3 fourth edition DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMSDesign of Feedback Control Systems Raymond T. Stefani California State University, Long Beach Bahram Shahian California State University, Long Beach Clement J. Savant, Jr. Gene H. Hostetter EME COLLEGE LIBRARY | "38245" New York — Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2002gn: TE ro) Oxford University Press 382 ‘Oxford New York ‘Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogoti Buenos Aires Calcuta Cape Town Chennai Dares Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong. Istanbul ‘Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourie Mexico City Mumbai ‘Nairobi Paris Sto Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Ic. 198 Madison Avenve, New York, New York, 10016 Inup:liworw.oup-usaong ‘Onford is registered trademark of Oxford University Press ‘All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reprodsiced, stored ina retrieval system, of transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, recording, or otherwise, ‘without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data Design of feedback control systems / Raymond T. Stefani ..etal.}~ 4th ed, ‘cin. ~ (Oxford series in electrical and computer engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-514249-7 I. Feedback control systems. I Stefani, Raymond T. IL. Secies. 15216 .D417 2001 629.8°3-de21 (00-058913, Printing number: 9 8 7.6.5 43 Printed in the United States of America ‘on acid-free paper10 Ted, Rick, and my Inspiration Saleh and Mahin; Farahnaz, Bita and Nima Barbara and the Savant family in memory of Clement Donna and the Hostetter family in memory of Gene-ontents Preface xv HAPTER 1 Continuous-Time System Description 1 11 Preview 1 1.2 Basie Concepts 2 1.2.1 Control System Terminology 2 1.22 The Feedback Concept 4 13 Modeling 7 1.4 System Dynamics 9 1.5. Electrical Components 10 15.1 Mesh Analysis n 152 State Variables 13 153 Node Analysis 1s 1.34 Analyzing Operational Amplifier Circuits 18 155 Operational Amplifier Applications 21 1.6 Translational Mechanical Components 25 16.1 Free-Body Diagrams 25 1.62 State Variables 29 1.7, Rotational Mechanical Components 32 171 Free-Body Diagrams 32 172 Analogies 35 1.723 Gear Trains and Transformers 371.8 Electromechanical Components 40 1.9 Aerodynamics 45 1.9.1 Nomenclature 46 1.9.2 Dynamics 46 1.9.3 Lateral and Longitudinal Motion 50 1.10 Thermal Systems 52 1.11 Hydraulics 34 1.12. Transfer Function and Stability 35 1.12.1 Transfer Functions 55 1.12.2 Response Terms 7 1.12.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs 07 1124 Stability Co) 1.13 Block Diagrams B 1.13.1 Block Diagram Elements B 1.13.2 Block Diagram Reduction S 1.13.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs 7B 1.14 Signal Flow Graphs 79 1.14.1 Comparison with Block Diagrams 79 1.14.2 Mason's Rule 83 1.15 A Positioning Servo ” 1.16 Controller Model of the Thyroid Gland 94 1.17 Stick-Slip Response of an Oil Well Drill 96 1.18 Summary 101 References 103 Problems 105 CHAPTER 2 Continuous-Time System Response 9 2.1 Preview 9 2.2 Response of First-Order Systems 120 2.3 Response of Second-Order Systems 126 23.1 Time Response 126 23.2 Overdamped Response 127 23.3 Critically Damped Response 128 234 — Underdamped Response 128 23.5 Undamped Natura! Frequency and Damping Ratio 129 23.6 Rise Time, Overshoot, and Settling Time 136 2.4 Higher-Order System Response 141 2.5 Stability Testing 143 25.1 Coefficient Tests 143 25.2 RouthHurwitz Testing 145 25.3 Significance of the Array Coefficients 147itt CONTENTS 254° Left-Column Zeros 148 255 Row of Zeros 150 2.56 — Eliminating a Possible Odd Divisor 154 2.5.7 Multipte Roots 155 2.6 Parameter Shifting 159 2.6.1 Adjustable Systems 159 2.6.2 Kharitonov's Theorem 163 2.7 An Insulin Delivery System 165 2.8 Analysis of an Aircraft Wing 168 29 Summary m References 173 Problems 174 CHAPTER 3 Performance Specifications 183 3.1 Preview 183 3.2. Analyzing Tracking Systems 34 3.2.1 Importance of Tracking Systems 134 3.22 Natural Response, Relative Stability, and Damping 187 3.3 Forced Response 139 33.1 Steady State Error 139 3.3.2 Initial and Final Values 190 333° Steady State Errors to Power-of-Time Inputs 192 3.4 Power-of-Time Error Performance 198 341 System Type Number 198 3.4.2 Achieving a Given Type Number 200 34.3 Unity Feedback Systems 201 344 — Unity Feedback Error Coeficients 204 3.5 _ Performance Indices and Optimal Systems 208 3.6. System Sensitivity 215 3.6.1 Calculating the Effects of Changes in Parameters 215 3.6.2 Sensitivity Functions 216 3.6.3 Sensitivity 1o Disturbance Signals 220 3.7 Time Domain Design 223 371 Process Control 224 3.7.2 Ziegler-Nichols Compensation 224 3.73 Chien-Hrones-Reswick Compensation 225 3.8 An Electric Rail Transportation System 231 3.9 Phase-Locked Loop for a CB Receiver 234 3.10 Bionic Eye 237 3.11 Summary 240 References 242 Problems 244CONTENTS ix CHAPTER 4 Root Locus Analysis 254 4.1 Preview 254 4.2 Pole-Zero Plots 255 421 Poles and Zeros 255 42.2 Graphical Evaluation 256 4.3 Root Locus for Feedback Systems 260 4.3.1 Angle Criterion 260 High and Low Gains 261 Root Locus Properties 262 44 Root Locus Construction 263 4.5 More About Root Locus 272 451 Root Locus Calibration 272 4.5.2 Computer-Aided Root Locus 284 4.6 Root Locus for Other Systems 286 4.6.1 Systems with Other Forms 286 4.6.2 Negative Parameter Ranges 288 4.6.3 Delay Effects 293 4.7 Design concepts (Adding Poles and Zeros) 295 48. ALLight-Source Tracking System 300 49 AnAnificial Limb 302 4.10 Control of a Flexible Spacecraft 308 4.11 Bionic Eye 310 4.12. Summary 313 References 314 Problems 314 CHAPTER 5 Root Locus Design 327 5.1 Preview 327 5.2. Shaping a Root Locus 328 5.3 Adding and Canceling Poles and Zeros 329 S31 Adding a Pole or Zero 329 5.3.2 Canceling a Pole or Zero 330 5.4 Second-Order Plant Models 334 5.5 An Uncompensated Example System 338 5.6 Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) 341 5.6.1 General Approach to Compensator Design 341 56.2 Cascade PI Compensation 343 5.7 Cascade Lag Compensation 347 5.8 Cascade Lead Compensation 351 5.9 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation 355CONTENTS: 5.10 Rate Feedback Compensation (PD) 357 5.11 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation 361 5.12 Pole Placement 365, 5.121 Algebraic Compensation 366 5.122 Selecting the Transfer Function 367 5.123 Incorrect Plant Transmittance 370 5.124 Robust Algebraic Compensation 33 S25 Fixed-Structure Compensation 378 5.13 An Unstable High-Performance Aircraft 381 5.14 Control of a Flexible Space Station 385 5.15 Control of a Solar Furnace 388 5.16 Summary 393 References 394, Problems 395 HAPTER 6 Frequency Response Analysis 405 6.1 Preview 405 6.2. Frequency Response 406 62.1 Forced Sinusoidal Response 406 6.22 — Frequency Response Measurement 407 623 Response at Low and High Frequencies 410 624 — Graphical Frequency Response Methods a2 63 Bode Plots 420 6.3.1 Amplitude Plots in Decibels 420 6.32 Real Axis Roots 424 633 Products of Transmittance Terms 428 634 Complex Roots 433 64 — Using Experimental Data 446 4.1 Finding Models 446 642 Irrational Transmittances 447 65 Nyquist Methods 449 65.1 Generating the Nyquist (polar) Plot 450 652 Interpreting the Nyquist Plot 456 66 Gain Margin 464 6.7 Phase Margin 469 6.8 Relations Between Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Frequency Response 475 69 Frequency Response of a Flexible Spacecraft 480 6.10 Summary 485 References 488 Problems 488CONTENTS xi CHAPTER 7 Frequency Response Design 501 TA Preview 501 7.2. Relation Between Root Locus, Time Domain, and Frequency Domain 501 7.3 Compensation Using Bode Plots 505 7.4 Uncompensated System 507 7.5 Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) and Cascade Lag Compensations 509 7.6 Cascade Lead Compensation 514 7.7 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation SIT 7.8 Rate Feedback Compensation 520 7.9. Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation 523 7.10. An Automobile Driver as a Compensator 525 7.11 Summary 529 References 330 Problems 330 CHAPTER 8 State Space Analysis 535 8.1 Preview 535 8.2 State Space Representation 536 82.) Phase-Variable Form 337 822 Dual Phase-Variable Form 540 823 — Multiple Inputs and Oupus 542 8.24 — Physical State Variables 347 8.2.5 Transfer Functions SSI 83 State Transformations and Diagonalization 554 83.1 Diagonal Forms 558 83.2 — Diagonalization Using Partial Fraction Expansion 562 83.3 Complex Conjugate Characteristic Roots 564 8.34 Repeated Characteristic Roots 567 84 Time Response from State Equations 575 8.4.1 Laplace Transform Solution 375 84.2 Time Domain Response of First-Order Systems 516 843 Time Domain Response of Higher-Order Systems 377 84.4 System Response Computation 579 85 Subility 584 85.1 Asymptotic Stability 584 85.2 BIBO Stability 585 85.3 Internal Stability 587 8.6 Controllability and Observability 389 8.6.1 The Controllability Matrix 592 8.6.2 The Observability Matrix 594 8.6.3 Controllability, Observability, and PoleZero Cancellation 595CONTENTS 864 Causes of Uncontroliability 596 8&7 Inverted Pendulum Problems 603 88 Summary 610 References 612 Problems 614 HAPTER 9 State Space Design 626 9.1 Preview 4 626 9.2 State Feedback and Pole Placement 626 92.1 Stabilizability 630 92.2 — Choosing Pole Locatians 632 9.2.3 Limitations of State Feedback 635 9.3. Tracking Problems 637 9.3.1 Integral Control 638 9.4 Observer Design 640 94.1 Control Using Observers 644, Separation Property 646 Observer Transfer Function 647 9.5 Reduced-Order Observer Design 650 9.5.1 Separation Property 653 9.5.2 Reduced-Order Observer Transfer Function 654 9.6 A Magnetic Levitation System 657 97 Summary 667 References 668 Problems 669 HAPTER 10 Advanced State Space Methods 675 10.1 Preview 675 10.2. The Linear Quadratic Regulator Problem 616 10.2.1 Properties of the LOR Design 680 10.2.2 Return Difference Inequality 680 10.2.3. Optimal Root Locus 682 10.3 Optimal Observers—the Kalman Filter 685 10.4 The Linear Quadcatic Gaussian (LQG) Problem 687 104.1 Critique of LOG 690 10.5 Robustness 692 10.5.1 Feedback Properties 693 10.5.2 Uncertainty Modeling 695, 10.5.3 Robust Stability 698 10.6 Loop Transfer Recovery (LTR) 70510.7 Hoo Control 709 10.7.1 A Brief History 709 Some Preliminaries 70 Heo Control: Solution 13 Weights in Hao Control Problems ns 108 Summary 72 References 3 Problems 74 CHAPTER 11 Digital Control 733 Il Preview 733 11.2 Computer Processing 734 121 Computer History and Trends B4 113. AID and D/A Conversion 737 11.3.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion BI 11.3.2. Sample and Hold 739 -to-Analog Conversion 741 11.4 Discrete-Time Signals 7 114.1 Representing Sequences 74 11.4.2 2-Transformation and Properties 744 11.4.3 Inverse z Transform 749 ILS. Sampling 7st 11.6 Reconstruction of Signals from Samples 153 11.6.1 Representing Sampled Signals with Impulses 753 11.62 Relation Berween the z Transform and the Laplace Transform 756 11.6.3 The Sampling Theorem 757 11.7 Discrete-Time Systems 760 ILZ1 Difference Equations and Response 760 117.2 x-Transfer Functions 762 11.7.3 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 763, 11.74 Stability and the Bilinear Transformation 164 11.7.5 Computer Software 768 11.8 State-Variable Descriptions of Discrete-Time Systems ™ 11.8.1 Simulation Diagrams and Equations ™ 11.8.2 Response and Stability ™ 118.3 Controllability and Observability ™m ing Control Systems 779 11.9.1 Step-Invariant Approximation 719 11.9.2. z-Transfer Functions of Systems with Analog Measurements 782 11.9.3 A Design Example 785 11.10 Direct Digital Design 788 1110.1 Steady State Response 788CONTENTS: 1110.2 Deadbeat Systems 11.103 A Design Example 11.11 Summary References Problems *ENDIX A Matrix Algebra AL Preview A2 Nomenclature A.3 Addition and Subtraction AA Transposition AS Multiplication A6 Determinants and Cofactors AT Inverse A& Simultaneous Equations A9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors A.10. Derivative of a Scalar with Respect to a Vector A.11 Quadratic Forms and Symmetry A.12 Definiteness A.13 Rank A.14 Partitioned Matrices Problems, *ENDIX B Laplace Transform B.A Preview B2 Definition and Properties B.3 Solving Differential Equations B4 Partial Fraction Expansion B.S Additional Properties of the Laplace Transform, B51 Real Translation B52 Second Independent Variable B53 Final-Value and Initial-Value Theorems B54 — Convolution Integral lex 789 790 798 800 812 812 812 812 813 813 814 816 817 819 821 823 824 826 827 334 834 835 837 841 842 842 843 844 845Preface As the new millennium begins, we look back in gratitude to the many faculty and students who have ‘used the three earlier editions of this textbook and made many helpful suggestions to the authors. In those earlier editions we introduced comprehensive design examples, drill problems, and wide margins ‘with notes. Other texts followed our lead and emulated those items. What other texts cannot emulate, ‘we believe, is the clear and understandable exposition we bring to the field of control system science. ‘Throughout this book we try to make complicated methodology accessible to a spectrum of students ‘with widely varying backgrounds. Detail is there for those who want to know “why.” Summaries and ‘marginal comments are there for those who simply want to know “how.” Revisions ‘The most obvious change in this edition is the comprehensive keying of this text to MATLAB. We created sections of “Computer-Aided Learning” by which each student can leam how the MATLAB. platform can be used to verify all figures and tables included in the text. We selected a small group of MATLAB commands to efficiently focus the use of that computational package. In a basic course such as this, itis essential that every student use the computer as an aid to learning and not as the primary ‘source of information, The student should leam all basics and should be able to sketch (albeit roughly) time response plots, root locus plots, and Bode/Nyquist plots manually. MATLAB (or any other ‘computer to!) may then be used to fine-tune understanding and to obtain results of high accuracy. But, those results must be critically reviewed by a knowledgeable user, otherwise the computer becomes ‘the master and the user becomes the slave. ‘Chapter 1 has been substantially revised, Linearization is introduced by which models may be gen- ‘erated. Operational amplifier applications are included for the various types of compensator designed later in the text, Substantive coverage is made of aerodynamics, thermal systems, and hydraulic sys- ‘tems. Drill problems cover those topics. Stability is covered in more detail. Signal flow graphs are better ‘compared to block diagrams. Design examples are added for the human thyroid gland as a controller and for oil well drill dynamics. For Chapter 2, we include the significance of Routh array coefficients and the stability implication of multiple roots occurring as even divisors. An example of Kharitonov's theorem is added.xvi PREFACE ‘Hurwitz determinants are now presented in Chapter 3. It is now shown how coefficients of the (ansfer function may be selected to force a given type number to occur. An interesting biomedical design example is added, that of a bionic eye for the blind. Time response examples are added to iflustrate time domain design ‘The main change to Chapter 4 is inclusion of computer-tided means for calculating breakaway points, entry points, departure angles, and approach angles. The MATLAB command rltool is introduced. Delay effects are evaluated as a function of 1/T where T is the delay in seconds. The bionic eye example is again used, this time to illustrate use of the root locus. Chapter 5 is revised comprehensively. Root locus design methods are now more general and more flexible. The effect of adding or canceling poles or zeros is covered in detail. The MATLAB command rLtool is suggested as a primary computer aid in that the effect of each root locus design point may be evaluated in terms of step response and the Bode plot. A new design example is introduced for a solar furnace. Chapter 6 now begins with an introduction to all frequency response plots. It is argued that frequency response data are complex vectors, hence can be plotted in a variety of ways resulting in Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols plots. There is a new section that discusses the relation between open-loop ‘and closed-loop frequency response plots. Closed-loop frequency response data such as bandwidth and peak resonance are introduced more formally. Nichols plots, Nichols charts, and constant loci M and N circles are also discussed. Chapter 7 on frequency domain design remains unchanged. Chapter 8 now includes a design example of the classic inverted pendulum problem and several variations, This famous problem has become a benchmark for testing novel control design techniques and provides an excellent tool for introducing the important concepts of controllability, observabil- ity, pole-zero cancellation, and practical issues such as sensor placement. Appropriate MATLAB commands for state space modeling, transformation, analysis, and simulation are also discussed. Chapters 9-11 have minor corrections along with the introduction of MATLAB commands for digital control, Use of This Textbook ‘The text can be divided into six areas: Classical analysis including modeling (Chapters 1-4, 6) Classical design (Chapters 5 and 7) State-variable analysis (Chapter 8) State-variable design (Chapter 9) ‘Advanced topics (Chapter 10) Digital control (Chapters 11) ‘These six areas represent building blocks to construct a course. We have purposely included more material than a three-Semester unit course or a four-quarter unit course would normally cover. The ‘extra material is intended to give the instructor flexibility in structuring a course to meet the needs of the program, the university, and the community served. We suggest that it is better to cover a smaller ‘number of units well than to cover a larger number poorly. For example, a two-course sequence could be created where the first course covers classical analysis (Chapters 1-4 and 6) followed by a second course including state variables, design, and advanced topics (Chapters 5 and 7-10). Chapter 11 is often used as reference material, introducing the student to digital control and providing a comparison with analog methods. The possibilities are endless, Raymond T. Stefani Bahram Shakian Clement J. Savant Jr: (Late) Gene H. Hostetter (late)Continuous-Time System Description ‘The first conscious use of feedback control of a physical system by mankind lives in prehistory. Possibly it was a spillway in an irrigation network, where excess water was automatically drained. Development of a mathematical framework forthe description, analysis, and design of control systems dates from the introduction of James Watt's flyball governor (1760), which was used to regulate the speed of steam engines, and the subsequent work by James Clerk Maxwell (ca. 1868) and others to improve the design and extend its applicability. ‘Since that era, the theory and practice of control system design advanced rapidly. Important new concepts and tools were developed in connection with telephone and radio communications in the 1920s and 1930s. Rather poorly performing electronic devices, including amplifiers and modulators, were dramatically improved by feed- back. World War Il further accelerated the development of classical control theory and practice. Heavy guns had to be rapidly and accurately positioned. Precise navi- gation and target tracking were increasingly important, and aircraft performance was improved greatly with the incorporation of complex control systems to aid the pilot. Latter, automation became a household word as industry began to depend more and ‘more upon automatically controlled machinery. ‘Today, feedback control systems are pervasive in industry and in our everyday lives. They range from governmental regulation (such as that governing monetary policy) to automated and highly flexible manufacturing plants to sophisticated auto- ‘mobiles, houschold appliances, and entertainment systems. It is our purpose to learn to design feedback control systems for a wide variety of appli VP r2 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION Control system designers find that block diagrams provide a particularly useful way to visualize the interconnections of system components, thus revealing the system structure. Successful design begins by creating a mathematical model of the system tobe stabilized. Next, the contents of the blocks within a diagram mustbe iden- tified. Finally, values must be selected for those parameters that are adjustable, and. sometimes additional components must be added to provide acceptable performance. ‘This chapter begins by defining basic control system terminology. Since design ‘requires a model of each system of interest, the behaviors of many typical electrical, mechanical, and electromechanical systems are described. The resulting differential equations must be rendered into form useful tothe controls engineer. The goal can be accomplished by Laplace-transforming each differential equation and then generating relationship, the transmittance, between the input and output of each block of the control system block diagram. In Appendix B, a summary of the Laplace transform method is presented. ‘The block diagram can be reduced to just one input-output relationship, the system overall transfer function. By converting the block diagram into an equivalent form, the signal flow graph can be developed. Subsequent chapters will describe the design steps that follow once the block diagram has been defined and the transfer function has become available, All the chapters of this text conclude with examples that are intended to reinforce the key points of the chapter in an interesting and informative manner. Chapter 1 concludes with discussion of a positioning servo, analysis of the thyroid gland, and design of an oil well drilling system. While the material in the first chapter involves subjects already known to the reader from previous experience, the text provides a coherent review. The emphasis here is on using rather than proving results. 1.2.1 Control System Terminology Control systems influence each facet of modem life. Automatic washers and dry- ‘ers, microwave ovens, chemical processing plants, navigation and guidance systems, space satellites, pollution control, mass transit, and economic regulation are a few examples. In the broadest sense, a control system is any interconnection of components to provide a desired function, The plant (process), inputs ‘The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or the process. and outputs are defined. It is affected by applied signals, called inputs, and produces signals of particular interest, called outputs, as indicated in Figure 1.1(a). The plant is fixed insofar as the ‘control system designer is concerned. Whether the plant is an automobile engine, an electrical generator, ora nuclear reactor, itis the designer's job to ensure that the plant operates as required. Other components must be specially created and connected as means to an end. Controller and open-toop A controller may be used to produce a desired behavior of the plant, as shown contro! are defined. in Figure 1.1(6). The controller generates plant input signals designed to produceBASIC CONCEPTS 3 Desired Disturbance pla ‘pets Behavior Ingots Pinot JOuipas, — Prank | Pa, process [Contat "| _ process inpoce ® o Engine speed (ep) gueEE ‘Nominal ace Throte -——— ‘shaft E THO" Different load a oe a >) arrtor Po Fas Tarte posion (nse) © co Figure 1.1 (a) A plant or process to be controlled. (b) An open-loop control system, (©) Example of an open-loop control system. (4) Engine speed versus throttle angle curves. desired outputs. Some of the plant inputs are accessible to the designer and some are generally not available. The inaccessible input signals are often disturbances to the plant. The double lines in the figure indicate that several signals of each type may be involved. Arrows indicate direction of flow. This system is termed open-loop because the control inputs are not influenced by the plant outputs: that is, there is no feedback around the plant. Such an open-loop control system has the advantage of simplicity, but its per- formance is highly dependent upon the properties of the plant, which may vary with time. The disturbances to the plant may also create an unwanted response, which it ‘would be desirable to reduce. ‘AS an example, suppose that a gasoline engine is used to drive a large pump. as depicted in Figure 1.1(c). The carburetor and the engine comprise a common type of control system wherein a large-power output is controlled with a small-power Open-loop eximmples are input. The carburetor is the controller in this case, and the engine is the plant. The Presented. desired plant output, a certain engine shaft speed, may be obtained by adjusting the throttle angle. ‘Two plots of engine speed versus throttle angle are shown in Figure 1.1(d). If the nominal curve is used, a throttle angle of 80° produces an engine speed of 2300 rpm. ‘Suppose that a disturbances occurs, consisting of a change in engine load. For the new curve, a throttle angle of 80° produces an engine speed of only 1000 rpm. In some cases open-loop control may be acceptable. In other cases, it may not be acceptable to have system output change when other values change. In these more critical cases, the closed-loop procedure of the next section may be needed. Table 1.1 shows five examples. The first two examples are for open-loop systems in that no measurements are taken to adjust controller influence on the plant, Each of the two controllers is specified when a manual setting is made of temperature and speed respectively. Hair dampness and the type of material being drilled are4 ‘CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION i disturbances affecting desired performance. In these two cases, the user simply alters the total time until the job is done. Inthe case of the hair dryer, output air temperature remains constant while drying time for hair will vary according to wetness. In the case of the drill, output speed may vary while the drilling requirement remains constant. Figure 1.1(b) describes these systems. 1.2.2 The Feedback Concept Ifthe requirements of the system cannot be satisfied with an open-loop control system, Closed.loop contol is a closed-loop or feedback system is desirable. A path (or loop) is provided from the distinguished from open-loop output back to the controller. Some or all of the system outputs are measured and ‘contro used by the controller, as indicated in Figure 1.2(a). The controller may then compare desired plant output with the actual output and act to reduce the difference between the two. Let us return to Table 1.1 and consider the third and fourth examples. Tempera- tures and speed are the system outputs, as was the situation for the first two examples, bbut now measurements are used to keep the outputs constant in the presence of dis- turbances. If outside temperatures drops, a thermostat determines that the room is becoming too cold, The thermostat causes furnace heat to increase which, in turn, ‘causes the room temperature to increase to the predetermined value. Changes in driving conditions represent disturbances affecting an automobile’s speed. One possible feedback control configuration is shown in Figure 1.2(b). A tachometer produces a voltage proportional to the engine shaft speed. The input voltage, which is proportional to the desired speed, is set with a potentiometer, The tachometer voltage is subtracted from the input voltage, giving an error voltage that is proportional to the difference between the actual speed and the desired speed. ‘The error voltage is then amplified and used to position the throtile. The throttle actuator could be a reversible electric motor, geared to the throttle arm. When the ‘engine shaft speed is equal to the desired speed (when the difference or error is zero), the throitle remains fixed. If a change in load or a change in the engine components Table 1.1 Examples of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems Input Plant f Disturbance Output pement S Heat seting Hair dryer Hairdampness | Hot air None ‘temperature Speed seting | Dial Dail ‘Type of material | Rotating drill | None bitspeed Desired “Thermostat Fumace Outside Hot air Room temperature temperature temperature temperature Desired speed | Cruise control | Auto engine Driving Car speed Engine rpm conditions Desired Electorate President Economy Decisions Evaluation performanceBASIC CONCEPTS 5 Desired Disturbance plant inputs behavior = 199 a ‘Conirat ”|_process inputs ———— Measured curt, a Shaft Voltage proportional to shalt o Figure 1.2 (a) Closed-loop or feedback control. (b) A closed-loop engine control system, should oceur in the system, and the actual speed is no longer equal to the desired speed, the error voltage becomes nonzero, causing the throttle setting to change so that the actual speed approaches the desired speed. The controller here consists of the voltage difference amplifier, the throttle actuator, and the carburetor. The last example of Table 1.1 differs in a subtle yet very important way from the first four examples. Consider the task of affecting U.S. presidential decisions. To fit the control system model of Figure 1.2(a), those decisions would be the out. Put. The electorate functions as a controller. As the economy changes, those changes become a disturbance to decisions tentatively made by the president. Collectively, the voters have some shared desired performance of government. These voters mea sure the president's decisions against desired performance and vote accordingly. It is interesting (and perhaps a bit surprising) that after $4 presidential elections from 1788 through 2000, the Democratic party and its predecessors have won 26 elections ‘while the Republican party and its predecessors have won 28, a remarkably balanced Control. The important difference from the first four examples is that here there is a time delay between a presidents decisions and the next election. Action in the first four examples is continuous. In some control applications, the presence of delay can destabilize a system. Imagine driving a car with eyes being open for 305s, then closed for 30 s, and so on. Activity by nearby traffic during the 30 s that the eyes are closed could easily require corrective action, which could not occur in time. Delay effects ‘are considered later in this text.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION Some of the advantages that feedback control offers to the designer are: Advantages of feedback. 1. Increased accuracy. The closed-loop system may be designed to drive the error Gifference between desired and measured response) to zero. 2. Reduced sensitivity to changes in components. As in the preceding examples, the system may be designed to seek zero error despite changes in the plant. 3. Reduced effects of disturbances. The effects of disturbances to the system may be greatly attenuated. 4 Increased speed of response and bandwidth. Feedback may be used to increase the range of frequencies over which a system will respond and to make it respond. more desirably. A satellite booster rocket, for example, has aerodynamics resem- bling those of a giant broomstick. It may, with feedback, behave with beauty and grace. O DRILL PROBLEMS D1L.1 Using the format of Table 1. that do not employ feedback. 1.2 Using the format of Table 1. that employ feedback. D1. Identify the input, controller, and output for each of the following contro! systems. Which are open loop and which are closed loop? (a) A heater with thermostat (b) A toaster (©) A human being reaching to touch an object (6) A human being piloting an aircraft (©) A hydroelectric generator five additional examples of control systems list five additional examples of control systems Human Speed, heading | Closed Pipesinozzles | Power open D1.4 What measurements and changes should be taken so the open-loop systems of Drill Problem D1.3 can become closed-loop systems? Ans. (b) measure dryness of the toast and adjust the dial setting of heat; (©) measure power demand and adjust the flow through the pipes and nozzlesMODELING 7 DLS Draw diagrams similar to Figure 1.2 for the following systems: (@) Control of human skin temperature by sweating (©) Control of a nuclear reactor (6) The leaming process with feedback, assuming that available stdy time is disturbance \ = Control engineers must be able to analyze and design systems of many kinds. For Start with » process. example, to design a speed control system for an automobile, it is necessary to ‘understand how the vacuum pressure of an engine affects throttle setting (pneumatics), how temperature and pressure within a cylinder affect the power out as the gas-air mixture from the carburetor explodes (thermodynamics), how the car will respond to the power applied by the pistons in the cylinders (mechanics), and how electrical devices may be created to measure and store important variables like temperature and. vacuum pressure (electrical circuits). In each case itis necessary to create a mathematical mode! that behaves similarly Create a model, to the actual system within some operating range. The result is the description of 2 plant for which a controller and measurement device may then be designed. For ‘example, certain values of a spring-mass-damper may be able to simulate the motion ‘of acar within some range of power applied while other values are needed for different powers applied. The process of linearization may be used to construct a model that is valid for some range of operating conditions. For example, suppose a system output y (maybe speed) depends on some input x (perhaps power), as represented by Figure 1.3, in which yef@=r 1.1) Figure 1.3 Two sppcoximations for yar,rearization. CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION aug 4.00 440 480 8.00 Tnstead of this nonlinear equation, it may be more useful to create a linear model that ‘operates near some value of x called x9. A Taylor series approximation 0 F(x) at the point xo is given by the following where /f"(xp) means that f(x) is differentiated with respect tox and then evaluated when x equals xo. The tilde symbol (~) implies ‘an approximation y ~ yo + f'(x0)(x — x0) 2) y ~ x5 + 21068 — x0) 113) If we choose xo to be 2, then the approximation ‘of Equation (1.3) becomes y~ 444-2) (4) ‘Table 1.2 and Figure 1.3 show values of Equation (1.4) near xo = 2and also results farther away from xp = 2. Notice that Equation (1.4) is good approximation to x? for values of x near 2 but thatthe approximation becomes worse for x values which are higher than 2. For example, ifx moves to the vicinity of 4, then Equation (1-3) becomes 16+8(x—4), ‘which yields an approximate value of 16.80 at x = 4.1, very close wo the te value we GL and much better than the value 12.40 that we would get using the other approximation. Even Ohm’s famous law that v = 12 is good only for some range aeprtage versus current. In Figure 1.4 there is a linear region where the slope of » crue is constant (and Ohms law applies) and other regions where the slope is not constant (and Ohm's law does not apply). O DRILL PROBLEMS D6 Approximate y = /F for values of x = 2.2,2.4,2.6,2.8, and 3.0 by lin- carizing JX about xo = 2, using Equation (1.2). Compare approximate values with true values. ‘Ans, y © 141440354 - 2) © | Approximate | True 22 | 1.485 1.483 2.4 | 1.556 1.549 26 | 1.626 1.612 2.8 | 1.697 1.673 3.0 | 1.768 1.732‘SYSTEM DYNAMICS 9 ¥ Figure 1.4 Linear region where vsiR a near i DLT If x is in radians, use Equation (1.2) to approximate y = sinx for val- tues of x = 0.1,0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, by linearizing sin.x about x» = 0. Compare approximate values with true values. Ans, yx = (rad) | x (deg) | Approximate | True Or 37 02 ILS 03 17.2 04 22.9 1.4 System Dynamics A controls engineer usually works from the Laplace-transformed description of a system. Each application has its own unique properties. Some systems are purely ¢lectrical while others may employ electrical, hydraulic, and mechanical subsystems, all tied together in a coordinated effort to maintain some desired performance. We shall examine methods for analyzing components of the following types: Electrical (mesh analysis, node analysis, state variables, operational amplifier Applications. applications) Mechanical translational (free-body diagrams and state variables) ‘Mechanical rotational (free-body diagrams) Electromechanical Aerodynamic Hydraulic ‘Thermodynamic10 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION For each of these system types, the basic dynamic equations are shown and thén ‘converted to Laplace transforms. Electrical networks are governed by two Kirchhoff laws: 1. The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop equals zero. 2. The algebraic sum of currents flowing into a circuit node equals zero. Basic laws. Network element models include resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, and current sources. The voltage-current relations for these are summarized in Figure 1.5. The voltage-current relations of Figure 1.5 can be Laplace-transformed by using the techniques of Appendix B. With all initial conditions equal to zero, the relations are Laplace-transformed as follows: Ve(s)= RIGS) Vils)=sLI(s) Ves) = (I/sC)I(s) [1.5] H(s) = (1/R)Ve(s)_ 1s) = 1/(SL)Vi(s)—I(s) = sCVe(s) [1.6] he ro e + RS ld £3 ul) * vel 4 . vo =1! ve(0= Fades rf = LE c= Bf" 1 7 a = boo) i= Mi mide My=cge Voltage Source Current Source - ¥(O a given: (0) a given 0) function of i) pc ot < time time W() expressed in 0 expressed in cf) terms of other i terms of other network voltages network voltages or curreats orcurrests Figure 1.5 Electrical element voltage-current relations.ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS: n Note that letters are used for voltage and current to indicate that these variables are functions of s and not ¢. When these functions are Laplace-transformed, itis easy to consider an inductance as an impedance of value 5 and a capacitor ns an impedance of value 1/sC. Figure 15 illustrates voltage and current sources of two types—independent and dependent. 1.5.1 Mesh Analysis One systematic method of network analysis consists of defining a loop current in each mesh of a network, equating the algebraic sums of the voltages around each mesh to Example of network analysis: zero. For example, in the network of Figure 1.6 the application of Kirchhofs voltage aw around the i mesh gives diy 2 +3) 5 if a ta -m+e f (i ia) dt = 800891 Similarly, around the iz mesh, we have : [ (i -haddt =0 Collecting terms, the following simultaneous integrodifferential equations in i, and di; 6p tM ~~ én result: di if ce stm f inde ~~ [dt = Boos ash fe dist aim Z fide +65 + hint 5 [sao Of course, each of these equations can be differentiated to eliminate integrals if a purely differential equation is desired, ‘These equations can be Laplace-transformed, assuming zero initial conditions, with the result: 1 8s (314642) n+ ( 4-5) hO= aR 11.7) 3H +*- +. 3 6 3 * 6 1m) # &) a) Faucn Gayle, Se 1s 3 9 7 + LL ayae seg Ts 8 cos 9 tLe 2 > -@ £ O - wo Figure 1.6 Writing simultaneous mesh equations for an electrical network. (a) Electrical net- ‘work example for mesh analysis. (b) Network with element voltages expressed in terms of the ‘mesh currents.2 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION and for the second mesh, 5s (4-%) 16) + (641+ ) ni =0 (1.8) Notice that since these are functions of s, uppercase variables are used. Equations (1.7) and (1.8) can be written ina standard form as follows: ee cons: Zu(s)hls) + Zrals)has) = Eris) 1.91 Zay(s)hi(s) + Zra(s)h2(s) = Ents) {1.10} where 2,)(s) = sum of all impedances around the J, mesh, in this case equal to (3s +6+ assy) Zj2(s) = Zoy(s) = sum of all impedances common to both mesh /, and mesh J2, in this case equal to [—4 — (1/5s)]; these terms are negative when all mesh currents are taken in a clockwise direction Zz(s) = sum of all impedances around the /2 mesh, in this case equal to [6s + M+ /5s)) E\(s) = independent voltage source driving mesh 1, in this case equal to 85/( +9) E,(s) = independent voltage source driving mesh /a, in this ease equal to 0 ‘The solution of Equations (1.9) and (1.10) is best accomplished with Cramer's rule, In this example, 13(s) is to be found as follows: Zn Ex(s) jZ1 E2(s) Zi Zia] Zn Z| 6S) Using Cramer’ rule. (41) when the values of this impedance and the driving functions are given above, The denominator of Equation (1.11) is expanded as follows: Zn Zn! Za Zz 4 = 22a -Zuta where the (s) symbol is understood for all Zi, ‘The symbol A is used to represent the determinant of the impedance functions. ‘When these functions are substituted into Equation (1.11), the following expression results: [85/(s? + 97)114 + (1/58) WS) = Fee USNs + 11 + 1/55) — 4 + O/580P a3ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS 13 1.5.2 State Variables Another way to handle circuit problem is to write differential equations in terms of the “energy storage” variables such as inductor currents and capacitor voltages. The result is a set of first-order differential equations. For example, we could choose the pera and iz and the capacitor voltage v. 6 Giada ~2iy +4/3i2 — 1/30. + 8/3 c089% /6iy ~ 11/62 + 1/6ve dv_/dt = 1/5iy — 1/5ix These differential equations can be written in matrix form iy 2 43 -173) fi ¥(t)/3 d/at}iz}=|273 -11/6 1/6 ||i}+] 0 11.13] time domain. % WS -1/5 0 |ly 0 where v, (1) = 8cos 9. In Laplace form, Equation (1.13) becomes s+20 -4/3 1/3 1 [ ns) Va(8)/3 ' -2/3 s+1/6 -1/6|| no} =| 0 (414) Lapalace domain. “U5 Ss 5 Vols), 0 "Next, Equation (1.14) can be solved for /2(s) using Cramer's rule: s+2 1/3 1 2/3 0 -1/6 “1/5 0 s Als) = Ve(s) [1.15] Using Cramers rule, s+2 4/3 1/3 -2/3 s+11/6 -1/6| “1/5 1/5 s ‘The result of solving Equation (1.15) is 2/9(s + 1/20)[85/(s? + 9°)] [115 8423/65? + 259/90 5+ 1/10 : Equation (1.16) equals equation (1.12). Notice that the system is obviously of order 3 using equation (1.14), while the block diagram approach awaited the cancellation of some terms before the system order became known, which means that the system order is less obvious from the block diagram approach. A set of equations ‘such as (1.13) and (1.14) are called “state variable” equations in that these variables epresent the minimum set needed to evaluate the “state” of the system, hs) =“ ‘CONTINUOUS-TIME: svsrgt vEscRIPTION Q Computer-Aided Lelrning ‘Throughouttis textbook, we encourage the understanding of basic concepts. Once ‘understood, we then encourage the use of computer packages to carry out difficult calculations, The pairing of basic concepts with computer-aided learning should be an equal partnership without overemphasis on the computer as the primary mode of understanding, but neither should there be theory without practice. This texts keyed to the use of the student version of MATLAB, including the Control ‘Systems Toolbox. MATLAB has become the preeminent program of choice among control engineers, Of course, other computer packages may be applied to the ‘computer-aided learning sections of this text. In this section, the following MATLAB commands are introduced: syns 5 inv(matrix) simplify ‘One strength of MATLAB is its ability to perform symbolic mathematical operations. Polynomials in “s” can be created and multiplied. The “syms” com- mand causes any indicated variable (such as “s") to be used symbolically (not as 2 ‘numerical value). Other useful commands are “simplify” which causes the com- puter to combine terms and cancel where needed and “inv(m)" which causes the inverse of the matrix m to be taken. Rows of m are separated by “;” and columns are separated by spaces or commas. The “inv” command makes it possible to solve a number of difficult problems just presented in the text. C11 Write MATLAB commands to evaluate and simplify Equation (1.12), which gives h(8). ‘Ans. Syn 5 ti=8+5/(s"2+81) t294+1/5/8 t3=3est6+1/5/8 t4=6e5t1141/5/s t5=t2 tL12=t1+t2/(t3er4d-t6°2) simplify (t112) C1.2 Write MATLAB commands to solve Equations (1.7) and (1.8) to obtain the 1A(s) of Equation (1.16), Ans, syns 8 m= [345+6+1/5/s -4-1/5/s; -4-1/5/s 6*a+11+1/5/s) [8+8/(s"2+81); 0) inv(m)*e Note: In(s) is 1(2, 1). Q DRILL PROBLEMS D1 For the circuit of Figure D1.8, Write an integrodifferential mesh equations in terms of iy and ip. Use Laplace transforms to obtain the form of Equations (1.9) and (1.10),Figure DL8 3 16 (5+6:+2) 10-320 = wa ~shio+ (744144) =0 DL For the circuit of Figure D.1.8, choose one state variable for each energy Storage variable; that is, choose is, £2, vy and v,. Write four first-order differential ‘equations and convert to Laplace form of Equation (1.14), ‘Ans. C+) -2 § O} [Aw] PR ere?+4y Post} 0 d/l ne] _ 0 : -3 Os Of} u(s)| ~ 0 0 4 0 s}]us) 0 (Characteristic polynomial = 24s? + 6259 +625? + 41s +12 1.5.3 Node Analysis Jn the nodal method of network analysis, one node in the network is chosen as the reference node and voltages between the reference node and each other node are defined. Expressing the element currents in terms of node voltages and applying of independent simultancous integrodifferential equations as there are node voltages, For the network of Figure 1.7 (a), the node voltages are labeled v(t) and va(t). In Node analysis methodology. Figure 1.7 (b) the branch currents are expressed in terms of these node voltages. Applying Kirchhof’s current law at node | gives: if t a 1 af ett fn t4£ omy t bonny aie At node 2, 1 da 1 B24 1) — 5 (1) = sine16 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 3a. Node 1 Node 2 + + nO (= sin @ 20 oo ? [aH Reference node & Figure 1.7 Writing simultaneous node equations for an electrical net- ‘work. (a) Electrical network example for nodal analysis. (b) Nework ith element currents expressed in terms of the node voltages. Collecting terms gives the following two simultaneous integrodifferential equations in v,(¢) and v(t): dy 8 it dy rg Set 4 ial ber +Sna5 [i nae 4a gee dy 1 dv ‘) 4 = suit 42 + Spm = sine “These equations are Laplace-transformed, again with zero initial conditions, with the result: 81 2 (« +ht x) vis) + (-# S ) vu) = 11.17) —4s—!) vues) + (48+ #4) va) = (1.18) 3) Me 30) WO = aaT ‘ Fi Again, since these are now functions of s rather than f, uppercase variables are used. Equations (1.17) and (1.18) are written in standard form as follows: Using matric to summarize ‘nade equations Yu MiGs) + Ya¥als) = HG) 1.9} Yar Vi(s) + Yaa Va(s) = hh(s) (1.20) ‘where again the (s) notation is understood for Yj, andELECTRICAL COMPONENTS ” Yu = sum ofall admittances attached to node 1, in this case equal to 4s +8/15 + (12s) Yi2 = You = sum of all admittances connected between node 1 and node 2, in this case equal to (—4s ~ 1/5) Yo2 = sum of all admittances attached to node2, inthis case equal to (4s-+-11/30) ‘1n(S) = independent current source driving node 1, in this case equal to 12/s hGs) independent current source driving node 2, in this case equal to ~1/(s?+1) The solution for V2(s) of Equations (1.19) and (1.20) is found with Cramer's rule, as follows: [is 1G) Yn hh Va(s) =H Yo Na Yor Yar ‘here the values ofthe admittances and independent driving currents are given above. Notice that this solution has the same form as that for the loop analysis shown in Equation (1.11), Simple models for other common electrical and electronic devices are sum- marized in Figure 1.8. Of special importance is the operational amplifier shown in Figure 1.8(0). [1.21] Using Gamers este Computer-Aided Learning C13 Write MATLAB commands to obtain V;(s) and V3(s) from Equations [1.17] and [1.18]. Ans. syms s ne[4¥5*8/15+1/2/s ~495-1/5;-4e8-1/5 4¥5+11/30) i=[12/s;-1/(s-2 +1)) Veinv(m)ei O DRILL PROBLEM D1.10 Write simultaneous Laplace nodal equations for the electrical network shown in Figure D1.10 in terms of the indicated node voltages. Node 1 Node 1 » aH Figure D1.1018 ‘CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION © ie + Figure 1.8 Simple models of some electrical and electronic devices. (a) Transformer with core in linear region. Resistance of the coil wires can be included as additional resistors at each port. b) deal transformer. The ideal transformer modes a transformer with perfect magnetic coupling, M = «/LyZ3. For the ideal transformer, ve My pe Bhs itt aaah where N; and N2 are the number of tums of the L and L2 coils, respectively. (c) Operational “amplifier. The idealized operational amplifier produces an output voltage that is proportional to the difference between two input vollages. Ans. 1 wo (; ass +3) — 3sVais) 1 —35Vi(5) + VaGs) ( + 10s) =5 1.5.4 Analyzing Operational Amplifier Circuits We present here an analysis method that easily yields the mathematical model for ‘“{deal” operational amplifier circuits. An ideal operational amplifier (op-amp) has the following characteristics: . 1. Input resistance into the vp and vy terminals approaches infinity, s0 no current centers those terminals.ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS 19 2. The output resistance is nearly zero, so amplifiers can be cascaded without Models of electrical and “loading” effects. electronic devices are : ; presented. 3. The open-loop voltage gain A approaches infinity, 0 u = vs. ‘Asa result of such large voltage gain A, the output voltage, from Figure 1.8 (c) You = A(Ya ~ vs) ty — yy = Ot he As A is allowed to approach infinity. v, ~ vp = 0 and % =v (1.22) Several examples are presented to explain the method of ideal op-amp analysis. ‘The analysis of a network containing an op-amp is accomplished by following this procedu 1. Write a node equation for node v, assuming that no current enters the amplifier. 2. Write a node equation for node vp, assuming that no current enters the amplifier. 3. Equate v, to vp and solve, Example 1: Find the closed-loop gain for the noninverting amplifier of Figure 1.9. First, the node equation is written for node ve, Noninverting op amp. ‘Second, write the node equation for node vs. Obviously, vs = vin. Third, set v, = vp, since A approaches infinity and Ravn Rat Re Hence the closed-loop gain is = Mout Rr Men 14 SF eee (1.23) = >t—o oe 4 Yo St Figure 1.9 Noninverting amplifier.20 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION Figure 1.10 Inverting amplifier Figure 1.11 Integrating amplifier. Example 2: The closed-loop gain for the inverting amplifier shown in Figure 1.10 is now determined using the procedure shown in Example 1, First write the node equations of v4: Ya = Yin, Ya — Vout + Re Rr Next write the node equation for the node at vy. Here vy = 0 and vu, = vp = 0. Solving for the closed-loop gain. You _ —Re ie. Re (1.24) ‘Example 3: Consider the integrating amplifier of Figure 1.11. Replace Rr in Example 2 with the impedance of the capacitor 1/sC. The node equation for v. ‘The node equation at up is Vj = 0, and Ve=Vs so Ve =0 Uppercase letters indicate that the variables are functions of s. Solving for the closed oop gain. Vous) nt Vass) ~ 5RsCr (4) Rcr nal which is the Laplace transform for a negative integrator, due to the —1/s.ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS 2 Q DRILL PROBLEMS DIAL For the operational amplifier circuit of Figure D1.11, do the following. (@) Find v5.9. (b) Find i. Figure DLL Ans. (2) voy = —20 I-12 For the operational amplifier circuit of Figure D1.12, assuming vigg = 0 fort = 0: (@) Find vou(t) if vig(t) = 10 V. (b) Find vou(t) if vin(¢) = 200s 1001. 200 wF ’. ro Figure D1.12 Ans. (a) —21; (b) —3, sin 1001. 1.5.5 Operational Amplifier Applications ‘The result of Example 2 can be extended to @ wide range of other applications by replacing Ra in Figure 1-10 with an impedance 7, and by replacing Ry in Figure 1.10 with an impedance Z, (which was 1/sCr in Example 3), The result is Figure 1.12. Using Equation (1.24), it follows easily that Vou(s) _ _ Zy(3) Vin(s) Za(s) ‘Suppose the circuit of Figure 1.13 is used in either of Figure 1.12. Its useful to obtain the impedance of the ci uit of Figure 1.13, Since2 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 1 Ry 1 a Figure 1.12 Inverting amplifier with Figure 1.13 Lag impedance circuit. arbitrary impedances. the impedance of the capacitor is 1/sC1, the circuit impedance is given by =! RafsCy__ 2 20=Ri+ gies ~ 8 taRE aT 1+ Ro/Ri Ri |st+— _ SRiRCi + Rit Re _ if Ci ai sRiCy +1 SH 1/R2Cy ‘The impedance of Equation (1.27) can be written compactly as (s +a) Z(s)= +b (1.28), where k = Rj, b = 1/R2Ci, anda = (1 + Rz/Ry)b. Thus a must be larger than b so the pole at ~b is located to the right of the zero at —a. Figure 1.14 shows nine operational amplifier applications for various choices of Z, and Zp. For convenience, the negative of the transfer function is shown. We have already scen the inverter of Figure 1.14(a) in Figure 1.10 and the integrator of Figure 1.14(b) in Figure 1.11. To create a differentiator in Figure 1.14(c), a capacitor is placed in the input path while a resistor appears in the feedback path, a con- Dilforentiator and integrator. figuration exactly the opposite of that for the integrator. For the differentiator, the ‘output voltage becomes the negative derivative of the input voltage. If the input voltage has noisy components, the differentiator output may have unwanted large high-frequency components. Often a filter is employed with the differentiator to liminate the high-frequency spikes, In Figure 1.14(4), the cireuit of Figure 1.13 is placed in the feedback path. The resulting circuit transfer function has a zero to the left of the pole, which results in negative phase at each frequency, referred to as phase lag; hence, the circuit of Lag and lead circuits. Figure 1.14(d) is called a lag circuit. The circuit of Figure 1.14(c) creates an inverse transfer function compared to the lag circuit; it is called a lead circuit owing to the positive phase angle of the transfer function where the zero is to the right of the pole. ‘Suppose that two versions of the circuit of Figure 1.13 (having different com- ponents but the same form) are placed in the input path and in the feedback path.