp vo s tng trng v pht
trin ca nn kinh t th gii; (ii) tng cng cc li ch cho c kinh t khu vc v nn kinh t
th gii, bt ngun t vic ph thuc ln nhau ngy cng tng v kinh t, trong c vic
khuyn khch giao lu hng ha, dch v, vn v cng ngh, (iii) pht trin v cng c h thng
thng mi a phng m v li ch ca chu - Thi bnh dng v cc nn kinh t khc, v
(iv) gim hng ro trong thng mi i vi hng ha v dch v v u t gia cc thnh vin
bng cch ph hp vi cc nguyn tc ca GATT nhng im c th c v khng gy
phng hi ti cc nn kinh t khc. Xem thm Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.
Sequential foreign direct investment: u t trc tip nc ngoi lin tc
c UNCTAD nh ngha l u t trc tip nc ngoi ca cc cng ty c mt trn th
trng. Trong hu ht cc trng hp, vic u t nh vy gm c li nhun ti u t. Xem
thm associated foreign direct investment.
Serious damage: Tn tht nghim trng
Xem injury.
Serious injury: Thit hi nghim trng
Xem injury.
Serious prejudice: Phn bit i x nghim trng

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Tn ti trong Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng ca WTO khi tr cp c nhng
nh hng mt mc no i vi li ch ca cc nc thnh vin khc. Mt cch rng
ri, vic ny ny sinh khi (a) tng gi tr tr cp i vi mt sn phm vt qu 5%; (b) tr cp
c s dng b p li s thua l ca mt ngnh no ; (c) tr cp b p li s thua l
thc hin cc gii php lu di v trnh cc vn x hi trm trng, v (d) gii ta trc tip
cc khon n nh nc. Nc thnh vin phi tin hnh bin php thch hp trong cc trng
hp ny. Hip nh cng m t mt lot cc tnh hnh m s u i c th xy ra. Cc quy
tc p dng cho tr cp trong nng nghip tun theo Hip nh v Nng nghip ca WTO. Xem
thm actionable susidies, prohibited subsidies v subsidies.
Service dumping: Ph gi trong lnh vc dch v
c coi rng c ngun gc t vic s dng cc tha thun v gi c phn bit hoc tr gi
trong cc iu khon v dch v vn ti bin. Cc ph vn chuyn t hn mc chi ph c coi
l dnh li th cho cc nh xut khu m c th c nh hng ti mc gi ca sn phm khi
c a vo th trng. Sn phm c th c mang tr gi thng thng, nhng vic gim
cc ph chuyn ch vn c th dn ti ph gi. Khi nim ny c tho lun a vo D
tho ca Hin chng Havana, nhng khng c phn nh trong cc quy tc v chng ph gi
hin hnh. Xem thm anti-dumping measures.
Service: Dch v
Gm c cc hot ng v kinh t ch cht nh vin thng, ngn hng, bo him, vn ti ng
b v vn ti bin, hng khng, kim ton, lut, c kh, gii tr v.v... t sn xut c hoc c
coi nh mt b phn ca mt loi hng ho hoc dch v no . Ti Australia, theo phng
php Cc thng k ca Australia p dng, dch v chim khong 80% nhn cng v 75% GDP.
Cc nc khc c t l khc v s chnh lch gia cc t l l do cc phng php thng k
khc nhau hn l do s khc bit v c bn ca cch thc vn hnh ca mt nn kinh t. Tm
quan trng ca dch v khng phi lc no cng c nhn thy. Quan im ca Adam Smith
l "cng vic ca mt s ngi ng knh nht trong x hi, nh lao ng ca nhng ngi lao
ng chn tay, l phi sn xut v khng n nh hoc nhn nh bt c mt dng khng thay
i no, hoc l hng ho c th bn c cn lu li sau khi lao ng sng to ra n chm
dt, v nh hng ha m mt khi lng sc lao ng c s dng... Trong cng mt tng
lp xp hng nh nhau, mt s ngh nghip va c tnh quan trng va mang tnh nghim ngh
nht v mt s ngh nghip c tnh ngh thut: linh mc, lut s, nh vt l, anh h, nhc s, ca
s opera, v cng opera v.v...". Theo quan im ny dch v khng c nhn thc r rng l do
cc th h sau to ra, mc d c mt xu hng h thp vai tr ca n trong nn kinh t. Khng
c mt nh ngha no v dch v c chp nhn ton cu. Mt s nh ngha c th
nghim nhng khng c nh ngha no c chp nhn hon ton. Th nht, dch v thng
c gn cho cc c tnh l khng xc nh c, v hnh, khng c kh nng lu tr do
i hi phi sn xut v tiu th ngay lp tc. Cc c tnh ny c ng trong cu ni ca
Adam Smith. Tuy nhin tin b v k thut lm cho nh ngha ny tr thnh lc hu. Th
hai, cch tip cn c s dng cho rng nhng g khng c phn loi l ngnh bc mt hay
bc hai th c coi l dch v. Ba l cch nh ngha theo chc nng, do T P Hill khi xng
nm 1977 khi ng nh ngha dch v nh "mt s thay i trong iu kin ca mt ngi hoc
mt hng ha thuc v mt n v kinh t no c mang li do kt qu ca hot ng ca
mt n v kinh t khc vi s tha thun trc ca ngi hoc n v kinh t ". Mt s
ngi lp lun rng nh ngha ny khng y bi v n khng bao hm, v d nh dch v
an ninh hoc y hc d phng. Th t, C quan nh gi Cng ngh Hoa K ngh cch phn
loi theo hai hnh thc (a) dch v da trn kin thc (bo him, dch v chuyn ngnh v dch
v k thut, mt s dch v ngn hng, dch v cng ngh thng tin...) v (b) dch v cp 3 (cho
thu, vn ti bin, phn phi, i l mn danh, bn l, l hnh...). Trong cun Lao ng ca
cc quc gia, Robert Reich a ra 3 loi dch v khc nhau lin quan n ngh nghip. Loi
th nht l cc dch v sn xut theo ng mn i hi cc cng vic lp i lp li c hng
dn bi cc th tc v tiu chun v cc quy nh c lp thnh iu l, ging nh cng
vic lp rp do cc cng nhn tin hnh. Dch v ny c th c a vo thng mi ton cu.

- 191 -
Loi th hai ng gi l dch v con ngi cng yu cu cc cng vic lp i lp li nhng dch
v ny cn phi c cung cp t ngi ny sang ngi khc. ng nhn xt rng nhng nh
cung cp dch v loi ny phi c cch c x ha nh, vi n ci thng trc trn mi, bc l
s t tin v vui v thm ch ngay c khi h bun b. Loi 3 l dch v phn tch-tng trng,
bao gm cc hot ng gii quyt cc vn , xc nh vn v mi gii. Hot ng ny c
th c thng mi ha trn phm vi quc t nhng n khng c tiu chun ha. N bao
gm nhiu loi dch v kinh doanh, dch v ngh nghip, ti chnh v dch v thit k. Danh
sch ca h thng phn loi ny vn c s dng. Vic thiu mt nh ngha c chp nhn
khng ngn cn c s xut hin ca mt s lng ln cc nghin cu hu ch v sn xut v
thng mi dch v. Xem thm trade in services.
Set-aside programs: Chng trnh ngng sn xut
c s dng Hoa K v Cng ng Chu u loi mt s t nng nghip ra khi sn
xut nh mt cch thc gim vic sn xut d tha. Nhng ngi nng dn c bi thng
v ti chnh khi tham gia vo cc chng trnh ny.
Shallow integration: Hi nhp khng su sc
Xem thm deep integration.
Shelf-life restrictions: Hn ch v thi hn bn hng
Thng l cc quy nh v y t cng cng, c bit l cc quy nh v cc loi lng thc, ha
cht, dc phm... m bo rng mt sn phm ch c a ra bn ti cc ca hng khi m
cht lng v tnh an ton cu n c bo m v c duy tr. Nu hn ca mt sn phm
c coi l ngn th vic tip cn th trng ca nhng nh cung cp nc ngoi c th b cn
tr v cn phi c thi gian cn thit vn chuyn v thng quan. Do cc hn ch v thi
hn bn hng ca sn phm tr thnh hng ro k thut i vi thng mi. L do ca cc hn
ch v thi hn thng khc nhau. N c th da trn s cn thit bo v cc nh sn xut
trong nc, hoc da trn kin ch quan rng thi hn bn hng khng c vt qu mt
giai on nht nh no v l do sc kho v an ton, da trn s min cng chp nhn tnh
hiu qu ca cc cch thc ng gi v ngn ngi khi chp nhn cc phng php th nghim
mi.
Sherman Act: Lut Sherman
Mt lut ca Hoa K c thng qua nm 1890 vi mc ch nhm cm c quyn v hn ch
thng mi gia cc bang cng nh ngoi thng. N l c s ca h thng chnh sch v lut
chng c quyn ca Hoa K. To n ti cao Hoa K ni v Lut ny vo nm 1958 nh sau:
"Lut Sherman c hnh thnh nh l mt iu l ton din cho thng mi t do nhm mc
ch bo m cnh tranh t do v khng gy cn tr". Phn I ca Lut ny quy nh rng bt c
mt tha thun no nhm hn ch thng mi u l bt hp php. Trong thi gian u iu
ny c thc hin chnh xc, nhng To n ti cao vo nm 1911 quyt nh rng ch c cc
hn ch khng hp l hoc thi qu i vi thng mi th mi nm trong phm vi ca iu
ny. Xem thm Webb-Pomerence Act.
Short-supply regulations: Cc quy nh trong tnh trng khan him
H thng cc quy nh c tho lun vo nm 1977 trong khun kh lut php sa i ca
Hoa K v cc bin php chng ph gi. Lp lun cho cc quy nh ny l do mt s hot ng
sn xut ph thuc vo cnh tranh trong cung cp cc linh kin duy tr vic bn sn phm.
i khi vic cung cp cc linh kin ny t cc ngun trong nc b khan him tm thi nhng
c th trong thi gian chng ang phi chu cc th tc chng ph gi. Trong trng hp
ny, hnh ng chng ph gi theo quan im ca cc nh nhp khu khng cn phi xt n.
iu ny cho php cc cng ty tip tc c hng li t gi thp hn nh vo cc linh kin
nhp khu v bng cch ny duy tr c cnh tranh ca h. Lp lun ny cui cng b cc
nh lp php bc b.

- 192 -
Short-term arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles: Tha thun
ngn hn v thng mi quc t i vi hng dt may bng vi bng
Mt tha thun ti GATT gia cc nh xut khu v nhp khu ln qun l thng mi i
vi sn phm ny qua cc hn ch nh lng c la chn. Tha thun ny c hiu lc vo nm
1961 trong vng mt nm v c thay th vo nm 1962 bi Tha thun di hn v Thng
mi quc t v hng dt may bng vi bng m sau c thay th bng Hip nh a si
nm 1973. Tt c cc tha thun ny c min tr theo iu XI ca GATT i hi vic loi
b cc hn ch nh lng. Xem thm Agreement on Textile and Clothing.
Sidewipe problem: Vn nh hng ph
Mt thut ng c cc nh phn tch thng mi ca Canaa s dng m t cc nh hng
xu gy ra cho Canaa do cc hnh ng do Hoa K tin hnh nhm vo cc nc th ba.
Singapore Ministerial Conference: Hi ngh B trng Singapore
Hi ngh u tin trong cc Hi ngh B trng WTO nh k 2 nm mt ln. Hi ngh ny
c t chc vo thng 12/1996. Xem thm WTO Ministerial Conference.
Single-column tariff: Biu thu mt ct
Danh mc thu theo cc bn hng thng mi u c i x ging nhau. N cho php cc
nh nhp khu tm kim cc nh cung cp tt nht. Bng thu mt ct phn nh tnh trng l
tng ca mt h thng thng mi a phng. Xem thm multi-column tariff.
Single-desk selling: Bn hng mt ca
Thc tin mt s nc tin hnh tip th nc ngoi v xut khu cc sn phm nng nghip
qua Cc b phn tip th chuyn trch. Thng th cc b phn ny c c quyn v xut khu
v i khi c nhp khu. Trong cc nn kinh t th trng, cc b phn ny hot ng trn
nguyn tc thng mi p li cc tn hiu ca th trng. Chng khng phi l mt dng
doanh nghip nh nc.
Single European Act: Lut Cng ng Chu u nht th
S sa i Hip c Rome vo nm 1987 vi mc ch chuyn i cc mi quan h gia cc
nc thnh vin ca Cng ng Chu u thnh mt Lin minh Chu u, v ng gp vo
vic t c cc tin b trong thng nht chu u. Tuy nhin, ni dung ca Lut ny ch yu
l v kinh t. N m rng thm quyn ca Cng ng bao gm thm th trng ni a, chnh
sch tin t, chnh sch x hi, s thng nht v kinh t v x hi, nghin cu v cng ngh,
mi trng. Cc yu t ny khin cho Th trng nht th Cng ng Chu u tr thnh hin
thc. Lut Cng ng chu nht th u cng gm c cc thay i quan trng v t chc nh
vic to ra lin kt gia cc Cng ng Chu u v hp tc chnh tr ca chu u.
Single Market: Th trng nht th
Xem European Single Market.
Single undertaking: Nguyn tc chp nhn ton b
ch yu cu cc thnh vin WTO cn phi tham gia vo tt c cc hip nh do WTO gim
st, tr 4 Hip nh nhiu bn. Vic tham gia vo cc hip nh ny l tu chn. Trc khi
WTO c thnh lp, cc thnh vin ca GATT c th chn la cc hip nh trong phm vi
ca GATT m h mun tham gia.
SITC (Standard International Trade Classification): Phn loi thng mi quc t mang
tnh tiu chun
Phn loi ca Lin hp quc i vi cc hng ha c th vn chuyn c. Cc lnh vc dch v
v phi thng mi khng nm trong phn loi ny. SITC l phn loi s dng thng k thng
thng nht o c khi lng hng ha c bun bn. Xem thm ANZSIC v UNCPC.

- 193 -
Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: Lut thu Smoot-Hawley
Lut thu quan Hoa K nm 1930. Lut ny c thng qua vo thi k u ca cuc i
khng hong v c ghi nh v tng thu quan n mc cao nht trong lch s Hoa K.
Mc thu c ghi trong Lut ny, nh mc thu do tin thn ca n - Lut thu quan nm
1909 quy nh, l c nh nh v khng th gim khi m phn. Lut ny c sa i nm
1934 bng Lut v cc Hip nh Thng mi c i c li. Lut ny a ra Chng trnh cc
Hip nh thng mi c i c li cho php vic m phn gim thu. nh hng gy ra cho
thng mi quc t ca thu Smoot-Hawley hin nay cn ang c tranh ci. C kin cho
rng l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn ch yu lm khng hong trm trng hn, nh
c ghi nhn trong lch s kinh t. i vi nn kinh t Hoa K, iu c th l do nh gi
sai nh hng ca mc thu sut cao. Vo thi im , nhp khu ca Hoa K ch chim
khong 6% ca tng sn phm quc dn. Trong mi trng hp, nh hng ca thu quan gy
ra trong nc khng cm nhn c cho n khi suy thoi tr nn trm trng. Cc nc coi
Hoa K l th trng chnh b nh hng nng n bi mc thu cao. D nh hng ca Lut
ny ti thng mi nh th no i chng na, n th hin xu hng theo ui chnh sch n xin
nc ngoi ca cc nc trong thi gian chin tranh. Mc thu sut Smoot-Hawley vn cn c
hiu lc v c p dng cho cc sn phm t cc nc khng c hng i ng ti hu quc
ca Hoa K. Xem thm autonomous tariff v United States Reciprocal Trade Agreements
Program.
Social Chapter: Chng mc x hi
Xem Social charter.
Social Charter: Hin chng x hi
Tn chnh thc l Hin chng ca Cng ng v Cc quyn x hi c bn cho ngi lao ng
c Cng ng Chu u v Vng quc Anh thng qua vo thng 12/1989. N c sa i
cht t tr thnh Hip c Maastricht v cng c bit n vi tn l Chng mc X hi.
Hi ngh Lin chnh ph c t chc Amsterdam thng 6/1997 nht tr rng ph lc ny cn
tr thnh mt phn ca Hip c. Hin chng ny nhm m bo rng tt c cc cng dn ca
Cng ng Chu u u c hng li t Th trng nht th Chu u ch khng phi ch
gii doanh nghip. Hin chng ny bao gm cc iu khon v vic t do di chuyn, lm vic
v c hng th lao, ci thin mc sng v cc iu kin lao ng, bo v x hi, t do thnh
lp hip hi v m phn tp th, dy ngh, bnh ng gia nam v n, thng tin, t vn v s
tham gia ca cc cng nhn, bo v sc kho v an ton ti ni lm vic, bo v tr em v
ngi v thnh nin, ngi gi v nhng ngi tn tt. Mt s ngi coi Hin chng ny nh
mt m hnh kh thi c th a ra tho lun v cc tiu chun lao ng v thng mi ti cc t
chc quc t.
Social clause: iu khon x hi
Tn ngn gn ca vn liu c nn p dng cc hnh pht v thng mi di hnh thc cc
bin php ca WTO i vi cc nc thnh vin c chng minh l vi phm cc vn v lao
ng c thng nht trn ton cu hay khng. Mc ch ca iu khon x hi l nhm ci
thin cc iu kin lao ng cc nc xut khu bng cch cho php trng pht cc nc xut
khu khng thc hin ng cc tiu chun ti thiu v lao ng ca T chc Lao ng quc t
(ILO). Hin nay vn cha c tnh kh thi hoc nhu cu cn thit v vn ny, mc d n
c tho lun hn mt th k. N c a ra bn lun ti Hi ngh cc B trng WTO
Singapore thng 12/1996 v cc B trng thng nht rng cc tiu chun v lao ng l
cng vic ca ILO. Mc d vy, cng cn ghi nhn rng Hip nh v ng v thic quc t
nm 1954 c iu khon v "tiu chun lao ng cng bng" nhm m bo rng lao ng sn
xut cc loi hng ha c lin quan cn phi c hng th lao cng bng, c hng bo
him x hi v cc iu kin p ng khc. Cc tiu chun v lao ng cng bng cha bao gi
thc s b gt ra khi chng trnh ngh s quc t thi k hu chin. V d, Hi ngh v Lao
ng th gii nm 1976 quy nh rng tnh cnh tranh ca hng nhp khu t cc nc ang
pht trin khng c da trn yu t nhn cng r. Trong nhng nm sau , bn bo co

- 194 -
Brandt th nht cng khuyn ngh rng cc tiu chun lao ng cng bng cn phi c nht
tr trn quy m quc t to thun li cho t do ha thng mi. Xem thm child labour,
international commodity agreements, trade and labour standards, workers rights.
Social dimension of the liberalization of international trade: nh hng x hi ca t do
ha thng mi quc t
Mt khi nim lin quan n nh hng ca vic thay i c cu do t do ha thng mi quc
t mang li cho con ngi. tng c bn ca vn ny l khng phi tt c mi ngi u
c hng li t nhng thay i ny, v cng nhn mt s ngnh no s chu s e do
ca ca hng nhp khu do cc cng nhn cc nc c cc iu kin lao ng khng y
lm ra. T chc Lao ng quc t thnh lp ra nhm cng tc gim st vn ny. Xem
thm core labour standards, social clause v trade and labour standards.
Social dumping: Ph gi x hi
Mt thut ng khng chnh xc v cc hnh ng c th pht sinh khi xut khu cc hng ha
sn xut bi cc t nhn v lao ng kh sai vi gi thp. y l mt trong nhng th loi c
coi l ph gi do cc nc tham gia vo cc vng m phn Hin chng Havana xc nh ra.
Khng c quy nh no c d tho cho hnh vi c coi l ph gi ny v thut ng ny
khng c coi l mt khi nim v chnh sch thng mi c chp nhn. GATT c cc loi
tr chung bao gm hng ha ca lao ng t nhn. Gn y, thut ng "ph gi x hi" ny
cng c s dng cho cc sn phm c coi l sn xut v xut khu di cc iu kin
khng phn nh cc tiu chun c s dng ti cc nc pht trin, cc tiu chun k thut.
Xem thm dumping, pauper-labour argument, social clause, trade and labour standards v
workesr rights.
Social labelling: Dn nhn x hi
Hnh ng dn mc hoc nhn hiu cho mt sn phm chng t rng sn phm ny c
sn xut di cc iu kin tiu chun lao ng cng bng. Khng c quy tc quc t no quy
nh v vic ny, v mt s ngi e ngi rng vic dn nhn x hi bt buc c th l bc u
tin dn n phn bit i x cc sn phm nhy cm bo h mt s ngnh sn xut trong
nc. Nhng ngi ng h kin ny ni rng khng phi l ch ch ca h. Rugmark l
mt v d v vic dn nhn t nguyn. Cc sn phm c dn nhn ny c sn xut khng
s dng lao ng tr em. Xem thm eco-labelling, genetic labelling v social clause.
Socially-responsible investing: u t m bo tnh x hi
Hnh ng c tnh n cc tiu chun o c v kinh t khi a ra mt quyt nh u t.
Social subsidies: Tr cp x hi
Mt s ngi khiu ni rng tr cp x hi xy ra khi chnh ph cho php vic tn ti ca cc
tiu chun lao ng thp hn cc tiu chun m quc t ang p dng, c bit l trong ngnh
sn xut xut khu, hoc l chnh ph khng thc thi cc tiu chun ca nc mnh. Kt
qu l cc doanh nghip chu chi ph hot ng t hn v hng li t thc tin ny v vic ny
c coi nh l tr cp xut khu. Tuy nhin, cc nh phn tch c xu hng ch ra rng cc
tiu chun lao ng thp hn mang li t hiu qu cho cnh tranh xut khu m thc t l n li
gy cn tr cho vic cnh tranh ny. Khi nim v tr cp x hi cng khng c chp nhn l
mt phn trong t vng v chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm core labour standards, pauper-
labour argument v social clause.
Soft law: Lut mm
Trong cch ni ca chnh sch thng mi, cc hip nh quc t khng yu cu cc bn tham
gia phi thc thi cc bin php nm trong hip nh. Ni cch khc, l cc hip nh trn
danh ngha. V d v cc vn kin i hi phi c lut mm l H thng cc quy nh v
nguyn tc ca UNCTAD v vic qun l cc thc tin kinh doanh hn ch v Cc hng dn
ca OECD v cc doanh nghip a quc gia. C quan im gia nhng ngi thc hin lut

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quc t rng mt vn kin php l khng rng buc c th dn n mt tiu chun mi nu n
c thng qua mt cch ng n. Xem thm hard law.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation: Hip hi cc nc Nam v hp tc
khu vc
Xem SAPTA.
Southern Common Market: Th trng chung Nam M
Xem Mercosur.
South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement: Hip nh v hp
tc kinh t v thng mi khu vc Nam Thi bnh dng
Xem SPARTECA.
South-South trade: Thng mi Nam-Nam
Thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin v cc vn v chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm
ECDC v GSTP.
Soyabean case: V u tng
Xem oilseeds case.
Spaghetti-bowl effect: nh hng ly lan
Thut ng m Bhagwati v Panagaryia (1996) s dng m t s phc tp ca cc lut l v
thng mi bt ngun t s ph bin ca cc khu vc thng mi t do. Mt v d in hnh
ca vic ny l s tn ti ca quy ch xut x khc nhau mi khu vc thng mi t do. Cc
nc l thnh vin ca hai hoc nhiu hn cc tha thun loi ny c th phi thc hin cc quy
nh khc nhau cho tng tha thun ny.
SPARTECA (South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement):
Hip nh v Hp tc Kinh t v Thng mi khu vc Nam Thi bnh dng
Hip nh ny c hiu lc vo ngy 1/1/1981 v dnh cho cc nc nm trong khu vc Nam
Thi bnh dng nhng u i khng tng h i vi th trng Australia v New Zealand.
Vic tip cn th trng Australia cho mt hng ng b loi tr. Xem thm asymmetrical
trade agreements v Australian System of Tariff Preferences.
Special Agreement on Commodity Arrangements (SACA): Hip nh c bit v cc Tho
thun v hng ha
Mt ngh ny sinh vo u nm 1955 gia cc nc l thnh vin ca GATT nhm a ra
mt hip nh gii quyt tnh trng khng cn bng gia sn xut v tiu dng cho hng ha
s ch bn ngoi th trng. SACA tn ti song song vi GATT mc du cha bao gi c s xc
nh no v mi quan h php l ca SACA v GATT. ngh ny c s ng h ban u ca
nhiu nc thng mi hng ha quan trng nhng vic th ca Hoa K, nc thng mi
hng ha ln nht, dn n hng lot quan im khc bit ca cc nc thnh vin khc v
c cu ca n. Mt s ngi cho rng vn v thng mi i vi cc hng ha s ch cn
phi c gii quyt ti GATT. ngh ny b tht bi vo cui nm . Xem thm agriculture
and the GATT v GATT review session.
Special and differential treatment (S+D): i ng khc bit v c bit
Khi nim cho rng hng ha xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin cn phi c dnh u
i ti th trng cc nc pht trin; v cc nc ang pht trin tham gia m phn thng
mi khng cn phi dnh c i c li hon ton i vi cc u i m h c hng. Theo i
x u i ny, cc nc ang pht trin cng c hng khung thi gian lu hn v mc
thc hin cc ngha v thp hn theo nh quy nh. Xem thm developing countries and the
GATT, enabling clause, GSP, least-developed contries, part IV of the GATT v reciprocity.

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Special safeguards: Cc bin php t v c bit
Mt c ch trong Hip nh v Nng nghip dnh cho cc nc thnh vin chuyn cc bin
php phi thu quan sang bo h bng thu quan. N cho php cc nc thnh vin nh thu
b sung cc sn phm nng nghip nu khi lng hng nng sn nhp khu vt qu mc
cho php hoc gi cho php. Cc bin php t v c bit do to ra mt c ch bo m an
ton cho cc nc nhp khu trong trng hp nhu cu nhp khu gia tng. Cc bin php t v
c hiu l s dng mt cch cng khai. Xem thm safeguards, selectivity, tariffication v
transitional safeguards.
Special-structure countries: Cc nc c c cu c bit
Tn gi cho cc nc Australia, Canada, New Zealand v Nam Phi ti Vng Kennedy v m
phn thng mi a phng. 4 nc ny khiu ni, v sau c chp thun, rng h c t
cch khc nhau trong m phn v gim thu quan tuyn tnh v cc ngnh cng nghip ca h
cha pht trin ti mc c kh nng cnh tranh vi hng nhp khu c mc thu thp, v
bin php gim thu tuyn tnh khng lm gim mc bo h nng nghip trn th trng
xut khu chnh ca h. Trong trng hp ny, h theo cch thc tip cn tng mt hng mt
trong khi m phn.
Special 301: Khon 301 c bit
Tn chung cho Khon 1303 ca Lut v Thng mi v Cnh tranh Hoa K nm 1988. B lut
ny yu cu C quan i din thng mi Hoa K (USTR) tin hnh iu tra hng nm cc
nc nm trong danh sch u tin t chi bo h mt cch y v c hiu qu quyn s hu
tr tu ca Hoa K hoc t chi vic m ca th trng cng bng cho nhng c nhn tin cy
vo vic bo h quyn s hu tr tu. Cc nc c cc iu kin ht sc kh khn v cc nc
c cc iu kin gy ra hoc c kh nng gy ra nh hng xu i vi cc sn phm c lin
quan ca Hoa K phi c coi l cc nc nm trong mc u tin. Vic ny c thc hin
qua danh sch u tin theo di. Nhng nc c a vo danh sch ny s c USTR ch
hn. Ngoi ra cng c danh sch theo di. Cc nc nm trong danh sch ny c coi l c
vn , nhng cha phi c hnh ng. Vic iu tra c khi xng theo Khon 301
c bit thuc loi rt nhanh. Vic xc nh s khng cng bng v hnh ng tr a cn phi
c tin hnh trong thi hn 6 thng k t khi tin hnh iu tra. c tnh c bit ca Khon
301 l, theo nh sa i ca Lut v cc Hip nh ca Vng Urugoay, n c th c p dng
i vi cc nc t chi bo h quyn s hu tr tu y v c hiu qu ngay c khi nc
ny tun th cc ngha v ca mnh theo nh Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu c lin quan
n thng mi ca WTO. Xem thm Section 301 v Super 301.
Specific reciprocity: Tng h c th
Xem thm mirror-image receiprocity.
Specific tariff: Thu c nh
Thu c th hin bng mt khon ph c th nh vo mt hng ha nhp khu c th. Mt
v d c tnh cht gi thit ca thu c nh l mc thu 1 USD cho mt a compact bt k tr
gi ca loi a ny. Xem thm ad varolem tariff.
Springboarding: Tung ra
Xem generic springboarding.
STABEX (System for the Stabilization of Export Earning): H thng bnh n ngun thu
xut khu
Mt k hoch c thnh lp theo Cng c Lom nhm n nh ngun thu xut khu ca cc
nc ang pht trin lin kt vi Cng ng Chu u qua Cng c ny. K hoch ny gm c
49 hng ha v sn phm hng ha xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin. K hoch ny
nhm n b cho cc nc ny v ngun thu xut khu b gim st trong thng mi vi
Cng ng Chu u nu phn ln ngun thu xut khu ca nc ny ch yu da vo mt
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hng ha no . Mc ngng ph thuc l 5% theo quy nh chung, v 1% cho cc nc
chm pht trin nht. n b c tin hnh di dng vin tr. y c mt s iu kin
mc hn ch vi mc ch chnh l m bo rng cc qu c s dng cho cc lnh vc gp
kh khn. Xem thm Common Fund, compensatory financing arrangements v SYSMIN.
Staging: Phn on
Vic thc hin gim thu hoc cc bin php t do ha thng mi ph hp vi thi gian biu
c nht tr a phng hoc n phng.
Standards: Tiu chun
Cc bin php m bo cc quy cch k thut, cc thuc tnh, c tnh thng nht cho mt
sn phm hoc mt ngnh dch v. Cc tiu chun ny c chia thnh cc tiu chun v k
thut (v d: kch c ti a, ti thiu, mu sc, cu thnh, v.v...) hoc cc tiu chun v tnh
nng (sn phm hoc dch v cn phi c t nht mt tnh nng c bit no ). Thm vo ,
cc tiu chun c th bt buc hoc t nguyn. Xem thm Agreement on Technical Barriers to
Trade, conformity assessment, International Electrotechnical Commission, International
Organization for Standardisation, ISO 9000 v ISO 14000.
Standard code: Lut v cc tiu chun
Xem Tokyo Round Agreement v Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.
Stanstill: Gi nguyn trng
Mt cam kt khng p dng thm cc bin php mi gy hn ch nhiu hn i vi thng mi
sau mt thi hn no , thng l thi hn m cam kt c a ra. Thng i cng vi
rollback.
State aids: Tr gip ca Nh nc
Thut ng v tr cp c s dng trong Hip c Rome. Theo iu 92 ca Hip c ny, cc
thnh vin ca Hi ng Kinh t Chu u khng c dnh cho cc cng ty bt c mt s tr
gip no m c th lm mo m hoc e do lm mo m cnh tranh. Cc ngoi l ph hp vi
cc quy nh ca Hip c gm c s tr gip khng phn bit i x dnh cho c nhn ngi
tiu dng v tr gip nhm khc phc cc thit hi do thin tai gy ra hoc do cc s kin
bt thng no . Tr gip ca nh nc ph hp vi Hip c ny gm c c nhng tr cp
nhm xc tin pht trin thng mi khu vc, cc d n quan trng hoc khc phc cc nh
hng nghim trng v kinh t.
State trading: Thng mi quc doanh
C hai hnh thc c bn ca thng mi quc doanh. Th nht, l thng mi quc t do cc
doanh nghip do nh nc lm ch, do nh nc qun l hoc nh nc cp giy php tin
hnh trong nn kinh t th trng, i khi c ginh mt s c quyn i vi mt s sn
phm nht nh. Cc doanh nghip ny hot ng thng mi nh cc cng ty thng mi
thng thng v p ng li nhng i hi ca th trng. Th hai, thng mi quc doanh l
mt c im ca nn kinh t phi th trng khi gi c khng phi ch l duy nht hoc l
nguyn nhn cao nht a ra cc quyt nh v xut khu hoc nhp khu. Trong trng hp
ny, c nhiu kh nng th trng b bin dng v rt t tnh cng khai. Thng mi quc doanh
cn phi c phn bit vi mua sm ca chnh ph l vic chnh ph mua hng s dng cho
nhu cu ca chnh mnh. Xem thm centrally-plan economies, marketing board v single-desk
selling.
State-trading dumping: Ph gi ca quc doanh
Xem Dumping.
STM (Simply-transformed manufactures): Hng ha c chuyn i n gin

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Thut ng do B Ngoi giao v Ngoi thng Australia s dng trong cc n phm thng k
ch mt sn phm th qua mt s x l. STM ch yu l cc kim loi th.
Stolper-Samuelson theorem: nh l Stolper-Samuelson
nh l c hai nh kinh t hc Wolfgang Stolper v Paul Samuelson a ra vo nm 1941.
Theo nh l ny vi mt s gi thit (trong c mt gi thit quan trng l t v lao ng l
hai yu t duy nht ca sn xut) khi mt nc chuyn t trng thi khng c thng mi sang
thng mi t do, th cc yu t sn xut c s dng nhiu trong sn xut hng xut khu c
gi ang tng s c thu nhp cao hn. Ngc li trong cc ngnh cng nghip xut khu c gi
ang gim th thu nhp ca yu t sn xut s dng nhiu trong ngnh ny s gim. Xem thm
comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin theorem v Leontief Paradox.
Strategic business alliances (SBA): Lin minh kinh doanh chin lc
Tho thun tp th gia cc cng ty cng hng n mc tiu chung. Trong mt lin minh in
hnh, cc bn tham gia khng tin hnh u t sang ln nhau hoc h t gii hn ch nm gi
mt t l rt nh. Mc ch ca lin minh l cng c a v cnh tranh ca tt c cc bn tham
gia. Lin minh kinh doanh chin lc c th c thnh lp theo chnh sch cnh tranh hoc
lut chng c quyn ca nh nc.
Strategic dumping: Ph gi chin lc
Xem dumping.
Strategic exports: Hng xut khu chin lc
Hng ha v dch v c coi l c nh hng thc s hoc c nh hng to ln n cn bng
v mt qun s trong mt khu vc. Xem thm dual-purpose exports, COCOM v Wassenaar
Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and
Technologies.
Strategic trade theory: L thuyt thng mi chin lc
Theo l thuyt ny chnh ph c th thc hin chnh sch trong nc thc y vic hnh
thnh v pht trin cc ngnh cng nghip c tim nng tr thnh ngnh xut khu chnh. Hu
ht tt c cc nc i theo l thuyt ny u thc hin tr cp hoc tin hnh bo h di hnh
thc ny hay hnh thc khc, cho d ni dung tng th ca l thuyt ny khng ng h cc
hnh ng ni trn. Xem thm comparative advantange, new trade theory v picking winners.
Structural adjustment: iu chnh c cu
Qu trnh lin tc din ra tt c cc ngnh iu chnh ph hp vi iu kin kinh t, thng
mi mi xut pht t nhng thay i v s thch ca ngi tiu dng, tin b k thut, gim
thu, loi b tr cp v thay i di hn trong c cu gi thnh v nguyn liu th, v.v... i
khi iu chnh c cu s lm cho ton b mt lnh vc bin mt mt cch nhanh chng, nh
xy ra trong ngnh sn xut thc o k thut. Trong mt s ngnh cng nghip v d nh
ngnh dt v -t, iu chnh c cu c th din ra di dng mt qu trnh tr gip ca chnh
ph gm mc tiu h tr ti a c tho thun thc hin trong mt khong thi gian nht
nh, o to li cng nhn v cc bin php khc. Cc bin php ny c c thc hin hay
khng thng ph thuc vo th lc chnh tr ca mt ngnh cng nghip. T gia thp k 80
thut ng ny cng c s dng ch mt b ti liu m t chnh sch m cc nc ang
pht trin phi np cho cc t chc ti chnh quc t nh IBRD (Ngn hng Th gii) v IMF.
Thng thng khi tin hnh tr cp trn gi cho cc nc ang pht trin, cc t chc ti chnh
quc t u yu cu cc nc ang pht trin phi tht cht chnh sch ti chnh, nhanh chng
n nh kinh t v m bng cch thc hin chnh sch chng lm pht cht ch. Xem thm
protectionism.
Structural impediments: Cn tr v c cu

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c im v c cu ca mt nn kinh t gy cn tr cho vic hnh thnh th trng cnh tranh
y . Cn tr v c cu xut hin khi nh nc ban hnh nhng quy nh khng hp l hoc
khi ban hnh qu nhiu quy nh, p dng tr cp rng ri, c quyn t nhn v nh nc, th
trng lao ng cng nhc, khng c quy tc v thc tin hn ch kinh doanh v mt s yu
t tng t khc.
Structural Impediments Initiative (SII): Sng kin cn tr v c cu
Bin php ny Hoa K thc hin vo nm 1989 nhm mc ch m ca th trng Nht cho cc
cng ty ca Hoa K. Bin php ny da trn quan im cho rng ch loi b hng ro truyn
thng cn tr thng mi l cha , cn phi c nhng thay i to ln thng qua vic thay i
chnh sch v thc tin trong nc ca Nht. Mc tiu ca bin php ny l nhm vo th
trng v h thng phn phi ca Nht cng nh mi quan h gia chnh ph v gii kinh
doanh. Cho n nay bin php ny cha thu c nhiu thnh cng, c th v ngi ta cha tht
hiu mc tiu, tuy nhin cng c ngi ng h bin php ny. Xem thm market-oriented
specific-sector talks, keiretsu v United States-Janpan Framework for a New Economic
Partnership.
Structuralism: Thuyt c cu
Xem structural trade theory.
Structural trade theory: L thuyt thng mi c cu
L thuyt xut hin trong nhng nm 50 v gy ra nhiu tranh ci. Theo l thuyt ny, nh
hng ca c cu trong thng mi th gii s cn tr s pht trin ca cc nc ph thuc
nhiu vo sn xut v xut khu hng s ch v hng nguyn liu th. Nhng ngi ng h l
thut ny lp lun rng cc nc sn xut cc mt hng ny lun b thit thi bi v ch s
thng mi b xu i trong thi gian di. Mt trong nhng gii php l khuyn khch thng
mi Nam-Nam (gia cc nc ang pht trin) trn c s u i. Ngi ta cho rng bng cch
ny cc nc ang pht trin c th nng c sc cnh tranh ca mnh v khi ngnh cng
nghip pht trin mnh th cc nc ang pht trin c kh nng tr thnh ngun cung cp
cho cc nc cng nghip ha. Ngoi ra cc nc ang pht trin c th xut khu nhng mt
hng mnh c li th sang cc nc pht trin trn c s u i thng qua h thng u i ph
cp. Mc d trn thc t ch c mt vi khu vc thng mi u i c hiu qu nhng cc nh
c cu hc thnh cng trong vic thu ht s ch i vi vn quan trng thng mi v
pht trin. Xem thm UNCTAD.
Stumbling blocks: Khi cn tr
Thut ng gn lin vi Jagdish Bhagwati, c s dng ch nhng khu vc thng mi t do
c cn tr n qu trnh pht trin t do ho thng mi a phng. Xem Building block.
Sub-national obligations: Ngha v cp di quc gia
Xem second-level obligations.
Sub-regional economic zones: Khu kinh t tiu vng
Xem growth triangles.
Subsidiarity: B sung
Khi nim ny xut hin trong iu 3b Hip c Maastricht 1992 quy nh Cng ng Chu
u ch nn hnh ng trong cc lnh vc m h khng c c quyn, v khi bn thn tng nc
thnh vin khng thc hin c mc tiu ra. Nguyn tc b sung c nh hng n vic
ban hnh chnh sch trong thng mi dch v, c bit l trong cc lnh vc cha c mt chnh
sch chung y . Xem thm European Community legislation.
Subsidies: Tr cp

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Tr gip ti chnh hoc tr cp bng hin vt ca chnh ph cho cc nh sn xut v xut khu
hng ho, hng cng nghip v dch v. Tr cp c thc hin do nhiu l do, nh phi nng
cp c cu sn xut km hiu qu, mong mun nng cao thu nhp cho mt lnh vc nh nng
nghip, v mc tiu pht trin th trng. Ni chung, Hip nh WTO v Tr cp v cc bin
php i khng nh ngha tr cp l ng gp ti chnh ca mt chnh ph hay mt t chc
nh nc, l cc khon tin c chuyn thng hay s c chuyn (v d vin tr, cho vay),
hoc chnh ph cho php khng phi ng gp vo ngun thu ca chnh ph, chnh ph cung
cp hng ha v dch v ngoi c s h tng ni chung, tr tin cho cc c cu ti tr hay t
chc c nhn thc hin cc chc nng ny, h tr v thu nhp hoc v gi. Tr cp nng nghip
c nu trong Hip nh v Nng nghip. Xem thm bounty, countervailing measures v state
aids.
Subsidies Code: Lut Tr cp
Xem Tokyo Round agreements v Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing.
Substantially-all-discrimination criterion: Tiu ch phn bit i x rng ri
GATS cho php thnh lp khu thng mi t do v dch v vi mt s iu kin nht nh. Mt
trong nhng iu kin l cc nc thnh vin phi dnh i ng quc gia cho cc nc tham gia
khc trong hu ht tt c cc lnh vc quy nh trong hip nh. GATS khng nh ngha chi tit
t "rng ri".
Substantially-all-trade criterion: Tiu ch thng mi rng ri
iu XXIV ca GATT quy nh mt s iu kin theo lin minh hi quan v khu vc thng
mi t do c th c coi l ph hp vi Hip nh. iu ny yu cu hu ht tt c thng mi
gia cc nc thnh vin tham gia mt hip nh u i phi c bao trm trong hip nh.
GATT khng gii thch r khi nim v cng khng a ra cch tnh c th. Hin c hai trng
pha v tiu ch ny. Trng phi th nht p dng phng php nh lng, nh ngha "hu
ht tt c thng mi" bng tng gi tr thng mi. T trc n nay cc ban hi thm ca
GATT u gi thit con s ny khong 80% n 90% tr gi thng mi. Theo quan im ny,
nng nghip v cc lnh vc nhy cm (sensitive sectors) khc c th khng thuc phm vi ca
hip nh nhng tt c cc lnh vc cn li c kh nng p ng c tiu ch. Quan im
th hai p dng phng php nh tnh, quan im ny cho rng phi bao trm ton b tt c
cc lnh vc, iu c ngha l vic loi tr lnh vc nng nghip s vi phm quy ch ca tiu
ch. Khng c s thng nht s dng tiu ch no mc d cc thnh vin WTO u nht tr
trong Vng Uruguay rng ng gp ca hip nh thng mi t do i vi thng mi th gii
s gim i nhiu nu nh hip nh loi tr mt trong nhng lnh vc thng mi ch yu.
iu V Hip nh GATS v thng mi dch v cng quy nh tiu ch "hu ht tt c thng
mi". GATS phn chia tiu ch hu ht tt c thng mi thnh hai tiu ch khc nhau. Tiu ch
th nht l hu ht lnh vc dch v thuc phm vi iu chnh ca GATS. Tiu ch th hai l
phi loi b phn bit i x bng cch p dng i ng quc gia. Thut ng "bao trm rng ri
cc lnh vc dch v" c hiu l s lng khu vc dch v v tr gi thng mi v cc
phng thc cung cp dch v. Ngoi ra khng c loi tr mt hnh thc cung cp dch v
no c.
Substantial sectoral coverage: Bao trm rng ri cc lnh vc
Mt trong nhng tiu ch m cc hip nh hi nhp kinh t u i v thng mi dch v phi
tho mn theo quy nh trong iu V Hip nh GATS c hng quy ch ngoi l khng
thc hin i ng ti hu quc. T "rng ri" khng c ngha l nhiu v mt s lng m theo
ghi ch ca iu khon, t ny c hiu l s lng lnh vc dch v, gi tr thng mi v
cc phng thc cung cp dch v. Khng c loi tr mt hnh thc cung cp dch v no.
Substantial supplying interest: Li ch cung cp ng k
Theo quy tc m phn gim thu trong iu XXVIII Hip nh GATT, m phn thng c
tin hnh vi bn c li ch chnh. iu khon ny cng nu r trong qu trnh m phn cn

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phi cn nhc li ch ca bn c nhiu li ch trong vic phn phi. Trong bn gii thch c ni
r khng th nh ngha chnh xc thut ng "li ch ng k", thut ng ny c hiu l bn
c th phn ln hoc d on c th phn ln. Xem thm renegotiation of tariffs.
Substantial transformation: Chuyn i c bn
Thut ng s dng trong vic thc hin quy ch xut x v p dng thu hi quan. Thu sut p
dng cho mt sn phm ti bin gii ph thuc vo xut x ca hng ho. i khi hng ho i
qua mt vi nc trc khi c c c tnh cui cng. Nc ti din ra s chuyn i c
bn cui cng th c coi l nc xut x ca hng ho . Cn c bit c s chuyn i
ny l s thay i trong chng thu. C ngha l mt hng ha khi vo mt nc thuc mc
mt chng ca H thng Hi ho v ri nc di mt mc thuc chng khc. n
gin ch l bao gi li hng ho hay sn li hng ho cng c coi l c s chuyn i c
bn. Xem screwdriver operations.
Sullivan Principles: Nguyn tc Sullivan
Mt b gm su nguyn tc do Reverend Leon Sullivan, gim c General Motor a ra
qun l hot ng ca cng ty Nam Phi di ch phn bit chng tc. Cc nguyn tc ny
nhanh chng c chp nhn mt cch rng ri. Ni dung quan trng ca cc nguyn tc
ny l h quan tm n chnh sch lao ng cng bng v bnh ng dnh cho tt c cng
nhn, ng thi ci thin iu kin lao ng trong v ngoi khu lm vic. C mt s ngh
thng k cho rng nguyn tc Sullivan nu c hin i ho v c iu chnh s thch hp
cho vic y mnh thc hin tiu chun lao ng quc t v cc tiu chun v mi trng. Xem
trade and environment v trade and labour standards.
Sunrise industries: Ngnh cng nghip bnh minh
Nhng ngnh cng nghip mi ni ln, thng thng l nhng ngnh c hm lng s hu tr
tu cao do s dng bin php ci tin v cng ngh tin tin, cc ngnh ny thnh cng do t
hiu qu trong sn xut hoc to ra mt loi sn phm hon ton mi. Chnh cng ngh thng
tin ny sinh cc ngnh cng nghip mt tri mc ny. Chnh sch thng mi quan tm n
cc ngnh cng nghip mt tri mc mt mt l do hin ang c cc vn bo v quyn s
hu tr tu, mt khc i khi chnh ph mun pht trin cc ngnh ny bng cch la chn
ngnh pht trin v p dng l thuyt thng mi chin lc, c hai cch ny u c kh nng
bin dng thng mi. Xem thm sunset industries.
Sunset clause: iu khon hong hn
Mt iu khon trong hip nh, theo bin php ca chnh ph s t ng chm dt hiu lc
khi ti hn quy nh, tr phi chnh ph thc hin mt hnh ng c th. Hip nh WTO v
bin php chng ph gi v thu i khng c iu khon mt tri ln quy nh cc bin php
ny s phi ht hn sau 5 nm ch tr khi nhn thy cn phi tip tc p dng. Xem iu khon
ch to i vi tranh chp ny sinh do iu khon mt tri ln quy nh trong lut php ca
Hoa K.
Sunset industries: Ngnh cng nghip hong hn
Ngnh cng nghip c coi l ang suy tn do lc hu hn cc ngnh cng nghip khc ca
nn kinh t v mt k thut cng ngh hoc do nhu cu ca ngi tiu dng thay i. i khi
nh my sn xut thp kiu dng lc hu c ly lm v d in hnh, cc nh my ny ng
ca dn n tht nghip hng lot ti a phng. Tt nhin mt s nh my sn xut thp mi
cng c xp hng thuc ngnh cng nghip bnh minh. Thng cc ngnh cng nghip c
th tr c mt thi gian tng i di trc khi b ri vo tnh trng xung cp. V d cc
nh sn xut thc o k thut tri qua thi gian ny khi my tnh in t b ti xut hin.
Trong cc trng hp khc y c th l mt qu trnh cht dn cht mn do ngun thu ca
mt ngnh sn xut khng hin i ho v cng khng th thu ht c ngun u t
mi tuy nhin vn c ngun thu tip tc hot ng do thc hin ct gim chi ph v gim
dn s lng nhn vin. Thng thng vo thi im ny h yu cu chnh ph gip

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thot ra khi tnh trng xung cp bng cch bo h di hnh thc yu cu hm lng ni a,
hn ch nhp khu, iu chnh c cu, tr cp, tho thun hn ch t nguyn, v.v.....
Superfund: Siu qu
V Canada, Mexico v Cng ng Chu u kin Hoa K nm 1987 trong khun kh ca
GATT. Ni dung ca v ny lin quan n mc thu Hoa K p dng theo o lut Sa i
Siu qu v Ti u quyn nm 1986. Loi thu ny cha c hiu lc khi v kin ny c a
ra. Lut n nh mt mc thu sut mi cho mt s hng ha nhp khu c sn xut hoc ch
to t cht ho hc b nh thu. V nguyn tc, mc thu p dng cho hng nhp khu bng
vi mc thu p dng cho nguyn liu ho cht nu mt hng ho cht ny c bn Hoa K
s dng trong sn xut sn phm cng loi vi hng nhp khu. Ngi nhp khu s b pht
nu khng cung cp y thng tin v nguyn liu ho hc s dng sn xut ra hng nhp
khu. Bn khi kin cho rng thu nh vo hng nhp khu cao hn so vi hng ni a cng
loi v theo h iu ny vi phm iu khon VIII:2 (i ng quc gia) ca GATT. GATT quy
nh "mt sn phm ca mt lnh th ca bt k bn tham gia hip nh khi nhp khu vo
lnh th ca mt bn khc s khng phi chu mc thu ni a v cc ph ni a khc trc tip
hay gin tip cao hn mc p dng cho sn phm ni a cng loi". Ban hi thm cho rng sn
phm nhp khu v sn phm ni a l sn phm cng loi theo ng ngha quy nh trong
iu khon III:2; v c s phn bit i x gia sn phm nhp khu v sn phm ni a v
nh vy thu p dng cho xng du l khng ph hp vi ngha v ca Hoa K trong iu
III:2. Ban hi thm ly lm tic rng o lut cho php c quan c thm quyn ca Hoa K
n nh mc thu tri vi nguyn tc i ng quc gia. ng thi Ban hi thm cng nhn thy
o lut cho php cc c quan c thm quyn ca Hoa K c quyn t quyt trong vic n nh
mc thu, vic Hoa K quy nh mc pht cng khng tri vi ngha v ca nc ny trong
GATT.
Super 301: Siu 301
Tn ny thng c dng ch Khon 1302 ca Lut Thng mi v Cnh tranh Hoa K
nm 1988. Super 301 quy nh tt c i din Thng mi ca Hoa K phi np bo co hnh
nm v lnh vc u tin m rng thng mi Hoa K, trong xc nh r "cc thng l ca
cc nc u tin m vic loi b cc thng l c nhiu kh nng gia tng ng k xut khu
ca Hoa K, c th trc tip hoc thng qua nhng tin l v li ch". Super 301 khc vi
Khon 301 ch n tp trung vo cc thc tin thng mi khng lnh mnh c h thng. u
tin Super 301 c ban hnh ch p dng trong hai nm 1989 v 1990. Nhng thng
3/1994, Tng thng gia hn Super 301 thc hin trong nm 1994-1995. Thng 9/1995,
Tng thng li gia hn Super 301 mt ln na p dng trong nm 1996 v 1997. Xem thm
Special 301 v USTR.
Support Prices: H tr gi
Cng c dnh cho cc nh sn xut m bo thu nhp ti thiu. H tr gi c th c thc
hin thng qua nhiu hnh thc khc nhau v d nh gi sn, li sut cho vay, tr cp, thu sut
thay i v i khi thng qua hn ch nh lng. Gi h tr c lin quan n gi th trng
ch trong chng mc no chng u phn ng li tn hiu th trng. Xc nh gi th trng
trong nhng iu kin nh th l mt vn . Gi h tr cng c th hon ton c lp vi gi
th trng. Mc ch ca gi h tr ch n gin l m bo cho ngi sn xut c c thu
nhp ti thiu. Ngi tiu dng trong nc v nh sn xut nc ngoi chnh l nhng ngi
phi chu chi ph dnh cho h tr ny.
Surveillance: Gim st
Cc nc thnh vin WTO tin hnh gim st thng xuyn chnh sch thng mi quc gia
ca cc nc thnh vin khc m bo chnh sch thng mi ph hp vi nguyn tc ca
h thng thng mi a phng v tun th theo cam kt ca cc nc thnh vin. C ch R
sot Chnh sch Thng mi l c s thc hin mc ch ny, tuy nhin trong nhiu hip

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nh ca WTO c quy nh c ch thng bo tt c nhng thay i v mt chnh sch v nhng
hnh ng thc hin theo cc hip nh. Xem thm notification v transparency.
Sustainable Development: Pht trin bn vng
U ban Th gii v Mi trng v Pht trin nh ngha pht trin bn vng l pht trin tho
mn nhng nhu cu hin ti m khng nh hng n kh nng th h tng lai trong vic t
p ng nhu cu ca ring h.
Swing mechanism: C ch dao ng
Thut ng ny c s dng trong bn gii thch ca cc nc WTO v quyn c s dng tr
cp xut khu i vi hng nng sn. Hip nh nng nghip n nh gii hn tr cp xut khu
mi nc c p dng hng nm. Hin nay mt s nc ni rng nu trong mt nm h khng
s dng ht mc gii hn th nm sau h c quyn s dng nt s lng cn li, tt nhin
tng s tr cp xut khu ca nm sau khng c vt qu mc gii hn cho php. ngh
ny khng thu c s ng h rng ri.
Swiss formula: Cng thc Thu-s
Cng thc tho hip cho ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh do Thu-s a ra trong Vng Tokyo.
Theo cng thc ny thu sut cao s c gim nhiu hn so thu sut thp. Cng thc:
Z= AX
A+X
X: thu sut khi im; A: h s do cc bn tho thun. Z: thu sut sau khi gim. Cng ng
Kinh t Chu u, cc nc Bc u v Australia s dng h s l 16, Hoa K, Nht v Thu-s
s dng h s 14 v New Zealand s dng k thut tng mt hng.
Symbolic deals: Tho thun tng trng
Hoekman s dng thut ng ny nm 1995 m t kt qu m phn c v nh hoc chc
chn khng thc cht. Khi cc nh m phn thy rng hin ti khng c kh nng t c
tho thun c th v cc vn ln, nhng h cho rng ri bn m phn m khng t c
mt tho thun g c th c th lm cho tnh hnh b xu i, th h tho thun tng trng. Nu
khng c tho thun tng trng th cc bn c th gp kh khn trong vic tr li m phn.
Nhng tho thun ny i khi c gi l kt qu chnh tr.
SYSMIN
H thng Xc tin Sn xut v Xut khu Khong sn, hoc i khi l H thng T v v Pht
trin Sn xut Khong sn. Nm 1980 Cng ng Kinh t Chu u thit lp c ch bnh n
hng ho di s bo tr ca Lom II nhm a mt hng khong sn vo phm vi STABEX.
Mc tiu ca SYSMIN l bo v cc quc gia ACP khng b gim sn lng khai thc khong
sn v ngun thu t xut khu. Theo Lom IV (m phn li nm 1990 trong vng 10 nm),
gii hn 15% hoc cao hn c p dng i vi xut khu ng (bao gm c cobalt), pht-
pht, nhm v bo-xit, thic, qung st v u-ran. Gii hn cao hn hoc bng 20% p dng cho
thu t xut khu t cc loi khong sn khc ngoi vng, du kh. Xem thm Lom Convention.
System issues: Vn v h thng
Vn ny sinh t qu trnh thc hin chc nng hay cc nguyn tc ca h thng thng mi
a phng. Vn thuc dng ny gm quy nh gii quyt tranh chp, c ch t v, tnh cng
khai, v.v...

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TAFTA (Trans-Atlantic Free Trade Agreement): Hip nh Thng mi t do xuyn i
ty dng
tng xy dng mt khu vc thng mi t do gia Hoa K v Cng ng Chu u. tng
ny c tho lun cp quan chc chnh ph cao cp nhng cha c lch trnh m phn
chnh thc. Xem thm New Transatlantic Agenda.
Tailor-made tariffs: Thu quan va
Xem made-to-measure tariffs.
Targeting: Mc tiu
Xem picking winners v strategic trade theory.
Tariff: Thu quan
Ngha v np hoc thu nh vo hng ho ti bin gii khi hng ho i t mt lnh th hi
quan (thng thng l mt nc) sang lnh th hi quan khc. Mc thu c th l mt con s
c th trn mt n v hng ho nhp khu, gi l thu c nh hay da trn phn trm ca gi
tr hng nhp khu, gi l thu tr gi. i khi cc nc p dng hnh thc nh thu kt hp c
hai yu t trn - thu gp. Thu quan gp phn i gi hng nhp khu v lm cho hng nhp
khu km cnh tranh hn. V mt kinh t, thu quan tng ng vi vic p dng cng mt
lc thu tiu th v tr cp sn xut. Mc d chnh ph bit rt r, vic ct gim thu quan c
th c tc ng quan trng v mt ti chnh khi mt nc c ngn sch ph thuc nhiu vo
ngun thu thu hi quan - mt ngun thu c th d on trc c. Ni chung thu quan nh
vo hng nhp khu nhng cng c trng hp hng xut khu cng phi chu thu quan. Xem
thm ad valorem tariff, Lerner's symmetry theorem v specific tariff.
Tariff binding: Rng buc thu quan
Xem tariff concession.
Tariff concession: u i thu quan
y l mt cam kt rng buc php l trong khun kh WTO khng tng hoc n nh thu
quan cao hn mc thu cam kt trong danh mc thu quan ca nc theo GATT. Khng
phi tt c cc loi thu u phi tun theo nguyn tc ny.
Tariff Conference: Hi ngh Thu quan
Tn chnh thc ca bn vng m phn thng mi a phng u tin trong khun kh ca
GATT. l Hi ngh thu quan Geneva 1947, Annecy, Torquay v Geneva 1955-56.
Tariff equivalent: Tng ng thu quan
nh gi tc ng ca cc bin php phi thu quan i vi thng mi nu c chuyn thnh
thu quan da trn cng thc do hai bn tho thun. Chuyn t hng ro phi thu quan sang
thu quan s ng gp rt ln vo tnh cng khai ca thng mi. Xem thm tariffication.
Tariff escalation: Leo thang thu quan
Thu quan tng dn cng vi s bin i tng dn ca sn phm. V d loi thp sn xut -
t ch phi chu thu sut 5%, khung -t sn xut t loi thp ny c th chu thu sut 15% v
mt chic -t hon chnh c th b nh 30% thu. Phng thc nh thu c li cho hng ch
to gin n nhm thc y ngnh ch to trong nc. Ngi tiu dng thng phi chu chi
ph ca phng thc nh thu ny. Xem thm effective rate of assistance.
Tariffication: Thu ho
Chuyn cc bin php phi thu quan thnh tng ng thu quan rng buc. Trong Vng
Uruguay, thu ho c p dng cho hng nng sn v m ra c hi tip cn th trng cho loi
mt hng ny. Xem thm water in the tariff.

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Tariff jumping: Trnh thu
u t sn xut nc khc trnh hng ro thu quan cao v cc bin php bin gii khc.
Quan im v vic ny rt khc nhau, liu trong nhng trng hp nh vy thng mi v u
t c b tr cho nhau hay khng, liu c phi u t ch nhm mc ch trnh hng ro thu
quan ch khng phi mc ch thng mi. Nhiu ngi thin v quan im cho rng hin nay
thng mi v u t c mi quan h cht ch vi nhau v i khi ngi ta cng rt d cng
iu ho s khc bit gia thng mi v u t.
Tariff negotiations: m phn thu quan
Cng vic quan trng hng u trong GATT v WTO l m phn ct gim thu quan. T lc
GATT c hiu lc vo nm 1948 cho n Vng Dillon, thu quan c m phn trn c s
tng mt hng, tng sn phm v c thc hin theo h thng yu cu v cho cam kt. Cc
nh cung cp ch yu mt mt hng c quyn c yu cu gim thu. Sau Vng Kennedy, ct
gim thu quan tuyn tnh l bin php ch o. Ton b cc phn ca danh b thu c ct
gim ng lot theo mt cng tc c thng nht. Trong Vng Tokyo, cng thc Thu-s v
ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh c s dng, theo nhng thu sut cao s c gim nhiu
hn thu sut thp. m phn thu quan trong Vng Uruguay va l m phn tng mt hng
va l m phn gim thu quan n 0, theo thu sut ca tt cc mt hng cng mt ngnh
hng u c gim xung bng 0. Xem thm principal supplier rights, renegotiations of
tariffs v sectoral trade negotiations.
Tariff preferences: u i thu quan
Ni dung ch o trong cc hip nh WTO l cc nc thnh vin phi dnh cho nhau i ng
ti hu quc trong c ch thu quan. Tuy nhin vi mt s iu kin nht nh cc nc c th
dnh cho nhau thu sut u i hay thu sut bng 0. Cc nc pht trin c th dnh thu sut
u i cho cc nc ang pht trin theo chng trnh GSP v cc nc thnh vin ca lin
minh hi quan hay khu vc thng mi t do c th p dng thu sut bng 0 trong khu vc.
Cc nc ang pht trin cng c th c hng cc loi thu sut u i khc, v d nh quy
nh trong Phn IV ca GATT. GSTP l mt trong nhng hnh thc ny. Xem thm imperial
preferences arrangement.
Tariff quota: Hn ngch thu quan
Ct gim thu quan i vi mt s lng hng nhp khu nht nh. Hng nhp khu vt qu
s lng quy nh phi chu mc thu cao hn. C quan im cho rng khc vi hn ngch
nhp khu, hn ngch thu quan li c tc dng t do ho thng mi v h thng ny khng
khng ch s lng nhp khu. Gi thit ny c th l sai. S khc bit gia thu sut trong hn
ngch v thu sut ngoi hn ngch rt ln, c th ngn cn thng mi thu sut cao hn.
Xem thm current access tariff quotas v minimum access tariff quotas.
Tariff rate quota: Hn ngch thu sut
Xem tariff quota.
Tariff schedule: Danh mc thu quan
Mt ti liu ghi r thu sut mt nc p dng i vi tng mt hng nhp khu v i khi vi
c hng xut khu. Xem thm applied tariff rates, bound tariff rates, multi-column tariff,
schedule of concessions v single-column tariff.
Tariff wedge: Nm thu
Trong iu kin leo thang thu quan, l phn chnh lch gia thu sut ca sn phm ch
bin nhiu hn v thu sut ca sn phm ch bin t hn c chuyn i thnh sn phm ch
bin nhiu hn.
Taxes occults: Thu n hnh

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Ton b thu gin tip mt cng ty phi np trong qu trnh sn xut ra mt sn phm nh thu
thit b c bn s dng trong qu trnh sn xut. Loi thu ny khng bao gm thu nh vo
ph kin gn lin vi sn phm.
Technical Barriers to trade: Hng ro k thut i vi thng mi
Nhng cn tr thng mi thng qua h thng tiu chun v nh gi s ph hp. Hip nh
Hng ro K thut i vi Thng mi trong WTO quy nh hi ho, gim v loi b cc hng
ro ny. Xem thm conformity assessment, Code of Good Practice for the Preparation
Adoption and Application of Standards, International Electrotechnical Commission v
International Organisation for Standardisation.
Techno-nationalism: Ch ngha dn tc v cng ngh
Thut ng ny c hai ngha. Ngha th nht cho rng ch c cng ngh t c trong nc mi
c th pht huy c kt qu v hu ch ti nc m thi, cho d cng ngh tn ti
ni khc. t c cng ngh ny, cc nc phi b ra chi ph nhiu hn nhiu so vi vic
nhp khu cng ngh t nc ngoi. Thng thng kt qu thu c theo cch ny l khng
nhiu. Nguyn nhn ca quan im ny l do thiu ngoi t, cc nc mong mun nui dng
t trng dn tc, v l do quc phng v hi chng "hng ngoi". Ngha th hai ca thut ng
ny cng cp n chnh sch nhm duy tr cng ngh tin tin trong phm vi nc pht minh
thu c li th cnh tranh. Xem autarky, self-reliance v self-sufficiency.
Telecommunication: Vin thng
Xem Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services.
Television Without Frontiers: Truyn hnh khng bin gii
Xem broadcasting directive.
Temporary Exclusion List: Danh mc Loi tr tm thi
Trong khun kh AFTA, l danh mc mt hng mt nc thnh vin cha sn sng dnh cho
cc nc thnh vin khc c u i ton b. Theo lch trnh tho thun, tt c cc mt hng
ny phi c chuyn khi danh mc loi tr tm thi trc nm 2003, tr mt s mt hng
nng sn nhy cm c dnh mt khong thi gian lu hn. Xem thm Sensitive List.
Terms of Trade: Ch s thng mi
Thut ng ch gi tng i ca mt sn phm so vi sn phm cng loi sn xut ti nc
khc. Ch s thng mi khng c li cho nc A khi nc ny phi tr nhiu sn phm ca
mnh hn i ly mt mt hng sn xut ti nc B. Trong trng hp ngc li th iu
kin thng mi c li cho nc A. Xem thm commodity terms of trade.
Textile and the GATT: Hng dt v GATT
Xem Short-Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles (1961), Long-
Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles (1962-1973), Multi-Fibre
Arrangement (1974-1994) v Agreement on Textiles and Clothing.
Textile Monitoring Body: C quan Gim st Hng dt
C quan ny c thnh lp theo Hip nh WTO v hng dt v may mc gim st vic thc
hin cc iu khon ca hip nh. Mt nhim v quan trng ca c quan ny l bo co nh
k cho Hi ng Thng mi Hng ho v tin trnh a hng dt v may mc vo trong khun
kh ca WTO trc nm 2005. Xem thm Multi-Fibre Arrangement.
Textile Surveillance Body (TSB): T chc Gim st hng dt
T chc gim st v t chc thc hin Tho thun a si.
Theory of hegemonic stability: L thuyt vai tr ch o n nh

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Charles Kindleberger l ngi u tin a ra l thuyt ny vo nm 1973, sau l thuyt
c mt s ngi khc iu chnh v m rng. Khi phn tch nguyn nhn ca cuc i suy
thoi 1930, ng ta tuyn b bi hc chnh rt ra t nhng nm chin tranh c th c tm tt
nh sau: " nn kinh t th gii c n nh, cn phi c mt ngi ng ra n nh n". i
vi nhng ngi ng h l thuyt ny th cu ni trn c chng minh thng qua vai tr
ca Hoa K trong qu trnh xy dng h thng thng mi a phng m in hnh l GATT.
Theory of second-best: L thuyt gii php bc hai
L thuyt trong kinh t th gii, l thuyt ny gi nh rng gii php bc mt trong thng
mi l t do thng mi khng b cc yu t nh thu, c quyn v thu quan gy tr ngi. L
thuyt gii php bc hai cho rng vn c kh nng t c mc tiu thng mi ti u nu nh
cc nc thc hin mt s bin php nht nh, tuy nhin cc bin php c th s khng
em li kt qu ti u nht m chng c th t c. Trong trng hp khng thc hin c
gii php bc mt th phi thc hin gii php bc hai nhng p dng bin php no trong gii
php ny ph thuc vo tng trng hp c th.
Third country dumping: Ph gi nc th ba
Cc i th cnh tranh tin hnh ph gi th trng mt nc th ba. Quy tc ca WTO v cc
bin php chng ph gi khng iu chnh ci gi l ph gi nc th ba.
Third-country problem: Vn ca nc th ba
Tn ca mt vn c nh hng thng mi m cc nc quan tm trong Vng Kenedy v ct
gim thu quan tuyn tnh. Vn ny da trn gi thit rng cc t quan tm n xut khu
cc sn phm m duy tr thu quan cao. Do cc nc thuc loi ny khng my quan tm
n t l ct gim thu quan ca nc khc c thu sut thp xem liu c ngang bng vi mnh
hay khng. Kt qu l nc th ba s phi gnh chu chnh v h bt buc phi iu chnh thu
quan ca mnh. Vn ny do lin quan n th t ca thu sut ca mt mt hng trong
mt lot mt hng nht nh. Nhng c gng hiu vn ny di kha cnh kinh t u s
khng thu c thnh cng.
Third-line forcing: Bt buc mua hng t ngun th ba
Thut ng c s dng trong qu trnh thc hin lut chng c quyn. Ngi mua ch c
cung cp hng ha v dch v nu nh h ng cng mt lc mua c sn phm t mt ngun
th ba. Nu ngi mua khng ng th ngi cung cp ni trn cng t chi khng bn hng.
Third world: Th gii th ba
T ny c dch t ting Php tiers-monde. Hin nay t ny khng cn c s dng rng ri
nh trc y na. Trc y cm t ny c hiu l cc nc khng nm trong nhm cng
nghip ho (th gii th nht) hay cc nc cng sn (th gii th hai). Cng ging nh nhiu
thut ng phn loi tng th khc, thut ng ny l cch tip cn vn hu ch u tin, nhng
trong Bo co Harries c nu ng sau thut ng ny n cha s a dng trong tin b kinh t
v trng phi chnh tr gia cc nc trong nhm.
Thirty-ten formula: Cng thc ba mi-mi
Trong Vng Kenedy, Cng ng Kinh t Chu u a ra ngh thit lp cng thc ct gim
thu quan tuyn tnh. tng u tin l so snh thu sut ca tng nc tham gia mt, nhng
sau ch nhm vo cc nc thng mi ln nht th gii nh EEC, Nht, Hoa K v Vng
quc Anh. Khi thu sut cao hn 30% tng gi tr v chnh lch gia thu sut cao v thu
sut thp ln hn 10% th phi tun theo cng thc ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh, tuy nhin
cng thc ny cha c quy nh c th. V sau cng thc ny b loi b v ngi ta cho rng
kt qu tnh c khng hp l khi p dng vi dng thng mi thc t. Cng thc ny c
pht trin thnh cng thc double cart formula. Xem thm crment v peak tariff.
Tokyo Round: Vng Tokyo

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Vng m phn thng mi a phng th by trong GATT, tin hnh t nm 1973 n 1979,
c 102 nc tham gia. y l vng m phn ln nht t trc ti nay k c v s nc tham
gia v ni dung m phn. Vng Tokyo bt u t thng 9/1973 ti Hi ngh B trng ti
Tokyo, nhng m phn c tin hnh ch yu ti Genve. Tuyn b cp b trng quy nh
phm vi m phn nhm a) m phn thu quan s dng phng php xc nh theo cng thc,
b) ct gim hoc loi b cc bin php phi thu quan (c) kim tra kh nng ct gim v loi b
tt c hng ro trong mt s lnh vc, (d) kim tra h thng t v a phng cha, (e)
m phn v nng nghip c xt n nhng c th v vn kh khn trong lnh vc ny, v
(f) coi sn phm nhit i l lnh vc c bit v cn c s u tin. Cc B trng d nh kt
thc Vng m phn vo nm 1975. Vng m phn Tokyo chu s chi phi ca nhng s kin
xy ra gia Hoa K, Cng ng Chu u (EEC), Nht v mi quan h gia cc nc ny. Mi
n thng 1/1975 khi o lut Thng mi nm 1974 c hiu lc th Tng thng (Hoa K) mi
c quyn lc m phn. Quyn lc m phn ca Tng thng ch c hiu lc n ngy
3/1/1980. Tnh hnh tng i phc tp do nm 1976 l nm bu c tng thng. EEC m rng
s thnh vin ln 9 nc vo thng 1/1973 v trong thi gian ny EEC qu bn rn vi cng
vic m rng. H thng iu phi trong ni b EEC cng tr ln phc tp hn. Nht tr thnh
nc thng mi hng u trn th gii v gy ra p lc cho nhiu nc phi thc hin chnh
sch bo h. V vy n thng 2/1975 cc nhm m phn chuyn ngnh mi c thnh lp.
Phn ln cc cuc m phn l do cn b ca Ban Th k ch tr. Trong Vng m phn ny
cc nc ang pht trin tham gia nhiu hn so vi Vng Kenedy. Ti thi im ny mong
mun ca cc nc ang pht trin ph hp vi vic chun b thit lp mt trt t kinh t quc
t mi v tng cng i thoi Bc-Nam. Cc cng vic chun b cn thit c tin hnh t
nm 1973 n u nm 1977 nhng m phn khng t c tin b thc s cho n khi
chnh quyn mi ca Hoa K xy dng c chnh sch ca h v ch nh thnh lp nhm
m phn. m phn thc s c bt u t thng 7/1977, sau cuc gp gia EEC v Hoa K
gii quyt c mt s bt ng v chnh sch v th tc gia hai khu vc. Hai bn nht tr
rng cn y nhanh thi gian m phn, chia thi gian m phn thnh bn giai on v kt
thc vo thng 1/1978. Giai on u tin thc hin k hoch thu quan chung, bao gm ct
gim thu quan chung theo cng thc Thu-s, phng hng c th x l lnh vc nng
nghip. n giai on hai phi a ra cc yu cu ct gim thu quan v loi b hng ro phi
thu quan. Giai on ba xem xt bn tho nguyn tc quy nh v cc bin php phi thu quan,
trong giai on bn tt c cc nc tham gia phi tr li cc yu cu c a ra bng cc
xut cam kt. n thng 7/1978 mt nhm gm nhiu nc pht trin c th thc hin c
"Bn ghi nh khung", trong a ra nhng yu t ch yu m h cho rng cn thit m
bo kt qu m phn c cn bng. Cc nc ang pht trin phn i lch trnh m phn v
mt th tc v ni dung chnh. c bit cc nc ang pht trin phn i ci m h cho l m
mu loi h ra khi vng m phn. Nhng d sao lch trnh trn cng l mt yu t quan trng
duy tr thc hin tho thun kt thc m phn trc 15/10/1978. Tr ngi chnh ca vng
m phn chnh l mt khon trong o lut thng mi ca Hoa K, cho php Tng thng
c quyn tc b yu cu nh thu i khng vi hng ho nhp khu c tr cp trong
vng bn nm, kt thc vo 3/1/1979. Khi quy nh v tc b yu cu ni trn ht hiu lc th
thu i khng c p dng t ng. Quc hi Hoa K c v lng l khng mun gia hn
quy nh trn nhng cui cng Quc hi Hoa K cng phi thng qua v EEC tuyn b EEC
ch c th kt thc vng m phn khi Hoa K gii quyt c cc vn ni b ca mnh.
Quc hi Hoa K thng qua quy nh ny vo thng 3/1979 v Vng m phn Tokyo chnh
thc kt thc vo ngy 12/4/1979. Kt qu m phn l ct gim thu quan trung bnh l 35%
v thu sut trung bnh gim xung ch cn 4,7%, thc hin trong vng 8 nm. Ct gim thu
quan theo phng php tuyn tnh, ch n nhng loi thu sut cao. Trong Vng Tokyo, 9
hip nh c k kt (trong s ny 6 hip nh c gi l "lut") v bn bn ghi nh v
mc ch v hot ng ca GATT. Nhng hip nh v bn ghi nh c k kt trong Vng
m phn ny b sung rt nhiu cho h thng lut php ca GATT. Trong s , mt vi hip
nh c pht trin trong Vng Uruguay v tr thnh kt qu chnh thc ca Hip ny. m
phn v hng nng sn mi thu c mt cht tin b trong cc vn mang tnh h thng.
Cc nc cng ng s tip tc m phn sau ny v xy dng Khun kh Nng nghip a

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phng trnh i u gia cc nc v mt chnh tr v kinh t trong lnh vc nhy cm cao.
Trn thc t cc nc ng vi tho thun trn ch nhm mc ch kt thc Vng m phn.
m phn v sn phm nhit i cng khng n nh nhng t c ct gim thu quan v
phi thu quan cho ton b cc mt hng ny. Cc nc khng t c mt tho thun no
trong h thng t v a phng, nhng sau Vng m phn ny, m phn vn c tip tc
tuy nhin khng thu c nhiu thnh cng. C mt kt qu m cc nc ang pht trin cho
rng rt quan trng i vi h l iu khon Cho php. iu khon ny khuyn khch cc
nc ang pht trin tham gia vo h thng thng mi ton cu, cho php cc nc pht trin
dnh u i cho nc ang pht trin trong lnh vc thu quan v phi thu quan. Tuy nhin mt
hu qu khng lng ca vng m phn ny l tip tc lm gim vai tr ca cc nc ang
pht trin trong cc hot ng ban hnh lut php ca GATT. Xem linear tariff cuts v Tokyo
Round agreements.
Tokyo Round agreements: Cc hip nh Vng Tokyo
Tn chung ca 6 b lut v cc bin php phi thu quan, ba hip nh chuyn ngnh v bn
quyt nh, i khi cn c gi l cc hip nh khung (framework agreements) c k trong
Vng Tokyo. Chnh ph cc nc c quyn la chn tham gia vo hip nh no h mun. B
lut gm c (a) Hip nh v Hng ro k thut i vi thng mi, thng c bit n l
"b lut tiu chun". Mc tiu ca Hip nh l m bo cc quy nh k thut, tiu chun,
kim tra v cp chng nhn khng gy cn tr cho thng mi, (b) Hip nh v Mua sm ca
chnh ph nhm to s cnh tranh v tnh cng khai trong mua sm ca chnh ph, (c) Hip
nh Gii thch v p dng iu VI, XVI v XXIII, thng c bit nh "b lut tr cp" nhm
m bo rng tr cp khng gy phng hi n li ch ca cc bn hng khc, (d) Hip nh
Thc hin iu VII, c bit nh l "b lut nh gi hi quan" nhm tm kim mt h thng
cng bng, thng nht v trung lp tnh tr gi hi quan, (e) Hip nh v Th tc cp php
nhp khu nhm m bo rng yu cu cp giy php nhp khu khng hn ch thng mi, v
(f) Hip nh Thc hin iu VI, thng c bit n l "b lut chng ph gi", trong Hip
ny cc nc r sot li b lut chng ph gi m phn trong Vng Kenedy. Ba hip nh theo
lnh vc l (a) Hip nh v tht b, nhm m rng, t do ho v n nh thng mi tht b v
b nui, (b) Hip nh cc sn phm sa quc t cng thc hin theo mc ch tng t i vi
thng mi cc sn phm sa trn th gii,v (c) Hip nh v bun bn my bay dn dng,
theo cc nc tham gia hip nh phi loi b thu hi quan p dng cho my bay dn dng
v cc ph tng my mc. Bn quyt nh c lin quan n phn bit i x i vi cc nc
ang pht trin, cc bin php thng mi vi l do cn cn thanh ton, cc nc ang pht trin
c s linh hot hn trong vic thc hin bin php thng mi v mc ch pht trin, v mt
bn ghi nh v cc bin php gii quyt tranh chp. Xem thm WTO Plurilateral agreemets v
Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation.
Tokyo Round Codes: B lut Vng Tokyo
Xem Tokyo Round agreements.
Torquay Tariff Conference: Hi ngh Thu quan Torquay
Hi ngh din ra ti Torquay, Vng quc Anh t thng 9/1950 n 4/1951. Chng trnh lm
vic ca hi ngh bao gm m phn gia nhp vi su nc (o, Cng ho Lin bang c, Hn
Quc, Peru, Philippines v Th-nh-k) v mt vi cuc m phn thu quan gia cc nc
thnh vin. Hi ngh ny c coi l vng th ba m phn thng mi a phng. Cui cng
Hn Quc gia nhp GATT vo nm 1967 v Philippines nm 1979.
Tradables: Kh thng
Hng ho v dch v c th mua bn trn th trng th gii. i vi dch v th du lch bng
my bay, vin thng v t vn qun l thuc loi ny, nhng ct tc th khng c coi l dch
v c th mua bn c. Xem thm non-tradeables v semi-tradeables.
Trade and competition: Thng mi v cnh tranh

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y l mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi hin ang c tho lun trong cc din n
quc t, nhng tng l ch m phn trong Hin chng Havana. Vn ny tr nn
quan trng v hai l do. L do th nht, cng ngy cc nc cng nhn thy rng li ch t t do
ho thng mi quc t c th b v hiu ho bi cc bin php trong nc khng c li cho th
trng m v cnh tranh. Nhng hng ro cn tr ni trn c th c thc hin di dng cc
hnh vi phn cnh tranh ca thnh phn t nhn, lm dng kh nng c quyn v h thng lut
php khng y ca chnh ph. Ti mt s nc, vn ny tr nn nghim trng hn do
chnh sch cnh tranh ca cc nc ny cn yu hoc khng bao trm ht tt c cc hot ng
kinh t. L do th hai, c mt s vn nu s dng chnh sch thng mi hay chnh sch
cnh tranh th kt qu thu c li khc nhau. Kt qu thu c ph thuc vo vic chnh sch
no c u tin thc hin. Nu cc nc tm hiu c tc ng ca mu thun trn thi dng
lu chuyn cc hot ng kinh t quc t s din ra d dng hn. Ti Hi ngh B trng WTO
Singapore thng 12/1996 Nhm Cng tc v Tc ng qua li gia Thng mi v Chnh sch
cnh tranh c thnh lp. Xem thm antitrust laws, competition policy, international
contestability of markets v restrictive business practices.
Trade and corruption: Thng mi v tham nhng
Xem trade and illicit payments.
Trade and culture: Thng mi v vn ha
Mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi, nhng cha c a vo lch m phn. Vn ny
lin quan n nh hng ca thng mi quc t i vi bn sc vn ho. Theo ngha hp, n
ch bao trm nhng thit b v chng trnh nghe nhn, hn ch nhp khu nh nguyn tc hm
lng ni a p dng vi loi hng ho ny. Mt s ngi nhn vn ny di gc cnh rng
hn, nh hng ca thng mi v u t i vi bn sc vn ho ca mt nc. Theo cch
nhn ny, hin c mt l thuyt ch ngha quc vn ho cho rng thng mi v u t c
nguy c ph hoi truyn thng t nc v nhn chm di sn vn ho ca nc khc. Vi cch
hiu nh vy, cc nc c th vin vo thc hin chnh sch bo h, nu khng th c l
do no khc. Xem thm audiovisual services, broadcasting directive v cultural specificity.
Trade and Development Board: Ban Thng mi v Pht trin
C quan iu hnh ca UNCTAD gia cc hi ngh din ra bn nm mt ln. Hng nm c
quan ny hp mt hai ln xem xt nhng nh hng ca thng mi quc t i vi chnh
sch kinh t v m, cc vn tin t, cc vn thng mi, chnh sch thng mi, iu
chnh c cu v ci cch kinh t v cc vn khc.
Trade and Development Report: Bo co Thng mi v Pht trin
Bo co hng nm ca UNCTAD v tng nc ang pht trin. Trc y c i lc bo co
ny mang tnh cht gio iu, tuy nhin bo co rt c ch trong phn tch nhng vn v
chnh sch thng mi hin nay.
Trade and employment: Thng mi v vic lm
y l mt trong nhng chng trnh ngh s ca Hi ngh Lin hp quc v Thng mi v
Vic lm v trong cc cuc hp tr b trc nm 1947-48. S d vn ny thuc chng
trnh ngh s ca hi ngh v cc nc u nhn thy rng chnh sch li mnh hi ngi lm
cho tnh trng tht nghip trc chin tranh tr nn trm trng hn, v y l mt nguyn chnh
dn n chin tranh. Ngay t khi hi ngh bt u c s chia r gia cc bn tham gia, mt
s mun a cc quy nh v vn vic lm vo Hin chng Havana, s khc cng mun
t c vn vic lm mt cch y nhng h li cho rng t chc ECOSOC l c quan
thch hp nht gii quyt hin tng tht nghip theo chu k v c th iu phi chnh sch
trong lnh vc ny. Hin chng Havana quy nh cc nc thnh vin phi tun th cc ngha
v c tnh nguyn tc sau: (a) Gii quyt v duy tr cng n vic lm y trong phm vi lnh
th ca cc nc thnh vin, (b) thc hin cc bin php m bo vn vic lm ph hp vi
cc iu khon khc ca Hin chng, (c) trnh p dng cc bin php gy ra nhng kh khn

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cho cn cn thanh ton ca cc nc khc, (d) tin hnh cc bin php thch hp v kh thi
loi tr nhng iu kin lao ng khng bnh ng, (e) cng tc vi cc nc khc c lin quan
trit tiu vn c hu cn cn thanh ton, v (f) tham gia cc hot ng do ECOSOC ti tr
xc tin vic lm. Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi Th gii v GATT
nu r mc tiu m bo y cng n vic lm ngay ti li ni u. C quan im cho rng
vi vic bao gm c mc tiu cng n vic lm, WTO c quyn c kim tra vn thng
mi v mi trng, tuy nhin quan im ny khng phn nh ng thc trng hin nay.
Trade and environment: Thng mi v Mi trng
Mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi, phn nh mi quan h qua li gia bin php m rng
thng mi v nhng bin php bo v mi trng. Vn chnh trong thng mi v mi
trng chnh l s khc bit trong tiu chun mi trng c kh nng dn n chnh lch v chi
ph v cc nc c chi ph thp hn s khai thc li th ny. Mt vn khc na l liu cc
bin php thng mi c bt buc phi phc v cho cc mc tiu mi trng hay khng. Quan
im trn ni chung khng c cc nh hoch nh chnh sch ng h v h cho rng vi l do
mi trng cc nc c th p dng cc bin php bo h. Tuy nhin hin nay mt s hip nh
mi trng a phng c cc iu khon quy nh v cc bin php thng mi quan trng.
Mt chng trnh lm vic v vn ny hin ang c tin hnh trong U ban Thng mi
v Mi trng WTO. U ban ny bao trm c hng ho v dch v. Xem thm Agenda 21, Basel
Convention, CITES, general exceptions, Montreal Protocol, race-to-bottom argument v Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development.
Trade and foreign exchange: Thng mi v ngoi hi
Mt s nc ngh WTO xem xt vn ny l mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi, lin
quan n mi quan h gia thng mi quc t v h thng t gi hi oi. Nhng ngi a ra
ngh cho rng h thng hi oi th ni l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn gy p lc bo h
i vi h thng thng mi. Nhng mt s ngi khc li ni rng h thng t gi hi oi c
nh li l nguyn nhn dn n ch ngha bo h. Ch c mt s t mun bt u m phn
sm v vn ny.
Trade and human rights: Thng mi v nhn quyn
Thut ng c th hiu theo nhiu ngha khc nhau, nhng u c mt im chung l pht trin
thng mi quc t c th tc ng n nhn quyn, c bit l nc xut khu. Thng cch
ngh ny da trn gi thit bi quan cho rng c c t do ho thng mi cc nc phi
chu chi ph x hi cao i li cc li ch kinh t. Mt s ngi ni rng tin b v kinh t
ng gp cho vic m rng thng mi quc t cn phi em li s pht trin kinh t v x hi
cho mi ngi dn. Tuy nhin c mi lo ngi cho rng v d vn ton cu ho ch h tr
c cc lnh vc trc tip lin quan thi, chnh v vy m khong cch gia cc ngnh c
hin i ho v cc ngnh truyn thng ngy cng ln. i vi nhng ngi khc, ni dung ca
vn thng mi v nhn quyn l ch cc bin php thng mi c th c s dng
xc tin v thc hin nhn quyn. Ngha l phi tun th tiu chun lao ng ct li. H c
nh s dng chng trnh GSP thc hin mc ch v y l cng c n phng t iu
kin gn vi mt lot yu t khc nhau. Tuy nhin c mt quan im khc cho rng nu nh
khng tun th nhn quyn thng qua tiu chun lao ng ct li th cc nc xut khu s
c hng mt li th mt cch khng cng bng v chi ph ca cc nh xut khu s thp
hn. Mc d cc nghin cu v kinh nghim cho thy quan im trn cha chc ng nhng
cc nc ng h gii php cho php cc nc nhp khu c quyn dng bin php thng
mi t bo v mnh chng li thng mi khng bnh ng ni trn. y cng l c s cc
nc da vo ku gi a ra nguyn tc chng li ci gi l ph gi x hi. Khng nn nh
gi qu thp vn nhn quyn tt c cc nc c trnh pht trin khc nhau nhng c
mt thc t ng bun l trong nhiu trng hp cc nc yu cu thc hin nguyn tc nhn
quyn ch nhm mc ch duy nht l thc hin cc bin php bo h chng li cc nc ang
pht trin. Xem thm Social Charter v social dimension of the liberalisation of international
trade.

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Trade and illicit payments: Thng mi v cc khon thanh ton bt chnh
Mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi, lin quan n hi l, tham nhng v tnh trng thiu
cng khai trong vic mua sm ca chnh ph. Hoa K chnh l nc yu cu a vn ny ra
m phn vi mc ch thc y p dng cc bin php hn ch nhng khon thanh ton bt
chnh ny, tun th theo ng php lut ca Hoa K. Cc khon thanh ton bt chnh vi phm
quy nh trong o lut Chng tham nhng nc ngoi. Nm 1995, cc nc OECD a
ra khuyn ngh kim tra li ch php l ca cc khon tin thng. Nhiu nc cho php cc
cc khon tin ny c gim thu vi mt s iu kin nht nh. Ti Hi ngh Hi ng B
trng thng 5/1997, cc nc OECD nht tr s trnh vn bn lut ca mnh, trong
quy nh hi l l mt ti danh hnh s, ln c quan lp php ca h vo cui nm 1998. ng
thi cc nc cng nht tr s kt thc m phn vn ny vo cui nm 1997 v bt u thc
hin vo nm 1998.
Trade and investment: Thng mi v u t
c coi l mi trong nhng vn thng mi mi, mc d trong Hin chng Havana
thit lp mt s nguyn tc c bn v u t. Vn ny lin quan n mi quan h gia
thng mi v u t, coi l cc yu t trong quan h kinh t quc t v l vn v m ca
th trng. Ni chung v lu di th thng mi v u t c xu hng tch ring bit thnh hai
vn chnh sch khc nhau. Nhng hin nay hai vn ny cng ngy cng gn cht vi nhau
v mang tnh b tr cho nhau. Vi xu hng bo h bin gii ngy cng gim, u t nc
ngoi s to nn hnh thi thng mi mi v cng c hnh thi thng mi c. Trong cc
trng hp khc, cc cng ty gn nh bt buc phi u t v sn xut theo mc tiu ca th
trng v nu thu nhp khu cao th vic nhp khu kh c th thc hin c. Hi ngh B
trng WTO Singapore din ra vo thng 12/1996 thnh lp mt Nhm Cng tc v Thng
mi v u t iu tra vn ny. Xem thm globalism, Multinational Agreement on
Investment v tariff-jumping.
Trade and Investment Framework Agreement: Hip nh khung Thng mi v u t
Tho thun gia Australia v Hoa K thc hin tham vn v thng mi v u t c k vo
nm1992. Hip nh quy nh cc nguyn tc v th tc iu chnh c ch song phng nhm
khuyn khch t do ho v xc tin thng mi v u t.
Trade and labour standards: Thng mi v tiu chun lao ng
Mt trong nhng vn thng mi mi v vic liu c nn s dng cc quy tc thng mi
t c tiu chun lao ng ti thiu cc nc xut khu hay khng. Cng ging nh cc
vn mi pht sinh khc, vn thng ma v tiu chun lao ng cng c cp n
mt vi ln. Khi T chc Lao ng quc t c thnh lp nm 1919, cc nc thng qua
tiu chun lao ng v ng coi vic pht trin tiu chun lao ng l mc tiu hot ng ca
t chc. C kin cho rng khi nim "tiu chun lao ng cng bng" c ngun gc t quy
nh trong iu 23(a) Hip c ca Hi Quc lin, theo "cc nc thnh vin phi m bo
v duy tr tiu chun lao ng cng bng v nhn o cho nam gii, ph n v tr em ti nc
h v ti nhng nc h c quan h thng mi v cng nghip". Hin chng i ty dng
nm 1941 cng tm cch m bo "nng cao vic thc hin tiu chun lao ng, tin b kinh t
v an ninh x hi cho tt c mi ngi". Nm 1943, T chc Lao ng Quc t a ra ngh
"ti mt nc nu cc iu kin hin hnh khng hp l, th nc cn c tho thun m
bo lao ng trong mt ngnh hng nht nh phi nhn c tin th lao thch ng v c
bo v y v mt an ninh x hi v cc iu kin khc phi hp l". Mi quan h gia
thng mi quc t v tiu chun lao ng c quy nh c th hn trong iu 7(1) Hin
chng Havana, theo " iu kin lao ng khng cng bng, c bit trong lnh vc sn
xut hng xut khu to ra nhng kh khn trong thng mi quc t, v vy cc nc cn phi
thc hin nhng hnh ng m h cho l hp l v kh thi trit tiu ton b nhng iu kin
ny trong phm vi lnh th nc ". Mt s tho thun hng ho quc t cng c cc quy

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nh khuyn khch cc nc thnh vin thc hin tiu chun lao ng cng bng. Xem thm
child labour, core labour standards, social clause, social dumping v social subsidies.
Trade and social conditions: Thng mi v iu kin x hi
Xem child labour, core labour standards, social clause, trade and labour standards v worker
rights.
Trade and taxation: Thng mi v thu
Mt s nc ngh a vn ny vo chng trnh lm vic trong cc vng m phn
thng mi a phng trong tng lai. C s l lun ca vn ny cho rng ch thu c
th c s dng bin dng thng mi quc t. Vn ny rt phc tp n ni m ngay c
nhng nc tha nhn mi quan h qua li gia thng mi v thu cng ngn ng khng
mun tho lun nhng vic cn phi lm. Xem thm new trade issues v transfer pricing.
Trade-balancing requirement: Yu cu cn bng thng mi
Mt iu kin i khi gn lin vi vic cho php u t vo mt nc khc. Cc doanh nghip
khng c php nhp khu nhiu hn xut khu xt trn gi tr hng ho v trn vic s dng
ngoi hi. iu kin ny s hn ch s pht trin ca cc doanh nghip v t cng hn ch
pht trin kinh t ca nc ch nh. Yu cu cn bng thng mi tri vi quy nh trong Hip
nh WTO v cc Bin php u t lin quan n thng mi. Cn bng thng mi ch yu
da trn ch ngha trng thng.
Trade-chill effect: Hiu ng ng bng thng mi
Kt qu ca nhng vic nh lm dng thng mi gy ra gim t ngt xut khu mt mt
hng nht nh n mt nc.
Trade coverage: Phm vi thng mi
Thut ng s dng trong cc m phn thu quan cho thy thng mi s c t do ho
n mc no thng qua m phn ct gim thu quan.
Trade creation: Hnh thnh thng mi
Tiu ch s dng nh gi nh hng ca khu vc thng mi t do v lin minh hi quan
i vi cc khu vc khc. L thuyt thng mi cho rng gim v loi b hng ro cn tr
thng mi s gip cho thng mi gia cc nc thnh vin vi cc nc khc pht trin,
nhng vi mt iu kin l cc nc trong ni b khi khng tng cng hng ro cn tr
thng mi i vi cc nc bn ngoi. Kinh nghim rt ra t h thng GATT v m rng
thng mi cho thy chnh nhng bng chng thc tin l nn tng ca l thuyt ni trn. Trn
thc t, l thuyt trn kh c th c chng minh trong mt khu vc nht nh v cn c tc
ng ca cc yu t khc, c bit l nhng thay i ln nh tin b k thut, thay i v hnh
thi u t... Xem thm trade diversion.
Trade defence instruments: Cng c bo v thng mi
Xem contingent protection.
Trade deficit: Thm ht thng mi
Thm ht thng mi khi kim ngch nhp khu ca mt nc vt qu kim ngch xut khu
ca nc trong mt khong thi gian nht nh. Nu ch nhn vo ch s ny th khng xc
nh c chnh xc tnh hnh pht trin kinh t ca mt nc. Tuy nhin, nu thm ht thng
mi din ra thng xuyn, th nn kinh t c biu hin c nhng d ng cn phi c sa
cha ngay. Nhng i khi nhng lo lng v thm ht thng mi ch n gin l triu chng
ca ch ngha trng thng. Xem thm balancing trade v trade surplus.
Trade deflection: Chuyn hng thng mi
Xem trade diversion.

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Trade deviation: Lch hng thng mi
Thut ng s dng miu t bi cnh mt nc ng thi l thnh vin ca hai khu vc
thng mi t do. Hng ha c xut x t mt khu vc thng mi t do c th lu chuyn t
do trong khu vc t do kia mt khi hng ho vo lnh th hi quan ca nc l thnh vin
ca c hai khu vc ny, tr phi c quy ch xut x ring.
Trade diversion: Chuyn dch thng mi
Cng ging nh khi nim trade deflection. y l mt trong nhng tiu ch nh gi nh
hng ca khu vc thng mi t do v lin minh hi quan. Thng thng cc t chc ny hnh
thnh s thc y pht trin thng mi gia cc nc thnh vin, nhng theo l thuyt kinh t,
t l tng trng thng mi ca cc nc thnh vin thu c t chuyn hng thng mi
ch khng phi l thng mi tng do c tho thun trong khu vc. nh hng ny th hin r
trong cc m hnh. Trn thc t rt kh nh gi chuyn dch thng mi mt cch ring bit v
cn c tc ng ca nhiu yu t khc nh ci tin k thut, ct gim thu ton cu, nhng thay
i trong chnh sch u t... Xem thm trade creation.
Trade Efficiency Program: Chng trnh Hiu qu Thng mi
Chng trnh ca UNCTAD vi mc ch nng cao nhn thc ca quc t v p dng c hiu
qu cng ngh thng tin vo thng mi, v pht trin vic s dng cc m hnh c th gim
chi ph v th tc trong thng mi quc t. Xem thm Trade Point Programme.
Trade embargo: Cm vn thng mi
Lnh cm bun bn vi mt nc nht nh, thng thng qua quyt nh ca Lin hp quc,
nhng i khi l hnh ng ca mt nc hay mt khu vc. Mt v d v bin minh cho cm
vn thng mi c cp n trong phn ngoi l an ninh trong GATS v GATT, theo
cc nc c quyn treo khng thc hin ngha v ca mnh trong cc hip nh tun th
quyt nh ca Lin hp quc. Xem thm United Nations economic sanctions.
Trade Expansion Act: o lut M rng Thng mi
Xem Kenedy Round v United States trade agreements legislation.
Trade facilitation: To thun li cho thng mi
Mt lot cc bin php phi kinh t vi mc ch xc tin m rng thng mi quc t bng
cch to iu kin dng thng mi lu chuyn d dng hn. V d nh xut bn danh b
cc cng ty hot ng thng mi, hp tc trong vn tiu chun k thut, vn hi quan v
kim dch, tho lun nh k cc vn thng mi, hi ch thng mi, on thng mi...
Xem thm trade promotion.
Trade-finance-currency linkage: Mi quan h thng mi-ti chnh-tin t
Mt ni dung trong tuyn b cp b trng ti Marrakesh vo thng 4/1994, sau khi Vng
Uruguay kt thc. Mc tiu s hp tc gia WTO, IMF v IBRD c c mi quan h cht
ch ton cu trong vic ban hnh chnh sch thng mi, tin t v ti chnh.
Trade harassment: Lm dng thng mi
S dng cc bin php trong nc cng khai v phi cng khai nhm lm cho vic nhp khu tr
nn kh khn. Cc bin php cng khai bao gm s dng qu khch cc bin php chng ph
gi, t v v thu i khng. i khi cc nh nhp khu cng t ng gim hoc ngng nhp
khu khi nhn thy c kh nng cc bin php ny c thc hin. nh hng ca vic cam kt
gi lm cho vic nhp khu khng thu c li nhun g. Lm dng thng mi cng c th
xy ra thng qua tranh chp gi to.
Trade in cultural property: Thng mi ti sn vn ha
Xem Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and
Tranfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Theo iu XX(f) GATT, WTO, cc nc c

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quyn thc hin cc bin php thng mi bo v kho tng ngh thut, lch s v kho c.
Xem thm trade and culture.
Trade in Services: Thng mi dch v
Cung cp dch v theo cc iu kin thng mi cho ngi nc khc, thng qua thng mi
xuyn bin gii hay thng qua hin din thng mi. Xem thm data protection in trade in
services, modes of services delivery, services, tradeable services v transactions in services.
Trade in services statistics: S liu thng k trong thng mi dch v
iu m cc nh phn tch thng mi quc t quan tm nht l s liu thng k trong
thng mi dch v rt s si, khng chi tit nh thng mi hng ho. Nguyn nhn chnh l
do dch v khng th m hay kim nghim ti bin gii nh thng mi hng ho. T trc
n nay khng pht sinh nhu cu phn loi chi tit thng mi dch v. Chnh v vy s liu
thng k trong thng mi dch v ch da trn giao dch ngoi hi hoc theo iu tra ca cc
cng ty, thng thng l kt hp c hai hnh thc ny c c s liu chnh xc hn. V
thng mi dch v ch din ra trong mt khong thi gian tng i ngn nn bo co tng
hp thng mi dch v cn phi c nhiu thi gian mi c th hon thnh c. S liu thng
k hin hnh v thng mi dch v da trn bo co Cn cn Thanh ton ca IMF, c chia
lm 4 nhm: (a) vn ti ng bin: cc ph vn ti v bo him trong vn ti hng ho, (b)
cc dch v vn ti khc: dch v ch khch, c tnh trn v bn trong cc chuyn i quc t
v dch v sn bay, cng bin, (c) du lch: hng ho v dch v cung cp cho khch du lch nc
ngoi, v (d) cc loi dch v khc: bo him, ngh nghip, vin thng, xy dng, khai khong,
my tnh, gii tr v cc loi khc. Nhm dch v cui cng bao gm cc loi dch v c tc
pht trin nhanh nht. Mt s nc a ra s liu thng k phn loi chi tit hn so vi bn
nhm chung chung ni trn, nhng mt s nc khc th ch cng b s liu trn theo ng bn
nhm. Cc nc OECD pht trin cch phn loi ca IMF thnh cch thc phn loi
EUROSTAT i vi thng mi dch v. Australia v cc nc khc cng ang nng cp s
liu thng k trong thng mi dch v. Nhm c nhim v s liu thng k l c quan hot
ng chnh trong lnh vc ny. Nhm ny trc thuc Lin hp quc v do OECD ch tr, bao
gm i din ca EuroStat (C quan thng k ca Cng ng Chu u), IMF, UNCTAD, v
IBRD v WTO. Lc lng Lin t chc c quyn lc rng ri trong vic nng cp s liu thng
k dch v, v t chc ny cng u tin p ng nhu cu thng k ca GATS. Nhm Voorburg
phi chnh thc cng tham gia nhiu vo hot ng thng k thng mi dch v. Tuy nhin cn
c mt thi gian na cc t chc mi c th cung cp c y s liu thng k ca cc lnh
vc dch v quan trng. ng thi hin nay Reich (1991), UNCTAD v cc t chc khc cho
rng vic phn chia rch ri gia hng ho v dch v ngy cng tr nn v ngha khi xt trn
kha cnh ci g ang thc s xy ra trong nn kinh t. Xem thm balance of payments.
Trade intensity: Cng thng mi
S o tm quan trng ca thng mi i vi mt nn kinh t, tnh trn t l ca tr gi xut
nhp khu hng ho v dch v trn tng gi tr ca nn kinh t.
Trade liberalisation: T do ho thng mi
Thut ng chung ch hot ng loi b cc cn tr hin hnh i vi thng mi hng ho v
dch v. Thut ng ny c th bao trm c hn ch u t nu nh th trng mc tiu cn u
t thc hin tip cn th trng.
Trademarks: Thng hiu
T ng, tn gi, biu tng, hnh v hay kt hp nhng loi ny do cc nh sn xut, thng
doanh s dng c nh hng ho ca h phn bit vi hng ho khc cng loi. Xem thm
intellectual property v Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
Trade negotiations between developing countries: m phn thng mi gia cc nc
ang pht trin

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Thng 11/1971 cc nc thnh vin GATT ng min t nguyn tc i ng ti hu quc cho
php cc nc ang pht trin c dnh cho nhau i x u i. C khong 15 nc ang pht
trin hng ng vic ny. m phn thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin c thc
hin di s bo tr ca GATT v t c kt qu khim tn. Xem thm developing countries
and the GATT, ECDC v GSTP.
Trade Negotiation Committee: U ban m phn Thng mi
U ban thng c thnh lp khi mt vng m phn thng mi a phng bt u. Thnh
vin l nhng nc tham gia vng m phn. Hot ng ch yu ca U ban l gim st tnh
cng khai v thc hin c ch r sot chnh sch ca cc nc. Chnh quy m ca loi hnh u
ban ny lm cho u ban khng m ng c cng vic m phn thc s.
Trade Point Program: Chng trnh u mi Thng tin Thng mi
Do UNCTAD thnh lp nhm khuyn khch cc nc ang pht trin v cc nc ang trong
giai on qu tham gia vo thng mi quc t, gim chi ph giao dch v cho php cc nc
tip cn gn hn vi thng tin thng mi v mng li ton cu. Hin nay trn th gii c
khong 100 C quan u mi Thng tin Thng mi. Cc c quan ny lin lc vi nhau thng
qua mng in t v hot ng nh l cc trung tm xc tin thng mi, lm cc th tc cn
thit v cung cp thng tin v c hi xut khu cho cc nh doanh nghip. Xem thm Trade
Efficiency Programme.
Trade Policies for a Better Future: Chnh sch Thng mi cho mt Tng lai ti p
hn
Xem Leutwiler Report.
Trade policy: Chnh sch thng mi
Mt h thng hon chnh bao gm lut l, quy nh, hip nh quc t v cc quan im m
phn c chnh ph thng qua t c m ca th trng hp php cho cc cng ty trong
nc. Chnh sch thng mi cng nhm xy dng lut l gip cho cc cng ty c kh nng d
on trc v m bo an ton cho mnh. Thnh phn chnh ca chnh sch thng mi l i
ng ti hu quc, i ng quc gia, tnh cng khai v trao i u i. pht huy c hiu
lc, chnh sch thng mi cn c s h tr ca chnh sch trong nc khuyn khch i mi
v nng cao tnh cnh tranh quc t, v cn c linh hot v thc dng trong qu trnh thc
hin. Theo quan st ca Hoekman v Kostecke (1995), chnh sch thng mi l chnh sch
quc gia dng phn bit i x i vi cc nh sn xut nc ngoi. Ni cch khc, chnh
sch thng mi i din cho quy m quc t ca chnh sch quc gia v l do ni a
(Carchichael 1986). Xem thm commercial policy v common commercial policy.
Trade Policy Review Mechanism: C ch R sot chnh sch thng mi
C ch r sot WTO chu s qun l ca C quan R sot chnh sch thng mi, tc l i hi
ng khi i hi ng hp vi chc nng , nhm m bo h thng thng mi a phng
thc hin ng chc nng ca mnh thng qua tnh cng khai trong nc v quc t trong c
ch thng mi ca tng nc thnh vin WTO. C th a bt k vn no ra trong cuc
hp ca i hi ng, khng nht thit l phi thuc phm vi iu chnh ca WTO hay khng,
tt nhin nhng vn ny phi lin quan n chnh sch thng mi ca nc ang c iu
tra. Chnh sch thng mi c r sot theo mt lch trnh c nh. Tn s r sot nhiu hay t
ph thuc vo t l thng mi ca tng nc trong tng thng mi th gii, chnh sch
thng mi ca cc nc ln c r sot nhiu hn. C ch gii quyt tranh chp khng phc
v mc tiu thc hin ngha v c th ca WTO hay th tc gii quyt tranh chp. Xem thm
surveillance.
Trade promotion: Xc tin thng mi

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Cc hot ng phc v mc ch tng thng mi xut khu ca mt cng ty, mt nc nh
tham gia hi ch thng mi, on thng mi, chin dch xut bn, v.v... Xem thm Working
Group on the Interaction between Trade and Competition Policy.
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS): Nhng kha cnh s hu
tr tu lin quan n thng mi
Xem Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS): Cc bin php u t lin quan n
thng mi
Xem Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures.
Trade remedies: Bin php khc phc thng mi
Thng cp n cc bin php chng ph gi, thu i khng v t v p li nh hng
hot ng thng mi ca cc nc khc. Ti Hoa K, y l thut ng ch bin php p
dng theo lut thng mi gii quyt nh hng thng mi khng bnh ng ca cc nc
khc hay tn tht do hng nhp khu tng nhanh gy ra. Vic p dng bin php khc phc
thng mi no ph thuc vo chng, phn trong lut thng mi p dng cho tng trng
hp c th. Bao gm tng thu quan, hn ngch nhp khu, bin php i khng, tr a, v.v...
Xem thm Section 201, Section 301, Super 301.
Trade-restrictive environmental measures: Cc bin php mi trng hn ch thng mi
Cc bin php bo v mi trng c tc ng hn ch thng mi. Tc ng c th l trc tip
v c nh trong trng hp Hoa K p dng bin php bo v c heo, nhng cng c khi l
v tnh. Xem thm trade and environment, tuna (Canada-United States) 1982, tuna (European
Economic Community - United States) 1994 v tuna (Mexico - United States,1991.
Trade secret: B mt thng mi
Thng tin c gi kn, khng cng b cng khai, i th cnh tranh v cc bn khc cng
khng c bit, h c th c li nu nh bit c thng tin . Ti Australia, b mt thng
mi bao trm thng tin tuyt mt c bn cht thng mi. Xem thm Agreement on Trade-
related Aspects of Intellectual Propery Rights v data protection in trade in services.
Trade suppression: Km ch thng mi
Thut ng c Jacob Viner s dng vo nm 1950 v Max Corden ph bin. Sau khi thnh lp
lin minh hi quan hoc khu vc thng mi t do, cc nc chuyn t ngun sn xut r ngoi
lin minh hay khu vc sang bng ngun sn xut t hn nhng trong lin minh hoc trong
khu vc u i mi c thnh lp.
Trade surplus: Thng d thng mi
Thng d thng mi xut hin khi kim ngch xut khu ca mt nc trong mt khong thi
gian nht nh cao hn kim ngch nhp khu ca nc . y l mc tiu m hu ht tt c
cc nc u mun t c nhng cc nh trng thng nhiu khi c chp, thiu suy ngh
trong mi trng hp ch xt n thng mi hng ho. Ngi ta cng khng nn cho rng
thng d thng mi hin nhin l tt, cn thm ht thng mi l xu. Ch c th nh gi
c ngha ca thng d thng mi trong bi cnh ca ton b nn kinh t m thi.
Trade-weighted average tariffs: Thu sut bnh qun gia quyn
Phng php tnh nh hng trung bnh ca thu quan thng qua tnh thu gia quyn theo tr
gi thng mi ca mt dng thu. V vy, mt hng no c khi lng thng mi cao s c
nh hng nhiu hn n vic tnh thu trung bnh so vi mt hng c tr gi thng mi t hn.
Phng php phn tch ny gp phi mt vn ln, l thu cao c tc ng khng khuyn
khch thng mi v thu trung bnh c tnh theo cch ny c th d on mc bo h thp

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hn so vi mc thc t. Tuy th, ngi ta tin rng phng php ny c coi l ch s ca phm
vi tng th ca thu sut.
Trading rights: Quyn thng mi
Quyn dnh cho mt s cng ty nht nh c tin hnh hot ng xut khu, nhp khu cc
nc nc, c bit l nhng nc c nn kinh t k hoch ho tp trung hoc nhng nc
ang chuyn i sang nn kinh t th trng. Quyn kinh doanh c th ch gii hn vic xut
khu mt mt hng nht nh hoc kinh doanh mt loi mt hng no . Cc cng ty khng
nht thit phi l cng ty nh nc mi c hng quyn kinh doanh. Nu cc cng ty c
quyn kinh doanh l cng ty nh nc th vn ny li tr thnh vn thng mi quc
doanh.
Traditional comity: S thn thin truyn thng
Xem negative comity.
Traffic light approach: Phng php n giao thng
Quy nh mang tnh th tc thng qua trong vng m phn Vng Uruguay v vic gim v
loi b tr cp. Cc nh m phn nht tr vi mt h thng chia tr cp b cm l , tr
cp c th gy hnh ng (loi tr cp c th b p dng cc bin php i khng) l vng, v
tr cp khng gy hnh ng l xanh. Quy nh chung ny khng iu chnh tr cp nng
nghip. Cc nc tin hnh m phn quy tc ring l cho tr cp nng nghip trong khun kh
Hip nh v Nng nghip.
Transactions in service: Giao dch dch v
Mt s nh phn tch thch s dng thut ng ny hn, thay th cho thng mi dch v v h
cho rng thut ng ny nhn mnh cc hot ng quc t trong dch v ph thuc vo u t
trc tip nc ngoi v n khng ch n gin l thng mi qua bin gii. Thut ng ny c
s dng nhiu trong cc n phm ca Cc Thng k Australia. Nhng i li, thut ng thng
mi dch v li c s dng trong xy dng chnh sch thng mi.
Transaction Value: Tr gi giao dch
Phng php nh tr gi hng nhp khu nh thu hi quan. Theo Hip nh WTO v vic
Thc hin iu II (nh gi hi quan) ca Hip nh v Thu quan v Thng mi, tr gi giao
dch chnh l gi phi tr cho hng xut khu n nc nhp khu trong iu kin cnh tranh.
Phng php ny da trn nh tr gi Brussels, c pht trin di s bo tr ca Hi ng
Hp tc Hi quan, nay l T chc Hi quan Th gii. Xem thm customs valuation.
Transatlantic Buseness Dialogue: i thoi Kinh doanh xuyn i ty dng
C ch c cc nh lnh o kinh doanh Hoa K v Chu u thnh lp vo nm 1995 tho
lun cc vn thng mi v kinh doanh m hai bn cng quan tm v a ra cc gii php
loi b cn tr n thng mi v u t xuyn i ty dng. Xem thm New Transatlantic
Agenda v New Transatlantic Marketplace.
Transfer of Technology: Chuyn giao cng ngh
Chuyn giao cng ngh c nh ngha trong d tho Lut quc t v Thc hin chuyn giao
cng ngh l chuyn giao mt h thng kin thc ch to ra mt sn phm, p dng mt
quy trnh hay cung cp dch v. Khi nim ny khng bao trm cc giao dch ch n thun
l bn v cho thu hng ho.
Transfer pricing: Chuyn gi
Vic s dng chnh sch nh gi khng da trn gi c th trng c c khon tit kim
t ngun thu thu, ti u ho ngun ngoi hi hay v l do no khc. Gi tham kho xc
nh liu vic chuyn gi c xy ra hay khng chnh l gi "si tay". l gi do hai bn hon
ton khng c quan h thn thch vi nhau xc nh. Ni chung ngi ta ngh rng cc giao

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dch trong ni b cng ty hoc gia cc bn c quan h thn thch thng c nh gi bng
phng php ny. iu khon 33 v 34 ca Bn tho B Lut Lin hp quc v qun l cc
cng ty xuyn quc gia a ra quy nh ti thiu ho s thng ng gia cc cng ty.
Xem thm arm's length pricing.
Transitional dumping: Ph gi qu
c nh ngha trong Grimwade (1996) l vic nh gi sn phm thp hn chi ph cn bin
ti a ha s lng bn ra v nng cao th phn. Hin nay vn cn c kin cho rng liu
tp qun ny c phi l mt hnh thc lm dng gi c hay khng, c bit l khi n li c
gia hn p dng trong mt khong thi gian khc. Xem thm dumping, anti-dumping measures.
Transitional safeguards: T v qu
C ch ny c quy nh trong Hip nh WTO v Hng dt may tm thi hn ch nhp
khu hng dt thuc phm vi ca Hip nh khi nhn thy hng nhp khu gia tng gy ra hay
e do gy ra tn tht nghim trng cho ngnh cng nghip trong nc. Nc p dng t v
phi chng minh c mi quan h gia gia tng nhp khu v tn tht gy ra i vi ngnh
cng nghip . Cc nc khng c p dng nguyn tc t v v l do thay i cng ngh,
thay i trong s thch ca ngi tiu dng hay cc yu t khc khng lin quan g n tnh
trng hng nhp khu gia tng. T v qu phi c gim st v r sot vi iu kin ht sc
nghim ngt, khng c p dng qu ba nm. Xem thm safeguards v special safeguards.
Transition economies: Nhng nn kinh t qu
Tn gi cc nc thuc Trung v ng u, cc nc trc y thuc Lin bang X-vit trong
h thng cc nc c nn kinh t k hoch ho tp trung. Tt c cc nc ny hin nay ang
trong thi k qu chuyn sang nn kinh t th trng. Xem thm newly liberalising
economies.
Transnational corporations: Cng ty xuyn quc gia
Cn c gi l cng ty a quc gia hay doanh nghip a quc gia. Cc cng ty ny ln v rt
ln v l khi lin kt cc c s sn xut, vn phng bn hng t ti nhiu nc khc nhau
di dng chi nhnh, cng ty con v cc loi hnh khc. Tng cng ty con phi bo co trc
tip cho cng ty u no, thng thng l cng ty c phn. Thng rt kh xc nh u mi
qun l thc ca cng ty nm u. Thng thng cng ty xuyn quc gia c coi l cng ty
ca mt nc cho d xut hin nhiu nc khc nhau, v d BHP l cng ty ca Australia,
Ericssons (Thu-in), Ford (Hoa K), Mitsui (Nht), ICI (Anh). Trong nhiu trng hp, cc
cng ty ny u tin ni ln hng u mt nc nht nh v tn tui ca cng ty gn vi
nc . Hin nay cng ty c a dng ho s hu, cc cng ty con c quyn t ch nhiu
hn trong cng vic kinh doanh ca mnh. Chnh cc cng ty con ca mt cng ty xuyn quc
gia li cnh tranh vi nhau trn th trng th gii. Do cng ty xuyn quc gia c nng lc th
trng ln v c kh nng tc ng n hnh thi sn xut nn trong mt s trng hp cc
cng ty xuyn quc gia thc s khng c tin tng. i hi phi qun l cht hn hot ng
ca cc cng ty xuyn quc gia dn n Bn tho B Lut Qun l Cng ty xuyn quc gia.
Tuy nhin vn ny hin nay vn cn gy nhiu tranh ci v t c kh nng thc hin c
trong tng lai gn. Gn y, cc cng ty xuyn quc gia cng c cc nc ch nh v cc t
chc quc t c lin quan n cho nhiu hn. Nghin cu cc vn lin quan n cng ty
xuyn quc gia tp trung ch yu trong Trung tm Cng ty xuyn quc gia, c tr s ti
UNCTAD, ngoi ra cng c nhiu ti liu nghin cu hc thut hay v nhiu n tng khc.
Cc nc OECD cng thng qua Hng dn ca OECD v cc Doanh nghip a quc gia
lm cng c iu chnh vic qun l cc cng ty xuyn quc gia. Xem thm dependence
theory, Fordism, intra-firm trade v Post-Fordism.
Transparency: Tnh cng khai; tnh minh bch
Ngha v phi cng b tt c lut l, quy nh, quyt nh t php, quy nh hnh chnh p
dng chung v cc hip nh quc t iu chnh thng mi hng ho v dch v, cng nh

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ngha v phi thc hin cc cng c ny mt cch hp l v cng bng. Ngha v v tnh cng
khai c quy nh trong iu X ca GATT, iu III ca GATS v cc hip nh khc ca
WTO. Xem thm notification v surveillance.
Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Arrangement: Tho thun Cng nhn ln nhau xuyn
Tasman
Tho thun gia Australia v New Zealand cho php hng ho c xut x t mt trong hai nc
c bn nc kia m khng cn phi qua mt qu trnh kim tra no. Tho thun ny cng
iu chnh cn b c k thut cao, cho php mt ngi ng k hnh ngh mt nc c
quyn ng k nc kia, khng cn phi kim tra hay thm nh li trnh na. Hip nh
ny c hiu lc t 1/1/1997. Xem thm ANZCERTA, mutual recognition arrangements v
technical barriers to trade.
Travaux prparatoires: Cng vic chun b
Ti liu, ghi chp trong cc cuc hp mang tnh tr b ca cc u ban, nhm chuyn gia, nhm
m phn,... trong qu trnh m phn t c mt tho c, hip c. Ti liu ny c gi
tr hng dn cho cc cc nh son tho khi ngn ng s dng trong vn bn chnh thc khng
r rng, nhng ti liu ny ch thc s pht huy tc dng khi cc ti liu c s nht tr cao.
Thnh vin tham gia mt hip nh c th s dng ghi chp ca hip nh khc bin lun
cho pha mnh trong khi gii quyt tranh chp nhng h vn phi th hin r l cch hiu ca
h c cc nc khc ng h. iu 32 ca Hip c Vin v Lut php ca Hip c coi ghi
chp trong cc cuc hp tr b l ti liu c th khai thc tu nhng ch khi vn bn chnh
thc khng thc s r rng c th thng nht c cch suy lun hoc l khi ti liu chnh
khng dn n kt qu l bch v bt hp l.
Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation: Hip c Hu ngh, Thng mi v
Hng hi
Thng c bit n nh l hip c FCN. y l mt loi hip c tay i m Hoa K v cc
nc Chu u hay s dng trc y. Hip c iu chnh thng mi v vn ti song phng,
quy nh quyn li ca ngi nc ngoi kinh doanh ti mt nc khc v thit lp hin din
thng mi ti , bao gm c s hu ti sn. Ch yu l quyn c vo kinh doanh v c tr,
quyn bo v c nhn v cng ty, quyn hnh ngh chuyn mn, quyn c ti sn, vn bng
pht minh, thu, chuyn li nhun v vn v nc, cc bin php thng mi, trng thu v quc
hu ho, v.v... Cc bn FCN u tin cn quy nh c v hi quan v lnh s. Hip c FCN
gia Hoa K v Php k kt nm 1778 l mt trong nhng bn hip c sm nht thuc loi
ny. K t sau Th chin th hai, Hoa K k kt khong 25 bn hip c, v hin nay c
khong 50 hip c ang cng c hiu lc. Hin nay hip c u t song phng ang thay
th hnh thc hip c ny.
Treaty of Maastricht: Hip c Maastricht
Hip c thnh lp Lin minh Chu u do 12 nc thnh vin Cng ng Chu u k kt vo
ngy 7/2/1992. Hip c c hiu lc t ngy 1/11/1993. Hip c ny tin xa hn hn Hip c
Rome mt s kha cnh ln nhm m bo thng qua mt khung php l duy nht iu
chnh tnh ho hp tng th trong cc hot ng i ngoi ca Lin hip Chu u, trong chnh
sch i ngoi, an ninh, kinh t v pht trin. Hi ng B trng v U ban Chu u chu
trch nhim thc hin nhim v Hip c ra. Hip c cng quy nh dng thut ng Cng
ng Chu u thay th thut ng Cng ng Kinh t Chu u, tr ct chnh ca Lin minh
Chu u. Ch c Cng ng Chu u mi c t cch php l v mi c quyn k kt cc hip
c quc t. Hip c cng thit lp chnh sch ngoi giao v an ninh chung v hp tc trong
lnh vc t php v ni v, hai tr ct khc ca Lin minh Chu u.
Treaty of Rome: Hip c Rome
Do su nc thnh vin u tin ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u k kt vo ngy 25/3/1957 v
c hiu lc t ngy 1/1/1958. Su nc l B, Cng ho Lin bang c, Php, Italia,

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Luxemburg v H-lan. Hip c quy nh cc iu khon v t do di chuyn hng ho, thnh
lp lin minh hi quan, loi b hn ch nh lng, nng nghip, t do i li, dch v v vn,
chnh sch vn ti, chnh sch cnh tranh v chnh sch thu, chnh sch thng mi v kinh t,
chnh sch x hi chung, thnh lp Ngn hng u t Chu u, lin kt vi cc nc v lnh
th bn ngoi v cc bip php php l. Trong thi gian ny hip c thnh lp Cng ng
Nng lng Nguyn t Chu u (Euratom) cng c k kt ti Rome. T in ny khng i
su vo Euratom, v "Hip c Rome" trong trang ny l hip c thnh lp Cng ng Kinh t
Chu u. Xem thm European Coal and Steel Community, European Community, Common
Agricultural Policy v Article 113 Committee.
Treaty of Stockholm: Hip c Stockholm
Xem EFTA.
Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits: Hip c S hu Tr tu
v mch tch hp
Mt trong nhng hip c quy nh tiu chun bo v p dng theo Hip nh v Quyn s hu
tr tu lin quan n thng mi. Hip c c k ngy 26/5/1992 Washington trong phm
vi ca WIPO. Cho n nay, Hip c vn cha c hiu lc. Cc bn tham gia phi bo v quyn
s hu tr tu i vi thit k b cc ca mch tch hp bt k mch tch hp c thuc mt
bn mch hay khng. Cc bn tham gia cng phi dnh i ng quc gia cho th nhn v php
nhn ca cc nc khc. Bo v mch tch hp ti thiu phi l 8 nm. t nht, vic ti ch,
nhp khu, bn hoc phn phi thit k b cc hay a mch tch hp vo mt bng mch v
mc ch thng mi phi c coi l bt hp php nu nh khng c ngi ch quyn s
hu tr tu u quyn.
Treble damages: Tn tht gp ba
Theo Phn 77, o lut Thu quan Wilson 1894 v Phn 4, o lut Clayton 1914 trong h
thng lut chng c quyn ca Hoa K, ngi b tn tht do mt hnh vi b cm trong lut gy
ra c th c bi thng gp ba ln thng qua to n. Khng c quy nh mc tn tht ti a
c n b. o lut Sherman - o lut chng c quyn u tin, ch quy nh mc pht v
thi hn pht t i a cho cc bn phm ti.
Trends in International Trade: Cc xu hng trong thng mi quc t
Xem Haberler Report.
Triadisation: Ba tr ct kinh t
Nhm Lisbon cng nhn qu trnh hi nhp cng ngh, kinh t, vn ho x hi gia ba khu vc
pht trin nht trn th gii din ra nhanh hn so vi khu vc khc. Ba khu vc ny l Nht v
cc nc cng nghip mi, Ty u v Bc M.
Trigger price: Gi chm ngi
Mc gi c n nh trong cc c cu tr cp trong nc, nht l i vi lnh vc nng nghip,
hoc trong hip nh quc t m nc ny tham gia. Khi gi t ti mc gi ny s t ng dn
n quyt nh hnh ng. Xem thm buffer stocks, international commodity agreements v
special safeguards.
TRIMs: Cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi
Bao gm c mc tiu xut khu, hn ch nhp khu, quy nh mua ni a hay quy nh hm
lng ni a, cc yu cu v nghin cu v pht trin v cc iu kin tng t m mt doanh
nghip phi tun theo c php u t vo nc khc. Xem thm Agreement on Trade
Related Investment Measures.
TRIPS: Cc kha cnh ca quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi
Xem thm Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.

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Tropical products: Sn phm nhit i
Khng c nh ngha c th nhm sn phm ny, nhng trong Vng Uruguay sn phm loi
ny c i x u tin, bao gm cy nhit i lm ung (c-ph, da v ch, v cc sn
phm ch bin t cc cy ny), gia v, hoa ct, cy nhit i v cc sn phm thc vt, ht c
du, du thc vt v bnh du, thuc l, go, sn, v cc loi cy nhit i c r khc, cy n
qu v ht nhit i, g v cao-su nhit i, ay, si sisal v cc loi si cng khc.
Tuna (Canada-United States, 1982): C ng (Canada-Hoa K, 1982)
Tranh chp gia Hoa K v Canada trong GATT. Ngy 31/8/1979, Hoa K cm nhp khu c
ng v cc sn phm t c ng ca Canada sau khi mt s thuyn nh c ca Hoa K b chnh
quyn Canada ui bt v cha c php nh bt c trong hi phn m Canada cho l thuc
lnh th ca mnh. Pha Hoa K cho rng vng bin ny nm ny ngoi phm vi php l nh
bt c ng ca tt c cc nc. Hoa K hnh ng theo quy nh trong Khon 205 (Cm
Nhp khu) ca o lut Qun l v Bo tn Thu sn nm 1976, yu cu c hnh ng php
l trong trng hp vi phm. Lnh cm c loi b 1 nm sau khi t c tho thun vi
Canada, nhng trc khi tranh chp c tuyn n. Ngay t u ban hi thm khng i su vo
vn phm vi php l ca khu vc nh c. Canada da trn l lun cho rng hnh ng cm
nhp khu ca Hoa K tri vi ngha v ca Hoa K quy nh trong iu I ca GATT (i
ng Ti hu quc chung), iu XI (Loi b chung hn ch nh lng), v iu XIII (Thc
hin khng phn bit hn ch nh lng). Pha Hoa K lp lun rng hnh ng ca h l hp
l, ph hp vi iu XX(g) quy nh cc trng hp ngoi l khng phi thc hin cc ngha
v ca GATT do thc hin cc bin php c lin quan n vic bo tn ngun ti nguyn ang
cn kit. Lp lun ny da trn t vn ca C quan Dch v Hi sn Quc gia ca Hoa K cho
rng ngun c ng b khai thc qu ti v ang cn kit. Hoa K cn lp lun rng Hoa K v
Canada c chung mc tiu bo tn ngun c ng trn th gii vi vic tham gia vo cc tho
thun quc t v c ng, v h cho rng vic Canada n phng ui bt tu c ng ca Hoa
K v hnh chung l cn tr hp tc quc t trong cng tc bo tn. Pha Hoa K cho rng tc
ng ca cm nhp khu i vi thng mi l rt nh b. Ban hi thm cng nhn thy tranh
chp ny ch l mt phn trong mi bt ho v vn thu sn gia Hoa K v Canada, v ban
hi thm cng nhn thy tc ng thng mi ca v ny. Ban hi thm cho rng Hoa K cm
nhp khu c ng ca Canada l ph hp vi quy nh v cm nhp khu theo iu XI:1
GATT, nhng khng tho mn quy nh ca iu XX(g) v bin php m Hoa K tin hnh vi
mc ch bo tn li khng i km vi hn ch sn xut v tiu dng trong nc. Xem thm
herring and salmon, tuna (European Economic Community - United States, 1994), tuna
(Mexico - United States, 1991) v general exceptions.
Tuna (European Economic Community - United States, 1994): C ng (Cng ng Kinh
t Chu u - Hoa K, 1994)
Tranh chp do Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) khi kin nm 1992, v H-lan thay mt cho
Qun o Antilles thuc H-lan kin Hoa K. Ni dung ca v kin lin quan n Hoa K hn
ch nhp khu mt s mt hng c ng. Trong bn tm tt ny khi EEC c dn chiu cng s
c hiu l H-lan thay mt cho Qun o Antilles thuc H-lan hnh ng. Ngi ta
thng dng li ko kh ln nhm bt c n c ng v mc ch thng mi. vng pha
ng Thi bnh dng nhit i, c ng thng i km vi nhng n c heo. Chnh vic s
dng li ko kh ln v tnh git cht c heo. Cc nc thnh vin U ban C ng Nhit
i Chu M t c tho thun hn ch s c heo b git xung cn thp hn 5000 con
vo nm 1999. o lut Bo v ng vt bin c v ca Hoa K nm 1972 cm cc tt c
cc hnh thc lm dng, sn, bt hoc git cc loi ng vt c v cho d l v tnh hay c .
Hoa K cng cm nhp khu tt c cc loi sn phm t ng vt bin c v v cc sn phm
c c lin qua n sn, bt ng vt bin c v. Lnh cm ny c coi l "lnh cm vn nc
chnh". Mc ch ca lnh cm nhm bo tn cc loi ng vt bin c v ang c nguy c b
dit vong. o lut Bo v ng vt bin c v ca Hoa K quy nh tiu chun git v lm b
thng ng vt bin c v v khng ai c vt qu tiu chun ny. Nc ngoi c quyn t
chng minh l h tun th theo ng tiu chun, v h ch c th xut khu sang Hoa K nu

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nh h thc hin y cc yu cu. Cc nc tin hnh nh bt ng vt bin c v c th
ngh Hoa K k kt cc hip nh chnh thc v a ra cc cam kt c th. Nc nhp khu
c ng vy vng ch bin, sau xut khu sang Hoa K cng phi chng minh rng h
khng nhp khu loi c ng b cm Hoa K. Nc ny c gi l "nc trung gian" theo
o lut Bo v ng vt bin c v ca Hoa K. EEC yu cu ban hi thm coi lnh cm
nhp khu ca Hoa K (c "lnh cm vn nc trung gian" v "lnh cm vn nc chnh") l
tri vi iu XI, GATT (iu khon Loi b chung Hn ch nh lng), khng th c coi l
iu chnh ti bin gii theo iu III (i ng quc gia), v khng thuc phm vi bt k ngoi
l no theo iu XX (Ngoi l chung). Ban hi thm kt lun khng p dng iu III trong v
ny, nhng h cho rng lnh cm vn ca Hoa K l "lnh cm v hn ch" trong iu XI v h
cm nhp khu c ng v cc sn phm c ng khi nc xut khu khng tho mn mt s iu
kin nht nh. V iu XX(g), ban hi thm kt lun nhng bin php c mc ch p buc
cc nc khc phi thay i chnh sch ca mnh, v c bn khng c coi l bin php thc
hin bo tn ngun ti nguyn ang b cn kit. Cc bin php ny cng khng c tc dng hn
ch sn xut v tiu dng trong nc theo nh iu XX(g) yu cu. V vn liu cc bin
php ca Hoa K c phi l cn thit bo v cuc sng v sc kho ca c heo hay khng,
ban hi thm cho rng nu cc bin php ny ch pht huy tc dng khi cc nc khc thay i
chnh sch ca h, th khng th c coi l "cn thit" c. Chnh v vy cc bin php ny
khng p ng cc yu cu ct li ca iu khon. Ban hi thm cng a ra kt lun cho rng
v h nhn thy cc bin php p dng theo cm vn cc nc chnh khng ph hp vi iu
XI, nn cc bin php ny khng th lm c s bin minh cho cm vn nc trung gian theo
iu XX(d). Trong kt lun cui cng ca mnh, ban hi thm lu l mc tiu mi trng
ca Hoa K bo v v bo tn c heo khng phi l ni dung ca tranh chp ny. Hn th na
h cn ghi nhn rng cm vn thng mi m Hoa K a ra ch nhm mc ch thay i chnh
sch thng mi ca cc nc khc. V th ban hi thm phi a ra gii php xem liu c phi
cc bn tham gia GATT dnh cho nhau quyn c n nh cm vn thng mi v mc
ch ny. Ban hi thm cng cho rng iu XX khng th hiu theo cch . Xem thm
extraterritoriality, general exceptions, herring and salmon, tuna (Canada-United States, 1982)
v tuna (Mexico-United States, 1991).
Tuna (Mexico-United States, 1991): C ng (Mexico-Hoa K, 1991)
Tranh chp gia Mexico v Hoa K trong GATT. Tranh chp bt ngun t o lut Bo v
ng vt bin c v ca Hoa K, 1972 cm tt c cc hnh thc lm dng, sn, bt, git hay m
mu lm nhng vic ny i vi ng vt bin c v v cm nhp khu ng vt bin c v tr
trng hp c nh chc trch cho php. Trong mt s trng hp c th, lnh cm ny cn
c p dng i vi cc sn phm thu sn khc. Mc ch ca o lut l gim ng k
thm ch khng cn tnh trng v tnh git hay gy thng tt nghim trng cho cc loi ng
vt bin c v trong ma sn bt thy sn v mc ch thng mi. Mc tiu chnh ca o lut
l nhm vo thc trng dng li ko bt c ng, y l mt k thut bt c ng vy vng.
ng thi k thut ny cng bt lun c c heo v c heo v c heo v c ng thng cng
mt vng nc, nht l vng ng Thi bnh dng nhit i. o lut cng a ra mt lot
hn ch vic nh bt c ng v cc th tc m nc khc phi thc hin p ng yu cu
ca o lut. Ngy 10/10/1990, Hoa K ban hnh lnh cm vn i vi c ng ca Mexico
tr a vic Mexico sn bt ng vt bin c v. Hoa K khng nh li lnh cm ny vo ngy
31/4/1991 v km theo lnh cm c c ng ca Venezuela v Vanuatu. o lut ny quy nh
lnh cm cng c hiu lc vi cc nc trung gian, v vy yu cu cc nc phi xut trnh giy
chng nhn xut x. Lnh cm nhp khu t cc nc vi phm s c thc hin thng qua tiu
chun nhn hiu hng ho i vi c ng xut khu sang hoc cho hng bn sang Hoa K.
Mexico a ra ba li buc ti. Th nht, quy nh cm vn trong o lut tri vi iu XI
ca GATT (Loi b chung Hn ch nh lng), v vic p dng o lut vi tng khu vc a
l ring bit l vi phm iu XIII (p dng khng phn bit i x cc hn ch nh lng).
Th hai, iu kin so snh gia quy nh c ng vy vng ti Hoa K v cc nc khc vi phm
iu III (i ng quc gia), c bit l n lin quan n "tt c cc lut quy nh hoc yu
cu" nh hng ti sn phm ch khng phi nh sn xut. Th ba, kh nng cm nhp khu

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mi ng sn t Mexico cng vi phm iu XI. Hoa K bc b tt c cc khiu ni ny. Nh
trong mt trng hp tng t do Canada khi xng nm 1982, Hoa K ch yu da vo iu
XX (Loi tr chung) ca GATT cho php mt thnh vin GATT b qua cc iu khon GATT
khc trong mt s trng hp c quy nh cht ch. Do , Hoa K cho rng nu c bt k
nghi ng no v vic cc bin php ca Hoa K c ph hp vi GATT hay khng, iu XX s
m bo rng cc bin php vn ph hp vi cam kt ca h trong GATT. Cc bin php
l cn thit bo v i sng hoc sc kho c heo v do c chp nhn theo iu XX(b).
Trong bt k trng hp no, mt chnh ph cng c th cm nhp khu mt sn phm bo
v i sng hoc sc kho ca con ngi, thc vt hoc ng vt. Hoa K cng vin iu
XX(g) cp bin php "lin quan n bo tn cc ti nguyn thin nhin c th cn kit nu
cc bin php c thc hin cng vi cc hn ch v sn xut hoc tiu th trong nc". S
lng c heo khng th duy tr nu t l t vong ca chng cn qu cao. Hoa K cng hn ch
ton din nh bt trong nc bo tn c heo v bin php ny nghim khc hn nhng bin
php p dng cho vic nh bt ca tu nc ngoi. Ngoi ra, cc bin php ca Hoa K khng
phi mang tnh v on hoc phn bit i x v cn c gia cc nc v Lut p dng cho tt
c cc nc khai thc c ng vy vng vng ng Thi bnh dng nhit i bng li ko.
Chng khng p dng cho cc khu bin khc v khng c bng chng c mi e do tng t
vi c heo t vic khai thc c ng. Ban hi thm thy rng lnh cm nhp khu trc tip mt
s c ng vy vng v sn phm c ng vy vng khng ph hp vi yu cu ca iu XI:1 ca
GATT. i vi lut v kh nng gia hn lnh cm nhp khu ton b cc ng sn t Mexico,
ban hi thm nhc li quyt nh Siu qu l vic lp php cho hnh php quyn hnh ng
khng ph hp vi GATT nu vn bn thn vn ph hp vi GATT. Ban hi thm bc b vic
p dng c quyn iu XX(b) theo tinh thn d tho trc y, theo lut ny ch p dng
cho nc nhp khu. Ban ny khng chp nhn iu XX(g) c th p dng mt cch c quyn
v iu s lm cho mt bn c th p t chnh sch bo tn ca mnh cho mt nc khc.
Ban hi thm cng ch ra rng cc iu kin khng r rng t vic p dng Lut khng c
ngha l nhm ch yu vo mc tiu bo tn. Ban hi thm p dng cch l gii tng t i
vi lnh cm nhp khu t cc nc trung gian v vic khng ph hp vi iu XX(d) cho
php thi hnh cc bin php cn thit m bo tng ng vi lut l ph hp vi GATT.
Trong li kt lun, Ban hi thm lu rng cc iu khon ca GATT t ra mt s hn ch v
nng lc ca mt thnh vin thc hin cc chnh sch mi trng trong nc. Mt khc, mt
thnh vin khng th hn ch nhp khu mt sn phm ch v sn phm xut x t mt nc
c chnh sch mi trng khc vi mnh. Xem thm herring and salmon, tuna (Canada-United
States, 1982), tuna (European Economic Community-United States, 1994), general exceptions
v trade and environment.

Unbound commitments: Cc cam kt khng rng buc

Cam kt theo GATS (Hip nh chung v Thng mi trong lnh vc dch v) c th thay i
n phng bi nc a ra cam kt. Cc cam kt ny cho php nc a ra cam kt c s linh
hot khi thay i ch thng mi trong nhng lnh vc b nh hng m khng phi n b.
Cc cam kt khng rng buc v th t gi tr hn cc cam kt rng buc, mc d trong mt s
trng hp chng c th lm r hn v tnh cng khai.
UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law): U ban Lin hp
quc v Lut Thng mi quc t
Thnh lp nm 1996 nhm mc ch gim hoc loi b cc cn tr php l i vi dng thng
mi quc t v hi ho v thng nht lut v thng mi quc t. UNCITRAL c 36 thnh vin
do i hi ng Lin hp quc chn ra. y l c quan php l chnh trong h thng Lin hp
quc trong lnh vc lut thng mi quc t. UNCITRAL c chng trnh y mnh cc vn

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nh trng ti thng mi quc t v ho gii v vn ti v bn hng ho quc t. Tr s ng ti
Vin.
UNCPC (United Nations Central [Provisional] Product Classification): Danh mc phn
loi sn phm [tm thi] trung tm Lin hp quc
Danh mc tp trung vo sn phm ch khng phi hot ng. Danh mc ny a ra hn 600
sn phm dch v dng lm c s cho cc danh mc ban u trong cc danh mc cam kt
GATS, nhng khng p ng hon ton yu cu ca cc danh mc . Bn sa i ca Danh
mc phn loi ny c th s hon thnh vo cui nm 1997.
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development): Hi ngh Lin hp
quc v Thng mi v Pht trin
Thnh lp nm 1964 bng ngh quyt (XIX) 1995 ca i hi ng Lin hp quc nhm xc
tin s tham gia nhiu hn ca cc nc ang pht trin vo h thng thng mi ton cu v
do thc y pht trin kinh t ca cc nc ny. Hin nay c khong 190 nc thnh vin.
UNCTAD t coi mnh l din n hng u phn tch, tho lun v xy dng chnh sch
nhm t c s pht trin bn vng ti mi khu vc thc y tng trng nhng nn
kinh t yu km hn. L do dn n vic thnh lp UNCTAD ch yu l nhng kh khn m
cc nc ang pht trin gp phi trong qu trnh pht trin nn kinh t v s thiu vng mt c
quan quc t chuyn trch c th gip cc nc ny i mt vi th thch trn. Nhu cu
phi ch n nhng vn ca cc nc ny tng ln khi nhiu thuc a c c lp vo
u nhng nm 60. Nm 1961, U ban th hai ca ECOSOC yu cu Tng Th k Lin hp
quc tham kho v kh nng t chc mt hi ngh v cc vn thng mi quc t, v nm
1962 i hi ng Lin hp quc quyt nh t chc hi ngh ny Genve vo nm 1964.
Hi ngh ny c gi l UNCTAD I v chng kin s thnh lp Nhm 77. Nhiu vn v
sau lm thnh chng trnh lm vic ca UNCTAD c tho lun ti Hi ngh ny, k c
thng mi hng ho, cc nh sn xut, chuyn vn v giao hng. Sau ny chng trnh lm
vic c thm n, bo him, ECDC (hp tc kinh t gia cc nc ang pht trin), hot ng
kinh doanh hn ch, chuyn giao cng ngh v cc vn ca cc nc km pht trin v mt
s vn khc. Mc d UNCTAD ng gp vo s pht trin ca cc nc ang pht trin,
nhn chung t chc ny vn cha t c vai tr m nhng ngi khi xng mong i. Vo
khong 1968, J.G. Crawford (1968) nhn thy rng vn UNCTAD c th thot khi bu
khng kh chnh tr v nhng hot ng ca i hi ng Lin hp quc i st thc t v
nhiu vn thng mi nu trong iu l ca t chc ny. L do vic cha i st vi thc t
c nhiu v thng quyn vo nhau. UNCTAD l mt t chc ph thng em li cho cc thnh
vin ca mnh nhiu quyn m khng i hi ngha v tng ng. iu ny dn n khuyn
khch nhng o tng. Phm vi nhim v ca t chc ny thot u rt hp dn lm nhiu nc
ang pht trin trng ch t chc ny c vai tr tng t nh t chc ITO d nh ban u,
nhng ch trng nhiu hn n nhng vn pht trin c bit ca h. H thng nhm cng
nhc c trng cho UNCTAD thng dn n s phn ho quan im. Cc nc pht trin
(Nhm B) v cc nc ang pht trin thng chung mt lin minh, cn cc nc x hi ch
ngha thuc v Nhm D. Ban Th k i khi b cho l thiu trch nhim khi a ra nhng
chng trnh ln xn v tnh dng dng ca Nhm B c p li bng s gio iu ca Nhm
77. UNCTAD vn tp trung vo pht trin, nhng da nhiu vo cc l thuyt ph thuc ca
nhng nm 60 v 70 lm gim uy tn ca t chc ny nghim trng. UNCTAD rt tch cc
trong vic trin khai GSP v cc tho thun hng ho quc t. Ban Th k thng bin son
nhng bo co hu ch v vn ny, nhng khng c s ch ca cc nc thnh vin. C
nh k sau mt thi gian, nht l khi Tng Th k mi c bu ln, cc thnh vin li bn
lun rt si ni v vic bin UNCTAD thnh mt t chc hiu qu v ph hp hn. Cc nc
pht trin thng a ra nhiu sng kin trn giy t, nhng khng nhn mnh vo vai tr trung
tm m UNCTAD phi c. Cc ngh ny tr nn qu tha vi nhiu nc ang pht trin
vn coi t chc ny, vi nhng khim khuyt ca mnh, l ni h c th c thng cm v tnh
trng kh khn v nhng li ku ca ca h. Cc cuc ci t th ch thng qua ti UNCTAD IX
(1996) c th c gi tr lu hn nhng ln trc ch v kh khn ti chnh ca c b my Lin

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hp quc lm UNCTAD phi xem xt li mc tiu v phng php lm vic ca mnh.
UNCTAD cng l tn s dng cho hi ngh b trng hp 4 nm mt ln di s bo tr ca t
chc ny. Ngoi UNCTAD I hp ti Genve, cc hi ngh khc hp ti New Delhi
(UNCTAD II, 1968) Santiago de Chile (UNCTAD III, 1972), Nairobi (UNCTAD IV, 1976),
Manila (UNCTAD V, 1979), Belgrade (UNCTAD VI, 1983), Genve (UNCTAD VII, 1987) v
Cartagena (UNCTAD VIII, 1992). UNCTAD IX hp thng 5/1996 ti Midrand Nam Phi.
UNCTAD X s hp vo nm 2000 vi Thi-lan l nc ng cai. Xem thm Common Fund,
GSP v Integrated Programme for Commodities.
UNCTAD Liner Code: B lut Tu bin UNCTAD
Xem Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences.
UNCTAD Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of
Restrictive Business Practices: Cc nguyn tc v quy tc cng bng c nht tr
kim sot cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch ca UNCTAD
Xem restrictive business practices.
Understanding on financial services: Bn ghi nh v cc dch v ti chnh
Mt ti liu do cc nc pht trin l thnh vin ca WTO t b sung vo GATS. Bn ghi nh
ny nh ngha v thng mi bnh ng trong cc lnh vc dch v ti chnh trong iu kin
ca GATS. Bn ghi nh ny to c s cho danh sch loi tr trong danh mc cam kt.
Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes: Bn ghi
nh v cc quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp
Xem WTO Understanding on Dispute Settlement.
Understanding on the Balance-of-Payment Provisions of the GATT: Bn ghi nh v cc
iu khon cn cn thanh ton ca GATT
Mt trong nhng kt qu ca Vng Uruguay. Mc ch l nhm lm r cc quy tc p dng cc
bin php m cc nc thnh vin WTO c php p dng theo cc iu XII v XVIII:B ca
GATT ci thin tnh hnh cn cn thanh ton ca mnh. Bn ghi nh ny cng nhm t
c tnh cng khai ln hn thng qua mt h thng thng bo v tham vn.
Unfair business practices: Hot ng kinh doanh khng bnh ng
Xem restrictive business practices.
Unfair trading practices: Hot ng thng mi khng bnh ng
Theo cc quy tc WTO, thut ng ny ni n vic s dng khng ng hoc bt hp php cc
tr cp) cho xut khu sn phm vi gi h. Xem thm anti-dumping measures, countervailing
duties v dumping.
Unforeseen development: Pht trin khng d bo trc c
S kin khng lng trc c th dng nh gi tnh thch hp v sn sng phn ng ca bt
k chnh sch thng mi no. Xem thm Hatter' fur case.
Unilateralism: n phng
Thut ng ny c hai ngha tng i khc nhau trong chnh sch thng mi. Ngha th nht
l chnh sch hoc hnh ng ng khuyn khch nhm h thu quan hoc loi b cc tr ngi
thng mi mt cch n phng m khng i hi hnh ng p li ca cc bn khc. Ngha
th hai l mun p t quan im ca mt ai v cc c im ca chnh sch thng mi
ton cu hay chnh sch trong mt mt hng c th i vi cc bn khc v i cc bn chp
nhn. n phng dng ny ch xut hin khi mt bn c li th kinh t hn hn, nhng thnh
cng cha chc chn. Bn c th t c mt s mc ch, nhng thng bu khng kh
th ch lu di. Vi a s cc nc, chi ph v ti nguyn s dng v li ch thu c u

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khng phi l nhng la chn kh d. Xem thm Section 301, Special 301, Super 301,
bilateralism, multilateralism v reciprocity.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Hi ngh Lin hp quc v
Mi trng v Pht trin
Xem Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Hi ngh Lin hp quc v
Thng mi v Pht trin
Xem UNCTAD.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment: Hi ngh Lin hp quc v
Thng mi v Vic lm
Hi ngh din ra ti Havana t thng 11/1947 n thng 3/1948 nhm xem xt d tho Hin
chng Havana v sa i Hin chng ny. Trc Hi ngh c 3 cuc hp ca ban tr b.
Cuc hp u tin, phin tr b u tin ca Hi ngh Havana, din ra ti London nm 1946
nhm xem xt d tho mt Hin chng cho T chc Thng mi quc t (ITO). Cuc hp th
hai l ca ban son tho din ra ti h Success, New York vo thng 1-2 nm 1947 a ra
bn d tho y ca GATT vi t ng hu ht ly t d tho Hin chng. Cuc hp th ba
din ra ti Genve t thng 4 n thng 8/1947 hon thin d tho chuyn cho Hi ngh
Havana. Cuc hp cng hon thin GATT v kt thc mt s m phn thu quan. Xem
thm GATT 1947, ITO v trade and employment.
United Nations economic sanctions: Trng pht kinh t ca Lin hp quc
Theo iu 39 ca Hin chng Lin hp quc, Hi ng Bo an c th xc nh bt k mi e
do no i vi ho bnh, ph v ho bnh hoc hnh ng xm lc a ra cc khuyn ngh.
Theo iu 41, Hi ng ny cng c th quyt nh cc bin php khng s dng v lc
tng hiu qu cho quyt nh ca mnh v ku gi cc thnh vin Lin hp quc p dng cc
bin php . Vic ny c th bao gm ct t hon ton hay tng phn quan h kinh t hoc
giao thng ng st, ng bin, hng khng, lin lc bu chnh, in bo, pht thanh, v.v...
cng nh ct t quan h ngoi giao. Hiu qu ca trng pht kinh t nh mt cng c chnh
sch i ngoi c tho lun si ni trong nhiu nm. Trong hu ht cc trng hp u
khng th m bo rng mi thnh vin Lin hp quc c li ch trong vn u tham gia.
iu mt phn l do kh c th thuyt phc cc nc rng nhng nh xut khu ca h s
khng b chu thit hi bng hoc nhiu hn nc b p dng trng pht. Trong bn phn tch v
trng pht kinh t trong mt thi gian di, Hufbauer (1990) kt lun rng ni trng pht
"khng c tc dng" l khng ng. Nhng h cho rng trng pht l mt bin php hn ch
t c mc tiu chnh sch i ngoi da vo vic bt nc b trng pht phi lm nhng vic
khng mong mun. Tuy nhin, h cho rng trong trng hp nhng nc b trng pht l
nhng nc nh v mc tiu chnh sch tng i hp, trng pht cng em li nhng thay i
nht nh.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO): T chc
Vn ho, Khoa hc v Gio dc Lin hp quc
Mt trong cc c quan chuyn mn Lin hp quc. Mt s hip nh v cng c vi hiu qu
thng mi thc s hoc tim nng c m phn di s bo tr ca t chc ny. Cc vn
bn quan trng trong s l Hip nh Beirut, Cng c v cc bin php cm v ngn chn
xut nhp khu v chuyn giao lu quyn s hu ti sn vn ho, Hip nh Florence v Cng
c Bn quyn ph thng. UNESCO ng ti Paris.
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO): T chc Pht trin Cng
nghip Lin hp quc
Thnh lp nm 1966 nh mt c quan c lp trong Lin hp quc. Tr thnh mt c quan
chuyn mn vo nm 1986. Vai tr ca t chc ny l xc tin v y mnh cng nghip ho

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v hin i ho cc nc ang pht trin v xc tin hp tc v pht trin quy m ton cu,
khu vc v quc gia cng nh trong cc lnh vc cng nghip ring r. UNIDO cng phi hp
mi hot ng ca h thng Lin hp quc lin quan n pht trin cng nghip. Tr s ng
Vienna. Xem thm United Nations specialised agencies.
United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference: Hi ngh Ti chnh v Tin t Lin
hp quc
Xem Bretton Woods agreements.
United Nations regional economic commissions: Cc u ban Kinh t khu vc Lin hp
quc
Cc c quan thnh lp trong h thng Lin hp quc nhm xc tin pht trin kinh t ca cc
nc thnh vin v cng c v ci thin quan h kinh t gia cc nc ny. Mt s cng c
nhng chng trnh lm vic v cc vn x hi. Cc c quan ny thng khng lin quan
n vic a ra cc quy tc rng buc v mt thng mi. C quan cp trn trc tip ca cc u
ban ny l ECOSOC. Cc u ban kinh t khu vc ang tn ti l U ban Kinh t chu Phi
(thnh lp nm 1958), U ban Kinh t chu u (1947), U ban Kinh t M La-tinh v Ca-ri-b
(1948), ESCAP (1947) v U ban Kinh t v X hi Ty .
United Nations specialised agencies: Cc c quan chuyn mn Lin hp quc
y l cc c quan lin chnh ph c lp ra nh nhng t chc c lp v ring r lin quan
n Lin hp quc thng qua cc tho thun ca ring mnh. Cc t chc ny c c quan lp
php v hnh php, thnh vin v ngn sch ring. Cc t chc ny lm vic vi nhau v vi
Lin hp quc thng qua ECOSOC. Cc c quan chuyn mn l T chc Lng thc v Nng
nghip, IBRD, IMF, T chc Hng khng dn dng quc t, T chc Lao ng quc t, T chc
Hng hi quc t, Lin minh Vin thng quc t, UNESCO, T chc Pht trin cng nghip
Lin hp quc (UNIDO), Lin minh Bu chnh ph thng, T chc Y t th gii, WIPO v T
chc Kh tng th gii.
United States Agricultural Trade and Development Act: o lut Pht trin v Thng
mi nng nghip Hoa K
Xem PL 480.
United States Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act: Lut Ci cch
v ci thin nng nghip lin bang Hoa K
Tn chnh thc ca d lut nng nghip ton din bao gm c cc lnh vc sn xut v thng
mi do Quc hi thng qua ngy 28/3/1996 v c Tng thng k thnh lut ngy 4/4. Lut
ny ch yu hn ch cc chng trnh tr cp xut khu ang tn ti nh DEIP v EEP, nhng
t mc trn trong vic chi cc khon ny. Lut ny cng l kt qu ca chng trnh 7 nm
loi b mi lin kt gia sn xut v thanh ton i vi mt s nng dn, c bit l nhng
ngi trng la, bng, ht lm thc n gia sc, la m v cy ht c du. Xem thm
Commodity Credit Corporation.
United States-Japan autos disputes: Tranh chp -t Hoa K-Nht
c gii quyt ngy 28/6/1995 sau gn hai nm m phn trong khun kh Vn bn khung
Hoa K-Nht v cng tc kinh t mi. V tranh chp ny c bt u t mt khiu ni ca
Hoa K cho rng thc tin hot ng trong nc ca Nht ngn cn ngnh cng nghip -t
ca Hoa K thm nhp vo th trng Nht. S vic pht trin n mc khi Hoa K e do
nh thu 100% vo mt s xe hi sang trng nhp khu ca Nht theo nh danh sch tr a
nu trong Khon 301. Vic gii quyt c nu nhng con s lin quan n pht trin thng
mi trong ngnh -t, nhng khng c gi tr. Cc iu khon chnh l (a) cc nh sn xut xe
Nht s tng sn xut ti Hoa K, (b) Chnh ph v ngnh xe hi Nht s gip pht trin mng
li i l cho cc ph tng trn t Nht, (c) Nht s ni lng cc quy nh v kim tra ga-ra,
(d) 16 hng ro tiu chun v chng nhn s b d b, v (e) cc nh sn xut xe hi Hoa K s

- 229 -
c truy nhp cc thng tin ng k d liu mt cch bnh ng. Cc nc th ba by t lo
ngi v kh nng v s chch hng thng mi (trade diversion) do v ny. Xem thm
keiretsu relationships.
United States-Japan financial services agreement: Hip nh dch v ti chnh Hoa K-
Nht
Tn chnh thc l Cc bin php ca Chnh ph Nht v Chnh ph Hoa K v cc dch v ti
chnh. Hip nh c k thng 2/1995 sau khi Hoa K khiu ni v th trng ti chnh ng
kn ca Nht. Hip nh ny cho cc hng chng khon v qun l vn ca Hoa K mt bin
php tng cng xm nhp th trng cng nh tng tnh cng khai. Cc yu t chnh ca
Hip nh l Nht s (a) khng hn ch vic cc cng ty t vn u t tham gia th trng vn
lng hu cng cng, (b) gim bt cc yu cu vn cn i cho nhiu hng cnh tranh, (c)
hng ti vic nh gi th trng v bo him lng hu, (d) cp php cho c cc doanh
nghip u t v doanh nghip qun l u t t do, (e) b hn ch v p dng cc cng c ti
chnh mi, (f) gii thiu v th trng chng khon bt ng sn Nht, v (g) b hn ch v
vic nc ngoi mua chng khon ca Nht. Ngoi ra cng c nhng iu khon v s hi nhp
su hn ca th trng vn Nht vo cc th trng vn ton cu. Cc iu khon ca Hip nh
ny c tc dng cho c cc thnh vin WTO trn c s ti hu quc trong phm vi ph hp vi
cc iu khon ca GATS.
United States-Japan Framework for a New Economic Partnership: Vn bn khung Hoa
K-Nht v cng tc kinh t mi
K nm 1993 nhm to ra nhiu kh nng hn cho cc cng ty Hoa K vo Nht. Nht cam kt
gii quyt 5 lnh vc chnh: (a) mua sm ca chnh ph, (b) ci cch lut php v cnh tranh,
(c) cc ngnh chnh, k c xe hi v ph tng xe hi, (d) ng b ho nn kinh t nhm iu
chnh li nhng mt cn i kinh t v m trn th trng Nht v c bit l dng u t nc
ngoi thp ca nc ny v (e) thc hin cc tho thun v bin php c. Xem thm market-
oriented specific-sector talks, structural impediments initiative, United States-Japan autos
disputes v United States-Japan financial services agreement.
United States Merchant Marine Act: o lut Thng thuyn Hoa K
Xem Jones Act.
United States Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act: Lut Thng mi v Cnh tranh
Hoa K
Mt d lut thng mi do Quc hi thng qua nm 1988 sau 3 nm tranh ci, tho lun. Vi
467 trang, y l o lut thng mi ln nht t trc ti gi, ln gp 15 ln o lut M rng
thng mi nm 1962 a Hoa K tham gia vo Vng Kennedy. I.M. Destler (1995) a ra
mt m t hp dn v qu trnh ny thng qua Quc hi v nhiu lnh vc chnh sch m o
lut ny cp. o lut ny cho php Tng thng quyn m phn nhanh trong cc cuc m
phn Vng Uruguay cho n 1/6/1991 khi Vng ny d nh c kt thc. Lut ny cng ch
th USTR thay mt nhiu ngnh cng nghip ni a c hnh ng m ca th trng, mt phn
thng qua vic s dng Super 301 mi d tho. Mt iu khon mi khc, Special 301, cp
trc tip n vic cc nc khc bo h quyn s hu tr tu ca Hoa K. Lut cng yu cu c
bo co thng xuyn v tnh hnh thc hin quyn cng nhn ca cc nc. Vai tr ca USTR
c cng c bng vic trao cho quyn quyt nh nc no c thi khng p v a ra
bin php p li ph hp. Trc y USTR ch c th a ra khuyn ngh cho Tng thng.
Thng 5/1991, quyn m phn nhanh c gia hn n 1/6/1993. Cc din tin ca cc m
phn Vng Uruguay i hi gia hn tip v 15/12/1993 tr thnh thi hn cui cng cho m
phn. Xem thm mandatory but not compulsory v priority foreign country.
United States - prohibition of imports of tuna and tuna products from Canada: Cm nhp
c ng v sn phm c ng t Canada [Hoa K]
Xem tuna case (Canada-United States, 1982).

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United States Reciprocal Trade Agreement Program: Chng trnh cc Hip nh Thng
mi tng h ca Hoa K
Lp ra bi Lut cc Hip nh Thng mi tng h nm 1934 sa i Lut thu 1930 cng
c gi l Lut thu Smoot-Hawley (Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act). Chng trnh ny cho php
Tng thng tham gia cc hip nh thng mi vi cc chnh ph nc ngoi v sa i cc ch
thu, hn ch nhp khu hoc ch hi quan khi cn thit thc hin cc hip nh k
vi cc chnh ph . Cho n khi thng qua lut ny, mc thu quan nu trong Lut 1930 l c
nh v ch c th thay i khi c s ng ca Quc hi. Tm quan trng ca Chng trnh
Hip nh Thng mi c i c li i vi h thng thng mi a phng mt phn nm ngoi
ngn ng trong khong 32 hip nh song phng m phn t 1934 n 1945. V d tt c 17
iu khon chung trong Hip nh thng mi song phng Hoa K-Mexico thng 12/1942
c phn nh mc t hay nhiu trong GATT. Trong c c iu khon ti hu quc, i
ng quc gia, cc quy tc p dng khng phn bit i x v hn ch nh lng, nh gi hi
quan, cng khai, t v, v.v... Nh W.A. Brown (1950) ch ra, GATT chi tit ho v th ch ho
cc iu ny. ngha ca iu khon t v thay i ng k bi yu t tham vn. Cc iu
khon GATT khc trong hip nh ny c cc nguyn tc b sung phn nh quan im cc i
tc thng mi khc. Lut cc Hip nh Thng mi c i c li nm 1934 sa i b thay
th bi Lut M rng thng mi nm 1962. Xem thm United States trade agreement
legislation.
United States - restrictions on imports of tuna: Hn ch nhp khu c ng [Hoa K]
Xem tuna case (Mexico-United States, 1991).
United States - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline: Tiu chun xng
thng dng v xng pha [Hoa K]
Xem reformulated gasoline.
United States Tariff Act of 1930: o lut Thu quan Hoa K nm 1930
Xem Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act.
United States - taxes on petroleum and certain imported substances: Thu nh vo du
m v mt s cht nhp khu [Hoa K]
Xem Superfund.
United States trade agreement legislation: Lut ca Hoa K v hip nh thng mi
Ging nh cc nc khc, Hoa K c nhiu vn bn php l iu chnh thng mi xut nhp
khu, nhng nh hng ca Hoa K ln nn kinh t th gii v vai tr ca Quc hi trong vic
hnh thnh quan h kinh t i ngoi cho thy php l thng mi ca nc ny lun c cc
nc khc coi trng. Mc ny ch yu ni v lut php cho php Hoa K tham gia vo cc
cuc m phn thng mi a phng v cng nhn vai tr dn u ca nc ny trong cc
cuc m phn . im khi u l Lut cc Hip nh thng mi c i c li nm 1934 cho
php Tng thng k cc hip nh thng mi vi cc chnh ph khc v sa i ch thu
ca Hoa K i vi hng nhp vo. Lut ny c gia hn vi mt s sa i nh vo cc nm
1937, 1940, 1943 v 1945. Khi ln gia hn ca nm 1945 ht hn vo ngy 1/6/1948, lut ny
c gia hn thm mt nm na vi vic a thm vo cc im e do (peril points). Ln gia
hn 1949 n 30/6/1951, hu b thay i ny. Lut gia hn cc hip nh thng mi nm 1955
cho php Tng thng c gim thu mc hn ch. Lut ny c gia hn vo nm 1958
vi mt s thay i nh v s ht hn vo nm 1962. Lut ny a li tng v cc im e
do. Quyn m phn hn ch ny l mt l do chnh ca kt qu ngho nn ti Vng Dillon.
Cho n nm 1962, Tng thng khng c quyn x l cc vn c tnh h thng. Vic thng
qua Lut M rng thng mi 1962 m rng ng k quyn ca Tng thng, ch yu do tim
nng kinh t v thng mi ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) c phc hi sau nhng
tn ph ca chin tranh c th nh hng ti quyn li thng mi ca Hoa K. Lut ny cho

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php gim mc thu hin thi xung 50% v thm ch xung 0 nu nh chng ang mc di
5%, nhng cng c nhng quy nh cho Tng thng khi thc hin iu ny. Lut cn cho php
th nghim cng thc ct gim thu quan tuyn tnh. Mt s lnh vc ct gim xung 0 c
t ra lm iu kin trong mt hip nh vi EEC. Trong Hip nh c c iu khon v hnh
ng tr a nu chnh ph nc ngoi lm hi n thng mi ca Hoa K. Cc ngnh cng
nghip v cng nhn b thit hi do vic tng nhp khu bt u c h tr trc tip. Cui
cng, Lut ny cng lp ra Vn phng i din c bit v m phn thng mi, tin thn ca
USTR. Khi quyn m phn 1962 ht hn vo nm 1967, Lut ny khng c gia hn cho n
khi Lut Thng mi nm 1974 cho Tng thng quyn tham gia cc cuc m phn Vng
Tokyo cho n 5/1/1980. Lut ny cng ban quyn tr a ca Chnh ph Hoa K trong trng
hp c hnh ng bt hp php hoc bt bnh ng ca cc chnh ph nc ngoi thng qua
Khon 301 y tai ting. Khon ny tr thnh mt phn, dng sa i, ca cc vn bn php
l thng mi sau . Lut cc hip nh thng mi nm 1979 chp nhn cc kt qu ca
Vng Tokyo. Lut tip theo, Lut Thng mi v Thu quan nm 1984, khng cho Tng thng
quyn m phn mi. Phi i n nm 1988 khi thng qua Lut Thng mi v Cnh tranh.
cng l ln u tin t khi kt thc Chin tranh th gii ln th II, mt lut thng mi ch
cht khng bt ngun t hnh php. Xem thm Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, Jackson-Vanik
Amendment, United States Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act v United States
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Program.
Universal Copyright Convention: Cng c Bn quyn ph thng
Do T chc Vn ho, Khoa hc v Gio dc Lin hp quc (UNESCO) qun l. Nhiu nguyn
tc c bn ca Cng c ny ging nh Cng c Berne, tr yu cu thng bo bn quyn ngay
trn tc phm. Australia chp nhn Cng c nm 1969 v tham gia vo bn sa i Paris
(1971). Xem thm copyright.
Uruguay Round: Vng Uruguay
Vng m phn thng mi a phng bt u ngy 25/9/1986 bng Hi ngh cc B trng
Thng mi ti Punta del Este, Uruguay v kt thc bng Hi ngh B trng Marrakesh vo
15/4/1994. Mc tiu ca cc cuc m phn ny l (i) t do ho v m rng thng mi th
gii hn na, (ii) cng c vai tr ca GATT v ci thin h thng thng mi a phng, (iii)
tng tnh p ng ca GATT i vi mi trng kinh t quc t v (iv) khuyn khch hot ng
hp tc kinh t quc t. Cc bn tham gia nht tr gi nguyn trng cc bin php hn ch
thng mi trong khi m phn v gim dn. Cc lnh vc m phn, rng ri nht so vi bt
k vng GATT no, l thu quan, cc bin php phi thu quan, cc sn phm nhit i l lnh
vc u tin, cc sn phm da trn ti nguyn thin nhin, hng dt may, nng nghip, cc
iu khon GATT, t v, cc hip nh v tho thun ca Vng Tokyo, tr cp v cc bin php
i khng, gii quyt tranh chp, cc lnh vc lin quan n thng mi ca quyn s hu tr
tu, cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi v Chc nng ca H thng GATT
(FOGS). Mi lnh vc ny do mt nhm m phn chu trch nhim. m phn v thng mi
trong dch v c tin hnh theo mt knh ring do sc p ca mt nhm cc nc ang pht
trin khi khng chp nhn a dch v vo GATT. Cc B trng nht tr rng cc cuc m
phn phi kt thc trong 4 nm. Cc cuc m phn c th chia lm ba giai on: (a) t khi bt
u ti Punta del Este n Hi ngh xem xt li gia k Montreal thng 12/1988, (b) giai
on t cho n Hi ngh B trng Brussels thng 12/1990 v (c) cc s kin dn n Hi
ngh B trng Marrakesh thng 4/1994. Cc cuc m phn chnh kt thc vo ngy
15/12/1993 khi vic gia hn ln th hai cho on m phn Hoa K ht hn. Vng Uruguay do
l vng m phn thng mi a phng di nht t trc n nay. S l sai lm nu cho
rng l mt chui cc cuc m phn lin tc. Mt phn ln thi gian trong sut thi gian
by nm ri l ch i mt nc hoc mt nhm nc c th thay i lp trng m phn
ca mnh. Trng hp ny c bit r giai on th ba khi Hip c Blair House c m
phn i m phn li. Bn "phc tho u tin ca Vn kin cui cng" ca Vng Uruguay do
Tng Gim c GATT trnh ln Hi ngh B trng Brussels thng 12/1992 thc t rt ging
vi bn hip nh cui cng c thng qua ti Marrakesh thng 4/1994. Cc thnh tu ca

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Vng Uruguay bao gm c vic ct gim thu quan bnh qun gia quyn 38%, k Hip nh v
Nng nghip, ln u tin a bun bn nng sn vo cc nguyn tc ca GATT, thng qua
Hip nh chung v Thng mi trong lnh vc dch v, Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin
quan n thng mi v Hip nh v Cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi, lp ra
mt c ch gii quyt tranh chp thng nht v r rng, xc nhn li C ch R sot chnh sch
thng mi, thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii qun l 15 hip nh thng mi a phng
v 4 hip nh thng mi a phng. Cc kt qu khc ca vng m phn ny l cc quy nh
c hon thin v chng ph gi, tr cp v t v. Hip nh v hng dt may mi s a
lnh vc ny vo GATT thay cho Tho thun a si. Xem thm audiovisual services in the
Uruguay Round, Cairns Group, financial services interim agreement v Marrakesh Agreement
Establishing the WTO.
Uruguay Round acquis: Tp hp vn kin ca Vng Uruguay
Thut ng do Cng ng Chu u s dng ch cc hip nh v quyt nh lm nn kt qu
ca Vng Uruguay. Xem thm acquis communitaire v Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the
World Trade Organisation.
USTR: i din Thng mi Hoa K
Dng ch c c quan i din Thng mi Hoa K v ngi mang hm b trng ph trch
c quan ny. c thnh lp ln u tin nm 1962 di tn gi i din Thng mi c bit
v c nng ln thnh c quan ni cc nm 1974. i tn thnh USTR nm 1980. USTR l c
quan chnh yu ca Hoa K trong vic phi hp v m phn chnh sch thng mi, k c
m phn v hng ho. Trong cc dch v ti chnh, USTR chu trch nhim v bo him,
nhng B Ngn kh nm v ngn hng, qun l vn v chng khon. USTR xut bn hng nm
cun Bo co quc gia nh gi v cc hng ro thng mi nc ngoi nu nhng tr ngi
quan trng nht nh hng n xut khu hng ho v dch v ca Hoa K, u t trc tip ra
nc ngoi ca cng dn Hoa K v bo h quyn s hu tr tu. Xem thm Monitoring and
Enforcement Unit, Section 301, Section-306 monitoring, Special 301 v Super 301.

Value-added telecommunications: Dch v vin thng tr gi gia tng

Cng gi l dch v nng cao. Bao gm cc dch v nh th in t, th thoi, dch v fax nng
cao, k c dch v lu v chuyn. Xem thm basic telecommunications.
Variable levies: Bin thu
H thng phc hp cc ph thu nhp khu nhm m bo gi sn phm trn th trng ni a
khng thay i cho d gi c dao ng trn th trng th gii. Bin thu l mt c im ca
Chnh sch Nng nghip chung. Do kt qu ca Vng Uruguay, bin thu phi c chuyn
thnh thu quan. Xem thm Chicken War v oilseeds case c v d v p lc thng mi gy
ra do p dng bin thu.
VER (Voluntary export restraint): Hn ch xut khu t nguyn
Xem Voluntary restraint arrangement.
Vertical arrangements: Tho thun dc
Xem competition policy.
Vertical keiretsu: Keiretsu dc
Xem keiretsu relationship.
Vestigial thought: T tng tn tch

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Thut ng do Robert Reich s dng trong "Lao ng ca cc quc gia" m t phn tch kinh
t da trn cc iu kin khng cn p dng hoc ch p dng mc hn ch. Thut ng ny
ch ra rng t tng tn tch c nhiu kh nng dn n kt lun sai lm. Xem thm
conventional wisdom v QWERTY principle.
VIE
Xem Voluntary import expansion.
Virtuous circle: Chu trnh thnh thin
T s dng trong nhiu lnh vc chnh sch m t mt dy s kin c li ch. Chu trnh
thng c nhc n trong chnh sch thng mi bao gm pht trin kinh t, tng trng
thng mi v tin b x hi. Xem thm social dimension of the liberalisation of international
trade.
Visegrad countries: Cc nc Visegrad
Cng ho Sc, Hungary, Ba-lan v Slovakia. Tn ca cc nc ny bt ngun t Tuyn ngn
Visegrad ra ngy 15/2/1991 vi s tham gia ca Hungary, Ba-lan v sau l Tip-khc c.
Theo Van Ham (1993) Tuyn ngn ny l du hiu u tin ca s hp tc khu vc gn gi hn
gia cc nc Trung u v nhm cng c ting ni trong m phn vi Cng ng Chu u.
Visegrad l mt thnh ph nh trn b sng Danube khng xa Budapest. Xem thm CEFTA.
Vitamin B12: V Vitamin B12
V kin ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) chng li Hoa K nm 1981 vi l lun l Hoa
K khng tn trng mt trong nhng cam kt ti Vng Tokyo. Hoa K ng hu b Gi
bn M nh mt phn trong kt qu ca Vng Tokyo. Cht lng dc phm Vitamin B12 phi
chu ASP mc rng buc m phn ti Vng Kennedy. Ti thi im cam kt, Hoa K
dnh quyn thay i thu sut hng ho khi b ASP. Gia 1976 v 1980 cht lng dc phm
Vitamin B12 vo th trng Hoa K chu thu sut cao hn cht lng bn thnh phm Vitamin
B12. Khi b Lut nh gi, mt trong cc hip nh Vng Tokyo, c hiu lc vo ngy
1/7/1980, hai thu sut c kt hp theo mc bnh qun thc thu ca hai loi, nh vy c
ngha l Vitamin B12 bn thnh phm phi chu thu cao hn. Trong bn ghi nh ngy
2/3/1979, EEC v Hoa K nht tr tham vn v nhng khc bit ny sinh t vic chuyn i
thu sut ASP. Ban hi thm cho rng Hoa K khng c ngha v duy tr s chnh lch thu
sut i vi Vitamin B12 dc phm v bn thnh phm. EEC thy trc rng vic chuyn i
ASP c th dn n thu sut cao hn trong mt s trng hp, nhng khng n mc gy
nh hng thc s n thng mi. Ban hi thm do cho rng Hoa K cn phi y mnh
gim thu trong qu trnh thc hin cam kt Vng Tokyo v Vitamin B12 bn thnh phm
mc thu cho php vitamin nhp khu c c v tr cnh tranh truyn thng ti th trng Hoa
K.
Voluntary import expansion (VIE): M rng nhp khu t nguyn
Tho thun theo mt nc ng , mt cch t nguyn, thng qua cc bin php khuyn
khch s dng sn phm nhp khu. Nhng tho thun v sau d b coi l cc bin php
min xm m nay b coi l khng hp php theo quy nh ca WTO. Xem thm United
States-Japan autos dispute.
Voluntary restraint arrangement (VRA): Tho thun hn ch t nguyn
Tho thun theo mt nc ng hn ch xut khu ca mnh sang mt nc khc i vi
mt mt hng xc nh trong mt mc ti a trong mt khong thi gian no . VRA c
s dng cho thp, xe hi, bn dn v cc sn phm khc trong lnh vc nhy cm. Cc tho
thun ny l t nguyn ch mc nc xut khu mun trnh mt mi e do ln hn i
vi thng mi ca mnh v do phi chn bin php t thit hi hn. VRA khng ch lm
mt i li th cnh tranh ca cc nh cung cp c hiu qu. Chng cng c th dn n s phn
phi bt hp l cc ti nguyn v cc ngnh b nh hng c th buc phi u t vo nhng th

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trng km hiu qu hn b p li. Mt hu qu c th c l chng em li cho cc nh
xut khu v nhp khu mn li bt ng v cnh tranh gim i. Kostecki (1987) ra mt c
ch ba bn hu hiu xem xt l do p t hn ngch xut khu theo VRA. Trc ht, c
phng n cho cng nghip trong nc mt mc ti thiu nhu cu d on trong nc c
chuyn cho cc nh sn xut nc nhp khu. Th hai, theo phng n u tin cho nh xut
khu, mt mc xut khu ti thiu c t ra v phn cn li ca th trng dnh cho cc
nh sn xut ca nc nhp khu. Th ba, ri ro v nhu cu dao ng nc nhp khu c
chia u gia cc nh sn xut trong nc v cc nh cung cp nc ngoi. Hip nh v T v
ca WTO coi VRA l bt hp php.
Voorburg Group: Nhm Voorburg
Nhm khng chnh thc tp hp cc c quan thng k quc gia, k c EuroStat, c quan hp
tc cng b phn thng k Lin hp quc v cc h thng thng k ci tin, thu thp v phn
phi thng tin. Nhm ny khng c t cch php nhn, nhng kinh nghim thu thp c lm
nhm ny c mt nh hng ng k.
Voting rights in the WTO: Quyn biu quyt WTO
Mi thnh vin WTO c c mt phiu bt k th hng v kim ngch thng mi. Cng ng
Chu u c dnh mt s phiu bng s cc quc gia thnh vin ca t chc ny. Xem thm
amendments to WTO agreement, consensus v decision-making in the WTO.

Wage-differential argument: Lun im chnh lch mc lng

Quan im cho rng cc nc c mc lng thp c chi ph r hn cc nc c mc lng cao
v do c li th cnh tranh. Vi cc nh kinh t, 150 nm nay y khng cn l vn v
s chnh lch mc lng c th chp nhn khi c khong cch v nng sut. Trong chnh sch
thng mi, lun im ny vn tn ti v l mt phn trong cuc tranh ci v thng mi v
tiu chun lao ng v nhu cu cn c mt iu khon x hi. Xem thm race-to-the-bottom
argument.
Waiver: Min tr
Quyn do cc thnh vin WTO dnh cho mt thnh vin khc khng phi p dng mt iu
khon no trong mt lnh vc xc nh trong thng mi quc t ca nc . Theo quy
nh ca WTO, min tr phi c ba phn t s thnh vin WTO chp thun. Cc min tr sau
khi c a ra s c nh k xem xt li. Min tr cng c th c theo lut php trong nc,
v nh trng hp Hoa K ngng hn ch nhu cu cnh tranh i vi mt s nc km pht
trin. Xem thm ASTP v Section 22 waiver.
Washington Treaty: Hip c Washington
Xem Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits.
Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use
Goods and Technologies: Tho thun Wassenaar v kim tra xut khu v kh thng
thng v cc hng ho v cng ngh lng dng
Tho thun ny thng qua ngy 12/7/1996 v c hiu lc t 1/11/1996, thay th cho COCOM.
Mc ch ca Tho thun l xc tin tnh cng khai v trch nhim ln hn trong vic chuyn
giao v kh thng thng v cc hng ho v cng ngh lng dng (c th s dng cho c mc
ch dn s v qun s). Tho thun ny khng nhm trc tip chng bt k quc gia hay nhm
quc gia no v mi nc thnh vin t p dng lut kim tra xut khu ca ring mnh. Tho
thun c 33 thnh vin, k c cc thnh vin ca Hip c Vac-xa-va c, quan trng nht l
Nga. Xem thm dual purpose exports.

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Watch list: Danh sch theo di
Xem priority foreign countries v Special 301.
Water in the tariff: Nc trong thu quan
Cm t dng trong cc cuc m phn ca Vng Uruguay v thu ho (chuyn i cc bin
php phi thu quan thnh cc bin php tng ng thu quan). Cc nh m phn chp nhn
rng vic chuyn i nh vy khng bao gi hon ton chnh xc v nhng khc bit v tc
ng ca cc bin php ny v phng php p dng. C nhng trng hp khi cc nc a ra
cc bin php tng ng thu quan, nhng r rng b thi phng ln. S khc bit ci
c coi l chuyn i thu nhm t v v vic chuyn i thc s a ra c gi l "nc
trong thu quan" hay "thu ho bn thu".
Webb-Pomerene Act: o lut Webb-Pomerene
Lut ca Hoa K thng qua ln u tin vo nm 1918 cho php cc cng ty Hoa K c sp
nhp trong nhng gii hn nht nh nhm vo thng mi xut khu. Cc hng khng c
dng vic sp nhp km hm thng mi ti Hoa K hoc km hm thng mi xut khu
ca cc hng cnh tranh. Vic vn b coi l bt hp php theo o lut Sherman v cc lut
chng c quyn khc. Xem thm competition policy.
West African Economic Community: Cng ng Kinh t Ty Phi
Thnh lp nm 1966. Bao gm Benin, Burkina Faso, B bin Ng, Mali, Mauritania, Niger v
Senegal. Xem thm ECOWAS.
Western Hemisphere Free Trade Agreement: Hip nh Thng mi t do Ty bn cu
Xem FTAA.
Wheat flour case: V bt m
V ny bt ngun t mt khiu ni nm 1982 ca Hoa K cho rng tr cp xut khu bt m
ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) khng p dng ng vi iu 10:1 ca B lut Tr cp,
mt trong cc hip nh Vng Tokyo (Tokyo Round agreements). Hoa K cng cho rng tr cp
ca EEC lm cho gi thp hn gi ca nhng nh cung cp khc vo cng mt th trng, tri
vi iu 10:3, chng lm mt gi tr v phng hi n li ch ca Hoa K v gy ra thit hi
nghim trng. S tht l vic hon thu xut khu ca EEC i vi bt m l mt phn trong c
cu th trng chung ca ni b khi ny. Mc gi ngng cho bt m c t ra mi nm
c coi l tiu chun gi ni b. Ch thng mi ca EEC v bt m bao gm c cp php
nhp khu v xut khu cng nh ch nh thu nhp khu v hon thu xut khu theo
nhng iu kin nht nh bng mt phng php nh. Mt mc thu bng chnh lch gia
gi nhp khu v gi ngng c p dng cho bt m nhp khu. Hon thu xut khu c th
c dng lp khong chnh lch gia gi bt m EEC v gi ti cc th trng th ba.
Tin chi cho hon thu xut khu bt m c ly t cng mt qu hon thu la m dng
t nhin. Phn u ca v ny lin quan n ngha ca "th phn nhiu hn mc hp l". Mt
vn quan trng lc l vic chn la mt thi k i din nh gi mt bn k kt c
c mt th phn nhiu hn mc hp l hay khng. Hoa K a ra mt bn thng k chi tit
chng t lp trng v mt ny. H chn ba nm trc khi c Chnh sch Nng nghip
chung 1962 v theo h ch c iu ny mi em li mt bc tranh ch thc. Theo , EEC
tng th phn t 29% ln 75% v th phn ca nhng nh xut khu chnh khc b gim st. S
thay i ny l do tr cp xut khu lm cho gi r hn. Kt lun ca ban hi thm l (a) hon
thu xut khu cho bt m ca EEC l mt tr cp theo iu XVI (Tr cp) ca GATT, (b) th
phn bt m ca EEC trn th gii tng ng k v th phn ca Hoa K v cc nc khc
gim ng k, (c) sau khi xem xt nhiu yu t, vic quyt nh c phi iu ny gy ra "th
phn nhiu hn mc hp l" hay khng l khng th c, (d) s phn chia li th trng theo
iu 10:2(a) ca B lut Tr cp, theo cn phi tnh n tc ng ca tr cp xut khu, l
khng r rng, (e) khng bng chng v vic gi b h xung, (f) hon thu xut khu ca
EEC gy ra ri lon khng ng k cho li ch thng mi thng thng ca Hoa K, v (g)

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EEC phi c gng hn ch s dng tr cp trong xut khu bt m. Khi nhn v chnh sch
thng mi v kinh t sau ny, ban hi thm cng th hin mi quan tm v tnh hiu qu ca
cc iu khon php l v tr cp xut khu v cc kha cnh thng mi khc i vi bt m.
Ban ny thy mt iu bt thng rng EEC vn khng th xut khu mt lng ln bt m m
khng c tr cp li tr thnh ngi xut khu ln nht th gii. Ban hi thm ngh cn c
mt bn ghi nh r rng hn v khi nim "th phn nhiu hn mc hp l" khi nim ny
mang tnh thc t hn. Ban ny cng t ra cu hi nhng bn ghi nh quc t v bn hng theo
cc iu khon phi thng mi c b sung y cho cc vn v tr cp xut khu hay
khng.
Wider competition policy: Chnh sch cnh tranh rng ri hn
Chnh sch ny cp n ng li ca cc chnh ph nhm khuyn khch cnh tranh trong
nhng lnh vc hin ang c hng li bi cc quy nh b coi l khng ph hp hoc nhm
m ca nhng ngnh b coi l c quyn t nhin cho cnh tranh. Xem thm antitrust laws,
competition policy v narrow competition policy.
Wine gallon assessment: nh gi ru theo n v gallon
Mt thc tin Hoa K, nay chm dt, coi ru nhp khu nng di 100 nh ru nng
100 v quy tc ny cng p dng cho ru ni a nng di 100 nu c ly ra t kho.
Nh nhp khu c th li dng iu ny bng cch mua ru nng 100 hoc hn ri pha
ch, c ngha l nhp hng ri ri v ng chai ti Hoa K. Tuy nhin khch hng thng
chung ru ng chai nc xut x. Quy tc ny lm mt li th cc sn phm nc ngoi
cho d khng c s khc bit trong i x vi sn phm ni a tng t. Cch nh gi bng
ga-lng ru vang ny thng c dng chng minh vic cng mt i ng quc gia thc
t c th li l phn bit i x. Xem thm implicit discrimination.
WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation): T chc S hu tr tu th gii
T chc lin chnh ph chnh chu trch nhim bo h quyn s hu tr tu v thng qua
khuyn khch pht trin kinh t. Hai hip nh quan trng nht do WIPO gim st thc thi l
Cng c Paris v Bo h s hu tr tu v Cng c Berne v Bo h cc tc phm vn hc v
ngh thut. Ban th k WIPO t ti Genve. Xem thm Budapest Treaty on the International
Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure, Geneva
Convention, Lisbon Agreement, Madrid Agreement, moral rights, Patent Cooperation Treaty
v Rome Convention.
Worker rights: Quyn [ca] cng nhn
Mt vn c cc b phn ca Quc hi Hoa K nu ln lin quan n thc tin v chnh
sch thng mi cng bng hn. Vn ny mt phn da trn quan im cho rng mt s
chnh ph c li th cnh tranh do vic khng p dng cho cng nhn ca h cc iu kin
c coi l thng thng Hoa K. Vn ny cng c lin quan n nhn quyn. Trong thc
t, hai vn ny rt kh gii quyt, nhng vi nhiu nc th kha cnh nhn quyn quan
trng hn. Lut Thng mi v cnh tranh Hoa K (United States Omnibus Trade and
Competitiveness Act) nm 1988, Lut cc Hip nh Vng Uruguay v cc lut thng mi Hoa
K khc c cc iu khon cho php hnh ng tu , k c vic rt b cc u i GSP, nu c
tnh t chi quyn cng nhn. C ba mc tiu m phn m cc nh m phn Hoa K theo
ui trong qu trnh m phn thng mi ca mnh. l (i) i tn trng quyn cng nhn,
(ii) xem xt li quan h ca quyn cng nhn vi GATT v cc quy tc lin quan, v (iii) thng
qua nguyn tc vic t chi quyn cng nhn s khng c l bin php mt nc hoc cc
ngnh cng nghip ca nc ginh li th so snh trong thng mi quc t. Khon 301 yu
cu USTR c hnh ng nu mt nc ngoi c biu hin c tnh (a) t chi quyn lp hi ca
cng nhn, (b) t chi quyn t chc v u tranh tp th, (c) cho php bt k dng lao ng
bt buc hay cng bc no, (d) khng nh ra c tui ti thiu cho lao ng l tr em,
hoc (e) khng a ra c tiu chun lng ti thiu, gi lm vic, an ton v sc kho ngh
nghip cho cng nhn. Khon 301 ca URAA yu cu Tng thng tm cch lp mt t cng tc

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ti WTO nghin cu mi lin kt gia thng mi quc t v quyn cng nhn c quc
t cng nhn. Xem thm core labour standards, social clause v trade and labour standards.
Working Group on the Relationship between Trade and Investment: Nhm cng tc v
quan h gia thng mi v u t
Thnh lp ti Hi ngh B trng Singapore ca WTO thng 12/1996 xem xt quan h gia
thng mi v u t. Nhm cng tc ny khng c chc nng m phn v cng vic ca
Nhm s c r sot li sau 2 nm.
Working Group on the Interaction between Trade and Competition Policy: Nhm cng
tc v quan h tng tc gia thng mi v chnh sch cnh tranh
Thnh lp ti Hi ngh B trng Singapore ca WTO thng 12/1996 nghin cu cc vn
lin quan n mi quan h tng tc gia chnh sch thng mi v chnh sch cnh tranh, k
c cc hot ng chng cnh tranh. Nhim v ca Nhm cng tc ny l tm ra cc lnh vc cn
xem xt tip trong khun kh WTO. Nhm cng tc ny khng c chc nng m phn v
cng vic ca Nhm s c r sot li sau 2 nm. Xem thm trade and competition.
Working Group on Transparency in Government Procurement: Nhm cng tc v tnh
cng khai trong mua sm ca chnh ph
Thnh lp ti Hi ngh B trng Singapore ca WTO thng 12/1996 nghin cu v tnh
cng khai trong cc hot ng mua sm ca chnh ph. Nhm cng tc ny s vch ra cc ni
dung xy dng thnh mt hip nh thch hp, nhng khng c chc nng m phn.
Working Group on Professional Services: Nhm cng tc v cc dch v ngh nghip
Do Hi ng Thng mi trong lnh vc dch v ca WTO lp ra kim tra mc m cc
yu cu cht lng, giy php v tiu chun c th gy cn tr n thng mi i vi cc dch
v ngh nghip v tm ra cc nguyn tc a phng thch hp. K ton l mc u tin trong
chng trnh ngh s, nhng cc ngh nghip khc, c bit l lut, kin trc v k thut
c ni n nh cc mc tip theo. Xem thm Guidelines for Mutual Recognition Agreements
or Arrangements in the Accountancy Sector v mutual recognition arrangements.
World Bank: Ngn hng th gii
Xem IBRD.
World Bank Guidelines on the Treatment of Foreign Direct Investment: Hng dn ca
Ngn hng th gii v u t trc tip nc ngoi
Tp hp cc nguyn tc t nguyn thng qua vo thng 9/1992 cp n vic i x ca
chnh ph vi cc nh u t nc ngoi c thin ch. Bn hng dn khng cp n thi
ca nh u t nc ngoi. Mc ch chnh ca Bn hng dn l khuyn khch u t nc
ngoi v li ch ca n trong vic nng cao hiu qu lu di ca nc ch nh thng qua cnh
tranh, chuyn giao vn, cng ngh v k thut qun l, tng cng nng lc xm nhp th
trng v m rng thng mi quc t. iu I ch ra rng Bn hng dn da trn c s chung
l i x bnh ng vi cc nh u t trong nhng trng hp tng t v cnh tranh t do
gia cc nh u t l iu kin tin quyt ca mt mi trng u t tch cc v ngh nh
u t nc ngoi cng khng c i x u i hn nh u t trong nc. iu II cp
n mt mi trng m cho tham gia u t. iu III ch trng cc quc gia dnh i x bnh
ng v cng bng cho cc nh u t ca bt k nc no khc. iu IV ni v vic sung cng
v nhng thay i hoc chm dt hp ng mang tnh n phng. iu V khuyn khch gii
quyt tranh chp c trt t, hoc thng qua to n quc gia hoc thng qua cc c ch c
nht tr khc. Xem thm Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.
World Customs Organisation: T chc Hi quan th gii

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Trc y gi l Hi ng Hp tc Hi quan (CCC). ng ti Brussels. y l c quan chnh
v hp tc quc t trong cc vn hi quan. C quan ny xy dng v qun l H thng m
ho v m t hng ho hi ho v cng ang iu hnh Cng c Istanbul v Cng c Kyoto.
World Development Report: Bo co Pht trin th gii
Bo co do Ngn hng Th gii xut bn hng nm v cc vn lin quan mt thit n qu
trnh pht trin. Thng c phn tch hu ch v cc vn chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm
IBRD.
World Food Programme (WFP): Chng trnh Lng thc th gii
C quan do Lin hp quc thnh lp nm 1961, bt u hot ng ngy 1/1/1963. S mnh ca
c quan ny l iu hnh vin tr lng thc cho cc nc thu nhp nhp thp thiu lng thc
cng nh nn nhn ca cc thin tai. WFP cng thc hin cc chng trnh nhm pht trin
kinh t x hi ca cc nc ny. T chc ny hp tc cht ch vi T chc Lng thc v Nng
nghip. Tr s ng ti Rome.
World Investment Report: Bo co u t th gii
Bo co hng nm do Ban u t v Hp tc gia cc quc gia ca UNCTAD tin hnh v cc
khuynh hng u t ton cu v cc vn lin quan. Bo co ny c nhiu phn tch gi tr.
i khi bo co ny thin v vic cho rng mt s vn cc nc ang pht trin gp phi l
do cc hnh ng, lm hoc khng lm, ca cc cng ty xuyn quc gia, nhng nhn chung bo
co ny cho rng u t nc ngoi ca cc cng ty ny l tt v thc s gip ch cho cc nc
ang pht trin.
World Summit for Social Development: Hi ngh Thng nh th gii v pht trin x hi
Xem Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action.
WTO (World Trade Organisation): T chc Thng mi th gii
Thnh lp ngy 1/1/1995, k tc GATT (Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi) v Ban
Th k GATT. Nay GATT tr thnh mt trong nhng hip nh do WTO qun l. C khong
130 thnh vin. WTO l mt t chc tho lun, m phn v gii quyt nhng vn thng
mi bao gm hng ho, dch v v s hu tr tu. Chc nng c bn l qun l v thc hin cc
hip nh a phng v hip nh nhiu bn to nn t chc ny, lm din n cho cc cuc
m phn thng mi a phng, gii quyt tranh chp thng mi, gim st chnh sch
thng mi quc gia v hp tc vi cc t chc quc t khc lin quan n hoch nh chnh
sch kinh t ton cu. Xem thm Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade
Organisation.
WTO Agreement: Hip nh WTO
Xem Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation.
WTO built-in agenda: Chng trnh ngh s thng trc ca WTO
Chng trnh nhm thc y t do ho thng mi nh nu trong cc hip nh khc nhau
k ti Vng Uruguay v do WTO qun l, v d nh m phn v dch v ti chnh, vin thng
c bn v dch v hng hi, chng trnh hng ti gim cc h tr v bo h trong nng
nghip, cc cuc hp r sot chnh sch trong cc khong thi gian c nh, vng m phn
mi v dch v vo nm 2000, v.v... Chng trnh ngh s thng trc ny khc nhiu so vi
thc tin li sau cc m phn thng mi a phng trc y, khi tn nhiu thi gian
nhng ch t c tin b rt t i vi nhng lnh vc nht tr.
WTO Ministerial Conference: Hi ngh B trng WTO
Mt hi ngh bao gm i din ca tt c cc thnh vin WTO cp B trng hp t nht hai
nm mt ln. Hi ngh c quyn ra quyt nh v mi vn thuc bt k hip nh thng mi
a phng no. Xem thm Singapore Ministerial Conference.

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WTO plurilateral trade agreements: Cc Hip nh thng mi nhiu bn WTO
l Hip nh v bun bn my bay dn dng, Hip nh v mua sm ca chnh ph, Hip
nh quc t v cc sn phm sa v Hip nh quc t v tht b. Cc hip nh ny c a
vo Ph lc 4 ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii. Cc hip nh
ny ban u c m phn trong Vng Tokyo vi tn gi "b lut". Chng cha cc nguyn
tc b sung cho mi lnh vc m chng cp. tham gia cc hip nh ny khng phi l iu
kin tin quyt ca vic tr thnh thnh vin WTO. Xem thm Tokyo Round agreements.
WTO Understanding on Dispute Settlement: Bn ghi nh WTO v gii quyt tranh chp
Tn chnh thc l Bn ghi nh v cc quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp. Mt trong nhng
kt qu ca Vng Uruguay. Nguyn l c bn ca Bn ghi nh ny l vic gii quyt ngay cc
tranh chp l yu cu thit yu WTO hot ng ng n. V th Bn ghi nh t ra mt s
chi tit v th tc v thi gian phi tun theo gii quyt tranh chp. Ch c mt khong thi
gian hng rt t gia cc th tc trn. Giai on u tin gii quyt tranh chp l tham vn gia
cc bn lin quan m cc bn ny c th ku gi Tng Gim c WTO ng ra ho gii. Nu
tham vn khng thnh cng, mt ban hi thm s c t ng thnh lp. Nu cc bn khng
nht tr vi kt qu iu tra ca ban hi thm, h c th khng co ln c quan chung thm,
nhng vic khng co ch hn ch trong nhng vn php l. Mt s ngi l lun rng tnh
t ng ca c ch mi c th dn n trng hp khn cp ca mt h thng "lut ti ch"
trong WTO, nhng iu ny khng c chng c r rng.

Yaounde Convention: Cng c Yaounde

Mt Hip nh lin kt gia Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v 18 nc chu Phi ang pht trin
dnh cho cc nc ny mt s li ch kinh t v thng mi. c k vo ngy 20/7/1963 v
thay th bi Cng c Lom vo nm 1975.

Zero binding: Rng buc khng

Cam kt c tnh rng buc php l trong WTO loi b thu hi quan i vi nhng sn phm
xc nh.
Zero-for-zero tariff reduction: Gim thu quan ti khng
H thng yu cu/p ng nhm t c s gim thu quan trong cc bn lin quan hng
ti vic gim thu quan ti khng (tc l loi b thu quan) trn c s c i c li trong nhng
lnh vc nh dc phm hay sn phm g. Hip nh Cng ngh thng tin l mt v d gn y
ca khuynh hng ny. Xm thm requestst and offers v sectoral trade negotiations.
Zero-margin harmonisation: Hi ho n mc khng
Hi ho hon ton cc lut l, quy nh, tiu chun, v.v... trong mt hoc mt s lnh vc hot
ng kinh t.
Zero-price knowledge: Tri thc gi bng khng
Khi nim c dng nh mt phn c s l lun ca vic bo h s hu tr tu. Nu tri thc
lun min ph, tc l c c vi gi bng khng, th s t khuyn khch ngi ta b sung vn
tri thc v khng em li li ch g. Vic cp cho ngi lm ra tri thc quyn sinh li t tri thc
thng qua vic bo h quyn s hu tr tu s em li s khuyn khch ny.

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Zero rating: Thu sut khng
Dng thu ht hng ho vo mt nc m khng mt mt khon thu hi quan no.
Zero-sum nationalism: Ch ngha dn tc thng-thua
Quan im cho rng trong quan h kinh t v thng mi quc t, cc nc ch c mt la chn
gia thng v khng thng. Thng ca mt nc, thng ch mang tnh tm thi, l thua ca
nc kia. y thc cht l mt lun im m rng mang mu sc chnh tr hn ca t tng
trng thng coi mc ch ca thng mi l tch lu tin v ngoi hi, ti a ho xut khu v
ti thiu ho nhp khu. Quan im ny hon ton b qua tc ng ca ton cu ho i vi
nn kinh t quc t.
Zollverein (ting c): Lin minh hi quan
Thnh lp di s lnh o ca Ph nm 1834 thng qua vic thng nht mt s lin minh hi
quan cc b. Lin minh ny tip tc pht trin sau khi cc bang ca c thng nht nm 1871
thnh ch c. Zollverein l ch da cho pht trin kinh t c na u th k XVIII. Tuy
nhin, do trng vi thi im cuc cch mng cng nghip c, s ng gp ca Lin minh
ny vo s pht trin kinh t tuy rt ng k nhng kh nh gi ht c. Xem thm customs
union.

Ph chng 1

Tm lc Hip nh Marrakesh
thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii

iu I: Thnh lp T chc
T chc Thng mi th gii c thnh lp theo Hip nh ny.
iu II: Phm vi ca WTO
Cc hip nh v cc vn bn php l i km nu trong cc Ph lc 1, 2 v 3, "cc hip nh
thng mi a phng" c gi tr rng buc vi tt c thnh vin. Cc hip nh v cc vn bn
php l i km nu trong Ph lc 4, "cc hip nh thng mi nhiu bn" ch c gi tr rng
buc vi nc thnh vin no chp nhn cc hip nh . Hip nh chung v Thu quan v
Thng mi 1994 v mt php l khc vi Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi ngy
30/10/1947.
iu III: Cc chc nng ca WTO
WTO thc thi, gim st v thi hnh Hip nh ny v cc Hip nh Thng mi a phng.
WTO cng hng dn thc hin v qun l cc hip nh thng mi nhiu bn. T chc ny l
din n m phn gia cc nc thnh vin v cc mi quan h thng mi a phng ca h.
WTO cng gim st Ngh nh th v Gii quyt tranh chp v C ch R sot chnh sch
thng mi.
iu IV: C cu ca WTO
Hi ngh B trng s hp t nht hai nm mt ln. Hi ngh c quyn quyt nh v mi vn
ca bt k Hip nh Thng mi a phng no. Gia cc k Hi ngh, i hi ng m
nhim cc chc nng ny. i hi ng cng triu tp Ban Gii quyt tranh chp v Ban R
sot chnh sch thng mi. Di i hi ng l Hi ng Thng mi hng ho, Hi ng
Thng mi dch v v Hi ng v cc vn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi. Mi
Hi ng c th thnh lp nhng c quan nh hn.
iu V: Quan h vi cc t chc khc

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i hi ng m nhn hp tc v tham vn c hiu qu vi cc t chc lin chnh ph v phi
chnh ph vi trch nhim lin quan.
iu VI: Ban Th k
Ban Th k do Tng Th k ng u. Tng Th k do Hi ngh B trng ch nh. Tng Th
k ch nh cc nhn vin v xc nh chc trch v iu kin lm vic ph hp vi cc quy
nh do Hi ngh B trng thng qua.
iu VII: Ngn sch v ng gp
iu ny nu ra cc th tc huy ng ngn sch v ng gp ti chnh t cc nc thnh vin.
iu VIII: Quy ch ca WTO
WTO c t cch php nhn vi cc c n, c quyn cn thit thc thi chc nng ca mnh.
iu IX: Ra quyt nh
WTO tun theo nguyn tc ra quyt nh bng cch nht tr nh lm di thi GATT. Nu
quyt nh bng cch nht tr khng th p dng, vn s c quyt nh bng cch biu
quyt nh nu trong iu ny. Hi ngh B trng v i hi ng l nhng c quan duy nht
c quyn gii thch Hip nh ny v cc hip nh thng mi a phng. Hi ngh B trng
c th quyt nh c cho mt nc thnh vin c min tr mt ngha v no hay khng.
Quyn min tr hng nm phi c xem xt li. Vic ra quyt nh i vi mt hip nh
thng mi nhiu bn tun theo cc iu khon ca hip nh lin quan.
iu X: Sa i
Bt k thnh vin no ca WTO cng c th xut sa i Hip nh ny hoc cc Hip nh
Thng mi a phng. Tu theo thay i a ra, c th ch cn a s thng qua sa i,
nhng mt s sa i ch c thc hin nu tt c nht tr. iu ny ni chi tit v vic sa i
ni trn cng nh cc bin php cc nc thnh vin cn lm chp nhn sa i.
iu XI: Thnh vin gc
Tt c cc bn k kt ca GATT 1947 vo thi im Hip nh ny c hiu lc u l thnh
vin gc ca WTO, vi iu kin h np Danh mc u i v Cam kt theo quy nh ca
GATT v Danh mc Cam kt chuyn ngnh theo quy nh ca GATS. Cc nc km pht trin
ch phi a ra cam kt v u i ph hp vi mc pht trin, nhu cu ti chnh v thng mi
hoc nng lc qun l ca h.
iu XII: Gia nhp
Bt k quc gia hay lnh th hi quan ring bit no c quyn quyt nh quan h thng mi
i ngoi ca mnh u c th gia nhp Hip nh ny theo cc iu kin c nht tr gia
nc hay lnh th vi WTO. Vic nht tr vi cc iu kin gia nhp i hi a s hai phn
ba cc thnh vin WTO. Vic gia nhp hip nh thng mi nhiu bn c iu chnh bi cc
quy nh ca hip nh .
iu XIII: Khng p dng cc Hip nh Thng mi a phng gia mt s thnh vin
Hip nh ny s khng p dng gia bt k mt thnh vin vi bt k mt thnh vin no khc
nu mt trong cc thnh vin , khi bn kia tr thnh thnh vin, khng bng lng p dng.
Quyt nh khng p dng Hip nh ny vi mt thnh vin khc ch c gi tr nu thnh vin
khng bng lng p dng thng bo cho Hi ngh B trng trc khi thng qua cc iu
kin gia nhp.
iu XIV: Chp nhn, c hiu lc
iu ny nu ln cc th tc cn tun theo chp nhn cc iu kin gia nhp Hip nh ny
i vi c thnh vin gc ca WTO cng nh cc thnh vin gia nhp sau ny. Mt s ngha v
nu trong cc Hip nh Thng mi a phng c thc hin theo lch biu bt u t khi

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Hip nh ny c hiu lc. Nu mt nc thnh vin gia nhp sau khi Hip nh c hiu lc th
s phi tun theo lch biu nh i vi cc nc thnh vin gc.
iu XV: Rt b
Bt k thnh vin no cng c th rt ra khi Hip nh ny. Vic rt ra bt u c hiu lc 6
thng sau khi Tng Th k WTO nhn c thng bo bng vn bn v nh rt ra.
iu XVI: Cc quy nh khc
Tr khi c quy nh khc trong Hip nh ny hoc cc hip nh thng mi a phng,
WTO tun theo cc quyt nh, th tc v thc tin nh GATT. Nu c mu thun gia cc
iu khon ca Hip nh v mt iu khon ca bt k hip nh a phng no, Hip nh
ny s thng th. Khng c bo lu i vi bt k iu khon no ca Hip nh ny. Bo lu
i vi cc hip nh thng mi a phng v cc hip nh thng mi nhiu bn c th c
mc m cc Hip nh cho php.

Danh sch cc Ph lc ca Hip nh Marrakesh

thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii

Ph lc 1

Ph lc 1A: Cc Hip nh a phng v thng mi trong lnh vc hng ho

Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994

Hip nh v nng nghip
Hip nh p dng cc bin php v sinh dch t
Hip nh hng dt may
Hip nh v cc hng ro k thut i vi thng mi
Hip nh v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi
Hip nh thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994
Hip nh thc hin iu VII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994
Hip nh v kim tra trc khi xp hng
Hip nh v quy ch xut x
Hip nh v tr cp v cc bin php i khng
Hip nh v t v

Ph lc 1B: Hip nh chung v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v v cc Ph lc

Ph lc 1C: Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi

Ph lc 2

Bn ghi nh v cc quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp

Ph lc 3

C cu R sot chnh sch thng mi

Ph lc 4

Cc hip nh nhiu bn

Hip nh v bun bn my bay dn dng

Hip nh v mua sm ca chnh ph
Hip nh quc t v cc sn phm sa

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Hip nh quc t v tht b

Ph chng 2

Tm lc Hip nh chung v thu quan v thng mi (GATT)

GATT bao gm 38 iu v 9 ph lc. Cc mc sau y din t ngn gn ni dung chnh ca

cc iu ny v cc ph lc. Mt s iu c din gii chi tit trong cc hip nh ph. Cc
hip nh ny c nu tn ngay sau phn tm tt ca iu lin quan. Mt s iu v ph lc
nay ch c gi tr lch s.

Phn I

iu I: i ng ti hu quc chung
Tt c cc bn k kt phi dnh mi li th, u i, c quyn hoc c n dnh cho bt k sn
phm ca bt k nc no cho tt c cc thnh vin khc ngay lp tc v khng iu kin. iu
ny bao gm c thu hi quan, cc loi chi ph xut khu v nhp khu, chuyn tin quc t,
mi quy tc v hnh thc lin quan n xut khu v nhp khu. iu ny khng p dng cho
cc hip nh u i c hiu lc vo thi im Hip nh ny k kt, nhng mc u i
cc hip nh khng c tng thm.
iu II: Danh mc u i
Mi bn k kt phi c mt danh mc nu ra cc iu khon v iu kin mt sn phm c
th c nhp khu. Danh mc ny thng c gi l danh mc thu quan. Khng mt khon
ph no khc c nh vo hng ho nhp khu. Cc phng php xc nh s thu phi tr
hoc chuyn i ng tin khng c dng lm gim gi tr ca u i thu. Cc bn c th
yu cu tham vn nu h cho rng nhng iu bn kia cam kt khng t c.
Bn ghi nh Din gii iu II:1(b) ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 gii thch r hn
ngha ca "cc loi thu v chi ph khc".

Phn II

iu III: i x quc gia v thu trong nc v lut l

Cc bn k kt ch c th p dng thu trong nc v cc chi ph khc cho hng ho nhp khu
mc h p dng cho cng loi hng ho sn xut trong nc. Cc lut, quy nh v cc
yu cu khc lin quan n vic mua hng, cho hng, mua, vn chuyn, phn phi hoc s
dng hng ho nhp khu phi khng km u i hn cc lut, quy nh v yu cu p dng
cho hng ho ni a cng loi. Khng bn k kt no c duy tr quy nh v nh lng
trong nc lin quan n pha trn, x l hoc s dng cc sn phm yu cu mt s b phn
c cung cp t cc ngun trong nc. Tuy nhin, nhng quy nh c php mt mc
nh nu trong iu IV. iu ny khng p dng cho mua sm ca chnh ph.
Hip nh v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi c nhng quy nh chi tit hn v vic cm cc quy
nh nh lng trong nc.
iu IV: Cc iu khon c bit v phim in nh
Nu mt bn k kt duy tr hn ngch hoc hn ch v phim th cc hn ngch, hn ch phi
tun th mt s iu kin. Nhng hn ngch cng tu theo vic m phn v vic hn ch,
t do ho hay loi b chng.
iu V: T do qu cnh

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Hng ho, tu thuyn v cc phng tin vn ti khc c t do qu cnh qua lnh th ca
mi bn qua cc tuyn thun tin nht cho thng thng quc t. "Vn chuyn qu cnh" c
nh ngha l vic i qua lnh th ca mt bn k kt khc khi vic i qua ch l mt phn
ca hnh trnh bt u v kt thc mt ni khc. iu ny c th bao gm c chuyn ti, lu
kho, hoc thay i phng thc vn ti. Vn chuyn qu cnh khng b nh thu hi quan
hoc bt k khon thu qu cnh no tr chi ph vn ti v chi ph hnh chnh. Cc bn k kt
khng c phn bit gia hng ho chuyn ti v hng ho i thng.
iu VI: Thu chng ph gi v thu i khng
iu ny nu ra cc iu kin c s c th p dng thu chng ph gi v thu i khng.
Hip nh thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 cha cc iu khon chi tit
v s dng cc bin php chng ph gi. Hip nh v tr cp v cc bin php i khng nu ra cc th tc p
dng trong trng hp cc bin php i khng.
iu VII: nh gi hi quan
Vic xc nh tr gi hng ho nhp khu cho mc ch hi quan phi da trn tr gi thc ca
hng ho. Vic nh gi khng c da trn xut x quc gia hay tr gi v on hay gi
tng. iu ny t ra cc th tc xc nh tr gi nu tr gi thc khng xc nh c.
Hip nh thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 cha cc iu khon chi tit
hn v cc th tc nh gi hi quan.
iu VIII: Ph v cc th tc gn vi nhp khu v xut khu
Mi khon ph gn vi vic nhp khu hay xut khu hng ho cn phi c hn ch mc
chi ph tng ng vi dch v cung cp. Cc khon ph ny khng c s dng cho mc
ch bo h hoc ti chnh.
iu IX: nh du xut x
Cc bn k kt khng c phn bit gia cc bn khc v cc yu cu nhn mc i vi hng
ho nhp khu. Nhn mc xut x khng c dng gy bt li cho sn phm ca cc bn
k kt khc. Vic gn nhn mc xut x vo thi im nhp khu l c php. Khng c
khon thu c bit hay khon pht no c p dng m khng ph hp vi cc yu cu nhn
mc trc khi nhp khu tr phi c s tr hon c l do chp nhn c.
iu X: Cng b v qun l cc quy ch thng mi
Mi bn k kt phi cng b ngay lp tc tt c cc lut, quy nh, quyt nh php l v cc
quy nh hnh chnh p dng chung i vi thng mi xut khu v nhp khu cc chnh
ph khc c bit. Tt c lut, quy nh, v.v... phi c trnh by thng nht, khng thin v
v hp l. Cc bin php phi c cng b chnh thc trc khi p dng. Cc bn k kt phi
duy tr mi quyt nh hoc th tc php l, trng ti hoc hnh chnh r sot hnh ng
hnh chnh lin quan n cc vn hi quan.
iu XI: Loi b cc hn ch nh lng
Cc bn k kt khng c duy tr hoc to ra cc iu cm hoc hn ch ngoi thu v cc chi
ph khc. Hn ngch, giy php xut khu hoc nhp khu v cc bin php khc b cm tr
mt s trng hp c quy nh cht ch. iu ny bao gm c vic ngn nga hay cu tr
khi thiu lng thc nghim trng v cc iu cm hay hn ch xut khu v nhp khu cn
thit cho vic p dng cc tiu chun hng ho trong thng mi quc t.
iu XII: Cc hn ch nhm bo v cn cn thanh ton
Cc bn k kt c th s dng hn ch nhp khu bo v tnh hnh ti chnh i ngoi ca
mnh, nhng khng c hn mc cn thit ngn chn s e do b gim st nghim trng
d tr ngoi t hoc tng d tr ngoi t mt cch hp l nu d tr rt thp. C cc th
tc chi tit p dng cho vic lp ra, gim st v chm dt cc hn ch nh vy.

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Bn ghi nh v cc iu khon bo v cn cn thanh ton ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi
1994 cng lin quan n vic s dng iu ny.
iu XIII: Qun l mang tnh cht khng phn bit i x i vi cc hn ch nh lng
Cc bn k kt khng c phn bit gia cc bn khc trong vic s dng cc hn ch nh
lng. iu ny t ra cc quy tc thc hin vic ny.
iu XIV: Cc ngoi l i vi quy tc khng phn bit i x
Vic phn bit i x trong vic s dng cc hn ch c th c php nu li ch ca cc bn
lin quan b thit hi ng k hn so vi thng mi ca cc bn k kt. iu ny ch c thc
hin theo mt s iu kin nht nh.
iu XV: Cc tho thun lin quan n hi oi
iu ny t ra c s cho mi quan h gia GATT v IMF (Qu Tin t quc t) vi mc ch
phi hp chnh sch v cc vn hi oi, phm vi ca IMF v cc hn ch nh lng, phm
vi ca GATT.
iu XVI: Tr cp
Mi tr cp phi c thng bo r. Cc bn k kt cn trnh vic s dng tr cp trong xut
khu cc sn phm s cp. Cc bn k kt cng nhn rng tr cp c th gy phng hi cho
cc bn khc v s trnh vic s dng tr cp trong xut khu cc sn phm s cp. T
1/1/1958, cc bn k kt nht tr khng s dng tr cp i vi cc hng ho ngoi cc sn
phm s cp nu vic ny gy ra vic gim gi ti th trng nhp khu.
Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng t ra cc quy tc lin quan n vic s dng tr cp.
iu XVII: Cc doanh nghip thng mi quc doanh
Cc doanh nghip quc doanh phi hot ng ph hp vi nguyn tc chung v khng phn
bit i x p dng vi cc nh kinh doanh t nhn. Cc chnh ph phi thng bo cc sn
phm m cc doanh nghip thng mi quc doanh kinh doanh. iu ny khng p dng cho
vic cc chnh ph mua sm cho nhu cu s dng ca ring h.
Bn ghi nh Din gii iu XVII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 cng nn c tham
kho.
iu XVIII: Tr gip ca Chnh ph i vi pht trin kinh t
iu ny t ra cc iu kin, theo cc nc ang pht trin c th tm thi i chch khi
nhng quy nh trong Hip nh ny nu cc nc phi ci thin mc sng thp hoc ang
trong giai on mi pht trin. iu ny bao gm c vic p dng cc bin php cn cn thanh
ton hoc cc bin php thc y cc ngnh cng nghip non tr.
Bn ghi nh v cc iu khon bo v cn cn thanh ton ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi
1994 cng lin quan n vic s dng iu ny.
iu XIX: Hnh ng khn cp i vi vic nhp khu mt s hng ho c th
Di nhng iu kin xc nh, cc bn k kt c th tm thi hn ch nhp khu nu do vic
a ra cc u i thu quan lm nhp khu tng vt e do gy nn hoc gy nn thit hi
nghim trng cho cc nh sn xut trong nc. Nhng hn ch nhp khu nh vy phi c p
dng trn c s khng phn bit i x.
Hip nh T v cha cc th tc chi tit v p dng cc bin php t v.
iu XX: Cc ngoi l chung
iu ny nu ra mi tnh hung cc bn k kt khng b bt buc p dng cc iu khon ca
Hip nh. Cc bn k kt khng c s dng iu ny nh mt bin php phn bit i x
mt cch v on hoc v cn c gia cc nc c cng iu kin hoc lm hn ch tr hnh
i vi thng mi quc t. Mi tnh hung l: (a) bo v o c chung, (b) bo v cuc
sng hoc sc kho con ngi, ng vt hay thc vt, (c) nhp khu hay xut khu vng bc,

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(d) m bo ph hp vi cc lut khng ng b vi GATT, bo v quyn s hu tr tu hoc
ngn nga cc hnh vi gian di, (e) cc sn phm lao ng t nhn, (f) bo v cc sn phm c
gi tr ngh thut, lch s hay kho c, (g) bo tn ti nguyn thin nhin nu c hn ch v sn
xut hoc tiu dng trong nc, (h) ngha v theo cc hip nh hng ho quc t, (i) hn ch
xut khu vt liu trong nc ngn nga tnh trng thiu ht, v (j) mua hoc phn phi cc
sn phm c ngun cung hn ch.
iu XXI: Cc ngoi l lin quan n an ninh
Cc bn k kt khng b yu cu phi p dng cc iu khon ca Hip nh ny nu (a) vic
p dng Hip nh lm l thng tin thit yu cho an ninh, (b) nu cc bn k kt mun c bt
k hnh ng no cn thit bo v quyn li an ninh quc gia, v (c) nu n ngn nga cc
bn k kt i chch khi cc ngha v theo Hin chng Lin hp quc.
iu XXII: Tham vn
Mi bn k kt phi p ng mt cch thng cm v yu cu tham vn ca cc bn k kt khc
v bt k vn no lin quan vic thc hin Hip nh.
Vic thc hin iu ny nay chuyn sang Bn ghi nh v cc quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp.
iu XXIII: V hiu ho hoc gy phng hi
iu ny to ra c s php l cho c cu gii quyt tranh chp ca GATT v t ra mt s th
tc c s cn tun theo.
Vic thc hin iu ny nay chuyn sang Bn ghi nh v cc quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp.

Phn III

iu XXIV: a gii p dng - Vn chuyn qua bin gii - Lin minh hi quan v Khu vc
thng mi t do
Hip nh ny p dng cho lnh th hi quan ca cc bn k kt, c nh ngha l bt k lnh
th no c quyn duy tr thu quan ring trong phn ln thng mi ca mnh vi cc lnh th
khc. Vn chuyn qua bin gii gia cc nc k nhau khng b tc ng bi Hip nh ny.
Cc bn k kt c th tham gia cc lin minh hi quan hay khu vc thng mi t do theo cc
iu kin xc nh. Cc bn k kt cng phi c nhng bin php hp l m bo cc chnh
quyn khu vc v a phng bn trong lnh th ca h tun th cc iu khon ca Hip nh
ny.
Bn ghi nh Din gii iu XXIV ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 c hng dn chi tit
hn v cch s dng iu ny.
iu XXV: Hnh ng chung ca cc bn k kt
Cc bn k kt phi gp nhau thng xuyn xem xt vic thc hin Hip nh v xc nh
cc mc ch tip theo. H c th thng qua cc min tr trong mt s trng hp ngoi l.
Bn ghi nh v min tr ngha v ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 ch ra rng mi min
tr ang tn ti vo thi im thnh lp WTO s chm dt tr khi c cc quy tc WTO cho php.
iu XXVI: Chp thun, Hiu lc v ng k
iu ny din t cc iu kin cc chnh ph c th tr thnh thnh vin v khi no Hip
nh c hiu lc.
iu XXVII: Vic hon hoc rt cc u i
Cc bn k kt khng phi duy tr nhng u i h m phn vi mt chnh ph khng tham
gia hoc chm dt tham gia Hip nh.
iu XXVIII: Sa i cc danh mc

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iu ny nu ra iu kin cc bn k kt c th sa i hoc rt li cc u i thu quan
[tng b hn ch trong ba nm mi c thay i] v ng hng v th tc cc bn khc
c th nhn n b.
Bn ghi nh Din gii iu XXVIII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 nu ra cc iu kin
p dng cc quyn cung cp chnh khi xng m phn thu quan.
iu XXVIII bis: m phn thu quan
Cc bn k kt c th khi xng m phn thu quan a phng bt k lc no. m phn
thu quan c th tin hnh trn c s sn phm vi sn phm hoc theo cc th tc c nht
tr khc. Thnh cng ca m phn a phng ph thuc vo s tham gia ca tt c cc nc c
phn ln bun bn ca mnh vi cc nc khc. m phn cn phi tnh n nhu cu ca cc
nc ang pht trin.
iu XXIX: Quan h ca Hip nh ny vi Hin chng Havana
iu ny din t Hip nh ny c x l th no khi Hin chng Havana c hiu lc v nu
ngu nhin Hin chng khng c hiu lc.
iu XXX: Sa i
Sa i Phn I ca Hip nh phi c s chp thun ca tt c cc bn k kt. Sa i cc
phn cn li cn c s chp thun ca hai phn ba cc bn k kt.
Vic sa i GATT nay c quy nh theo cc iu khon ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng
mi th gii.
iu XXXI: Rt lui
Bt k bn k kt no cng c th rt khi Hip nh sau khi thng bo trc 6 thng.
Vic rt khi GATT ch c th l mt phn ca vic rt khi Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi
th gii.
iu XXXII: Cc bn k kt
Din t nhng chnh ph no c coi l cc bn k kt ca Hip nh.
Khng cn nc no ch l thnh vin ca GATT na. Cc chnh ph phi tham gia WTO v cc iu khon ca
Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii nay iu chnh cc vn v quy ch thnh vin.
iu XXXIII: Gia nhp
Bt k chnh ph no cng u c th tham gia Hip nh theo nhng iu khon c nht tr
gia chnh ph v cc bn k kt hin thi.
Khng cn nc no ch l thnh vin ca GATT na. Cc chnh ph phi tham gia WTO v cc iu khon ca
Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii nay iu chnh cc vn v quy ch thnh vin.
iu XXXIV: Cc ph lc
Cc ph lc ca Hip nh ny l mt phn khng tch ri ca Hip nh.
iu XXXV: Khng p dng Hip nh gia mt s bn k kt nht nh
Hip nh ny khng p dng gia cc bn k kt nu hai bn cha m phn thu quan v nu
bt k nc no trong s , vo thi im nc kia tr thnh mt bn k kt, ng vi vic
khng p dng ny.
Cc iu khon ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi th gii nay cp thm cc vn
khng p dng.

Phn IV: Thng mi v pht trin

iu XXXVI: Cc nguyn tc v mc tiu

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 m bo tng nhanh v chc thu nhp xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin, cn phi c
ch m ca th trng u i hn vi cc sn phm m cc nc ny quan tm. Cc sn
phm ch bin v sn xut c bit quan trng. Cc nc pht trin khng c i hi c i c
li i vi cc cam kt a ra trong m phn thng mi nhm gim hoc loi b thu quan v
cc hng ro khc trong bun bn cc nc ang pht trin.
iu XXXVII: Cc cam kt
Cc nc pht trin phi dnh u tin cao cho vic gim v loi b cc hng ro thng mi i
vi cc sn phm mang li li ch cho cc nc ang pht trin v khng c lp ra nhng
hng ro mi nh hng ti cc nc ang pht trin. Cc nc ang pht trin s c nhng
bin php u i cho cc nc ang pht trin khc mc m trng hp ca h cho php.
iu XXXVIII: Hnh ng chung
Cc bn k kt nht tr hp tc thc y cc mc tiu t ra ti iu XXXVI.

Cc ph lc

Hip nh ny c chn ph lc, trong tm ph lc ch cn ngha lch s. Ph lc I cha cc

ghi ch v iu khon b sung c gi tr trong vic din gii nhiu iu ca Hip nh.

Ph chng 3

Tm lc Hip nh chung v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v

(GATS)

GATS bao gm 29 iu v 8 ph lc. Cc mc sau y din t ngn gn mc ch chnh ca

cc iu v ph lc ny.

Phn I: Phm vi v nh ngha

iu I: Phm vi v nh ngha
GATS cp v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v, tr quyn hng khng song phng, bt k
dch v c cung cp nh th no. Hip nh nh ngha "cc bin php ca chnh ph" l cc
bin php do cc chnh ph trung ng v cc chnh quyn khu vc hay a phng tin hnh.
iu ny cng trnh by bn phng thc cung cp dch v: (1) cung cp qua bin gii (ngi
bn v khch hng khng gp nhau); (2) tiu th ngoi bin gii (khch hng ra nc ngoi
mua dch v); (3) hin din thng mi (ngi bn lp vn phng ti th trng); v (4) thng
qua s hin din ca th nhn.

Phn II: Cc quy nh v ngha v chung

iu II: i ng Ti hu quc (MFN)

iu ny l mt ngha v chung m bo khng phn bit i x gia cc loi dch v v cc nh cung cp dch
v. Cc thnh vin ca GATS phi p dng tiu chun i ng nh nhau cho mi thnh vin khc. C th c
min tr khi ngha v ny theo nhng iu kin xc nh.
iu III: Minh bch
Cc thnh vin phi cng b cc quy nh trong nc nh hng n thng mi trong dch v.
Nu h l thnh vin ca cc hip nh quc t c cp n thng mi trong dch v, h

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cng phi cng b cc hip nh . Cc thnh vin phi thng bo cho Hi ng Thng mi
dch v nhng thay i ln v cc quy nh, nhng khng cn phi cung cp mt s dng thng
tin mt.
Cc thnh vin cng phi thnh lp cc im tip xc c th gii p chi tit v cc quy nh.
iu IV: Tham gia nhiu hn ca cc nc ang pht trin
iu ny ghi nhn quyn li ca cc nc ang pht trin trong vic m rng thng mi dch
v ca cc nc . Cc nc thnh vin pht trin phi lp cc im tip xc cho cc nc
ang pht trin s dng.
iu V: Cc hip nh hi nhp kinh t v hi nhp th trng lao ng
Cc thnh vin GATS c th tham gia cc tho thun t do thng mi hay hi nhp kinh t
di nhng iu kin xc nh. Nu p ng cc iu kin ny, h khng phi dnh u i theo
c s ti hu quc. C th c cc tho thun v hi nhp th trng lao ng.
iu VI: Quy nh trong nc
iu ny i hi cc thnh vin m bo rng mi quy nh chung trong nc c tc ng n
thng mi dch v phi c thc hin mt cch hp l v khng thin v. Cn phi c th
tc kim tra trnh ngh nghip. iu ny khng tc i quyn ca cc chnh ph iu
chnh nn kinh t ca mnh.
iu VII: Cng nhn
Trnh v kinh nghim ngh nghip khng c s dng lm hng ro trong thng mi. Cc
thnh vin c th cng nhn chng ch trnh do mt nc khc cp. H c th tham gia cc
tho thun cng nhn ln nhau m khng cn phi tham gia vi cc thnh vin khc.
iu VIII: c quyn v cc nh cung cp dch v c quyn
Cc nh cung cp dch v c quyn phi cung cp dch v ca h ph hp vi ngha v ti hu
quc v cc cam kt ca mt nc. Mt thnh vin lp nn hoc duy tr mt nh cung cp c
quyn c th c yu cu cung cp thng tin lin quan n s hot ng ca nh cung cp .
iu IX: Cc hot ng kinh doanh
GATS cng nhn mt s hot ng kinh doanh c th km hm cnh tranh v hn ch thng
mi trong dch v. Do cc thnh vin c quyn tham vn loi b cc hot ng .
iu X: Cc bin php t v khn cp
iu ny ch ra rng s cn m phn tip v cc bin php t v khn cp. Kt qu ca cc
m phn trn d nh s c hiu lc vo nm 1998.
iu XI: Thanh ton v chuyn tin
Tr nhng iu quy nh ti iu XII, cc thnh vin khng c p dng cc hn ch v
chuyn tin v thanh ton quc t i vi cc giao dch hin thi trong cc lnh vc h cam
kt.
iu XII: Hn ch nhm bo v cn cn thanh ton
Cc thnh vin c th p dng hn ch i vi thng mi trong dch v duy tr mc d tr
ti chnh y , nhng khng c phn bit i x gia cc thnh vin khi p dng cc hn
ch ny. Mt s iu kin khc cng c p dng.
iu XIII: Mua sm ca chnh ph
Cc iu khon ca GATS v ti hu quc, m ca th trng v i ng quc gia khng p
dng cho vic mua sm ca cc chnh ph. iu ny cng ch th bt u m phn a phng
v mua sm ca chnh ph.
iu XIV: Cc ngoi l chung v v l do an ninh

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Mt lot ngoi l chung v ngoi l v l do an ninh c th khng chu iu chnh ca GATS.
Mt v d l nhu cu bo v cuc sng hoc sc kho ca con ngi, ng vt hay cy ci. Cc
ngoi l khc lin quan n cc l do an ninh thit yu.
iu XIV: Tr cp
GATS cng nhn tr cp c th lm bin dng thng mi trong dch v v yu cu cc thnh
vin bc vo m phn v tr cp.

Phn III: Cc cam kt c th

Cc iu XVI, XVII v XVIII ch p dng cho cc dch v nu trong danh mc cam kt ca

mi nc.
iu XVI: M ca th trng
Cc thnh vin GATS khng c duy tr hoc a ra cc hn ngch, hn ch nh lng hay
tr gi v cc giao dch dch v, th nghim nhu cu kinh t v cc hn ch v c phn. Cc
ngoi l c php nu cc bin php c nu trong danh mc cam kt c th.
iu XVII: i ng quc gia
Nguyn tc i ng quc gia yu cu mt nc phi dnh cho cc dch v v cc nh cung cp
dch v ca cc nc khc s i x khng km u i hn cc dch v v cc cung cp dch v
ca nc mnh. Ni cch khc, cc nh cung cp dch v trong nc v nc ngoi phi c
i x nh nhau. Lut v quy nh khng c s dng lm cc hng nc ngoi km cnh
tranh hn trn th trng trong nc.
iu XVIII: Cc cam kt b sung
Trong mt s trng hp, cc thnh vin c th c cc cam kt khc ngoi m ca th trng v
i ng quc gia. V d cc cam kt c th bao gm cc vn lin quan n trnh , tiu
chun hay giy php.

Phn IV: Tip tc t do ho

iu XIX: m phn cc cam kt c th

S c nhng vng m phn mi nhm tip tc t do ho thng mi trong dch v. Vng m
phn u tin s bt u trc ngy 1/1/2000.
iu XX: Danh mc cc cam kt c th
iu ny din t ni dung cc danh mc. Cc mc v m ca th trng v i ng quc gia l
bt buc phi c, nhng cng c th ch ra rng mt s hot ng s c m ca cho cc nh
cung cp nc ngoi vo mt thi im nht nh.
iu XXI: Sa i danh mc
Theo quy nh, mt cam kt khi a ra th khng c gim bt hoc rt li trong vng 3
nm. Nu khng th trnh khi phi thay i th nc thnh vin rt cam kt phi n b cho
cc thnh vin GATS khc. Cc ci thin cam kt mang tnh n phng c th tin hnh bt
k lc no.

Phn V: Cc iu khon v t chc

iu XXII: Tham vn
Mt nc thnh vin c th yu cu tham vn vi mt nc thnh vin khc v nhng vn
lin quan n vic thc thi Hip nh.
iu XXIII: Gii quyt tranh chp v hiu lc

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Nu mt nc thnh vin khng tho mn vi kt qu tham vn th c th tm gii php cho vn
thng qua c ch gii quyt tranh chp. C ch ny p dng cc th tc thng nht ca
WTO.
iu XXIV: Hi ng Thng mi dch v
Hi ng Thng mi dch v gim st GATS v lp ra cc c quan thp hn xem xt cc
vn chuyn mn.
iu XXV: Hp tc k thut
Cc nc ang pht trin c dnh cho s h tr k thut thng qua Hi ng Thng mi
dch v.
iu XXVI: Quan h vi cc t chc quc t khc
i hi ng WTO c th c tho thun hp tc vi cc c quan Lin hp quc v cc t chc
lin chnh ph khc lin quan n dch v.

Phn V: Cc iu khon cui cng

iu XXVII: T chi li ch
C th t chi dnh nhng li ch ca Hip nh cho mt nh cung cp dch v theo nhng iu
kin xc nh.
iu XXVIII: Cc nh ngha
iu ny nh ngha mt s nhng thut ng quan trng nht s dng trong Hip nh.
iu XXIX: Cc ph lc
GATS c 8 ph lc din t cch vn dng Hip nh trong mt vi lnh vc.
Ph lc v min tr khi iu II: iu II ca GATS nu ngha v dnh i ng ti hu quc
cho cc thnh vin khc ca Hip nh. Cc min tr ca quy tc ny c th p dng theo cc
iu kin nu trong ph lc ny. Cc min tr ti hu quc phi c mc ch c th v ko di
khng qu 10 nm.
Ph lc v s di chuyn ca th nhn cung cp dch v: Ph lc ny ch ra rng GATS khng
p dng cc bin php lin quan n quyn cng dn, c tr hoc vic lm trn c s lu di.
Cc thnh vin GATS c th iu chnh cc quy tc v vic ra vo lnh th ca h, nhng
khng c dng quyn ny lm mt tc dng cc cam kt c th ca mnh.
Ph lc v dch v vn ti hng khng: GATS khng p dng cho cc quyn hng khng song
phng hoc dch v c lin quan trc tip n cc quyn . Ngoi l ny s c xem li sau
5 nm.
Ph lc v dch v ti chnh: Ph lc ny din t chi tit hn v vic p dng GATS i vi
thng mi trong cc dch v ti chnh.
Ph lc th hai v dch v ti chnh: Ph lc ny l c s m phn v thng mi trong cc
dch v ti chnh kt thc vo ngy 28/7/1995.
Ph lc v m phn dch v vn ti hng hi: i ng ti hu quc v min tr ti hu quc
trong dch v hng hi s c hiu lc khi m phn v dch v vn ti hng hi kt thc [Cc
vng m phn ny nay hon n nm 2000].
Ph lc v vin thng: Cc thnh vin phi dnh cho cc nh cung cp dch v nc ngoi c
tham gia vo mng vin thng cng cng vi cc iu kin hp l v khng phn bit i x.
Ph lc ny din t cch thc hin iu ny.

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Ph lc v m phn v vin thng c s: i ng ti hu quc v min tr ti hu quc trong
vin thng c s s ch c hiu lc mt khi m phn kt thc. Vic m phn d kin kt thc
vo ngy 1/11/1997.

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