CLASSICE WEP RIM T Slew S A SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR OF THE OTTOMAN- TURKISH LANGUAGE yy Sir James W. Redhouse SF orgollen eanPorgotton Books FREE BOOKS www.forgottenbooks.org You can read literally thousands of books for free at www.forgottenbooks.org (please support us by visiting our web site)Forgotten Books takes the uppermost care to preserve the entire content of the original book. However, this book has been generated from a scan of the original, and as such we cannot guarantee that it is free from errors or contains the full content of the original. But we try our best! ‘rath may sae, Baten ‘Brouty Bry. Bat Ms ot ha ‘Trathend bess buried be Tothis urn thee ropa ‘hat ever ter cf:Telif hakki olan materyalTelif hakki olan materyalTRUBNER’S COLLECTION or SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OP THE PUINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LLD., Pu.D, IX, OTTOMAN TURKISH. BY J. W. REDHOUSE,TRUBNER’S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Pr. L ¥v, HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, MODERN GREEK. AND ARABIC. By E. M. Getpant, 3A. Price 2s. 6d. By THE LATE E. H. Parser, B.A. VL Price $s, ROUMANIAN, By R. Torceanv. I. Price 53, HUNGARIAN. By I. Siness. Vi. . TIBETAN. Price ds. 6d. By H, A. Jascuxe. Price Bs. TIL. BASQUE. VU By W. Van Eys. DANISH. Price 3s. 6d. Br E. C. Ore. Price 3s. 6d. Iv. IX, MALAGASY. OTTOMAN TURKISH. By G. W. Pager. By J. W. Repgorse. Price 5s. Price 10s. 6d. Grammars of the following ave in preparation :— Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Dutch, Egyptian, Finnish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, &c., &c., &e. Loxpox; TRUBNER & CO., Lupoate Hitz.SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR oY THE OTTOMAN-TURKISH LANGUAGE. BY J. W. REDHOUSE, M.R.AS., DON. MEMBER OP THE BOTAL SOCIETY OF LiTERATYEZ LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE FILL. 1884, (Ald rights reserved.}LONDON: GILBERT ANO LIVINGTON, LIMITED, BT. JOHN'S SQUAKE, CIBRKENWELL ROAD,TABLE OF CONTENTS. Preface. . . . . . . . - Note on Identity of Alphabets. . . + CHAPTER I. Lerrers anp Ortiocnarny, Section I. Number, Order, Forms, and Names of Letters : : ’ . “ ‘ Synopsis of Arabic, Greek, and Latin Letters . . . : . . y» IL. Phonetic Values of Letters, Vowel-Points, Orthographic Signs, Transliteration, Ottoman Euphony . ‘ . . CHAPTER II. Orroman ACCIDBNCE. Section I. Nouns Substantive . : : . » IL. Nouns Adjective . . . oa » IIL. Numerals . . » LV. Pronouns 15 68 74 82vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. Secrion V. Demonstratives - . « - » VI. Interrogatives » ¥II. Relative Pronouns . ‘ - : ‘ ww VIII. Derivation of Verbs » ” (Table) » IX. Conjugation of Verbs; Moods; Tenses ; Participles ; Verbal Novus; Gerunds . » X. Numbers and Persons » XI, Complex Categories of Verbs . » XII. First Complex Category » XIIL Secoud ” ” » XIV. Third yom : » XV. Combined (Turkish) Conjugation » XVI. Negative and Impotential Conjugations « «, XVII. Dubitative, Potential, and Facile Verbs . » XVLII. Vorb Substantive . » XIX. Verbs of Presence aud Absence, Existence and Non-Existence . . . . » XX. Compound Verbs. . . . »» XXI. Interrogative Verbs; Interrogation » XXL Adverbinl Expressions. : oe ,, XXIII. Prepositions . » XXIV. Conjunctions wo XXV, Tuterjections . roe 85 89 90 92 ot 99 Ws 119 120 425 129 133 135 141 id4 147 148 151 154 156 156 157Secrron I, Conversational » ” ” ” TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER UI. ‘Tre Ortoman Srnvax. writing . . . II. Syntax of Substantives . I. Iv. Vv. VI. VIL. VII, IX. XI, XII. XIT. ” ” » ” Adjectives Numerals Pronouns . Verbs tho Partieiple the Verbal Nouns aud Infinitive the Gerunds the Adverb the Preposition . the Conjunction the Interjection . Adjendum, on suppressed letter Index brevity, — Precision in vilERRAPA. PAGE 10, 1.22, for oe read i 16, 1.18, — after a » &e. oh, 115, for oll 4 oi 28, 1 4, ” om » o 29, 12, » Ge oe n 49, » Gis oy O35 » » jes, jie-& » LIB » 4 ” yy yoy Se Me, the 30, 1 |, » ot ” i 31 61% oo» obo» i 35, 1. 2, » lah » Ia 47, last line, ,, i » 1 54, 1. 18, >» ob » aby 91, 1.10, » VIIL...Verb ,, FX...,Conjugation, . p. 100 124, Jast line, 4 sas » eel 127, first line, yy ghey us 154, 1 8, add: (Seo p. 73, |. 4.) 168, 1 7, Sor wht read wks In pp. 10—16 » , ” >PREFACE. Tre Ottoman Language, apy LS dsmAnlijd, is the most highly polished branch of the great Turkish tongue, which is spokon, with dialectic variations, across the whole breadth, nearly, of the middle region of the continent of Asie, impinging into Europe, even, in the Ottoman provinces, and also, in Southern Russia, up to the frontiers of the old kingdom of Poland. The Ottoman language is, in its grammar and vocabulary, fundamentally Turkish. It has, bowevor, adopted, and con- tinues moro ond more to adopt, as required, a vast number of Arabic, Persian, and forcigu words (Greck, Armenian, Slavonic, Hungarian, Italian, French, English, &e.), together with the use of a few of the grammatical rules of the Arabic and Porsian, which are given as Turkish rules in the following pages, their origin being in each case specified. oo The great Turkish language, 2 tarkjé, Ottoman and non- Ottoman, has been classed by European writers as one of the “agglutinative” languages ; not infecting its words, butx PREFACE, ‘‘glueing on,” as it were, particles, “which were once in- dependent words,” to the root-werds, and thus forming all the grammatical and derivative desinences in use, To my miud, this term “ agglutinative," and its definition, are inapplicable to the Turkish language in general, and to the Ottoman Turkish in particular. ‘hese are, esseatially and most truly, inflexional tongues ; none of their inflexions ever having been “independent words,” but modifying par- ticles only. The distinctive character of all the Turkish languages, or dialects, is that the root of a whole family, however numerous, of inflexions and. derivations, is always recognizable at sight, seldom suffering any modification whatever, aud always stund- ing at tho bead of tho inflexions or derivations, howcvor complex in character these may be. When a modification of a root-word does take place, it is always of the simplest kind, always the softening of a bard or sharp consonant inte the corresponding more liquid letter, and always of the final consonant only of the root. Thus, a e or b sometimes becomes a 3, a 3 becomes a & a sharp Arabic & becomes a soft Persian J, or the Ottoman modification of this latter, which is then pronounced like our most useful consonaut y, or, in case of a dominant o or x vowel in the root, is pro- nounced like our consonant w.PREFACE, xi The Ottoman Turkish has more vowel-sounds (eleven in number) than any other tongue known to me. As cach of these may have a short and a long modification, they make twenty-two possible vowels in all. Every one of theso ie distingvished by = special mark in the transliterations of the present treatise, though it is impossible to attempt any such differentiation in the Arabic characters to which the Ottoman language is wedded. ‘The rules of enphony regulate the pronunciation of every word in the Ottoman language; perfectly, in all of Turkish origin; and as far as is practicable, in what is radically foreign. Although a compound word is a thing totally unknown to the Turkish dialects, and of very tare occurrence in Arabic, the Ottoman language abounds with such, adopted from the Aryan, compounding Persian. Persian grammarians and writers first learvt how to mould ioto a harmonious whole the incongruous Aryan Persian and Semitic Arabie clements. Ottoman ingenuity bas gone a step further, aud blended in one noble speech the threo conflicting elements of the Aryav, Semitic and Turanian classes of vocables. Fault is found by some with this interwixture of idioms;xii PREFACE, but an Englishman, of all tho world, will know how to appro- ciate a clever mosaic of diction ; and a real atudent of tho Janguage will learn to admire many a true beauty, resulting from a masterly handling of the materials at his command, by any first-rate Ottoman literary celebrity, whether prose. writer or poet. Norn.—Tko manuscript of tho presont sketch Orammar was completed before Christmas, 1882, and copies of my tabloof identic alphabets bave boen ie the bande of a fow friends for tha last four or five yoara. I havo just hod the plensure ond privilego of reading the admirable and oxbaustive treatise on “ Tho Alphabst,” by tho Rev. Isase Taglor, and am rojeiced to find that ho bas como to tho samo couclusion as to the identity of the threo; probably at on cartier date then tho timo, porkaps twonty yoara ago, Whon the idea bogom to forco itself on my mind, I still fool inclinad, howover, to bold by the inforonco that the Phenicians gave tho nlpbebot to Italy, quite indepondently of the Greek netion which later on doubtlessly inBuonced tho Italian culturo, Low pox, September, 1883. IWROTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. Tur Letters anp OntHocrapny, Seerton I. The Number, Order, Forms, and Names of the Fatters, Ture are thirty-one distinct letters used in the Ottoman language. Some of these have more than ove value; and four of them are sometimes consonants, sometimes vowels. There is also a combination of two letters into oue character, 3 or 4 ld, which Arabian piety has agreed to count as o letter, and which Persian and Turkish conformity hos had no option but to adopt. Thirty-two letters have, therefore, to be named and enumerated, as follows :— | dllf, bd, & pa, es td, & sd, z jim, & ehim, ch at, o dal, s zal, , rt 5 22, ¢ zh, pp alo, (4 shia, Yo sdd, (6 dd, L ti, & zi, eam, & syn, 3 fe, 3 gif, kaf, J ldm, c mim, w nin, 4 wov, s hd, ¥ ldm-dlif, o¢ ye. The foregoing is the ordinary arrangement of the letters of the Ottoman alphabet, as learat and repeated by children ;2 OTTOMAN TURKISIT GRAMMAR. excepting that they are not at first taught to mention, or to know, either of tho three Persian letters, © pd, ¢ chim, and 5p thé, which are not contained in the Arabic alphabet, their sounds and values being unknown to, and unpronouuceable by, av Arab. It is called the élif-bé, 4 Lill, ie, the alphabet ; and it might be conveniently styled the alphabet by forms ; letters of the same form being brought together in it, more or less. There is another very different order necessary to be learnt of the twenty-nine Arobic letters. It is called éhjéd, axl, and is arranged in eight conventional words, as follows ; SEI bbjdd, Ja bevwds, £5 mnie, LF kbldmdo, cic shits, CES qlrdablt, 2 okhas, ds ddadgild, The letters of the Arabic alphabet, as arranged in this ébjéd series, have each a numerical value. The first nino in order represont the nine units, 1 to 9; the second nize stand for the tens, also in order, 10 to 90; the third nine count, as the hundredg, serially, 100 to 900; the twenty-eighth in the series, & stands for 1000; and the Jast, ¥, though always enumerated, has no value of its own, but counts as the sum of the values of its two components, J 30,11; &¢, a3 3). This aystem appears to have been in use in very early times indeed. The order of the letters in it is that of the Hebrew alphabet, aa far as this goes; that is, as far os the end of the sixth word qirdshit, ed, with which the HebrewTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPUY, 3 alphabet termisates. The letters of the two last words (omittiag now all consideration of the factitious ¥) are Semitic inventions of a comparatively modern date, and are modifications, by means of dots, of letters, undotted or dotted, represented in the Hebrew alphabet. Thus, & is modified from o, & is from cd from a, (3 from |», & from b, aud & from & This may be called the numeral alphabet. A civeumstance that invests this 4bjéd arrangement with a Europeaa antiquarian interest of the very highest order, is the fact that it proves, beyond the remotest shadow of a doubt, the unity of origin of the Semitic (usually taken to be Phenician, but I imagino it to be much more ancieat than Moses, or even Abrabam), the Greek, and the Latin alphabets, Not only can the now divergent forms of each separate letter in the series be traced through successive modifications back to one ancient Phenician character, but the order of the whole series from | to c is absolutely identical in the Arabic (Hebrew, Phenician), Greek, and Latin alphabets, as the following synopsis shows. An additional proof is furnished by the identity of the numeral values of the letters in the Arabic and Greek alphabets,—a method totally un- known to the Latins, who must have had a method of their own, probably Etruscan, before they received their alphabet direct from the Phenieians, quite independently of the Greeks, and quite as early,4 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Arabic, Greek, Nom, Latin. Arabic. Groek, Nam, Latin, { A 1 A é& o 7 9 » B 2 B G nm 8 P er 3 ¢ we (0H 2 A 4 D a E 5 E > T 6 F 3 100 9 9Q > 64 7 G > 200 P 100K co I 8 Il uw 800 E 2005 b 6 9 - o 400 T 300 T Gs I 10 «I & 500 Yr 400 U oe K 2% K & 600 @ s00V J A 30 L 3 700 X GOO X - M 0 M Ls 800 ¥ 700 - v N 50 N & 900 & 800 7 ev = oO - g 1000 9 900 - The apparent discrepancies and vacancies occurring on comparison of the three alphabets and the series of numerals, are in reality additional proofs of their absolute identity. The two first letters call for no remark, though it is kaowo to scholars that the Greek B has been degraded in Rumaic into a Y, and the so-called modern Greek man is unable to pronounce a }, writing it, when necessary, wx. This com- bination in Greek words ho reads and pronounces as though it were written uf 1 The Hebrow system is identical with the Arabic as far ns ita alphabet goes. Thus: /) 100, 7 200, W 300, 11 400; beyond this the words are written in full. This incident iea condemnation of the Greok system for the higher pinbers.THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY, 5 The e T, G, must originally have been o hard g. Ia modern Egyptian, as in [ebvew, and in Greek, it is 30 pro- nounced, though the rest of Arabia has softened it into the sound of our English j or soft g, and though the Latins hardened it, apparently, into a K value. The first serious remark is called for on our coming to the change made by both the Greeks aud the Latins of the Semitic soft aspirate consonant » into their vowel BE. It would almost seem as though the old Phenicians used that letter as o final vowel, exactly as is dove by the Dersians and Turks at present. A more remarkable divergency, in- explicable to me, but parallel to the foregoing conversion, is the change made by the Greeks of the Semitic hard aspirate consonant cinte their long vowel H, 7, whereas the Latins preserved the letter as a consonant and as their sole aspirate, under the same written form as thut used by the Greeks, HW, b, and which was in roality the Phenician form of the letter. ‘The next remark is as to the Latin I’, which the Greeks long ago discarded from their alphabet, after having in the first instance adopted it in its Phenician form 7, and used it to represent the numcral 6. After discarding it as a letter, they continued to use it as a numeral, though with a corrupted, cursive form, >, to which they still, to this day, give the Phenician uame of Bav, % waw, viv, The Latin modification of its sound, from a w or v to an /, is of no6 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, importance. The Arabs of to-day, baving no » letter or sound in their language, write tho name of Her Majesty the Queen-Enipress, Fiktortya. As the Greek phonetic value of Z exactly corresponds to the Semitic power of ;, their numeral value being identical, and the form of the Latin G being merely a modification, one is tempted to imagine that originally the Latin power of this letter was soft g, our j, perhaps even our z. Certain it is that in some dialects of Italian a z is used in words where a soft g is found in other dialects. The Greeks made the Semitic b into their ©; the Latins, having no such sound, discarded the letter, The Semitic .4 being both a consonant, like our y, and also a long vowel, i, it followed, as a matter of course, thet both Greeks and Latins should make it into the vowel ¢. But the Latins preserved its consonartal use also as an initial; though they forgot, or never realized, that it is @ consonant in that position. We now use a y to express that value; but the Germans bave adopted the Latin modification y to represent it. Three westera letters, f, j, y, are now used for the one Semitic ys. ‘The next four letters require no comment; but the Semitic vu of the enstern Arabs is not » good parallel for the Greek =. The Hebrew letter 0, that holds its place in the alphabet, is the equivalent of the Arabic ,,0, and the western Arabs of Morocco transpose tha (» aud cp in their ss!THE LHTTERS AND ORTHOGRAPMY. 7 alphabet, making the Sfth word Vaiss, the letter (6 being the exact equivalent of the Hobrew ¥ in place and in power, The yo is a better representative of = than the yw, but the two sounds are still very remote from one another, I should be inclined to suggest that when the Greek alphabet was formed, the Semitic a held the place afterwards taken by the yo and the 4». The Greek & is an attempt to vepresent our valuo sk, as is seen in the name Xerxes, of which the old Persian was Xhsharsha. The Latins dropped this letter, whichever it really was. ‘The conversion of Semitic eonsonantal é into Greek and Latin vowel @ iy not unnatural. ‘This letter ¢ is absolutely uppronounceable by any other than a Semitic. It is a kind of convulsion in the throat; and as the two aspirates were converted into vowels, so was this guttural. This was so much the more to be expected, as the Semitic letter 1, which beeame Greek and Latin a, is also 2 guttural consonant, serving likewise as a long vowel on occasions, It is the soft guttural, of which the & is the hard parallel; and an o may well bo looked upon as a hard a. What the Arabians use asf, Wi, is read in Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, p. Even the Arabians, wheu they have to express a foreign letter, p, which they caapot pronenuce, write and pronounce it asa b, or as f. The next letter, .» or (4, is dropped in both Greek and Latin. It appears never to have been used iu Greek, even as o numeral; differing in8 OTTOMAN TURSISIE GRAMMAR. that respect from the +. When this latter was dropped us letter, it was retained, modified, as a vumeral, Dut the omitted letter ,o became the numeral gdum, % representing S00 justead of 90, From this omission of the (yw from its proper place in the Greek numerals, 8 slip of the whole subsequent series becawo necessary, so that cach letter, from 3, 9, Q, onwards, had a higher numeral value by one degree in the Semitic than its representative had in Greek; ,5 standing for 100, while @ has tho value of 90 only; y Fepresents 200, while P stands for 100 only; &c. This slip is very remarkable; it was filled up further on by 4 900. Although the six “additional” letters of the Semitic ond Greek alphabets have no relation to each other as repro- sentatives of sound, their numerical walue goes on exactly in the samo order observed in those of the original scries, and with the same slip up to & representing 1000, while 3 is only 900, On the other hand, however, the three Greek additionals, v, ¢, x, are evidently the originals in form of the Latia u, v, 2, and the Semitic b is possibly the original of the Latin Z. This letter is usually attributed, by ancient and modern authors, to the Greek ¢, which it certainly agrces with in shape, though not in sound. The forms of the Arabic and Persian Ottoman letters given above aro those of the isolated characters. They are liableTHE LETTERS AND ORTMOORATUY. 9 to various modifications, according to their being initials, medials, or finals, in a combivation of written Ictters. In the first place, they may, in this respect, be conveniently divided into two classes : thoso which join on to the following ae letters in writing a combination, “ coal horaft! vwasiyyd, and those which do not so join, alata J bdraft minfasild. The latter, the less numerous class, are: 1, 5,3, 4) 5+ 5» » and Y; eight in number; thus, oi, 5, gop oor Sts > che - er of Boe oS, All the others join, ns t, S, eter ed, e C, 8, 25, 25, ao, é G8, 05, 65, 85 5, o 2 be, 4, &e. All the letters join on in writing to the character that precedes them (other than to the eight enumerated above) whether they be themselves finals or medials, As finals their e+ 0+ oF of 0. o4 forms are as follows : t, a, em as ees é 2} ie, BRE oS Bro US) abe BB b> Gr Be wt, roan ee, be “ oe “, & 3G. As medials they eee ee eg bee ee ee te are figured thua: ob, 65, 3S, ny ety MS, 1 It baving boen found impracticable to mark in type the varying Ottoman tons-vslues of the Arabian and Persian long vowels, the student ‘wnet lear to supply the numbers 1 aud 2 ovor the Jong-vowel marks, For this purpose, he must apply the rulos for the short vowels, according as they follow, or sre followed by, a consonant of tbe soft or hard class, By practice, the correct babit will be thus acquired ; the case of the short vowels teaching the tone, which will then be instinctively used when the vowol is long.10 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. oor 0 ee © or one aor 008 Oo OFF Ose off ent, 82,75, G8, Oe, 2S, eK, 5635, oS, Sie, ce. Those which do not join are, os fee the eae tee tne arg medials, thus written: nA pa ju, bs, pots Hyak ware 3 3Y. Longer Combinations vary, ad infinitem, as follows : ei, elke, HEL LIE, oh, BEL, Je, hk Bi, abe), a6, SLEY, &e. Besides the simple names of the letters hitherto mentioned, most of the characters have other, moro complicated appel- lations. The | is usually called hdmzd, aes, when 3 consonant, in an Arabic word; and éllfl mémdadé, syhaa wal, prolonged |, when it is a long vowel, initial or medial. It can never be a long final vowel in an Arabic word, being then always followed by another consonant hémzé; as, i sha’s, te jé2i'd, &e. It is called élifl magstrd, uyaie oil, shortened \, when final. It is then more commonly written ¢s in classical Arabic; but by no means always so, In Persian and Turkish, or foreign words, the | is always a vowel, but is called indifferently lif und hémzd. It is always long in Persian words, when medial or fina). When initial io a Persian word, it may be short or long. When a long initial, it is distin- guished, as in Arabic, by the sign médd, Xe (7) over it, as: A. Gal fet, p. CT ab, When a short initial, it is, in Arabic, gonerally a consonant, aud may take the sound ’d or ’4, of ’l,TUE LETTERS AND ORTUOGRAPIY. IL orof"i. When a sbort initial in Persian, it is a vowel, and may have apy one of the three values 4 or 4,1,4. The details of the powers of | in Turkish words are given further on. The & is distinguished from the other lotters of the enme isolated form by beiag called saps b (bal mavdhbddé), the single-dolted s; a8 the & is named SU. ob (ti’l misnat), the doudle-dotted cs, and the & is designated sis. sé (si'l ma- sdlldst), the triply-doteed . The x is further distinguished from the b, also named t4, Ub, by being called egy 6G vi qrdsbat), the of (the word) 25,3; whilo b is named be Ab (Gd baw), the b of (tho word) Jo. Again, theo is distinguished, as a medial or initial, from the ys, then iden- tical in form with it, by being called 25 aE. (misnitl fev- qiyy8), superiorly double-dotted ; wherens the « is then 5 ca (masnatl tdhtinlyyd), inferiorly double- dotted. The vs is also called 12 «lt (sa’t sdkhdz), the & of 3s. Tho w might be called Sel: (bad Sdjdd), the | of sel; but I do not recollect the expression, It is, however, distin- termed wud guished from the Persian w by being designated mye A (bal "Ardbiyy8), the Arabian co, the & being called af (bat farlelyy8), and ZS ol (bar ‘Ajdmiyy’), the Persian wo. The simple name of the wet jim, sufficiently distinguishes the letter from all other Arabic characters. It has, therefore, no other desiguation in purely Arabic works. It is, however,12 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, distinguished frown the Persian ely their being styled respec- tively SF et (jiwl Ardblyyé), and soul oe (jim! fielslyyd), or tee (jimi ‘Ajamlyyé). The c and = are distinguished from one another by the terms dig. Ao (ha'l mahmélé) neglected (undotted) o and ace i (Ieha’l md‘jamd) distinguished (dotted) ge) Tespectively, In Persian they are often called sis so (LH bi-ndgta) dodless o and jlouhes a (kha niiqtd-ddr) dot-possessing (dotted) t These two pairs of Arabic and Persian adjectives go all tbrough tho alphabet, in the cases where a dot is the sole distinction between two letters of the same form; as, ay Js (dali mAbméld) 9; L* JIS (eal majemd) 3. So also tho distinctions by the words of the “numeral alphabet ;” as, aa is (adil abjed), 32 JIS (eal sdkhaa), 3; 225. Gal qirishit) y ; 335 obj (an’i bdvvde) 55 &e.; fs ope (sinl mdb- mld), Uw 5 ee ws (shlnl mitjamé), OS ; é&e. When we come to 5, the written names of the letters aro so distinct of themselves, that no addition is necessary for G (fi), Gs Sb (aN, Gs or (kyaf, vudgarly kéf), oJ; ol (lim), J; a (mit), a op (nin), ys By (¥waw), 5. With s o distinction again comes in, to differentiate the letter from c We, therefore, say jy > (ha'l hdvvéz), s; 28 tho cis then termed fo oh (ba't bitti); ond gs is termed, asTHE LETTERS AND ORTNOGRAPOY. 18 mentioned above, ie ale * (ya'l miasnatt tdbtniyyd); being also called b> si (ya't batel). Tho Persian wy and ewe distinguished as is described above; and in like manner the } is called sl a, (2@'l furl. slyyd), and a af, (244 ‘jdoalyyd). There remains now to distinguish, among consonants, the different sorts of w used in Ottoman Turkish, and to point out their several names, as follows: The original Arabian & is named wp ut (hyafl “kréblyyd, oulg. kati ‘drébi), the Arabian W ; its value is that of our &. This letter was next used by the Persians for their hard fi it was then, and is still, distinguished by the name of au 26 uit (kyafi farlslyyd, vulg. kyafl firlsi, kéfl farlei), avd Be il (kyatt ‘djamtyy2, vulg. kéfi ‘Ajdmi). This variety is sometimes distinguished, in writing, iu one or the other of two different methods. The Persians themselves mark the difference by doubling the upper dash of the letter in all its written variations—isolated, initial, medial, nnd final; thus : XX, x ; whereas tho original Arabian w&, when isolated or final, has no dash at all; 28, oy, oul; ; and a single dash, when initial or medial; thus: pS, aS, also shaped p>, acs. When these two values of the one lettor & passed into use for the Ottoman language, a new mode of distinguishing the Persian from the Arabian variety was introduced. It con-l4 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. sisted of placing three dots over the Arabian form of the ©), a togother with a single dash in non-final positions; thus: w, S a &, ol; thus marking the Persian hard g value of the letter. But this letter, so differentiated in Persian writing, received in Ottoman Turkish a third value, that of our consonantal y, as a softened variety of its Persian value of hard g. This Ottoman value never occurs elsewhere than at the end, or ip the middle of 2 word; as: ob (bby), wads (béyfom’k), os (ylyirml), olay Gyrinmék). In the middle of a word it may begin or end a syllable: bé-ydn-mék, jy-rdo-mék. When this letter follows at vowel, and is itself followed by an e vowel, it glides into the value of our w; as mn (sdwd), &e. In Torkish, the oe, retaining the same form, received another value still, the fourth; being then for distinction’s sake, called surd y, oy gle (sdghte uiin) ; as in oi (8m), net (4imaq), ait (cilia), pes (addr). This valve is never initial, Whon medial, it may begin, avd may also oud a syllable, as it ends many words. The three dots over the 3, mentioned in tbe preceding paragraph, are used by some to designate this Turkish value of surd .; and at other times a single dot is used for that purpose, leaving the three dots to mark the Persian value of the letter. These varyingTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPNY. 16 values of the w constitute a eerious difficulty in learning to yead Ottoman Turkish. Surd . is here transliterated i, A similar variation in the phonetic value of the Arabie letter & is to be observed in Ottoman Turkish words. Originally it is, in an Ottoman mouth, a simple bard g; as: CME (gilt), CLE (aglab), CylZ2 (magiad). In Turkish words it has a softened value, very much like that of our gh, but still more softened, even to the point of practically disappear- ing from the pronunciation ; as: es (digh, almost ddw), Geib (ight, almost dita), 2G (daghd, a4’4), ab (aight, dA), asl (didn), s.6lL (dd'dd), &e. When preceded by an o or u vowel, the & in Turkish words, if followed by a rowel, glides into the value of our w, even as our own gh does in the word throughout (pronounced dhruwout); as: ob (déwan), wlege (sdwdn), es (qdwish) ; or it pearly dis- appears in Pronunciation, as before ; thus : a! (dldiwim, or oldu’um), ait (dldawd, or d1dd'd), Szcrroxn IL The Phonetic Values of the Letters and Vowel- Points, the Uses of the other Orthographic Signs, our System of Transliteration, and the Doctrine of Ottoman Euphony. We must divide the thirty-one Ottoman letters (omitting Y) into vowels nnd consonants. But it must first be premised that every letter is sometimes a consonant, while only four of16 OTTOMAN TURSISIH GRaAMUAR. them ara sometimes vowels, These ave 1, 4,5, «s+ All the others, twenty-seven in form, are always consonants. It will be more convenient to treat of the four vowel letters first, together with tho vowel-points, which are not letters, but simply marks. Usually, the vowel-poiuts, three ouly in number, are not written ; they are supposed to be known. J3ut, in children’s books, ia Qurans, in books of devotion, &c., they are written ; aud sometimes in other books and papers also. The vowel-points are named: 1, distin, opal (over), the mark of which is a short diagonal from the right downwards towards the left, placed over any consonant ; ae: &, &, e &e.; 2, dsdr’d, a al (no meaning), a similar diagonal, marked under any vousonant ; as: z oe & &e; 3, dedrd, a (no mean- ing), a small 5-shaped mark, placed over any consonant ; a9: ao 2 9 2515s un be ‘These vowel-poiats mark, originally, the three Arabie short vowels, to which the additional Ottoman vowel-sounds, 4, 4, 4 hove been added. The dstdn bas the value of 4 or 4, aceord- ing to the consonant, &e., accompanying it; the dsérd has the valuc of 1 or £; and the dtdrd that of 4, 4, a, &, also according to its accompaniment. , Tho short vowel-sound indicated by each of these three marks always follows, in pronunciation, the sound of the con- sonant to which it is uppended ; so that we have the followingTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRATOY. 7 Ottoman ayltabary, No.1: c bd, ba, ba, bd, bd; — bl, bt; o bé, ba, bd, bd; and so on through the alphabet. When it is required to make the vowel long, one of the three Arabic letlers of prolongation, x ae (barf madd, pl. 5. ,/2 naral nda), lias to be added to the consonant, still marked with its short vowel-point, The letters of prolonga- tion, true Tong vowels, are |, 4, yg; of whieh | always accom- panies dstin, ¢¢ always accowpavies dstrd; and 4 always accompanies dlérd. We now have Ottoman syllabary No. 2, us follows: \ ba, ba; ist bi, bis 2 ba, ba, ba, ba; &, We thus see that there are eleven Ottoman ehort vowels, and cight long. Our system of transliterating them is also made apparent. It is the simple method of using a or e¢ to represent fistin, 7 to represent éséré, und o or u to represent Ardrd. As these vowel-points shade off in phonetic value, wo use 4, 4,4, a, or 6 for Astdn; tort for dsérd; aud 4, or u, a, 4, for duérd. After long consideration, we have for somo years past adopted this system, as the simplest, and, on the whole, the most rational, The vatuee of these Ottoman vowels are those of the vowels in the following eleven words. Thoy are all familiar English words, excepting the French tu, the vowcl of which is unknown in ordinary English, though it exists in the dialects of some of our counties, These words are: far, war, a-(bove),18 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRASDIAR. pan, pen; pin, girl; so; put, tu, cur. We mark the vowels of these eleven guide-words to the Ottoman pronunciation, ia the order in which they stand ; far, wir, dbove, pin, pén, pin, girl, sd, pat, td, edir; and for the eight Ottoman long vowels we usc: far, wir, pin, girl, s6, pat, ti, ctr. That is, nineteen Ottoman vowel-sounds in all, Jong and short, The student has but to remember the series of ton English words and one French, to become possessed of the key to the Ottoman vowel pronunciation. But he must learn never to swerve from the values of those guide-vowels. ‘To an Englishman, with our slouchy method, this unswerviogness is the most difficult point; but, with a little patience at first, it is to be achieved. He wust practice himself in pronouncing pashd, ey (not pdshdw), b&bd, Ww (not bdybd), dda, ay (not dén), edo, o (not sén), ban, o (which he will at ouca pronounce right), Je-(rmbk), GEA, fe-(limdg), G04, 95, 3,5 (not gal), gal, J 5 (not gall), yaz, 5» (aot yh or yz), ond gyiz, j,2> (not gydz or gyfz, though these are also words or syllables). The English stndent of Turkish bos to exert his utmost care, in respect of the Otoman vowels, to break himself of the home method of pronouncing a short vowel, aud the samc vowel when long, in two very differont ways. The Ottoman vowels remain niways pure; they never change in phonetic value with a change in phonetic quantity; thus, & is always 4TUE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 mae long; i is always | long, 6 is always 4 long, @ is always Utong, &c., in the came word and its derivatives. ‘The student will have noticed above the Arabie sign of quiescence of aconsonant. It is named jizm, a and is never placed over a vowel, long or sbort. The fourth Ottoman vowel) Ictter, », which, whew a con- sonnnt, is the goft aspirate h, is also derived from the Arabic, but has a special history of its own, This letter is never used as a vowel in Arabic in any otber position than that of a final to a noun, substantive or adjective, usnally of the feminine gender, sometimes singular, and sometimes an irregular (broken, technically) plural. Such are the words— A AMAA, 2 odinnd, LL> hdedod, ach tdyylbe, Se. In Arabic, these pronunciations (as modified in Ottoman Turkish, as to the vowels, and as to the consonants) are those of the words when they close a sentence or clause in elassical reading. They are also the pronunciations of the words ia modern conversational Arabic. But, originally, and to this day, ia classical Arabic, those aud all such words end not in a vowel at all. ‘They all end in a consonant, in a letter ¢; which, for certain grammatical reasone, is never figured «=, but always appears in the shape of » letter s surmounted by the two dots of the x, thus i. Our speciten words are therefore, origivally, ai khalifet, 2 stondt, ES hdsdnet, TEL tdyylbet. There are other20 OTTOMAN TURKISIL GRAMMAR. vowels and consonants to be added to the termination of these iu classical Arabic, to mark the case-endings or declinations. Thus a, when definite, may bo marked ids khalifetd for the nominative, pare kbalifatl for the genitive, Khan (td for V i kbalifétdo, a kbdlifecdo, als kbdlifétdn. In all these cases, whon final in a sentonco or clause,-the case-endings are dropped from ’ the accusative. When indefinite, it becomes the pronunciation, though still written in vowel-pointed books, and the word becomes simply kbalifé throughout. ‘bese indefinite case-ending marks aro called in Turkish ye es! (ikl dudrd), double deded, oi G1 (Ibt asbrd), double aser’, and gyust Ka! (kt Astdn) double distin. A consideration now arose, In classical Arabic, final con- souants way be either silent, or vocal with anp ove of the three short vowels. Thus: CALS kaedvae, CLES kdtdbed, 2 : Tkdedbrd, CAS ete. When such words are final io & scntence or clause, tbe final consovant is made silent; so that we have kétdbét, as before, for the first ; but kdtdbe for de ee eee all ‘three of the remaining words. So pa, ,0), psi, final, becomes ndsr, as doos oe) and pay though om (always dis- 6 a tinguished by a servile | being added—t,5 ndsriu) remains fully prononuced, or only loses the souud of the final n, and is read ndsrd. When the finul i of 26 khalifé, and similar words, was dvopped frum the pronuuciation, the letter might have beenTHE LETTERS AND ORTIOGRAPUY, 2. dropped in writing also; for eras would read khlifé just aswell. It conld, however, aud would, be read £35 khalif, as Europe has done ia making it into Caliph, It was neces- sary, then, to devise a method which should prevent tho suppression of tho vowel belonging to the last consonant of such words, oud yet not be liable to be pronounced as a ¢ with the case-endings. This convenient metbod was dis- covered by the arrangement adopted of suppressing the dots of the a, and leaving the nude 4 appended to the word, as a khalifé, &e. By this method final 4 in such words became virtually a vowel in Arabic, though it is never men- tioned as such in Arabie grammars or lexicons, Persian has a very large number of nouns, substantive and adjective, that end in an tstin vowel. When tho Arabic, aipbabet beeume the sole mode of writing Persian, the Arab teachers would naturally use their quasi-vowel final » to represent that final Porsian sound. Thus, sy bard, oi st- guend, SUT Amada, 43 » rdsidé, &e., were written, The » was thus made a vowel in Persian also, when final. It was eveu made to follow one of the other two short vowels iu very rare cases, when no other device was available, Thus we have the numeral on (sl), dhree (ia Ottoman Turkish usually pronounced a st), (xl), that, ae (obi), what, that. Whea, by avother historical step, Turkish began to be written in the Arabic characters modified by the special22 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Persian letters (‘Turkish scribes learning the method from Persian teachers in the land of Persia conquered by Turkish invaders, who there embraced Islam), tho use of s as a final vowel was found so convenient as to be naturally adopted. So al bd, abl add, &e., were written. Now, a whole class of Turkish gernods, optatives, and imperatives of the third person, end with this vowel; we, therefore, bave soa! ldé, iS elle, 8 gyard, JG qAld, 235 gird, Be, A farther step was, therefore, possible to bo taken io Ottoman Turkish, from which Persian writere bad and have shrunk, The vowel s was used as a medial also, whenever it was found that its introduction served to distinguish two words written alike, but pronounced differently, Thus olb bilmék, conld alse bo read ob bilémék. If the vowel-points were always marked, they would suffico for this cose; but they are generally omitted. The gerund aud optative dy or An was already in use. By writing ol, bilmék and shoals bilémék, the distinction was made clear, Hence, s as a medial Ottoman vowel, always indicating a preceding dsthn short vowel-point, became fully established. ‘This medial or final Turkish vowel s never joins on to the next letter in writing; ag, wLaygl drdmék, subg) dddyd. From this sketch of the history of final and medial vowel +, we see plainly how Sundamentally erroneous is the commonTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 European (or rather English) method of transliterating such words with a final or medial 4. The nearest approach to correctness of which our orthography is capable, since we poseoss not the French ¢ or German ¢, is to write all such words with a final a, as Khalifa, Fatima, Mekka, Medina, Brusa, &e, These are usual; but te Jidda, ig usually spelt Jeddah; while pals Qahira {usually Cairo), ab Tanja (usually Tangiers), ‘we, have been made into monstrosities. The phonetic value of on initial | is at first a difficulty to the European student, inasmuch as there appeats to be nothing like it in Western languages. ‘Ibis, however, is more apparent than real, when fully explained. We wust remember that in Arabic the initial | or { is consonant, not a vowel. Like any other initial consonant, it takes the three short vowel-points, and is then pronovneed: to, yo i vi When it became a Persian letter, it was generally nawed hémzé, as it is usually called in Arabic when a consonant (but never when a vowel of prolongation, or final and short); although, in Persian words, it is always a vowel, whether initia), medial, or fioal, With the short vowel-points, this initial | is always a short vowel in Persian words, and tho Arabian bémz8 sign is nover placed over it; thus: a ar, Shee, CAi deb, enti det, dic.; ac tepah, Gill Isfebin, de; el alig, &e.24 OTTOMAN TURKISU GRAMMAR. This initial short vowel Persian system was extended (in practice, not in theory) to all Arabic words used in Persian + . with | for their ial letter, But the Arabic consonantal | was then taken (in practice} to be x Persian vowel 1, Thus, Sasi was rend dbvab, Waal Hoeldd, {ch ails &e. ‘When, in Arabic, the vowel of the i became long, then, as with any other initial consonant, a vowel tial consonantal 1 leiter of prolongation,—a long vowel. letter, —was appended to the 1; thus: v, pronounced *4, ah Pronounced >i, wh pro- nounced %. This system passed also into use in Persisn words, tho Arabic hémzé sign boing omitted, even in Arabic words adopted into Persian ; and thua the combinations 11, sl, «sl, became the it tial Persian long vowels; being pronounced respectively a, ai, ‘Thus: calf ab, yl abir, Spl ied ; and with words originally Arabic: (ff.aba, ¥,i ala, 15) ima ; &e. The Arabians found the use of i) somewhat “cumbersome. ‘They therefore invented a siga, ~, called méddf, s3:, and 3: médu, to be placed over an initial 1, with or without the hdmzé sign, to designate the long vowol. Thus, instead of Gil, they wrote Uiaba, de, ‘Lhe Persiaas adopted this system also, writing GT ab instead of Csi, The double | system, however, is still to be found in use in native Persian lexicons ; where the first section of chapter | is generally figured with the ewo Ml, not with T.THE LETTERS AND ONTNOGRAPHIT, 25 It may be useful to mention here, that the Arabian writers employ this sign of médd to mark a medial or a quasi-final long vowel |, whenover this is followed in the word by a baunzd, é.e, a consonantal |. ‘Thus they write UJAZ yatdsd- ~alind, ie hdmrial, &c. These médd signs aro omitted in Persian, as well as the final ?; so that [> lAma is written, as well as pronounced, for fs ; &e. If a medial consonantal hémzd io an Arabie word be fol- lowed by a long vowel |, the twe are united, as in the initial T, into one | letter with the médd sign over it; as JU mbal (for je. This also is adopted in Persian with such Arabic words as it occurs in; not being found in any original Persian words. The médd sign is also used, in Arabic, sometimes taking another form, that of a small, perpendicular ', to mark the traditional omission, in writing (not in pronunciation), of a long vowel | in a few well-known words, such as a alih (for iD, ull allah (for fo, ey Of gay Mbmaa (for 3} ), &e. This perpondicular small &llfshaped méddd jis also placed, in Arabie, sometimes over a letter 5, to mark that, though radically a y, it is & long vowel | in pronunciation, in the two words only, §,.> hayit (usually written iLL, in Persian aod Turkish ele) and iL eflat Casually written Sa, in Persian and Turkish 3G).26 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, The médd sign is sometimes placed, in Arabie, over a long vowel , or .s, when they are followed by a hémzé in the came word ; as in tye sivd, ‘ot jed. This peculiarity ie not used in Persian or Turkish, It is also sometimes placed over a long vowel medial 1, when this letter is followed by’ reduplicated consonant in the same word ; as; wu miiddé; it is not used in Persian or Turkish. Such of the foregoing Arabic usages as have been adopted in Persian for words of Persian or of Arabic origin, aro also employed in Ottoman Turkish for the same words ; though they aro sometimes omitted in ordinary writing. We now come to a purely Ottoman uso of the madd siga, utterly unknown in Arabic and Persian. Thus: Whenever an initial vowel | of an Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign (European or Indian) origin bas the short sound of 4 or 4, the madd sign is placed over it, as a distinction from tho initial sounds 4, 4, 4; as: KT Amirdl (French), wy di, ALT Ada (Turkish), but CI dsaldt, Jf dvvit CArabie), Sf ar - (Tarkish ; also Persian ; but two different wards). Another Ottoman peculiarity connected with tho initia) |, when followed in writing by a vowel , or (¢, is that these two vowels are not necessarily long vowels in words of Turkish or foreiga origin. Thus yi dt, wh ar, py ard, ais,\ dtmék, ate3,1 défichal, sy! irlindd. They may then be calledTNL LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 directing vowels. In many old or provincial books and writings, these directing vowels are often or systematically omitted, the writers, from habit, or system, adhering to the original Arabic method of spelling by short vowel-points, for the most part omitted in cucrent writing, ‘This makos such books and papers immensely dificult to read nnd unoderstani. ‘The three Arabic long vowels, |, 5, s, having thus acquired a footing as Ottoman short directing-vowels, when following an initial letter 1, it was found convenient to extend the system, and to use them as short directing-vowels, following initial or medial consonants, thereby departing entirely ftom the Arabic and Persian systems. There ig no method in use for distinguishing a long vowel letter from a short one in an Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign origin. We may almost venture to say that all such medial vowel-letters in ‘Turkish and foreign Ottoman words are short vowels; whereas, in Arabie and Persian words they aro always long. Thus: stzitdl, Sp dirdimdg, Ais baediadk, ES gydraua, dd,’ gydrdnmek. ob bash, 2s qir, oO quah, kel Aghlamaq, vs. i Hitherto we have considered only the open syllubles, that is, those which end with a vowel. We have now to treat of the closed syllables,—those which end with a consonant. In the original Arabic syetem, when a word or syllable endod with a quiescent consonant,—a consonant not followed28 OTTOMAN TURKISIE GRAMMAR. by a vowel sound or vowel letter in the same ayllable,—such cousonant was marked, in pointed writings, by the sign ° placed over it, which, as was before remarked, is called jézm, o. . Thus: Cy bb, SG dab, Gy bib, Ly bib, &. It is 4 rule in classical Arabic, thai two quiescent con- sonants cannot follow one another in the same syllable, whether as initials or as finals. Such a word or syllable as. crust, tart, blurt, flirt, &e., is unknown, As far as two such initial consonants go, this rule prevails in the vernacular Arabic also, and has passed into the Persian and Turkish. Foreign words with such combinations of initial consonants to words or syllnbles are treated in one of two ways, When initial in a word, they may be separated into two syllables, either by a servile vowel |, generally with an dstrd vowel, being prefixed ; or by # vowel, generally dsérd, being inter- ealated; and when the combination is initial to a non-initial syllable of a word, the latter method alone is used, or the syllables are so divided as to separate the two consonants, Thus: xA‘ua has become ral iqtim, tral has become J qiral, prince has become é2 pirlnj, and Svizzera has become fey isvichar. Io classical Arabic, a fioal word in a phrase or clause could terminate in two quiescent consonants; as: a rabt, re “itm, om hizo, &c. This liberty is much used in Persiau, Turkish,TRE LETFENS AND ONTMOGRAPHY, 29 avd foreign, as well os in Arabic Ottoman words; thus : EXP dtrdst, Sard, Gb, pleins, ex plrloj (prince); &e. When s letier in an Arabic word ends ove syllable, and begins the next in the snmo word, it is not written twico, but one sole letter is made to serve for tho two, in pointed writiogg, by baving a special mark, “, placed over it. This ark is an abbreviation of the Arabic word is shédd, which means a strengthening, corroboration, reduplication. ‘Thus we have, Sis shiddet, Lie tet, J bigaal, Me ‘Stier, 32 madd, 4 vidd, ‘i Amm, &, Tk isa sine qué non in Ottoman reading, and in correct speaking, to redouble such letters in the pro- nuceiation. We can derive a correct idea of this reduplication by atudying our expressions, mid-day, ili-luck, run next, &e. But, if sueh reduplicated Arabic word has passed into ver- uaculsr Ottoman use, then the redoubling is excused in ordivary conversation; as in the words Jy bigdl, lee Aqtlr ; &. This reduplication is really uuknown in Persian ; con- sequently, reduplicated Arabic words are much used in Persian without reduplication ; thus £5 is generally used in Version as £4 khat, and lins thence, as similar words, passed into Otoman Turkish, On the other baad, pedantic imitution has commonly given to a few Persian words tho Arabic pecu- liarity of reduplication, so passing into Ottoman also: thus,380 OTTOMAN TORKISH GRAMMAR. 3 pér (a wing), is sometimes pronounced a pérr; and 15, pérdudé, as pérréndé ; &c. This reduplicating system is not used in correctly writing Turkish Ottoman words, but it is sometimes met with in incorrect writings, The two letters should be written in full io such Turkish words; thus, Si cballig, 55, bdlldg, esl émmék, &c. Tho Arabic word hémzé, fea, besides beiug a name for the letter 1, a3 before explained, is also the name of an ortho- graphic sign, mark, or point, very variously used in Arabic sod Persian. Most of the rules concerning it, which derive from the two languages, have passed iuto Ottoman Turkish, with an addition or two used in the Turkish transliteration of foreigu words. Turkish words never require the sign. ‘The hémzé sign, *, would appear to be a diminutive head of the letter ® thus indicating to the eye the guttural nature of the vocal enunciation it represents; which is, in fact, a softened choke, in av Arab mouth. But in Persian and Turkish pro- uuuciation it is a slight hiatus, at the beginning of a non- initial syllable, or at the end of any syllable, initial, medial or final, It is placed over a letter when it beara the dstia or utdrd vowel, or is quiescent ; under it, generally, with the stré vowel. The bémzd, in a word of Arabic origin, always represents @ consonantal letter !, sometimes radical, sometimes servile.THE LETTERS AND ORTNOGRAPHY. 31 To Persian words, the theory of the sign is the same as in Arabic, but the sign itself is always servile, and either final or nearly so. When o hdmzd, radical or servile, ie initial ia an Arabic word, it is never written or pronouoced in Persian or ‘Turkish. The | letter is then taken to be « vowel, and is treated accord- ingly. Thos, aa remal, bevomes Ji dmél ; et suit, beconmes 3 {vil ; 1 -dmm, becomes a fmm. These are all radicals, 3 and shown, So again, | a versa, becomes Skat éfkyir 5 ay alqbal, becomes Je igbal ; oat dir, becomes jy dmir; be. These initials are all servile, and short, Tho modes and doctrine of making them into long vowels have already been described. In Persian, Turkish, and foreign words, an initial \ is always a vowel, and is made long in the same way us if the word wore of Arabic origin, as has been said before. When a bémzé, radical or servile, in an Arabic word, is medial or final, a rather numerous body of rules come into play, Sometimes the letter 1, then always called bémzé, is written, together with the hémzé sign over it, i (as in wl rs), and sometimes the hémzé sign above is figured, as a letter now, without the !, in the body of the word; as in ols yétésirdlin. In the former of these two cases, the hémzé is - usually a fuel, quiescent consonant ia its syllable; as, cil; rbe-fat, ok mb-mdn, &, In the Intter ense, the hémzd is the initial consonant of its media} or final syllable, movent with32 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Sstdn ; a3 in Iso jdzodn, VWaj~ jézirin, &e. But it may also be both; that is, a quiescent bémzé may terminate one syllable, while anotber, a movent bémzé, may begin the next ayllable. In this ease, as with any other consonant so occurring, one alone is written, with a hémzé sign over it; and above this, the téshdid sign is superadded, with an dstin sign over ic again ; as ia Ary df], This step never occurs in Turkish phrases ; but the explanation is needed, so as to make clear what follows. This reduplicated medial hémzé, movent with dstdn, is sometimes followed by a Jong vowel |. In this case, instead of writing, for instance, ot role, the two letters \ are com- bined into one, with the signs médd and hémzé, and without the dstiin vowel ; thus, ob rdeoas, as before. This combina tion is of very rare occurrence, happening only in derivative words, of which the root is triliteral, with lémzé for second radical, But a movent initial Lémzé of a syllable, medial in a word, may be followed by a long vowel |, without being reduplicated. It is then figured by ® single writcen | with the hémzd and médd signs ; as, fe mal, &e, Theye combinations, when used in Turkish, drop the hémzé and téshdid signs, but preserve the médd sign, The dstdn vowel that preecdes such madd sign is hardened from é iuto 4,THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRALHY, 33 on account of the fullowing 4, even with a preceding soft con- sonant. But, whev such medial or final hdmze is itself movent with &:drd, it is no longer written in the form of |; it theo takes the form of .¢, without dots, and with a bémzé siga over it; a8, QJ, bis, If its vowel is dtard, it is written asa y letter, with Booz siga over it; as, wap ris. In these two cxamples the vowels are long; but there are words in Arabic some perchance used in Turkish, in which they are short. OF course, the long vowel letters do not then follow the wnodified, disguised bamz2, Thus, yl) rls, ¢ 51 bb>is. Moreover, when such medial or final bémzé, whether movent or quiescent, is preceded by a consonant movent with ésdrd, the hémad is figured as a letter «¢; and when movent with dtérf, the hdmzé is written os a letter ,; in either caso surmounted by a hémzé sign; thus, vt bbsa, ee biped. Such disguised medial hémzd may be followed by a long vowel letter; us, ois fied, ic més, od réis. If the hamzd be changed into s y¢ figure, aud be followed by o lony vowel |, it becomes changed in Turkish, and sometimcs in Arabic, into a consonant (5; 98 in cub, rlyasdt (for 2b, rhasdt). ° . There is a striking peculiarity in certain Turkish Ottoman derivatives, which causes great embarrassment to students, ond has filled cuntinental Turkish dictionaries and grammars D34 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, with totally misguidiog examples and rules of pronunciation, with regard to the interchangenblo vowel-letters , and (¢. The peculiarity arose, I imagine, when all Ottoman Turkish was provincial, and was governed by the pronunciation of Asia Minor, variously modified in its various provinces. ‘Thus the earliest writers made use, in all such derivative words, of the vowel-letter » (when thoy used any at all). They, therefore, wrote ot gélib, aS gldab, St qAchadb, 2358 aril, ys arab; and 326 bashld, yi od; &e. These derivatives became, in course of time, in Europe, and in Constantinople, modified in pronunciation into géllb, gldil, qhebib, qiib, qardh, bashli, élll, &e, The orthography, how- ever, has remained sacred, excepting in tho ease of provincials, who sometimes write, as they pronounce, LS, cad, cli, Cady Ls) , ol, &e, This subject will bo further developed in tho paragraphs on Euphony. Proceed we now to the phonetic values of the consonants. The letter G, equally used in Ottoman words of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and foreign origin, has tbe value of our b geueraily, whether if be initial, medial, or fival in a word, Thus: 2 bed, Jp blr, Jb bir, uy biz, jy bie, bae, diy, bde 5 BG, vibat, bi) rdbt, Cys sabe; GUS kia, Sys jbnad, Ly i arib, oe hard, L% qélb; &, Bat when medial or final, ending a sylluble or word, it sometimes, anomalously, takesTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 35 the value of our p. Thus it is common to bear, OLS kltip, Osh dp, Saal Ipaa, with the gerunds ia oy; 05, Spf ghltp, O48 ge, 1,36 kleipjl. Especially is this the ydelp, cogs day dy, jos trip. The Persian letter c» is our p in all positions: j35 peder, Jil apar, Cat ip. The Persian word Ci éep, and the Tarkish word wy tép, are usually written with a. The Arabic w is our f in all positions: ee +8, tj, Sit aed, GS fetvd, She, ST at Sat it, Syl dt. In Turkish groramar i¢ is sometimes changed into movent 9 in derivatives, whon it is originally final and quiescent ; a8, dart, 259 dard anja, Soja TdT, 5/3 died’, 3,5 ddrdd, 15,5 ddeddm, Ge; Cal Me Thal tbr, Cayal dlp, ptaet ld; GS gle, Sad glddr, Cyd gidlp, 21S glail; &e. The Arabic e a found in Arabic words only, and in » very few borvowed from the Greek. Its original value is that of our th in thinks so that Be ayd-thal 1B) for aos Beodsyos, was net as bad as our dishop for éxicxoros, But in Turkish aud Persian this value is unknown; the letter is pronounced as our s (sharp, never z); dyd-shlig is therefore the Turkish name of Ephesus, 2.6 is pranounced sabit, Al bedr, GlSt thdis, &e, In some Arabic-xpetking countries this letter hus become ad; as, O56 tAlaed, ce. The Arabic ~ in Turkish is our soft g, which we represent36 OTTOMAN TURKISI GRAMMAR, by aj in all positions of all words, whatever their origin. Thus, us fins, GAS ajinas, cul agbdj. In some Arabic- speaking countries it is pronounced like our dard 9; as, je* mdsgld, ssc” skedd, dec. Sometimes it takes the sharp sound of eae The Persian z bas the value of our ch in church, of our tch in crutch, Wo never use the latter orthography in our trans- literations,—always the former; as, Garl Achmaq, re chim, Sige chdrak, wy ye chdrdk, Uo chdrdd, et Neb, BE ches, <> chichék. In Turkish derivation, this letter, in Turkish or foreign (not Persian, and there are no Arabic) words, sometimes becomes Arabic e but not as a rule. The Arabic z has tho harshly aspirated sound of out A in horse, hurl, her ; not its soft sowud, as heard in head, him, half, &e. It is chiefly used in Arabic words; as, = hasdn, we bisdyo, ce fattdh, wo jarh, We represent it by 4; some adopt &, to distinguish it froms,q.v. Aspirate it always. The Arabic ches no equivalent in our language. It is the counterpart of the Scotch and German ch in loch, ich, &e. It is generally transliterated £4, as io the present treatise, Until the student has learnt its true pronunciation, he should con- sider it as o varicty of A, and never pronounce it as a &, especially when it is initial Thus js khidiv (pronounce hidiy, not kldiv), jU93;135 khdd.véndghyiir (pron. hddi...),THE LETTERS AND ORTMOGRAPNY. 37 et shikh, oot ikhlimar. In Turkish words, this letter is often used, provincially, for 5, aud is itself sometimes pro- nounced 5. Thus, JU bakbdlim (for pe bAgélim), (123i Aqshdm (for 4khshda). The Arabic s is our d in all classes of Ottoman words, and requires no comment, unless it be to repeat that, in the derivation of Turkish words only, it sometimes takes the place of =, and is used instead of b in original words also ; ag, SLES gitmak, JS gids ; ee, 3 dagh. The Arabic 3, in an Ottoman mouth, isaz. It is foand in Arabic words alone. Different Arab communities pronounce it as our soft tk in this, asad,orasaz, The Turk reads, Sai Akhz, 'S alkr (vuly. zlklr), sat mbkhiz, os bézr, The Arabic ais our r in every position, in all classes of words: thus, wil, rhfet, jb bar, 2) ard. Thero oro two important remarks, however, which it is necessary for the Englizh student to bear in miad with respect to this, to him, peculiar letter, Firstly, it must atways be pronounced (never dropped or slurred over, as we pronounce part, pa’t) ; and secondly, the value of the vowel before it in the same syllable must never be corrupted (as when we propounce pot, pit ; for, fc; cur, elu; &c.), but always kept pure, as with any other consonant; thus, 3 qér, Ye qar, oe sir, Sy eytr, &e, ; i, pir, 53 qtr, 3 qir; &e.38 OTTOMAN TURKISI] GRAMMAR, The Arabic ; is our z in every word and every position ; af, id, ~ zir, » zor, zi, 335 nezd, 3 dz, i Az, iz, 5h te; &e. The Persian § is only found in Persian aud French words ; it is of the value of our 3 in treasure, pleasure, and is trane- literated 2h; as, eh zhizh, yah pézhmarda, just td- mizhér, &e. It is of very vare occurrence. ‘Tho Arabic 4. is a soft s, always followed by a soft vowel in all words. It must never be pronounced as z ; thus, Ut asa, os qavs, Se siz, edz. The Arabie (3 is our sh, always; as, 3th shad, a Ish, os néshr. The Arabic (0, in Turkish, is o hard s, used in Turkish, and foreign words also, to designate a bard vowel; thus, pl iss, Geol Asmaq, Geoye sismaq, Gaed qismiq. Never read itz. The Arabic (,4 is very peculiar, being used in Arabie words ouly. It is generally pronounced as a hard z in Turkish, but sometimes as a hard d; thus, wh rial, U5 42a, alti éaqiz ; st gfdt, SOT 6 gael’ HAskér (val 5 qde’‘A-kér), &e. Its Arabic sound is inimitable to a European without long practice, The Arabic b, besides being an element of Arabic words, always as a bard ¢, is used in Torkish and foreign words, sometimes with that value, sometimes as ao very hard ¢d, whenTOL LETTERS AXD ORTIIUGRAPITE. 39 initial Thus, ee tila, LS qatr, EE kehdee UL el, ae digh, ib tz, bb tigdmdg, Sort divrinmiq, The Arabic & is used in Arabic words only ag a very hard z Thos, as zillm, ab aulo, Ad afi, GLb b 2dfar, RS bdzz, Sos" mAbziiz, To Arabic g is, as a general rule, used in Arabic words uuly, It is a strong guttural convulsion im an Arab throat, softened in Turkish to a hiatus, and often disappearing entirely. Wo represent it by a Greek spiritus asper, Thus, yas “Asr, ob ta ‘ny yea mel ‘in, ee gt, eee maqgti’. The Turkish word oe ‘drdba (for al, }) is, however, with its derivatives, always written with this letter, of course corrnptly. The Arabic é is, originally, a peculiar Arabian kind of hard g, with a sound vergeiug on that of the French r grasséyé, which English dandies sometimes imitate. But in Turkish pronunciation it is either a simple Aard g, when initial; as, Cie gall, CHE gifide, 4G gaydd, &e.; and either that when medial or final in Arabic words only, or liko our softencd gh in Turkish words; often disappearing, or nearly so, and ebauging, like it, into a w sound after or before an Utara hard vowel. Thus, sid ig fal, Es sidg, ‘ee magfar ; gout “aghldmdg, gus dagh, Bai dlddwi, Yeo sbwda, Gt,b adwia, Gaye sdwhg ; Get tdi, abe Mawttd ; &e, The Arabic Ws is our f in all words and all positions.40 OTTOMAN TUREI3U GRAMMAR, There is no reason whatever to write the senseless, fulse Latin-French ph instead of f; as in caliph, a corruption of Khai, AE. Thus, (25 fare, bal 1, G43 sdf, The Arabic 5 is our g in all words and all positions. Ié is ervoneons and regrettable to represent it by &, as is generally done. The words oe qovao, ol Aq, ey wit, are thus cor- rectly rendered, leaving the & to represent its legitimate ancestor, @. Tho Arabic &, in all words and all positions, is our &. When initial in 2 word or syllable before a loug | ory vowel, and also before a short dtdré vowel, it borrows, in an Ottoman mouth, the sound of a y after itself before the vowel; but not so before the short Astdn, the short éséré, or the long i vowel. Thus, iW kytalh, yaoi dkyil, oliyZe ky dpi; sake kedi, we klvau, be; vékil. Its name, in Arabie, requires no addition; but iu Persinn and Turkish it bas to be distin- guished from the Persian letter of the same form, but widely different phonetic valuc. It is then termed mye of kyafl ‘Sréblyyé. Io Arabic and Persian Ottoman words it remains vachangeable by grammatical inflexion; but in Turkish words, when final, it undorgoes phovetie degradation on becoming movcat, and is pronounced as a Persian @&, and even as ay; or sometimes as a w after an atari vowcl. Thus, cha! Ipdk, dG! Ipdyla, Kt Ipeya, SS Ipdyls dy.THE LETTERS AND ORTUOGRAPIY. Al sildk, Aaj ably di, Zoya slay’, oJ, sdldya; oat Html, cx SEs Ltmeyla, Tho Persian &, called «2.5 SX kyafl farisiyy’, and wie i kyatl farlsi, or ot af tyarl ‘Adeoi (vulg. Se es ‘jam kaf)), is the Persian hard yg. Tt is unknown in Arabic, is unchangeable in Persian words, and is never final in Turkish words or syltables, Thus, d= stg, DEa. edghi, Gad shgd, SO shgl; (f gal. In ordinary writing and print it is undistivguished from its Arabic original ; but the Persians mark it with a double dash: ¢ gy Al, Kon sig. In some Turkish books it is marked with three dots: isd. The Ottoman &, ignored by all previous writers, eastern and western, consequently nameless, but which we venture to term adtcz WS kyAfl ‘Ssmanlyyd, the Ottoman oJ, is found in Tovkish words only, as a medial or a final, never as an initial to a word, though it is used as an initial letter in # non-initial syllable, Its phonetic value is that of our y in all cases, though it has no mark to distinguish it. It is both radical, ag ia eh bay, ke ay}, ok ylylrml ; or it is gram- matical, declensional, servile, representing a softened Arabic radical or servile «J, become movent, as in che kydpék, SKS hydpaytt, SSK kydptys, 55,5 kydpiyls oj” siirotk, eS ajy sdrmbyln ; Cayo edvdile, S355 sdvdiylm, Oa. shvdlyls, Soe edvdlyl Most European writersAQ OTTOMAN TURRISN GRAMMAR represent Chis value by gh, but the practice is insufficiently considered, aud altogether misleading. The Ottoman nusal ©, distinguished by the name of surd n, oi pal sighir niin, isa second special Turkish phonetic value of the letter &, or nasal letter, which we tvansliterate with the Spanish nasal ii, It has the phonetic value of our English ng nasal, as in sing, thing, &c. In ordinary writing and print, it has no wark by which a student may recognize it; but some- times three dots distinguish it, and one recent writer has marked it with one dot, o (as with him the three dots, J, serve to point out tho Persian letter or sound). This value is never initial toa word, As 1 medial, it sometimes cads, TAntkmdg (vulg. anni mola), syZ5 thie (vuly. tel); Bye gySiil, 5a53 dale, eT baie, 75% sbiek (vuig. sdrd). When foal to a word, it is usually sounded as a simple 2; a9, ch bei (ben), ake edolf (cinin), OX galia (gAlln), Ge dan (Gn), ©, s8A (sdn)- When medially final it is usually softened in like manner, or is elided in pronunciation. In 3.5ce1 aud its derivates (itself sometimes begins a syllable ; a8, rr derived from sil 4), the following J is exceptionally incor- porated with it in pronunciation, as though by a kind of inversion of tho Arabie rule of conversion for the J of tha definite article JI before certain letters called solar (for which see next paragraph on letter J). The Arabic J is our letter ¢ in all words and all positions ;THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRATHY, 43 a8; ag3 Haim, ex Alto, jt dal. The Turkish word 5.21, mentioned above, is, with its derivatives, a modern Ottoman exception of the capital; and the Arabic rule for the con- version of the J of the definite article J!, in pronunciation, when followed by a noun or pronoun beginning with a solar letter, tne aye barfl sbémsi, into that solar letter redupli- cated by a téshdid, is a classical exception, peculiar to Arabic compounds, The solar Ictters aro fourteen in number (exactly the half of the alphabet) ; viz., o, ©, 3,3, 955) Ut» Um» U2 vw bk Jou. Thus we have ool at tin, eal és-stmén, call Bo-simn, (est ba-dt's, SZoiH1 da-alke, SIH dscemel, wai dsh:shéms (whence the name of od eat ds-shfi, CHT aa. dia, de-2dbs, IES) ata, psi senate, 4) Malm, Si én-ntr. In the pronoun wil, and its derivatives, the written J of the article disappears also. The sign * placed over the J, so omitted in pronunciation, is named vwisl, jo, Junction ; and is the letter .j» of that word, specially modified. The Arabic letters » and . are our m and n respectively, in all words and positions: JG mal, j-i émal, re bbulo, 386 nile, oe, wy hdzn. The Arabic letter 5 is sometimes a coneonant, sometimes a vowel. When a consonant, it has the phonetic valne of our v, of our w, or of these two combined, the » beginning, and the w ending the sound of the letter, Thus, 3S var, ole jéwab,44 OTTOMAN TORKISM GRAMMAR, wey vwisf, als ywiql’. The car alone can decide these differences. But when the consonant , is reduplicated im an Arabic word, it has always the v value; as, 3s Avvdl, 3 qivvil. Ottoman corruption oven then may sound it, in hard lettered words, as a reduplicated w—qdwwil The word iy qawwaf (or iy qiwaf) is an Ottoman corruption of Arabic 5S knaaae When the letter, is a vowel in an Arabic or Persian word, it always hos the value of i; excepting a few Persian words, become Ottoman vernaculars, in which it takes the sound of 4, ‘Thus, ws lézim,, oye ménnan it shar; coy ddst (dist), uy> khésh (khisl). In Turkish and foreign words it is generally, if not always, short, and may have either the value of 3, or of 4, 4, 4, which thora is 10 means of distinguishing, save that of accompanying hard or soft consonants. With o hard consonant, in a Turkish or forsign word, the yowel-letter y (often omitied) must bave the sound of either 4 or 4, unless it be considered long, when it becomes 6 or i; thus, os qémaq, Gus qirmig. With a soft consonant, it must be read either 4 or d, a or @; as, cag yazmék, Sie sizli. If the accompanying consonant or consonanis be neutral, all guidance is lost; as, 3e béz, biz, baz, Se sdz, siz. In derivatives there is, however, frequently a servilo vowel or consonant, hard or soft, that helps. Thins, oly béedn, hy bazldhiq, soy bizmék, Say sdzmdk ; but jy siz has noTHE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 such helping derivative. As to the long and short value, each individual ear must decide for itself in words of these two elasses—Turkish and fortign. Vowel , is never initial; it must be preceded by | to represent ao ioitial tf sound ; as, gay dlmaq, oy Almdk, &e. ‘The Arabic letter s has already been fully discussed. The Arabic letter cy, like the 4, is either a consonant or a vowel. When a consonant, it bas the value of our consonant y, whether it be initial, medial, or final, simple or redupliecated. Especially must this be understood when the letter is eon- sopantally foal in an Arabic word, As a consonant, and ouly as a consonant, we transliterate it by a y. Therefore, when we use a yas the final of a transliterated Arabic word, it must be rcad and sounded as such, never as an i vowel ; an obser- vation that continental scholars do not generally understand, unless they way ve Germans. Thus we bave: y yér, Os yadbk, 50 yaz, 5y yhe, ex) beyn, Ope boydn 5 (5 pay, Cb shéy, ff recy, e méy, ep bdyy, ot ayy, “3; valy, S rémy, (3; vechy, (de méshy. This is a difficulty toa student at first, as we have nothing like it in English. When the ¢¢ is a vowel, it is never initial If o vowel 1 or 1 sound be initial in any Ottoman word (Arabic, Persian, ‘Turkish, or foreign), the .s, if written, is always preceded by46 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, an}; as, sal idl, Sh irldndg. When medial, it is always loug in Arabic and Persian words; as, i émir, ow bia. To Turkish and foreigo words, medial vowel ¢¢ is generally, if not always sbort; as, cay virmék, Gos qirmig. Whee final ju an Arabic word, it is also always short ; as, st qid, oy razi, oh di, syle jaci, eis sarl, &e, But there are hosts of Avabie words ending in reduplicated consovantal ¢, which, in Persian and Turkish, are used as Arabic words, generally adjectives, terminating in a long vowel 1 or 1; as, tee yévmni, ee sbodvi, fs ae shdhri, oe *avdbi, cy favisi, is qat'i, Bl Afaqi, ee hifi, &e, When these become feminine, the veduplicated nature of their final congouantal .g becomes apparent; as, aay yormlyyd, anki aittyyd, &e. There are manny Persian derivative words, adjectives or substantives (besides others not used in Turkish), whieh really cnd in long vowel .s, The ailjectives are precisely similar to the Arabic adjectives just described, as modified in Persian gad Turkish; but they have no feminine, ‘Thus, et shahi, ‘royal,’ aes khdsravi, ‘imperial;’ et shirazi, ‘of Shiraz ;’ &e. The substantives indicate abstract qualities; as, wt shihi, ‘ royalty ;’ wr vdzinl, ‘vezivial office or func- tious ; &e. - Turkish and foreign final ¢¢, radical or servile, is always a short vowel ; as, oS kel, ol ari, &e. ; 1 dvi, ot bibi- aint, cusbgl dual, a6) tdrdyl, be. -TOE LETTERS AND ORTOOGRATUY. a7 The vowcls | aud s arc sometimes interchangeable in Turkish words and derivations, and are sometimes omitted, without avy inflexible rule being assignable. Thus, whl | ltmémdk, are all admissible. The true rule is: “Nover introduce o vowel letter into a ‘Turkish or foreign word without removing a possible doubt as to pronunciation ; never leave out a vowel in such word, if by the omission a doubt is created as to pronunciation,” The orthography of Arabic and Persian words is fixed, avd admits of no such variation. Persian words admit, however, of abbreviation by the omission of a vowel; as, els shah, aS shah; slat padsbah (vulg. padlshab), aaa padshéh ; nals ebalidnshah, aeialh shibinshéb, ‘Miigh shdbinshab, 25,4 sbeblush’h ; &e, In many Turkish words the vowels , and .s ave used for one snother by different writers, at different times, in different places; even of one place and time; even by one writer at different times, or in the selfsame document ; but this last as a license or an iuadvertency. Cousistency in this matter is advisable. Thus we have: 5b, bishlt, 136 bishll, 54% gent, 5S galls ard, ws ⁢ &e.; words differently written, but the selfsame in reality. Tho Ottoman alphabct ia divided inte three classes of con- sonants, hard, soft, and neutral. The hard letters are nine io number : a e wus bs b, & & g- The soft letters are only six: 1, oy 5, oe, O, 8. The remuining letters,48 OTTOMAN TURKISH GNAIWTAR, sixteen in the whole, are neutral: ,) Oy @ @22s3s gs Fer Sr Sera se As the orthography of every Arabic and Persian Ottouan word ig fixed and unchangeable, it is oaly iv Turkish and foreign Ottoman words, and in the declensions and conjuga- tions of all Ottoman words, that the rulos relating to hard and soft letters are carried out, This is the first and chief part of the beautiful system of Ottoman euphony. If any one of the hard or soft consonants is used in a Turkish Ottoman word, all the other radicn! and servile letters of the word, of its derivations, and of its declension or conjugation, must be of the same class, or of the neuters. Thus we have: 56 alamdg, ola; gdamdk ; 9336 qludight, LS plealyl; os qaclig, ES gy deldk ; &e, Tho Ottoman vowels are also of these three classes. Tho hard vowels aro: 4, 5,11, 8, 6, &, Gy eight in all, ‘Tho soft vowels also cight: &, 44, i, 4 0, 4, & ‘The neutral vowels are 4,3, 4. These vowels always accompany their own class of consonants, or the neutrals. ‘Lhe neutral vowels can accompauy any class of consonant, Thus wo have: UU itd, Gi awa, pashd, 55 An, glenda, 22, glrmek, SF qomdg, G53 qhemtg, ES gydedumes, oS gydrmek. When in a Turkish Ottoman word a vowel is the dominant bdo, Ge letter, its cousonant or consonants being neutrals, the declen-THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 sion, conjugation, nnd derivation from that word follow tho class to whieh the dominant vowel belongs; thas, 5a Atmdg, Gal aghintig, GaYp1 irldmda, GojT amedg, 3203,1 dghrdmag 5 SLi Mbmdk, LSI tome, chify ytomek, oll) t dma. When an Arabic or Persian word is deelined or derived from, in Ottoman Turkish, its last dominant letter or vowel decides whether the declension or derivation shall be made with hard or soft Jetters aud vowels; thns, be mirbat, Lye marbatlig s ul emir, ol sinltq 5 de. fawirltk; GUT asin, ‘When the sole dominant vowel of a Turkish Ottoman word, or the last dominant letter or vowel of a Turkish, Arabic, Persian, or foreign Ottoman word, is of the o or u class, hard or goft, all possible consonsnts, and all vowels in the declension, conjugation, or derivation therefrom, not only conform to the class of such dominant, but furthermore, all consceutive servile vowels in the derivatives that would otherwise be dsérd, become Utdrd, of the class of the dominant; that is, become 4 when the dominant fs é or & and become 4 when the dominant is hor; thus, oxi dtghn, GES dlgdntda, essiyl aldd; Gab Ldigdo, Sat thighnldg, wiih dead ; aye sdrikddemdk, diacoys,- abebkddrtlmdk ; G03, sdrdsh- nik, Gijihy sdrashddrmék, wd5,,° sdrdshddrdlmak ; as gytrdehmek, ol 52), gydrtehddrmak, O22.50 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, gydrdshdérdlmék, Sut if, in such words, an dstia rowel come in by the ordinary course of derivation or conjugation, aud be followed by a syllable or eyllables with oo dsdrd vowel, the influence of the radical dominant dtdré is destroyed by such intervention ; as, ais bézkshmdq, SES» bazdsh- maqliq, oediy bizdehmighfu ; OLS gyirtshmek, eae, § © eros gyardshmékik, 4X2, 5 gydrashmdyin.( 51 ) CHAPTER IL Tie Orrosan Accipencr on Erymozoct. Section L The Noun Substantive. Taene is no gender. If the female of au animal bas aot a special name, as, Be (twig), «Aen, SU-3 (qisrdq), a mare, chil (Indk), a cow, G25 (ginjta), a ditch, the female is nained, as with uy, aehe.. vn gga (lb) 5 a, Slat yea (Wisbl daslda), a lioness ; &e. If the female be a girl or woman, she is vever named dish, but is mentioned as 35 (qlz), maiden, ores (art), ius % (Mamet gle), a servant maid, « maideervant weet 8 (ait matron, accordingly ; as, «205s 5.5 (qlz khizmetjt), or} Ashj!), or 48 (gst (Ashjl qAri), a woman caok, a cook woman, There is, really, no declonsion of nowns in Turkish; but the prepositions, perhaps eight ia number, by some termed postpositions, are subjoined to the noun, singular or plural, the plural being always formed by adding tho syllable ¥ (ar, lér) to the singular; thus: Nom. yl 6a (arrow), A 5,1 Sqlar (arrows). Geo. Sil dqua GY), BL Sqltuin.52 OTTOMAN TOREISO GRAMMAR, Dat. 5, bgt (to —), SAG dqlard. Loc. 2354) dqda (in —), 35 dqglirda. Ace, gigi qh (the —), aah dg lart. Abl GiGi dqdiu (from —), Ssh dqltrdin. Inst. 15, dgid «(with —), Gh dqlarid. Cous. oye! 5s} dq lehin (for —), cyst G1 dqlde Eehdn, Now. 3 dv (house), Say éviér (houses). Gen. af éviii, ai dvlécta, Dat. xi évé, oi dvlérd. Lee. sal dvd, ayft vldrdd. Acc, us évl, Sl éviérh Ab 331 dvdin, Saal avlerden, Tust. Ai évld, OT avlérla. or. Caus. J,e)5) dv dente wel ( dvldr debdn. owes 3 OSL Most Tovkish singulars (not all) ending in & soften this Jetter into » before » junctional vowel preposition ; thus, 23 (qirt), wolf, os3 qurdaii, ws qirdd, ee ated ; not so before a consonant or separate word ; as, ay ooh, is, ol 535 3 but kt atin, wl ott, &e, Most, if not all, Turkish singulars, of more thno ono syllable, ending in ).3, soften it into & before junctional vowels; a4, Go “(ehardig), trellis, eee chdrddghia,ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 53 adIGG chdrddghd, (£15 cldedight. Thoso in Arabie oJ soften it into Turkish o) (y value); chal Upék), silt, tC) Cipeyii), i (tpayé), de (ipdyl). Those in Persian & (g value), do not change it; , oes séng, stone, ot (séngli), SCE (sbngd), $2 (séngl). These rules do not apply to Arabic and Persian substan- tives; these retain their final 5 or w unchanged; unless the borrowed word has passed into the mouth of the vulgar as an everyday expression ; as, Gas fistiq, Stone] fistightu, &c. Singulars ending in a vowel, take ., in the genitive, and consonant ys in the dative and accusative, to support the vowel taken by a final consonant ; as, Gl (bAb4), father, e860 (babdutt), o6C (babayd), at (bAbty!); 53 (gdp), door, gate, Gi (qdpdnda), 445 (qapayd), 43 (qdpdyd, where dard dominates) ; gf (Art), See, Gy F (rinth), ay ef (riya, written separately on account of two letters sy ww (arly); at (eal), cat, Hr 6 (hdainlt), 5555 (ebdlya), 5a gah (kbdlyl), de, Singulars ending in vowel s do not join this letter to the sign of the plural, in writing; as, sie) (pide), juan (piddler), The word yo (sh), water, irregularly forms its genitive as hyo (suydi, almost the only exception or irregularity in the language). oe (sdy), sort, ends in a consonant, and is regular; hyo (sbyhi), Lago (sdy4), (yo (sda).54 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Arabic aud Persian substantives never change their final consonants for declension ; bb (tdbig), plate, aah tdbiqtii ; SL (Imsike), refratning, «S12 (imsikey; SSCS cealat), worship, po (sdliti). Their final vowels follow the same rules with those in Turkish words; te (das), prayer, chiles da‘anli); nly (plyiidd), foot-man, awk (plyaddyd); pul charsii), markel, ee (charsiiyd) 5 gs (shlisi), trititeral root, sag (athasiy!). . They form their plurals as ‘Lurkish words; but Persian uames of men and their kinds use the Persian plural also, if judged proper. This is formed by adding an dstia vowel, followed by ol , to the final consonant of the singular ; as, y (mérd), man, olan (mérdin). If the singular ends in s vowel, it is changed into consonant @ (Persian), with dstdn vowel, before the ol of the plural; as, reaps (kb’Aijd), master, Ol (kb’ajégyfin). Singulars ending in vowel , take con- sonant ¢g instead of w ; as, yet (khiib-ri), a beauty in face, wb (kbab-riyain). Those ending in vowel «s change it into consonant ys in like manner; as, a (stpihi), man-at- arms, wholw (slpihiyan). [Persian writers explain this by saying: “The final long vowel is in reality two letters us rolled into one. One of these is now used og a consonant”) Other Persian substantives form the plural by adding the syllable bi; as, WG (min-ba), lowves, breads, \yrwl (esb-h’),ACCIDENGE OR ETYMOLOGY. 35 Arabic plurals, of the regular forme for men and women, ond of the various irregular forms for these and other things, and also thé Arabie duals, are used in Turkish. ‘Iho dual is formed by adding Astin followed by ol (an) in the nominative, which becomes Gy (¢yn) in the oblique case. The lattor is frequently used in Torkish 23 a nominative; as, Lis (qatb), pole, ous (qatbin), ons (qitbdyn), the tuo poles. The regular plural masculine nominative for men is formed by adding dtara followed by yy (Gn) to the singvlar. This becomes dséré followed by o (in) in the oblique case, also used as @ nominative in Turkish; the plural feminine is with stdin followed by ol (at) im all enses ; thus, = (mie)im), @ Muslim, cpl (atslimin), oni (wislimin), eu (mis- mit), Muslims, The irregular Arabic plurals commonly used in Turkish are of rather numerous forms, and there are many more plural forms used occasionally, These irregular plural Arabic forms are not obtained by adding a lettor or letters, vowel or con- sovant, to toe end of the singular, but by varying the vowel or vowels of the word, and by adding letters, consonant or vowel, as the case may be, before, between, or after, the letters of the singular. To enable the student to obtain a fair insight into this very intricate but beantifil system, T have to say, first of all, that 2 paradigm bas been adopted by Arabian grammarians, according to which all such modi-56 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMBAR. fications may be effected. They have taken the triliteral Jai (f¥'4la) as tho representative of any and every triliteral root- word, and they have modified this rout into every shape that can, under any circumstances, ba taken by any derivative of avy triliteral root in the language. All those modifications, when not made on the vowels alone of the triliteral, are effected by adding servile letters, or a servile letter, here and there, before, after, and in the midst of, the three radical consonants, with appropriate mutations, in each case, of the vowels, long or short, in the new word. Thus, to speak only of Arabic nouns, substantive or adjective, used in Turkish, we have, in the first place, to learn the forms of their singulars (for they all bave definite forms), aud then the forms of the plurals special to each of these singulars. To facilitate and systematize this knowledge, the Arabian grammarians have divided the whole languuge into. sections of biliteral, triliteral, quadriliteral, quinqueliteral, &c., roota, whieh they term, respectively, go (sini), gh (sdlasi), uth (riba‘i), ot (khimisi), elie (shdisi), &. These are the Turkish prenunciations of the terms. I do not re- member ever to have seen or heard tho expression gal (fbidi), which wonld ba the analogous name for uniliteral root; but it may perhaps be found. Of these, the triliterals form by very far the most important and numerous class, the quadriliterals coming next, ‘These are represented,ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 87 respectively, by tho supposititions paradigmatic words 25 (ATH) ond JES (even). Every triliteral root is theoretically capable of giving riso to fifteen chapters of derivation, called 3G (bib, pl. SiS dvrab). These chapters are respectivaly termed: 1, 4 Js (fA bibl), ths chapter of the triliteral; 2, aU Saab (UF Bibl), the chapter of (the verbal noun) jit; 8, (oi ste j jad (18/881 —)s 6, cpl Jot (UR); 7, oh Sua Castal —; 8, ott uh (Aa —) 59, 9 Past arta); 10, i Jett (lata —); 1, 6 Si (ea; 12, 26)E desal —); 13, 28 HS (ifivvil—); 14, 6 Ss (fiat; 15, ob Gail (\Ptoki—). The use of words from the last four chapters is next to (mifa Ae babl) ; 4, ob See, (JE‘AL DADS); 6, unknown in Turkish, if not quite 60; and tho use of chapters 9 and 11, Sika, Dish, is confined to the expression of colours, the second expressing au intensity of degree, All the other nine chapters of derivation are constantly met with in Turkish, as nouns, substantive and adjective. Occasionally, even a verb ie used; but as a kind of invocatory interjection. All but the first of these names (which is the form of three out of the six varieties of its verb) is the form of one of the verbal nouns, or of the sole verbal noun, connected with the verb of the chapter; and each chanier has two adiectives58 OTTOMAN TURKISIT GRAMMAR. deriving from it, the active and passive participles of the verb of the chapter, The first, or triliteral, chapter possesses, furthermore, several other special forms of nouns doriving from its verb other than its verba] nouns (which aro a kind of infinitive, or noun of action or being, corresponding with our English substantive form in -ing, as, walking, singing, cutting, suffering, lasting, &c., as acts or states). Of those, I give here merely those frequently met with in Turkish ; and it must be vaderstood, that in this simple triliteral chapter, the various forms of verbal nouns are never all found deriving from one verb ; but certain forms belong to one or more kinds of tri- literal verbs, others to otber kinds. These kinds of verbs, again, arc of two sorts; there are verbs transitive or active, and there are verbs intransitive or neuter; and certain verbal bouns are more used than others with each of these two kinds, Again, there aro the eix conjugations of this simple triliteral chapter ; and each conjugation bas its preferential form or forms of verbal noun. The Turkish Qamis dictionary dilates on this subject more than other works, and mach information can be obtained from it, in addition to what should ve studied in the * Grammar of the Arabic Language,” by Dr, Wm, Wright, vol. i, p. 109, par, 196, where 36 forms of “ noming verbi” are given for this triliteral chapter alone, and several others may be found in De Sacy’s * Grammaire Arabe,” 2nd edition, 1831, vol. i., p. 283, par. 628. Those that are principallyACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 59 used in Turkish aro the following: 1, jes (AA'I)5 2, So (FPANs 3, Se (AN); 4, SS (FAN); their feminines: 6, LL5 (Ha) ; 6, Lo (amare) ; 7, Us (f11a); 8, ales (4818); tho samo forms, with an insititions or servile long vowel 1: 9, jts (fi'il) ; 10, Sls (FA) 5 11, Js (Al); and ehoir fominines : 12, I (4818) ; 15, Stes (B18); 14, JUS (f8'GIE) 5 some of the same, 15, js (Bi 5 4 (fi) ; 18, des (FOI); 19, 55 with long revela ae orgs; and their feminine: 16, jp cea; 4 (#8508); 20, uso, the same, with final servile yl added : 21, gid (Man) 5 22, g5es (An); 23, GSS (W8'tan) ; tho spocial feminine form: 24, 2Ji5 (A ally’); and tho special forms in initial servile ¢, with their feminines: 25, ja (mbf'al); 26, Los (marin); 27, ks (ended); 28, LL (mat td); with the two special forms in initial servile o, with long vowel | intorcalated: 29, (}G8 (18f'al); 90, Gis (HSI), Many origival substautives and adjectives are of one or other of the forms here given; and in frequent cases it is disputed whether such words are cubstantives or verbal nouns, Tho active par ticiple, nomen agentis, of this chapter is: 31, JeG (fil); 92, fecinine, Ll (fe'lld) ; and the passive participle, nomen patientis, is: 88, Jol. (mAf*al); 84, feminine, Jad. (mF ald); derivative adjectives ave met with, branches of this ebapter, as: 35, Jo (FAN); 86, Jas (A) ; 97, Jo (CHaH; often feminine); 38, }.5 (Wil) ; and the feminine of this last? 39, A (s8'2) 560 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, the diminutive, substantive or adjective: 40, Jo3 (fi'lyl); the noun of unity: 41, 3 (fM'ld); the noun of kind or manner: 42, ass C8); the noun of place and time: 43, ea meéf‘il ; sometimes méfil and alas méf‘Ald); the noun of the place of abundance: 44, ais (méf"Hl8); the noun of instrument acd receptacle: 45, jute (mif'll; sometimes JS. mlfl, and iad, mlf"alé; rarely jaa mifil and daa mifald) ; and others still whieh need not be clascified here, though a knowledge of their special forms and weanings, when acquired, assists greatly to au accurate appreciation of Arabic diction, as occasionally met. with in Turkish, The irregular plurals of these forms mostly met with, when the words are substantives and masculine, are: 1, Sei (fal; 2, os (fi'al); 38, Jes cal); 4, gel (fal) ; 5, Asi CELTe) 5 G, a5 (fa"al) and 7, alas (Mle; both for the form Jel); 8, Mi (firdla) and 9, Gf (FHI; both for the form J. fATl); 10, YUs (FARIA ; for the form Sus {3'14); when they are feminine in form, either; 11, (Jai (£41; for the form ais FI1d), or 12, hes (f81; for the form 5 #818), or 13, (Js) (PAL; as for mas- culines); 14, (03 (AIL; for the forms JG evar, Jd evan aLin5 Mild); 85, Jels (fava'll; for the form dsl3); besides 16, jets (méfa'll; for tho forms méfil, méfil, mifAl, and their variants) ; 17, jsti (méfa'll ; for the forms Sia, Jp); and others more rarely used.ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 61 Adjectives masculine derived from this triliteral chapter, wnch used in Turkish, are of tho two forms Js (fil) and si (af'al) ; feminines, respectively, A (fa518) and $5 (ata, for Arabic ils ; of jai when not comparative) or is (fa'ld, for Arabic (hu; of the same jail when comparative). Tho plurals of theso are: 53 (fW'Ala) or siasi (GFH8), for (fuss, as in the substantive ; and js (fal), for jai and its feminines. We now come to the derived chapters, The verbal nouns of tho second chapter are: just (sdf), {5 (18PaL; sometimes tl), and ski (t4CH2); the plurals of tho whole of which are of the form Jest (téfa'll) ; though the first wakes also a quasi-regular plural, Ss (séfi'at). Its activo participle is jai: (mA ttl, fem. sf. maf") ; and its passive participle is (J2% (mavA"Al, fem, i, mafi"'ld), of which the masculine is also used as & noun of time and placa, The verbal nouns of the third chaptor are: alelis (mafa'dld) and ei (fl'al ; this latter only occasionally used); the active participle is Jel (mam, fem. deli mafité); the passive participle, Satie (mifa‘dl, fem. GG. mania, exactly like the first verbal noun). Tho verbal noun of the fourth chaptor is jt (if'al); a. p. Jali (mart, fom. CiAghtz) ; thus, SCosl (Evjdyle) a stele house,ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. G7 {aizjdghiz), a little girl As is seen, the former ésérd vowel of the, in the dimioutive has now become an dstin, as the dsérd Wn been passed om to the ¢ or 5, modified into Turkish el (y value) or g (soft gh value), Euphony requires it ‘These diminutives are used as terms of endearment also, exactly as in German, and as our nursery vocabulary says, daddy, mammy, granny, aunty, doggy, horsey, &e.; only, in Turkish, the method is of universal application, by all classes, not by children only. The Persian diminutive always ends in a (chd); aa, U (pa), 56 (pach8), or ia & precoded by an fetta vowel ; as, SS (eenia), GT (kbsizdk). ‘The Arabie diminutive also males its first vowel dedrd, and the next vowel distin, followed by a quiescent consonantal ¢, ‘whstever may be the vowels or quieseences of the original word; ng, (os (hidsdn), oxo (bistyn); yas > (bien), Gam 2: (bisdyn); &e. ‘Tho Persian and Arabic diminutive applies equally to sobstantives and adjectives. Tho Arabic rulo has mavy medi- fications in details. But as theso Persian and Arabic dimiau- tives are taken into Ottoman use as original words, enough as been said on their subject for the present purpose,68 OTTOMAN TURMISH GRAMMAR. Secrion II, The Moun Adjective, As a general rule, the adjective, in Turkish, is invariable, having no gender, number, case, or degrees of comparison ; and this, whether the word be of ‘Lurkish, Arabic, or Persian origin. It always precedes tho substantive qualified’; as, gil hey (biydk Addm), a great man, “fast des (biydke Addwlar), great men ; Jey Se (biyadk Indkldr), big cows. But the Persion form of phraso is also mucb used (especially in writing), by which an adjective of Persian or Arabic origin follows the substantive qualified ; such adjective remaining in the singular after a Persian substantive plural, the substantive qualified always taking an ésére of subjection to join it to the adjective ; thus, Ojo why (mérdint bizdrg), great men; ay “ glee (dmelhayt nik), good works, Tf, in this Persian construction, both words are Arabic, and the substantive is o feminine singular, or an irregular plural of any kind, the adjective must be put in the feminine singular, or in an irregular plural form; as, Abt SCe CAsakirl min- tdzimé), regular troops, plies yabie (sélatint ‘taim),- great Sultens, Persian adjectives have three degrecs of comparison, more or less in uso in ‘Turkish composition. The comparative is formed by adding the syllable 55 (tér) to the end of the posi-ACCIDENCE UR ETYMOLOGY. 69 tive ; and the superlative, by adding the syllables .4351 (teri); but theso never quslify preeeding substantives, beiug only used as substantive members of pbrases, or to qualify a 24 (bibtbrinl vési- AN vdjat), the best of the means of satvation; (bihtérin vdsivili following substantive ; thus, Ste JL, yy néjit), the dest means of salvation. Arabie adjectives have but two degrees of eomparison. Whatever the form of the positive, the comparative is of the form Joi (afl). This is used, in Persian eonstructiov, more as an exaggeration than ag a degree of comparison, more as a substantive than an adjective. If followed by a substantive singular, it is 9 superlative with the sense of very, extremely, exceedingly, and the like; thus, EAS sly gyal (AhsAnl vésilél ndjat), a very good means of salvation. , Ie the following sub- stantive be ia the plural, the adjective is « superlative, with (dhsdul vesselll the eonse of the most......; 28, ndjat), the best of the means of salvation. Tf an adjective be used as = substantive, it adiwits the plural and the prepositions, as eubstantives; thus, ‘Jel (lydlér), the good; Ja) (ydldela), of the good, &e., de. Every Turkish adjective, besides its positive signification, Letokens, on oceasions, the comparative, the superlative, aud an exeess of the quality it expresses, which we explain by rz (vlybk), employing the adverb toa before the word. Thus,70 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRANSAR. large, larger, largest, too large; Slee (aljAq), hot, hotter, hottest, too hot ; Gye (sdghigq), cold, colder, coldest, too cold ; &e. The Persian compound adjective, much usod io Turkish, in the positive degree only, is of many kinds. Some are com- pounded of two substantives, one or both of which may ba Avabic or Persian, never Turkish ; a8, ou o (jém-jdnab), majestic as Jemshid ; '135 Sa) (isi ftbibir), Asaph in counsel ; EG AaE (oheker-l8b), sugar-tipped ; SESE (Adalat déstgyth), @ very loom of justice (i.¢., just); others of an adjective followed by a substantive ; as, (sa. (sdbik-pay), light of foot, light-footed ; or a substantive followed by an adjective; as, siti}y (dil-tshnd), thirsty hearted (ie. ardently desirous) ; or o substantive preceded by o (har); as, il (hém-Ashyane), of the same nest ; ash (bém-jins), of the: same genus; (gates (bdm-shdhsi), of the same town or country, a fellow-countryman ; of a substantive followed by ay (vésh), like; 08, (tyes (peri-vésh), fuiry-like; of a substantive followed by eh, (ring), «U (fiw), or Os (gyau), all signifying colour ; as, dy, So: (atbe-ring), green-coloured 21335 (edna fina), emerald-coloured ; uf p35 (ganddm-gy in}, wheat-coloured (i-e., dark-complezioned, brown); of a substantive followed by [6 (eyar, gyn), F (gin), GE (bin), of 35 (ar); 25, 56 yet (shitia-kyar), sweetemannered ; 6 dy jl (Atbcid-gyae), creativeACCIDENCE OR ETYSIOLOGT. 7 (i.e, creator); 365 (ebr-gét), goldworker, goldsmith ; yLet (big-bin), garden-Leeper (i.e., gardener); 139s (mdbredit), sead. Reaper; or followed by G3 (dan), If (air), JL (sir), or EI (istin), all names of special places; as, y)icis (qdlém-dan), « pen-ease; bles (gyilzir), @ flowergurden, « flowery mead ; JES (eyah-sts), mountainous district; QELS (Ardbletin), Arabia; or a substantive repeated ; as, SU (chak-chik), imitative of the sound of repeated blows with axe ov sword ; tho same, or two different eubstantives, with | placed between them ; as, SLKE (chikyi-chik), same sigaification, Gia (sér- B-pi), from head to foot; or with & or & in place of the 1; as, GG (sdrtapa), same sense; jai (abr-tt-sbr), from end to end, JSrom beginning to end; or with gin y 95 (shabai and day (whieh is apique), 5), 52 (shbiad-riz), meaning: 2), night a whole night and day, all night and all day, twenty-four hours, or several nights and days in one succession; of with some other Persian preposition botween the two; as, 234 payodars péy), step by step, gradatim ; ccd jycomd (dést-bée-dast), hand on hand, hands crossed ; ajsinw (sind-bd-sind), breast to breast ; UALS (dish dish), shoulder to shoulder, back to Back ; 34055. (sbr-bé-mabr), with the head (or mouth of a bag, bottle, &c,) sealed up; or with a substantive and compound adjective; as, LZ LE (bikht-bbr-gishté), whose luck is reversed ; or even72 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. four words combined; as, viS eli)” (sbr-bd-fldk-kashid8), whose head is lifted up to the very epheres ; bosides many other varieties; especially the two privatives in ot (bi), without, and 6 (08), not; as, Ci... (biedeb), without education o manners, unmannerly, impolite; C{i (ni-bin’), not seeing, sight- less, blind. Some Arabic expressions may be regarded as compound epithets in Tuskish and Persian; as, ufaolo (siblb-qlran), lord of the conjunction (ise, the master of the age); cacsi(Jy (vial mde), associate of bengftts (i — sions formed of 55 (ait), cs15 (eat), 1 & benefactor) ; expres- (hl), and C651 (2rbab), all of which imply possession ; as, olf 43 (cli-zinibéd), possessed of a forelock or topknot, and 63,3 (aii-zduab’), possessed of eerey 2 @ Following (i.0., @ comet); Lal old (2itdLjdnb, vulg. sitlijan), the possessor of the side (i. .. pleurisy) ; or in Persian con- struction; as, (seal (Bhllire), poscested of honour or virtue, SU (erbabl-mdsndd), those who possess the chief seat (ive, high dignitaries); or an adjective honorable, honest, virtuous ; Si qualified with 2 (gdye), other ; ns, Syuc ee (gayrt-mihdad), other than circumscribed (i.¢., untimited, undefined); or an Avabie verb in the sorist made negative with Y (IM), not; as, UCRY (d-yithsA), not to be counted, innumerable; S=.¥ (Id-yW'Ada), untold, ianumerable; Cayo (ld-ybmat), who dies not, immortal 5 Y (laeydtdjtezd), not to be subdivided, indivi bles; or anACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOOX. 73 Arabic adjective followed by a definite article and substantive; as, fall @hdlyyt/d-db vim), eternal in duration: gles (qdvlyytI-bdnpan), strong in build; &e., &e., &e. Every Turkish adjective is also an adverb; that is to say, that, without auy modification of form, tho Turkish adjective qualifies verbs as well as substantives ; thus, OT j;8 (eytizél AU), a beautiful stattion; 8s) 4 35S (gydell yaramtk), 10 walk gracefully, The same ie tbe case with Persian adjectives, whether used in Turkish or in Persinn phrases. Arabic adjectives, as Arabic substantives, require to be put in their own accusative caso indefinite when used as adverbs ; a8, Ss (flan), By act; EL2 (blsdedn), Beautifully. Arabie substan- tives aro also sometimes used as Turkish adverbs by being put ia their own genitive, indefinite or defuite, as may be, tad os (an gafétin), By inadvertence ; Bat de CUR -tbvaHl), Ga continued sue- preceded by an Arabic preposition ; as, cession, successively ; iad (fi-'l-bigtad), in reality, really, truly: Susi (ble atest, on several occasions, repeatedly ; ST (lisdbtbln), fora reason ; &e. "As ith substantives, a0 also every Turkish adjective has its diminutive, formed by the addition of the suffix a (j8, i), «ish, to the word, whether this end in a consonant or vowel ; as, Js) Gpbsbll), green, aE (yeabtljd), greenish, somewkat green; (qlell) ved, (qtelli) reddish sey (hyde)74 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. Large, jem (blyAkjd) ‘largish; Glog) (Sflq) smatt, PL, (fq jd) smallish ; eal Url) large, 21 Andie) largish ; 43 (qird) Black, 45 (qArdj) blackish ; as (gird) ary, way 8 airdja) dryish, A modication of this form, dietated by the a ly enbstituting o final Sor 3 for the », and suppressing those principle of cupbony, is used for the words Se, as gl letters at tho ond of the radical word, as for substantives ; thus, Shz2 (blydjsk), largish, A further conformity with the sense of euphony, avoiding two esl vowels in succession, makes Gs (A0jlq) smallish, and Gayo (kdebt jak) emadtish ; this last being doubly cuphonic, These diminutive adjectives, as in every language, often express in Turkish the revorse of diminution in the quality they represent, boing in fact exaggeratives in senses aod wean- ing very, exceedingly, extremely, &e.; a8, 59 2) yee (jestnja Addm dir), he is a Bravish man (i.e., a very brave man). Section ID. The Numerals. Turkich, Arabic, and Persian numerals, cardinal and ordinal, are used in Ottoman. Arabic fractions are also used os far as one-tenth, In this sketch, howover, the five sorts of Turkish numerals alone are explained. These aro the cardinal, ordinal, distributive, fractional, and indefinite numbers.ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 7S Tho simplo Turkish cardinal numbers are: 5 (bie) one, EI (tel) too, ol (Ach) three, 253 (ddrt) four, 8 (bash) jive, A catty six, sds (yBdl) seven, 550 (ebkle) eighs, 536 (abqite) nine, Osh (Bn) te, 2K (lpia) twenty, 5,541 (dee), thirty, SB (alta) forty, I (GU) sift, AST (Alteoted) sity, 25 (yt mish) seventy, CXS (stksdn) eighty, SCH (ddqsdn) ninety, 5x (yaa) o hundred, chy (bhi) a thowand. The two substan tives, Gy (yak), @ hundved thousand, avd gy (rallydu), a million, are also used; but they are not true numerals. They are names of aggregates, and require the numerals before jae (bie milydn) one million ; ani so on for higher numbers, dy 5G', cy) &. ‘Tho French numerals tack (bllyon), ust i (tle ybo), &e,, are sometimes used. them ; as, yp (bir yk), owe Aundred thousand, & The compound Turkish cardival numerals are aoiformly built up by putting the units after the tens vp to 99, and by placing tho word j, before the simple or compound oxpression up to 199; then by adding the units from 2 to 9 bofore jp up to 999; next by using el, before these simples or com- ponds up to 1999; and finally, by again usiag tho simples or compounds beforo Gly up to 999,999; thus, 93,1 (bn-Utr) clever, Shs S (plylraal thd) twenty-two, eal 55 (pda bbe Gch) one hundred and thirty-three, 5 Gp jx > Clee (bit76 OTTOMAN TORKISI GRAMMAR, séklz ydz qirg bésh) one thousand eight hundred and forty-five, Dalby Ub (bash yz Altmish s8klz binydz Seth jn , bu ddety 568,114, gi WH id Ly ste ple el (Sch milyén, pedi yfk, ddgsin ikl bli, dehyde, lll atl) 3,792,356. It will be noticed thatjno conjunction enters these combinations, When the foreign expression orks, or the trenaury word v1 is not used, the native method of oxpressing multiples of eh je is to state the simple or compound number of such multiple, ond then to intercalate the word y-S (kdrrd) times, before tho word clezp j (yddl kérré yaz dif) seven times one hundred thousand, 700,000 ; Shep HT al LTS Gs (ade ytd A Akt hareé yz bi) 45,200,000. Tho Turkieh interrogative cardinal numeral is es (qaeh) how many? The cardinal numerals are adjectives; but, like all adjec~ tives, may be used as substantives, and declined. Even tho interrogative eu is uged as a substantive when enquiring “what number?” o7 “what is it o'clock 2” or “at what price?” or “what is the day of the month?” Thus: jSiue oe (qich Aldliite) “how many did you say?” sa apG Cole (dt qhehd galdl) “to Aow many (hours) has the clack come?” canyy 29 a“ (qichd vérlydrsdu) “at how much art thou selling (it, them)?”ACCIDENCE Oh BTYMOLOGY. 7 2h AT (ayta qdebl dtr) “the how-manyeth of the month is it?” The Persian compound cardinals place the higher elements first, ag in Turkish and English ; but the conjunction g is ine troduced between eachtwo members; 09).503 ya yatay3 ye (headed ddwist & chdst 4 héft), a thousand, (wo hundred, aud sixty-seven. Tho Arabic compound cardinals take the conjunction y be- tween each pair also 5 but tho lower elements stand first ; as, yey cathy G55 oS (stot dist A Khdmsin § bdedya A Uf) the year one thousand two hundred and fifty-ning, oxpressed in Turkish, cove iol St hy (UA iktyte 4 ddqnz ebnbsl). The Turkish ordinal numbers aro formed by adding an éséré to the last quiescent consonant of tho cardinal, simple or com- pound, followed by the termination og 05 sy (bieinjl) first, <= Zip (dtdzbaju) thirtieth, p (ybednjd) hundredth, é Colitnjty thousandth, pe i, i Se aly. But, in the numbers that end in vowel cs, this is suppreseed before the same termination ; as, 2%! (Iklnjl) second, so (Alttoji) sizth, ots (ybdinjl) seventh, ae Cylytrmioji) twentieth, oe (Qilojl) Afietk, The cardinal 3) changes its final into » before tho ordinal termination; as, (#39 ul (dneddrdadnjd) fourteenth,78 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, The Arabic and Persian ordinals ave frequently used, and may be found in the lexicons, &. The Turkish distributive numbers are formed from the car- dinals by makiog their last quiescent consonant movent with Astin, and then adding a quiescent 5 to the word; a5, 51 (birds), FE (basnbey, F331 (tdedeys S3n (yhebe), SX (bier). Their senso is expressed in English, which has no such numerals, by the words each and apiece; the foregoing examples will thus be rendered: one each, five apiece, thirty each, a hundred each, a thousand each, The cardinal Ss becomes iy (dirdér) four apiece. When tho cardinal ends with a vowel, the syllable 55 (sher) is sulfixed to form the distributive ; ‘as, 73.5) (Iulshér) two apiece, pic (Mulsb&r) siz each, 5434 (ybdlshbe) seven apiece, ieoXt (ylylrontsher) twenty each, 52.151 (allisher) fifty each. In the ease of more than one hundred or thousand, it is the cardina] that designates their number that reccives tho dis- tributive cufix; as, 59 5450 (Iklshér yz) two hundred each, ely 723 (bashar bla) five thousand apiece. And in compound pembers the distributive suffixes aro added to the numbers of thousands, of hundreds, and of final units or tons, to indicate one distribution; thus, DD oh ie (béshér ydz ylytrmi birdr) five hundred and twenty-one cack, > (séklear bid, yédishar ydz, qirq ikishér), 8,742 apiece (yds dlishér), 150 each,ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 79 The Tarkish fractional numbers ore very simple. The number of the denominator in the locative, and followed by the number of the numerator is the form ; as, Jy s3.501 (Ikidd bir) sn two (parts), one; i.e. $, the half; SGI s5.2; (hdshde tld) in five, two; i.e. $y two-fifths, Sometimes one of the spnouyms (sb (pay), Be (00), 225 (qlsm), ade (bleed) part, is added after each numeral of the fraction; as, whe roa 6 (Ik payda, lr pay) in two parts, one part, The Arabic fractional numbers are also used up to ten. Lxcepting the word Lisi (nisf) a half, the half; they are all of the form jas; thus, LH (els, eulg. slits) a third, cep (rab) a fourth, 522 (thins) a ith, G54 (sis) @ sit Ge: (eto) @ seventh, Ss (shan) an eighth, a (ths') @ ninth, 556 (‘ashr, vulg."\shir) a tenth, a tithe. Tho dual of 213 is used, 3 (sdlsiin) tworthirds ; but for all the others » Torkieh numerator is used; as, gy ext (deh rab’) dhree quarters, Gk SON (ikl khims) ewo-f/ths, és GA (bish tts!) flueninehs, &e. There are two special Turkish adjectives and oue Turkish substantive to express half Ou of the adjectives, .,G (yArim), end tho substantive, ¢56 (y4H), eigaily the half (of one sole thing; as, Gi Zh (rdrim dak) had an apple, a half apple it Bi MuAuté yletsl, che half of an (or of the) apple. The other adjective, jen (bdchiq), is used after some whole80 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. number, never alone; as, Wii sey 9 (blr bdchdq éhmd) an apple and w half, Sel. Sey Sl (Ikt blehdg eW'At) two hours and a half. When a complex fractional number consisting of an integer and a fraction other than one-half has to be exprossed, the Turkish or Arabic fractions are used, the conjunction 5 or the preposition ab! being introduced between the integer aod the fraction; as, ay ae isl or Be ait S21 two and one- fourth, Whoo tho Turkish fraction is used, tho numeral 'y in the genitive is also introduced before the fraction; as, ah GSE dy ht B four, and threeeighths of one. The indefinite numerals are: jo (hdr) every ; o> (bar ble) ony one, each ; a ¢uten) no, none; 5 2 (heh bir), no; Lass (di'2l) some ; eal (oksbr) the most part; -6s (ble gdch) some, a few; 5\ (Az) fews Gym (chdq) many; 35» (bir Az) 4 feity «little = Gym (die chdg) @ great many, a great quantity ; &e. Of these, J is always an adjective; the rest are adjectives and substantives. There is a small series of Turkish numerals of a peculiar nature, from (Ikl2), twin, twins, through 2) (debdz) triple, @ trine, 53,9 (dirddz) fourfold, to 5.23 (b&shiz) fivefold, and perbaps ox to 3aijl (B0dz) ten-fold. Adjectives are formedACCIDENCR OR ETYMOLOGY, gL A (Iklell), possessed of twins, of tevin (branches, &e.) ; {jos (Gebdal’) with dhree (lambs, branches, &c.); &e. ‘Tho written digits are: 11, 72,73, 44, 05,16,» 7,48, 49,.0. With these, compound numbers are written as in English, from left to right; as, re 25, 14-160, res 3409, vasereet 78003046, &e, Tu dates, tho thousand, and gencrully the hundreds, of the year of the Hijra are omitted, as also the dots of the letters; tray thus, 2%. stands for a2, (snd bis dklydz ddqska alt) in the year (of the Hijra) 1296; Sats rig (65 ylytrml ble 24, shné 97) on the 21st Zie'l-Qa'da, '97 (A.H.). The signs for the months, in dates, are: e for wi ue, for ges ls for ji ay 5 ” for 7) tos be, for Si si ° for St ALS ey for 285 5 Gn for oaks wy for SU) 5 Jy for YL; Uy, for GEST GS; , for GH gs. The day always precedes the sign of the month; and the first day is termed, sg (gird), whilo the thirtieth is named “15 (sélkh) ; as, oe be es os we «gi all dots being omitted in these shortened oumeral dates. Not so, bowever, when the date is written out in full words; ae, » dL jG 3 agp iS od wl cage? Be pean a? eal Jib (Ishbd bi Iilyde dbqedn dbqhe ebebl bijrlyydsl mrih-t mabdrrdeobolit bn G82 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. bdshinjl paujsbeublh gydind) Chis day of Thursday, the 15th of the month of Muharrem, of the Hijra year 1299. Sretion IV. fhe Pronoun, The Turkish personal pronoun has no distinction of gender: ey (bén) J, o (san, not sén) thou, 3 Gs in writing, generally, i 41) he, she, ct; and their plurals : & (blz) we, i (slz) you, ASI (dnlde, Snide) they. * Tu politeness, BR and ix are used instead of o and - bey then bave their own plurals: Sy (bizldr), 3. (sizlér), which cannot be expressed in Englieh, ‘These are even used ag singulars, by the over-polite: The third person plural is used, in tho same way, out of politeness, for the singular, as is practised in Italian ; but it has not its plural. Tho word wt (kdndi) self, is n kind of common pronoun, of all the persons, singular aud plural. It is specialized by the posses- sives. The personal pronouns, singular and plural, are decliaed in the same way as the nowns substantive, oxcepting that some of thom have a special genitive,—all but those of the second fe (beak) of me, my; oe (sdulit) of thee, thy 5 Sh (Avit, dmbit) of Aim, her, its his, her, ita; te (Uizhn) of us, ovr; Se (slat) of you, your » wit (dnldcti, daldviil) of them, their, But, to take either person, singular and plural. These geuitives are:ACCIDENCE ON ETYMOLOGY. $3 of tha prepositions cya! , a, after their singulars, they moust bo put in tho genitive, all but the third person plural; as, wet pi for me, dil cba with you, eel wT for him, her, it, bl SLi with them. ‘These genitives ave used, when required, to emphasize and corroborate the possessive pronoun of tho same number and person. They are never used alone, without their possessives to eorrobornte; thus, (ly (bAbim) my father (not my mother, &e), ol father), The possessive pronouns, too, have no distinction of gender, ce (bbnima bibam) my father (uot your father, or Ais cither on the English or French principle. They ave (im, jm) mys (li, Lt) thy s (hD, oF, after a vowel, px» (st, sf) his, her, its; 3 Ganle, Imtz) our, 56 (litle, Sale) your s as J (iért, art), their. These possessives ara sufficed to the substantivea they qualify, end form ona word with them. That compound word is then declined tike » simple substantive; thus, os Qvim) my house, desl (Avion) of my house, anysi (Avime) to my house, sizgi (evimdd) in my Rouse; &e, (The «5 added here before the bare possessive, is thought by some to be needed in the case of a preceding consonant that docs not joiu on in writing to its next letter in the,same word, Others do not consider it necessary, and write: (5, yl, yl, Ges but84 OTTOMAN TORRISH GRAMMAR, when the compound, in declension, &e., takes another vowel after it, it is more usunl to add this preceding vowel also; as, kasi (della) of my houne, Lagi (Weim) fo my houses 5 i (bviiilz) your house; &e. The vowel that precedes the bare possessive is an dstrd, soft or hard, given grammatically to the fival consonant of the qualified subrtantive, when it ends in a consonant. Thus, 5 (de) @ horse, ea) (Atlin) my horse, oll (atin) thy horse, iT Gil), his, hery its horse, ail (Atimiz) ovr horse, SCT (Autitz) your horse, ygslil (Aildil) their horse, After an dedrd vowel $31 Gehl) a som, “est (dghibkim) my son; Soy (bat) a thigh, a (banka) or gay (obddea) my thighs 5 (ye) a face, «jy (ydzbm) my Jace ; 3S (ayaa) an eye, -38 (ey dade) my eye. ‘When the substantive ends with n vowel, the bave possessive dominant, this éséré becomes dedrd also; thns, is added to form a syllable with that vowel, whatever it may be; thus, £0 (ibd) my father; BAI (yAnqdn) chy echo; wd (qipisd) his, her, tls door or gate; 5 SS (sdngydmta) our bayonet; 5S (gydrgyBhdz) your experience 5 wax (sdralérl) their flock, ‘Bho exarople here given, with the possessive singular of the thicd persov, shows clearly that when the substantive ends with m vowel, (gis the possessive, in View of gs after a consonant. ° If the fival vowel of tho substantive is +, it is never joinedACCIDENCH Ok ETYNOLUGY. 85 on to the possessive in writing, Thus, pint (tlyzdm) ny (maternal) aunt, yj (Wdyzda), chy aunt, (god (tkyzdsl) his or her aunt aaj (tayzdmale) our aunt } S53 (thyzbila) your aunt, (téy2dlerl) their aunt. Wheo the final vowel is cs, tho possesstves of the first and second persons siugular do not joia on to it in writing, Iu the third person singular, and in all the possessive plurals, they join on, Thus, wi {teral) @ tailor, psp (trek) my tailor, gj (tbralil) thy Cailor, 0553 (tbvalsl) his or Aer tailor, 2 53 irate) your efor, es’ (Werelldéxd) their tailor, ‘There is no valid reason for this rule; custom alone has it so. ‘Thus are formed: 3! 5 (kdndlm) myself, Sa°S (ebndliiy thyself, (51s (Wendel) his, her, itself ; Sen S dnd ina) ourselves, 55s (kbndlla) yourselves, xg hs (Kénebdrl) theirsedres. : A Gival 5, iu a polysyllable, as in declension, ehaoges into Jo 3 (dralenlz) our tailor, & before the possessives, singular or plural, excepting tbat of the third person plurel; so also, an Arabie a) ebanges into Turkish & (y value) in like eases. ‘Thus, 3Ug (qdadq), « mansion, (65,5 (qdudghhn) my mansion; ahsl (pbk) silt, Kl (paylny thy site; Gx (tAwda) a fort, 2b (taoighy his or her foul ; ja153 (qauhghluite) our mansion, 5 Cpdyliiiz) your site; , LSLb (tdwigqlia) their fowl. ‘The86 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRANDIAR. veason of the exception is evident,—the final consonant tukes no vowel before cs. ‘these passesslros equally qualify plural substantives, and follow the sign of the plural. ‘Thas, af, (bvidrhin), my houses; OL (udriay ly horses ; naa ‘(edgy diléed ) his, her, its bayonets; jnajy)e (sbvAlbrhate) our locks 5 5 55 (nby2dlbel- Ale) your eunte; 4 SL$ (qBndqlat!) Geir mansions. By w consideration of the examples abovo given with the posvessives of the third persons, siagulur aud plural, as attached to sivgular and plural substuntives, two peculiarities become evident, namely: 1, the plural sign is not repeated for the possessive when the substantive is itself plural ; 2, coo- sequently, the combination of a substantive and a possessive of the third person, when it bas the plural syllable {J between the two, leaves it altogether doubtful whether this plural sign belongs to the substantive or to the possessive. Even if tho combioation sAi3U,4 (qimiglarlérl) had been in use, —which ix mot the ense,—it would have been impossible to decide whether «86,3 (qndqlarl) wae intended to betoken the sense of his ov Ker mansions, 0a the ono hand, of their mansion, on the other, Add to this difficulty tho third sense of their man- sions, and the prazla becomes etill more complicated. In converention, the doubt of the hearer may be removed, if necessary, by proper enquiries. But, in a written document,ACCIDENCE OR ETTMOLOGT, 87 iateuded to be understood by an absent reador, posaibly after tho death of the writer, a method was seen, especially by jadges and legists, to be necessary for distiaguishing between the three cases, That distinction is effected, in writing, somewhat at the expense of plain grammar, as follows, ‘To distinguish the siugle possessor of tho plural possessions, tho sivgular cor- roborative genitive of the personat pronown is placed befure ef (Gata qdndglirl) Ais or her mansions. To distingnish the the combination containing the plural siga ; thus, isis plural joint possessors of a single poscession, the genitive of the plural persoual pronoun is prefixed, and grammar is violated by omitting the plural sign from the combination 4g Ol (Anldrin qdndght) their mansion, In the third ease, the siga of the plural is of substantive and possessive ; as, ¢¢ uscd in the corroborative and in the combination ; thus, Gi (Ankirla qbndgtirl) cheir mansions. A doubt may still be felt, oud theso distinctions aro not always used. ‘The declension of the combination with the possessive of the third person, singular or plural, takes a special form, a yy being introduced before the prepositions, and the final vowel- lettor of the oviginal combination suppressed beforo this wy, when the latter is joined in writing to the combination sin- gular, or does not itself possess a vowel in the combination88 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, plural, This rule, applied to possessives joined to substan- tives ending respectively in consonants or vowels, acts thus: BS, GES, ALES, Be: 3 ws , ie. : When elt is an adjective, it remaius unchanged, and means own; thus, pou wt (kdodi babdin) my own Sather, 5S an, ust (kéndt vallualériite) your own mothers, &e. Suorion V. The Demonstratives. These are, 9 (bd) this, 44 (shd) that ov this, sf (d) or Jyl (41, a3 in che personal) that, 2 (d-bir) or oA (d-blr) the other. They are used as substantives and as adjectives; being declined or invariable, accordingly, like other substavtives and adjectives, Thus, CLES}, this book, Jeli S > these books ; pe J that other man, jal psi those other men; &e. As substantives, y and ,& are thus declined, something like the persone i or Jslz_y (bd), diy (banda), Gy (bata), «diy (bind), Jy (nimi), giiy3 (bindin) ; Jo (bint), JG, (vinlirta), iy (bialéed), sZhy (ouoldrddy, goby (bint),ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 89 53,45,5 (binttrddn) 5 42 (sha, sometimes written 34, pro- nounced ono), aid (hints), BS (ndady, a,f (ohdnady, Sx (hiad), GS,b (ehitnddn) ; Hi (shdaldy), JU (ehio- lia), SUE Ghote); s38,2 cshawtdrad), 4,4 (shdntdid), B4 (chdnlirddo). With ye! and 4] their singulurs are put in the genitive ns, cyst eli for this, sb! i, with that. But ‘asi, to be used asa substantive, must have the posses- sivo suffix of the third peraon appended to it; cgy yl (6-birl) tts other one, the other one (of the two). It is then declined like all similar combinations: dayl, Lays, aly gout oils wal dalal, otal Shi, otal vibyl Or it may cake either of the two possessive suffixcs of the first aud second persons plural; as, Su asi (@-birlmlz), the other one of us, J yous Soo Syl in the other ones of uss grJyyh the other ones of you; &e. sl of the other one of us ; yi to the other one of Srerion VL The Intervogatives. pS (kl) who? ie always a substantive, end declined a9 ont, siogular and plural: ces of whom ? whose ? aS to whom ? SS tn whom 2 cof thom ? Sof or from whom ? who, what ov which persons ? de.90 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. 45 (ud) what ? is generally o substantive, and declined ; but it is also used as an adjective, and is then invariable: wbad (ndnlii) of what? <3 (for asi, nbyd) to what? 135 (uede) ‘in what ? ga (ndyl) what (aceus.) ? wo (for ws, pédan) from what? i (for Sai, udlér) what (things)? Si (odlarliy ef what (things); &e. : es (qinglt, vudg. hdngt) which? is both substantive and adjective,—declined or invariable accordingly. These three words, as substantives, take the possessive suffixes. Thus, os (klaim) my who ? ee (nm) my what ? cleS (kimi) thy who? os (nei) thy what? fen) (qd gist) its which, which (one) of it ? jee Cstenléetin) my what per- sons ? ass (ndlérlm) my what things? jd (qangimtz) which (one) of us o Sof (qangilérintz) which (ones) of you 7 hes (qingilérl) which (one, or, which ones) af them ? Spi or 5285 (vulg. wlqdddr) how much ? ) are both sub- woo stautives and 32 4 (wulg. a8 tdrld) what sort? adjectives. Section VII. The Relative Pronoun. THERE 3S NO RELATIVE PRONOUN IN Torarsy, though attempts are made to use the Persian relative and conjnaction, SF (ki), as such, in literary eomposition. The Turkish con. junction aS is a very different thing. Its use by EuropeansACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. ol penvs aud others, as a relative pronoun, is greatly to be avoided. ‘This avoidance of all use of the relative provoun is the prime distiuetion of Turkish (vom all Aryan and Semitic tongues, It is tho perfection of language. The numorous active und passive participles of the Turkish verb obviate the necessity of a velative. Tho active pars ticiples tako the place of our relative when it is nominative toa verb ; and the passive participles do so when our relative is the accusative, or any indirect object of a verb. (Seo this explainod in the paragraphs on the Participles, in Section VILI., on the Verb.) ‘Thore is a peculiar Turkish relative, however, to which we have no parallel ia English, —the sulix (kl). It is attnehed to nouns and pronouns substantive in two ways. If the eub- stantive ba in the genitive, tho combination is a substantive, and indicates that which belongs to (the substantive) ; thus, ut 1 SSIUG (LALENITKL) the one eohich delongs to a (or the) father, SSGY father, SSL, (bibdslulBkl) the one belonging to his (or her) father, his fathers one; &. If the substantive be in the (bAbdminkl) she one which belongs to my locative case, the combination is somotimes o substantive, sometimes an adjective. The substantive combination then indicates that which exists ta (the simple substantive) ; the adjectivs combination expresses the (substantive) which existe92 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAL. in (the first substantive). ‘Thus, Sess (bibAmddkl) the thing, the one that exists, that is in (the possession or keeping of) my father, which my father has or holds; oe SOL (bdbAsindékl ‘illm) the seiewce possessed by his father, that is tx his father. The sabstantive combinations form tho plural, and aro declined; the adjective combination is invariable. With a noun of plaeo or of time the same particle, SF forms a relative combination, substantive or adjective, having rela- tion to the placo or time name]. Tn the case of the noun of place, the locative preposition may also be employed. ‘Thus, gl the foot, ov lower part, Xe | and esti that which is at the foot; ces the evening, wales that which was or will be (present) in the evening. Section VIII. Zhe Derivation of the Verb. As « general rule, each primary Turkish verb forms, itself included, a system of twelve affirmative, twelve negative, and twelve impotential verbs, by regnlar derivation ;—thirty-six in all ; one half being verbs active, the other half verbs passive ; the active verbs being transitive or intransitive; the passives having for their nominative the direct or the indirect object of the transitive, the indirect object only of tho intransitive prinitive. In another mode of subdivision, on the other hand, theseACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 93, thirty-six verbs divide into two equal classes, in pairs, ano of ouch pair boing simple, and tho other causative (which is also permisaive, a8 tho ecnse may show). Each simple and causative pair of verbs is either determinate, indeterminate, or reciprocal ; so that, by a special division of the same thirty-six, there are twelve determinate, twelve in- determinate, and twelve reciprocal verbs; thns (giving the imperatives of exch, for economy of space) :—GRAMMAR. OTTOMAN TURKISU o4 “hjponyis 4ay7OKe BuO yay “yioqy ory (arayy) you oF apqnun ag | Cur) ayoue 07 azgnun 99 (ompappaseda) Serr | (gupaypaplr) Ex aee +S payory 29 (uury) ayous 07 ayqoun 99 (peaupdn) SvGer “Ayrongnu 12470u0 auo 92 02 a}qnuN aq “nog Yyary 0} ayqoun 39 (quigystlal) esv-r (quan) Serer “Ayn nus sayjoun uo yory jou (tuaqy) ayouUe “imogn yory (UNIY) jou ayo "pron t(wiy) yory of azqvun ag (qmgdqa) ct “yon Epryary 9 (MU) Jou Ja) Ao ayo (aassmesag) aaijosnng adage sg2tta,Z) | | | | (pauppasyler) TGr (youpdga) olor pansy “dayjouD auo Ajponjnue qou yary “‘Inogn you yory ‘jou yory £70u (my) yory anus: (ays) p77 (yuopdgn) sr (padi) soo wayjoun auo “yay payany Ayponjnue youy (may) ayou | -qjnagn youy (may) aymia 9g (wy) 227 40 a:ypu (aarssnusar) Creusidyy Aare ypnpla) Ae Gpday =r" aayyosnog “Coy ‘of yin ‘ayud ur) “aay}oUD 940 Arponrn yony auvp Snogn yory “yory $ (many) ry dug (aside) 7 (mjd) (a) oa “yrooathoayy “aypusuaayepur “ayourusaqoq. "AATLIS SVMTLNE “SNVILNE UO “SSVEL “SNVULNI UO ‘SNVUL ‘SassvIo “TAILOV AAILYDANT AVILNYLOEKT SALVRUISyACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. “AAA 9u0 YRy punt 07 apne ay 0) ayqaUN ag Cmeusipasidn) Aeeeer “UE gHOPD pRYHRY ag 07 apuma aq 07 a7qDUN oq Cqurqippuydga) Fer POH IG oF aout ag oF ayquun 29 (gated) Spee a PEL Ajpoarnu 99 0} ayqpun 99 Qenguasidq) oye Sar n0go payary a 07 aqoun 29 Cagney) Fy “posyony 99 0} aygoun 39 fenquidgy) ree Cenasseuuczer) eayoenng Pra “TAISSVd “A yROUD BuO YORY “tp PROD Aqzompn op apou jou 29 | pryory 29.0} apo rou 2g | “poyary 2g 0) apom uu ag |{(oasssimtt) Crmspusyden) Seer | punspeordan) Ser Gaupapdy) ere fy aveeno ‘un poyory fypongnu gow a9 |“ anogn poyory you 29 spayouy 104 99 adiag Gunusidy) Sarr (yarpordgyy yr (eeoydgn) Fer aaron Fao “ia pn0q@ Ayponana yory 09 apowe og | pean 29 07 spoue 09 “payary 09 of opou oq |f (oapesssoer) Cuneastiny S70 Caapuydan ee" (iid) Eh pauneneg “ong ‘ut payary Apponinue ag | -a9p tus mnogo payary aq [aap ‘up poyary 2g ‘panory 29 ayduassy (yuaday 0 (eye) EL Gade) : “poo ation | vrmmioyapur | “ppouMTIO “MATLIONVMENT ‘SassvIo HAILVON AVILSHLOART AATLIVREL96 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAK. Remarks on the foregoing Table. The imperative singular is the root, or simplest form iv the conjugation, primitive or derivative, of the Turkish verb. This conjugatioa—unique for al) the thirty-six forms, as will be seen further on—consists in adding certain vowels and con- sonants to the end of this conjugatioual root. When the conjugational root of the simple afirmative form ends in J, or in a vowel, it forms its passive by adding ,, instead of J. Thus: Jy (bal) find, oie (baldn, the dtard domivating) be found; yi (qapla) cover, GWE (qipldn) de covered ; ish (dqh) read, Cyisl (Aq) be read. In tho fore- going case of the vowel-ending, the passive sometimes takes both the ,y and the J, the ., always preceding; thus, bLE (qipldoil, as G6), be covered, jisyi (Sqhndl, as (yg!) be read. When the root of the siwple affirmative bas more than one syllable, aud ends in J, ,, of a vowel, its enusative is formed by adding a letter & in Liew of tho syllable js. Thus, J (qts4l) become shorter, els (qi-dlt) make or det (it) become shorter} shorten (it); 9y-2229) (este) cough, py Zagl (SkesAr1) make ov let (him) cough; AS» (siwayld) speak, say, L135. (shwéylit) make or let (him) speak or say, make or det (it) be spoken or said (by bim); 5391 (8q8) read, recite, 2a.) qat) nuke or det (it) be read or recited (by him), make (him) read.ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 97 Many siuple afficoiative verbs ending in consonants also form their ennentives in 3, preceded by a servile dsdrd, sore. times written %, and even $,, with dtdird; not in js. No rule appears to oxist on this subject, aud the dictionary alone, or experience, can help ie student ia it. Thus, él (leh) drink (it), Sp' Clehir) oF 21 (ehde) make or let (it) be drunte (by bim); 2G (bat) sink (thon), 30 (Udstr) make or det (it) sink, sink (i); C8 (qleb) fice, ereape, jel (qiebtr) make or fet (bim) flee ot escape. When the simple verb, affirmative, negative, or impotentinl, is transitive, its causative governs the same accusative ; aad the nominative to the simple then becomes a dative to the cauvative. Thus, pe HGF (bdo bot ybadtin) Z wrote it, ay 5 6G coil Go (edu Aol LARA yAzdtrdll) chow madest i to be written by me (thou cousedst to me the writing it), thou madest or leltest me write tt, When the simple verb ia neuter, its nominative becomes the accusative of its causative; as qayigl (Aydddan) FZ slept, Ssind Uo Om (stn Leol dydedin) thow madest or lettest me sleep. An indefinite scries of causatives of every verb may be formed by repeatiog the causative suffixes, & after 52, and yo after. They are sometimes useful, but are generally used in irony; each augment adds an agent to the chain; as Gaia,98 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, e100. arco oe ove er Spb, Goh, Spgs é&c.; this last means to cause (a thing) to be caused (by 2 second) to be caused (by a third) to be written (by a fourth agent). The indeterminate is also called the Reflexive form. It has two uses. More generally it has the same intransitive sig- nification with the simple form, as to the action, but betokens that this action is then performed without any determiaate exterior object. Thus ite) is, fo kick one’s feet or heels about as one lies or stands (liko a daveer, @ man ip a passion, a dying avimal, &,); pal (biqttimag) is, to look about, here and there, in @ perplexed or inquisitive manner; &e. But, at other times, this form is.transitive, and then indicates that the agent is either the direct or indirect object, also, of the action,—-that the act is dona to or for the agent’s self. Thus, Sab gs (qflt} qhsbdnmdg) to gird a sword on to one’s self; oat il (av ddinmék) to acquire @ house for one's self; Sab (q&shinmaq) to seratch one’s self (with one’s nails) ; aes (glyinmék) ¢o put on one's clothes, AS oe (chlzma giyinmék) to put on boots, AS tie (chizmalérim! glylndytm) det me put on my doots; &e. Passive verbs of neuters are defective; they are conjugated in the third person singular only, aud in inflexions over which person and nuinber exercise no influence, They signify, to be such that the neutral action takes place in, to, for, by, on accountACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY, 99 of, &e. (as expressed), something named, as the act of some or any indeterminate agent, Thus, jai5 day (baylé téplallmdc) the wet of kicking abort is not thus performed, $2.5 131, 9 (bivkld tapluilmdz) the act of kicking about is not allowed here; &e. ‘We have such passive verbs in English; as, to be slept in, (0 be fought for; &e, The Turkish passive verb always has, inherent iu it, the sense of to be —able. Thus, Se (késlllr) i# is cut (often), it will be cut (then), i is cuttadie (always); jo (ydamiz) et ts not eaten (as a rule), if will not be eaten (then), it i not eatadle (either now, or by nature). Sxorion IX, The Lurkish Conjugation, All Turkish affirmative verbs, active or passive, transitive or intransitive, are conjugated tn one and ihe same invariable manner, modified, as to their servile vowels and consonants, dy the lawe of class and euphony alone. Tho negative unit impotential verbs differ from the affirmative, as to conjugation, merely in the form of the sorist active participle, and of the analogous aorist tense indicative. So that ouly one sole con- jugation oxists, in reality, in the Turkish language. ‘The conjugation consists of ono simple and three complex categories of moods, tenses, numbers, persons, participles, verbal nouns, aad gerunds; aJl four categories, simple aad100 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. complex, being fundamentally alike, but each modified in o certain special mauner, to express a modified variation of the action. Each category bas six moods: the imperative, indicative, necessitative, optative (also subjunctive), conditional, and infinitive. The imperative mood has one tense, the future. ‘The indicative bas eight tenses, in four pairs ; the present and imperfect; the aorist and pnat; the perfact and plu- perfect; the future and past future, The necessitative, optative, and conditional, have oue pair each, the aorist and past, ‘The infinitive has but one tense, the present, Each category has five nctive participles; the present (which is tho general active participle, applicable, in one sonse, to any time, past, present, or future), the aorist, the past, the perfect, aud the future. In Turkish, the present or active, the perfect or passive, are not confused together as in Evropean languages ; each is distinct in form and in sense, and is different from the gerund in form, as it is, in grammar aud in sense, different from the verbal noun. Tho active participles of tho passive verbs denote the direct veeipients of the action of verbs transitive; the passive par- ticiples of the same apply to the indirect objects thereof. The active participles of the passives of intransitives denoto theACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 101 indirect objects of the intransitive action ; the passive par- ticiples of such passives are not in use, Between the fivo active and two passive participles of each category, a Turkish conjugation thus furnishes twenty-oight participles for every verb, primitive or detivative. By the use of these numerous participles, it entirely avoids all aecessity for a relative pronoun. ‘The present active participle adds an Astdn end the letters wl, oF only the letter ¢) , to the root that ends in a consonant ; the aorist adds a vowel and the letters jl, or only the Letter , with an Astin, 5) with an Sided, and 5 ooly (or sometimes 2) with an dstrd, for whieh no rale can be given; tho past adds ts (mish, mish) to all cools, whatever theit ending; as the porfoct adds ga (dik) or 52 (dig). ‘The futuro adds an dein and tho letters elas (8k) or s (3j4q) to consonantal routs, and Ga or Gea, with dstin, to vowel roots, including the (Spin), 303 Caleta) are present active participles; as, ys (t8plndn), Gi (tdpl- chan), GAG (tbpltte), GIF (dplnltdn), and EF (episntlde), are those of tho simple affirmative derivatives. The causatives negatives and impotentials. Thus, in js and in Jj» add tho Astin and gj; while those in & change it into 4 before the letters GI; thus, hss (tepdirdn), Of3, 3,1 (@tdrdin), G35 (tepdlrlldn), &e.; (tpdlk) ; E45 (tdpajte), Sy (ebpmaydjdk), Oba eed (dpmlsh) 5 day102 OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR, (t8pemdydjek), the final s of the negative particle a: being elided as useless. When the reot ends with a vowel, as ts tho case with all the nogatives and impotentials, the spllable () (yan, ydn) is added in the present participle, the final 2 or ys of the root being suppressed, and by some oven the |; hut the , is kept intact. Thus, YoSu6 or SUL (qapllyan), GIS (tpmaydn), GLeS (dpindmbyan), yb oy (Fardydn), Gb3l (dqhydn). The Turkish present active participle, in colloquial lan- guage, ag a remanet from eastern Turkish, takes after it the preposition +9 dé, da, to form an adverb of past or future time; as, sui (gidands) when (I, thou, &e.) wend, or shall go. The aorist active participle, of the same form as the third person singular of the sorist tense of the indicative, always ends in a letter, in affirmatives, and in tho syllable 5 (mdz) in uegatives and impotentials, Thus, 53 (t8per}, Sec (tSpmadz), aS (1bpemaz). Io the siwple affirmative, the vowel added to the last con- sonant of the root, to which the final ; is then appended, ennnot be defined by rule. Of course, it must be hard or soft according to the dominant in the root; but different verbs have dstiu, others aséré, others again deird, for their vowel ; and vith the &st&u, all hard verbs add |, as do some soft verbs ; while othcr oft verbs dispense with this letter. Thus