CURZON SUFI SERIES

S6i6 Editr: Io Richdd Ndun

Pto!8d oI Aflhi Studiz\
UniMiA of t2eds

The Curzon Sufi Seri6 prcvidd short htroductioG to a Eiety of f@ts of

the subjct, which de accsible hotfi to the gl:Mal rcadd ud the stu<lert
md 6chol4 i. the field. Each hok wi be eithd a syntheis of existing
Sflfi Ritual
knowledge or a distinct onhib{tion to, od dtnsioo ol hwledge of the The Parallel ljniverse
partield topic. The two mio.6d6lying principls of *E Ssi6 m eund
*holaship md radabiJity
BEYOND FAITH AND INFIDELITY
The Sufi Pct y od Taching of Mahnud Shabistai
Izmrd ln;hn
AL-HALLAJ
H6b6t W M6n
RUZBIHAN BAQLI
Ian Richaril Netton
Mysticim andthe Rletoric of Sainthoodin Pmian Su6m
Ca W Eftt
A3DULI,AH ANSARI OF HERAT
An Edy S!fi ]!{ster
A G Rdun Fdddi
THE CONCEPT OF SAINTHOOT' IN EARLY ISLANIIC MYSTICISM
Band Ranthcand lohn o Kare
SUHRAWARDI AND THE SCHOOL OF ILLUMINATION
Mehni Amin Pwtui
PERSIAN SUFI POTTR)
An Introduction to th Mystrcal U* of Clsiol Pms
J.T.P dz Btlijr
AZIZ NASA-F'I
LI4td Ridgm
SUI 15AND ANTI SUFIS
The Defmce, Rethinling md Rejdtioo of Su6sm in th \'lod.n world
EIAalEth S,ireh

CURZ O N
 For Sue with much love

The moral ;ght of the auihor La beena*rted

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 Contents

PreJaceond Acbnmledsen'en*
At Ltrexir'tiol:-r xi

1 Introduction I

2 Mapping the Sacred 1: The Ni'matullahi Order 21

2.r Origins 27
2.2 Rituals and Practices 25
2.2.1 Organisation and Hierarchy 25
2.2.2 ldtiarjoi 30
2.2.3 Rule of Life 32
2.2.4 Ljnrrgy 34
2.2.4.1 Dhihr u\d Santa' 35
2.2.4.2 F;hl 39
2.2.4.3 Mwa4aba 40
2.2.4.4 Mul-wba 43
2.2.4.5 Wid 47

3 Mapping the Sacred 2: The Naqshbandi Order

3.1 Orisrns o1
3.2 Rituals and Practices 72
3.2.1 OrganisatioDand Hierechy ?3
3.2.2 Initiation 75
3.2.3 Ruleof Life 77
3.2.4 Liturgy 79
3.2.4.1 Dhihl 79
3.2.4.2 Sann'
3.2.a.3 Mwaqaba ann Rab;ta
3.2.+.4 Srhba 85
3.2.4.5 Wird 86
 SOF' RITUAL

4 Unveiling the Sacred1: The Five Ari.an 103

:1.1 Theotogy 103
1.2 Phenomenology 123
4.3 Aothropology 127 PrefaceandAcknowledgements
4.4 Seniotics 1:t0

5 Unveiling the Sacred2: The ParallelUniverse of

S.fi Ritual 145
5.1 Theology 145
5.2 Phenomenology This book attempts to lift the "veil" to which Fitzgerald's
5.3 Anthropology 156
paraphrase of the Rabaiyat of Omar Kho1yam alludes, at least
5.4 Semiotics 161
insofar as it may be referred to th arena of snfi ritual. It
6 The Alienated Sufi? 175 examines both the sphr of mainstram Islamic ritual, as
6.1 Alienation o Ritual Paadox artiorlated prirnarily n the arhnn, and the more arcane and
6.1.1 Alienation lesser kno*'n 6eld of ritual h ta;awuuf. The book makes
6.1.2 FaM' t76 comparisons both within Aar al Islon and between that
6.1.3 Ritual as Shield t79 tradition and th rituals of other traditions. It neither attempts
6.1.4 Ritua.l6 Alienation 180 ro be inclusive and to cover every single aspect of Safism and its
6.2 A Paradigmof Slfi Alienation 181 rituals, nor to cover every single Snfi Order. Two Orders have
been taken as case studies and in the process of examining
Bibliosraphy of Worhs Cited 147 them, I have exarnined their origins, rituals and practices,
Index 205 organisations and hierarchy, initiation pmctices and what may
be termed here their 'Rules of Life'. Particular attention has
been paid to liturgy as it is to be found especially in dhihr and
sdmz', and the rlated practices ol fhr, muraqaba, nuhasaba,
rnird., rahta, and shba. The word "ritual" itself has been
deployed loosely but not in such a cavalier fashion, I hope, as to
offend the purists among the anthropologists. Four primary lens
have been used, for comparativ and analltical purposes: those
of theology, phenomenology, antbropology and semiotics. It is
the contention of this book that the Factice of snfi ritual leads,
paradoxically, to a tundamental alienation which is, nonetheless,
devoutly to be wished for, at least by the ardent sufi

As always, I have incurred many debts in the writing of this

volume. I thanl, firstly, Dr Javad Nurbakhsh, present Master of
the Ni'matullrhi Order, for his generous hospitality to me on
two occasions in the N;'rufidlahi Khand"qahln London. Except
 S!Fi RITUAL

where I have quoted from, or referred to, his many works on

Sufism, he is not responsible for what is *Titten here. I am
grateful to other members of that Klanaqah, and others, who
would rvish to remain nameless, for wise advice and encourage Abbreviations
ment. The writings of Professor H Algar have proved an
invalr:able guide in walking through the veritable forests of
materials dealing with the Naqshbandiy-ya. He is acknowledged
in my footnotes. Finally, I thanl my wife and family for their
indulgence and patience as I completed yet another book; I an
grateful to thm for keeping me earthbound as I explored the Ef buaclopaedia of klan, secondedition
arcane highways of snfi ritual. EIS ShorterEnqclopacdiad Islam
.lSS lumi of Sanitic Studies
Q Q*"a"
RB Rule of St Benedict
SOAS School of Oriental and African Studies, Univrcity of
I-ondon
 Introduction

There was a Dmr to which I found no Key:

Th"ft w a V.il pdstwhich | ..uld nor se(
Somelittle talk awbneof I{E &d THEE
Thcre s@ d md lho no moreor THI- t
"nd \le
Even after the achievement of the scholar,sufi Abu Hamid al
Ghazal (1058 1111) in'largely removing th tension between
SuEsm and the "Islamic sciences"'.2diverse other Muslim
scholars have continued to view Sufism with the deepest
suspicion.i The 'dama" have frequently pittd themselves
against the sufi shaykhs and pirs, each group often seeking
religious conhol, power and authority by virtue of bookish or
gnostic learning.a Professor Michael Gilsenan, while doing
research on the safi mystical brotherhoods in Eg}pt between
1964 and 1966 was assuredby shaykhsat the Azhar University
in Cairo 'that these brotherhoods had nothing to do with Islam
at all and dnt [he] was not only v/asting lhisl time but giving a
false impression of what the true religion is.'j With others,
suspicion has given way to a bemused, and perhaps surface,
tolerance. As Ronald Eyre put it in his book On the Long
Search: 'The orthodox N{uslim community, after a great scholar
arose to allay their more extravagant fears lsurely a reference to
al-Ghazali?1, appear to have accep@d the solitary quest, but
only as an extension of commudty worship. Anci they are alert
for signs of morbid inwardness in those who undertake it.'6
The suspicion from mainstrcam Islam comes in manv forms
as do the s-nfi orders themselves- In the course of Islamic history
gnfts hav appared in nearly every corner of the globe where
the message of Islam has been preached; indeed, they were
 5 [fi r{ rrL \L
Is*TRODUcTIo\
often responsible for bringing that message to what had been
within a cornmunity or communities which still adhere to the
non-Islamic lands, in the first place.
same basic faith systm, the practice of Slfrsm in a state like
This book suneys different manifestations of the ritual
Britain is a minority activity within a minority religion.ra Not
aspects of Sunsm, taking two major Orders as case studies_
only can there be a cutture clash btween Islam and other
While the state of Sufism in contemporary Britain is not its
religions, but there is what I will cal a 'countr-clash' within
primary focus, there will be some references to the British scene
Islam itsell btween diverse articulations of that faith, some of
by way of illustration. Arrd since ntual is the principal ropos,
them mutually hostile.
sali spiituality in its diverse aspects such as states (ahual) and
There is, then, scope for feelings of the profoundest
stations (mdqarnat),7vhile occasionally touched upon, will not
alienationrt and isolation resulting from disparagement by a
be explored in great depth or detail. It witt be instructive to note
local Muslim populace 16and a largely uncomprehending non,
in passing the manifold sources of alienation, catalvsts for
Muslirn milieu. Such feelings have the potntial to bond snfi
charge and reasonsfor rhe reinfor.emenr of soiritual iJenritv
commrmities more closely together but also to pressurise them
The phenomenonof religious chalge ; responseto a ne*
into changing, reforming or even diverging from the classical
culture is by no means a new one. Indeed, as George Chryssides
rituals and structures of their origins.
stresses, 'when a religion migrates from one culture to another,
Sromeof the adherents of Islam in Britain in the very lat
quite radical changes often occur. 3 He cites the examole of the
twentieth century exhibited attitudes akin to those cited earlier
move of Buddhism to arers like Ctuna, Tibct and Japanwhere
by Gilsenan and Eyre- Reviewing Cyril Glass6's Concise
the religion assumed a rather different form from traditional
bqclopaedia of klom,17 Dr Hesham El Essauy had this to say:
Theravada Buddhism and he asks: 'Did the tust Tibetan
Buddhists fail to notice the plethora of deities, esoteric rituals Like moy conve.tsfrom the excessivelymaterialistic societyin
and supernatura.l beings which were introduced into Bud- the West, trtr Glass6 smsDor attracted to the excessively
dhism's world view?'e Chryssides identifies three potentiallv sp;itual mysticism of Sufism.In fact, the book readsmor like a
problematic areas where odapration may be required oi ltr4o's Wlo of the SuG world thd eything else. I hau a
adherents of an immigrant religion: dependence on the native problen with Slafffi: ffi. can mjor the6p, tut the higheryt fl1,
population, ritual practiceand discrimination.'0(lt is, of course. th. nwe detuhed rot getJron theyound.l8
the second area that will concern us most in this book). The
Dr El-Essawy goes on to stressthat 'the thing is that Islam is
outcome may be apostasy, adaptation or accommodation, or,
really a political, religious and socio economic system whose
finally, ar insistence 'on raaining [a] fully distinctive identifu'r1
business is not just the establishment of physical or spiritual
Chryssides characterises the last response as 'renewed vieour'.1:
rituals, but .ather worship through living a good life.'le This,
Such remarl. ar-eof inreresrboih when we conside' rhtrole of
indeed, reflects more closely the ideal of Muslims the world
Islam within an'alien'society and the role of Su6sm within the
over whos path or goal, by and large, is not a sufi quest ending
society of Islam.
in mystical union with the Divine. And the majority of
The role of Islam in Britain, its impact on British society and
Muslims in Britain, as elsewhere, ar:enot srlfis.
the problems of culture-clash which have sometimes manifested
Many Muslims settled in the UK, however, ofter\ rcluctantlJ
themselves, have all been dealt with in a varietv of oublica-
shar the sense of detachment or alienation characteristic ol
rions 'Such maners will nor be coveredhere asan in anv
and beloved by, the snf/o, feelings which are neithr chosen nor
depth. W}lar is worth stressrng,however, is rhai white the
mjoyed but which arise from a variety of circumstances over
pnctice of Snfism in the Islarnic world is a miDorirv activitv
which the lvluslim may have littl or no control. He may 6nd
 SUfi RITU L
that in British society he or she is ar1involuntary practitioner of
'solitude in a crowd'.r1 A-rrd while for the s'1fi, as for a Plotinus
or a.n Augustine, alienation is a 'state in which contemplation
and ecstasy are identical' and one where the 'human soul or
spirit is elevated and reaches its goal which is the union with the
divinity'," it is hardly an exaggeration to say that th average
alienated Muslim youth in Britaia today does not share in such
a high-flown perception of his state. The sufi may willingly
deviate from minstream Muslim society and glory in the
resulting a.lienation, but the youths of a minority religion such
as Islam in the United Kingdom today may rather perceive their
alienation as oppressive-23Thus he or she may become
westernised but 6nd that they are not accepted by the culture
to which they aspire and become alienated both from it and
from their own Muslirn culture.2a
Muslims of all ages find a further alienating factor in the
reality that the cultural articulation of Islam in Britain today
varies according to ethnic origins.rt As Raza neatly puts it: 'The
cultural fabric of the lr.Iuslim comrnunity reveals an intricate
web.'26 There may, indeed, be different perceptions of the
nature of Islam itself: '\{any young N{uslims in Britain are
confounding their parents by their attempts to separate the
essentials of the faith from cultural or historical additions.
Values cherished by parents as part of their cultural and
relieious identity are now coming under attack, not from the
expected directions of the indigenous culture, but from their
children who declare them to be unlslamic.'27
Other causes of alienation from either their own Muslim
society, or non'Muslim British society at large, may include
racism, the British class system:3 and the difficulty of becoming
assimilated into it, and sectarian Muslim divisions.re The latter
factor will rarely be appreciated by the native British
poptrlation: 'Closed views typically picture Islam as undiffer,
entiated, static and monolithic, and as intolerant of internal
pluralism and deliberation.'3o
Furthermore, 'closed views see total difference ttween
Islam on the one hand arrd the non Muslim world, particularly
the so'calledWest, on the other. Islam is 'other'. with few or no
I N T R U D U C T I ON
similarities betwen itsel{ and other civilisations and cultures
and with few or no shared concepts and moral values. Further,
Islam is seen as hermetically sealed off from the rest of the
world, with roo(s and no borro*rng or miring in
either direction.'r1
It is clear. of cours. that while such diverse factors of
alienation may srve to depress and further divide, they may
alm serve as a bond to unite or bring togethd movements or
groups (like the sofi orders) which have common goals and
require shelter from a climate of frozen alienation. A good
example of a non- suff movement akin to Sofism which provides
exactly this ki:rd of spiritual and emotional hospitality is the
Tabligh i lawAt or 'Faith N{ovement' founded by Mawla.na
Muhammad Ilyas (1885 1944).3'?PhilipLewis st!ssesthat'the
striking and innovativ featu.e of Tablighi Jama'at33 was its
expectation that all Muslims should devote time to door to
door revivalist activity tidt r0o d. connibute to creating an
Isla'rr.ic enuiroffivnt Its discipline, mutual service, congrega
tional worship, prescribed study and shared activity created the
movement's distinctive style of self reformation, u.dthin a
sLtppoltbe and egalitar;An context. Its minimalist six point
programme rcflcts its e$ ethos.'r{ The Tabliqh'i lamaat has
become strong in Britain with major centrs in Bradford and
Dewsbury.35
Such groups and movemenlsgo some way iowards counter'
ing the confusion of the older generations as they wonder ' how
to respond to an emerging Muslim youth culture, a hybrid of
British and South Asian forms. expresqedin music. mdgazines
and local media,'36 and soothing worried Muslim Parents who
find thar the'r offspring have no hesiration in questioning. or
even rejecting, 'aspects of their inherited culture which they
took for granted as Islamic.'r7 In all these matters, institutional
St6sm too. can bond, soothe,sustain and consolein much the
sa]n way as the'Faith Movement'. In the 1970s and 1980s
Sttum remained prominent in British Muslim life, even
though, technically, it was the activity of a minority. However,
it was responsible for bringing many converts to the faith,
despirea generallack of acrivesirfi dr ua.r"
 StII RITUAL
The final paradox in ajl this, which both alienates and
embraces the Muslim community in Brirain, is one of identiry
and nationality. lt is perhaps convenient, but false, to speak of
Muslims on the one harrd and British society on the orher, as if
they were two ent;ely different entities- As Yasmin Ali rightly
reminds us: 'The myth of retum to one's homeland, which many
hrst generation migrants ciung to for comfort has little
aspirational meaning for most oftheir children and grandchildren
. . . young South Asians in Britain are B?ir6[. Then identities,
however distinctive, are British identities, and the culturai, social,
political and economic contributiorx which they mal ro society
are fundamentally contributions to Britain and to Europ.':r'l
We noted earlier that the principal theme of this boot is snfi
ritual. The theme of alienation will, however, provide a sub
text, and we will reved to it especiatlyin our conclusion. A
variety ol methodologies wili be employed; not leasr among
these will be the phenomenological approach, an approach
which was used to such excellent effect in Annemarie
Schimmel's magisterial work, Decipheringthe Signsof God: A
PhenomenologicalApproach to /slanr.{o It is worth pausing here,
bielly, to survey how this approach *'as used by Professor
Schimmel although, as I say, a variety of approaches will be
used in this presentvolume of mjne.
In Deciphering the Sigru o/ Godll Annemarie Schimmel
announcedher belief that:
the phnonnological approach is well suited to a bertr
undrsta.dingof Islam, especiailyrh modetwttrctlFriedrich
Heilrr?developed ... he triesto eDt.rinto the he&t ofrel;gion
by studying lirst the phenornenaDd then deeperad deeper
layersof hurnanresponses ro the Divhe until he reache the
rnneimost sacred core of each relig;on, the ceDtre. the
Numinous,the &6 dbs.onditus .. Culti. and ritual dutiesroo
couldbe interpretedbeyondthei externalrnpurld,c as srsns
towardssohetlDnghigher.ll
Such an approach is eminently sujted also to th mystical
dimension of Islam, Stfism, with all its diverse rituals and
practices. And we do not need a model of concenrric ringsr{ ro
INTROTJ!:CTION
illustrate the truism that, for the sufi as for the non s,:fi, at the
heart o{ the 'Sacred Objec.' or 'Sac.ed [ritual] Act' is the Deus
Abscondituswho is, nonetheless, for the latter, closer to man
than his own jugular vein (Qur'an 50:16), and who is, for the
s[fi, in addition, the desned Divine Focus of mystical union.
The surface reality of the object or ritual veils a deeper rality
whosearticulation will vary accordingto a Muslim's mysticai or
other disposition.
Annemarie Schimmel divides her material in Decipheing the
Signs of Cod into seven main areas, each covered in a single
clayxer Chapter On, entitled 'Sacred Aspects of Nature and
Culture', illustratesvery well Schimmel'sadopted methodology
which is designed to lead 'ftom the external encounter of the
sacred to the innermost core of religion.'at She surveys 'the
phenomena of nature' which humanity has observed 'from day
to day'{6 in its working and living environment, and divides her
matrial, neatly,into three main blocks of'Inanimate Nature',{7
'Plants and Animals'{3 and'N{an Made Obiects'.{q
Under the fust heading she concentates on the elemental
aspects of Nature, seeking and drawing out the religious and
cultic associations and evocations of all that she mentions.
References to stones inexorably provoke mention of the Black
Stone in the Ka%a and that beneath the Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem, in which the Prophet Mubammad's footprint is
impressed, as well as the stoning rituals characteristic of the
lujj. Here too, we flrd the traditional Empedoclean elements of
which the purincatory aspcts of water are stressd: water is
used for external puriGcation as well as being a symbol of life,
purity and purification. It is used in the ritual ablutions, found
and revered in the Well ol Zarnzatr' at Mecca ard will be
enjoyed by the Blessedin Paradisewith its four rivers, springs
or fountains. Schimmel reminds us that both God and the
Prophet lvluhammad have ben characterised as 'oceans'.io Of
cours, another of the four Empedoclean elements is 6re, and
this is the name in Arabic siven to Hell itself, dl-Nar. In this
section reference is also made to light, arrd the famous Qur'anic
imagery of light, as well as to other related phnomena like the
sun, moon and stars and the symbolism of colour.
 s o F l ttT u l L
Under the second heading 'Plants and Animals' Schimmel
reminds us that Paradise has its special trees, the l-ote Tree for
example, and that gardens on earth are replicas or mirors of
Paradise. She surveys some of the animals mentioned in the
Qur'an and refers to the Prophet Mu[rammad's liking of cats.
Finally, her third heading,'Man-Made Objects', embracessuch
topics as Islamic weaponry and armour, mnrors, pictures and
garments. With regard to the latter, Schimrnel &aws attention,
intet alia, to the Prophet's striped cloak, izrda, the patched
garmnt of the sufi, the nuraqqa', ard the role of Yusuft shirt
in St?d ylsut Schimmel stressesthat'God Hirnself appears as
the master weaver and tailor, as He is the suprerne master of
everything.'s1
The following six chapters of Deciphering the Sisn: of God
continue this phenomenological approach but it is now
articulated at a less elemental level. Chapter ?'uo on 'Sacred
Space and Time't2 ranges from the cave of the initial Qur'anic
revelation on Mount Hira' through the idea of rhe mosque to
the mausolea,tombs and shrines of Islam (Space);and surveys
the times of feasts and sacred months (Time), before
concluding with a discussionof the symbolism and sacredness
of certain numbers.
However, as Schimmel clearly recognises,Islam is a religion
basedon good or right deedsas well as faith.ir There is no room
here for a prototype Protestant justification by faith alone.
Thus Chapier Threeis consecratedto 'SacredAction'.;r After a
brief survey of the concept of tribal and Prophetic Sunna,
Schimmel moves on to consider the Via PurEttiua, the Via
Ill minatilja a'Jd the Vid Unitiva. She defines the hrst as 'the
different ways of purifying oneself ir one's attempt to get in
touch !,'ith the sacred, the Divine, the Numinous.':i The
second is characterised by 'new attempts to become unified, or
at leastto come closeto the object of devotion or the power that
is hidden in it. The simplest way is to touch the sacredobject
or the saintly person. tahanrhat\ for blessing'ssake ... The
believer touches sacrd objects such as stones, tombs or the
threshold and, most impo.tantly, the copy of the Koran . . .'s6
Schimmel goes on to remind us that'certarn prachces are
8
I N T R O D U C T I ON
restrictedto only a segmentof the believers,and are disliked by
oihers. One of thes is the sacreddance . ..' She notes that the
sama', the mystical or spiritual concert, 'was institutionaiised
only in the lvlevleviyya lorder of Dervishes].'57Finally, the
third and last of thes three daz, the Via Unr'tira, is that which
is only fully achieved'in death when the soul is hnally rer:nited
with God.'i3
lslam as a religion is underpinned by, and founded upon, the
sacred text ofthe Holy Qur'an. Thus it is entirely logical that
Chapter Four of Srhimmel's book should dwell at length on
'The Word and the Script'.5eHere are discussed,not only the
Qur'an and Hadith as is to be expected, but also such topics as
potry, names, mlths, sagas,blessings and curses, ritual prayers,
and the snfi dhihr or litany Of course, unless a pe$on is a
hernit, he or she does not live or function solely in a vacuum.
Man is part of an mna, a community of believers. Schimmel's
Choptzr Fi,e on 'Individual and Society'r'u acknowledges the
intrinsic sanctity' of man's body, and stresses that 'the most
important 6gure with religious charisma' is the Prophet.br
However, prophets are sent to particular groups of people and
'the community of the believers is central in normative Muslim
thought, hence the aversion of some Muslims to the Westrn
interest in exotic figures such as Sufis and the like . . .'62In this
chapter Schimmel also surveys some of the structures and
institutions of that community such as the four Sumi $chools of
Law; she concludes with a brief survey of the sectarian branches
of Islam, and the Sufi Orders, noting how some have'attmcted
sveral important Western converts to Islam.'or
ln Chaptet Silr, 'God and His Creation; Eschatology',
Schimmel moves her study of religious infused phenomena
from the sublunary to the supernatural sphere. Where the 6fth
chapter concentratd on the phenomena of earthly and earth
bound institutions the sixth surveys the phenomena of the
Divine starting, indeed, with God Himself, both as He is
revealed in the Qur'an and as He is interpreted in poetry and
elsewhere by His creation. Reference is made to the anseloiogy
of Islam, and the often terrifying details of death, judgement,
Heaven and Hell are outlined.
 S. FI RiTUAL
Schimmel's Chapter Snm, the last in her book, is called
'How to Approach lslam?'. It is prelixed by a quotation from
Strd 41:53 ofthe Qur'an: And we shall show them Our signs
in the horizons and in themselves.'6{This signalsthat here she
intends to bring to a climax or close what has flowed and
developed from the beginning of the book. ln other words,
following Heiler, she has attempted 'to enter into th heart of
religion by studying first the phenomena and then deeper and
deeper layers of human responsesto the Divine' until the
'innermost sacredcore' of Islam is revealed.6s Schimmel'sbook
from start to finish is a masterly illustration of rhis
methodology. She began with the raw elemental material of
stones and water, moved through concepts of space and time,
Iooked at mar as an individual arrd a creator of institutions and
structurcs before concluding,logically,with the Creator ofman
Himself, God, and the te.rorc of the Eschatological. For
Schimmel, God's sisns have indeed been present in all the
phenomena she has surveyed as well as in man himsell
Schimmel suggeststhat it is the city that offers us a lileness of
Islam, which can be symbolized as a house, based on the
Koranic expressiondar al Isiam.' but she asks 'where is one to
6nd the builder and owner of the house?6',She answerswith a
quotation from Ruml in which Reason is compared to a moth
and the Divine Betovedis like a candle. Go<t is the One who
immolates the seekerand annihilates him, and no reason can
comprehendHim.'6t Such is, of course,the classicresponseof
Sufism down the ages.
In this book of mine, whose subject matter is snfi dtual and
practice, with some (but by no means exclusive) referenceto
Britain, and whose inspiration is the volume just surveyedby
Annemarie Schimmel, I have also, like her, atrempted 'to enter
into the heart of religion by studying fust rhe phenomna.'
However, th phenomena which I propose to survey are not th
stons, water or physical and huma.n institutions which led
Annemarie Schimmel rneluctably to the Divinity at the heart of
lslam but rather those ituals and practices of Snfism whicl
might be described as the outward manifestarions of the inner
spirituality of Snlism. Thus, while the Divine Object or Subjct
i0
I\TROI)UCTIO\
at the end is the same in both cases,the phenomenasurveyed,
while relatd in some cases. are different.
In each of the two Orders surveved as case studies in this
volume we will examine th organisation of the Order, its
hierarchyand siisildtogtherwith the conduct ofthe snfi house,
rbe bLw&qah ot 2auitt Rites arrd ceremonies of initiation will
also be studied, as will the Rul by which the snfis of each
Order live their lives. The most notable aspectsof the qnfi
liturgy, especiallythe dhi&r ard sama",will be analysed.We will
conclude with an attempt to linl the rituals of Srlfrsm with the
theme of alienation.
Snfi rituals may all be characterisedas signsi they are the
signs ofa way of life, a tdnqd, and they are signs ofthe goal of
that taniqa which is (iod Himsell The rituals are not practised
or undertakm for their own sake but alwavs mirror, or are
directed towards, a deeper Realiry
Thus the human hierarchyofa sufi Order or house,with the
Shaykhor Nlaster at the top and the humble mund or novice at
the bottom, mirrors a divine hierarchy whose pinnacle is, of
course, God. And while the truly humble s':fi Shaykh would
never, under arry circumstances, compare himself to the Deity,
nonethelesshis presencein the Order or house is a sign of a
greater Autho.ity. Obedience to the Shaykh or Master is
obedience to God. This is powerfully and evocatively confirmed
by one prominent 20th century sifi \4aster ard Shayln who
etates:'The Master (... lit "the desired one") is a person who
guides travelers on the path of the "passing away of self in
God (fana I'llah) and leads them towards "eternal life
through God" lbaqa bi'llah).'63Becauseof the difficulties and
temptations of the sufi path, a master is absolttely essential for
the sufi.beRumr had this to say on the ideal Master'Disciple
relationship: 'Anyone who obys the orders of the master is
liberated from darkness,and becomesilluminated.'to
Ifthe human snfi hierarchv in the Order is one rnirror ofthe
divine hierarchy,and an agncyof salvationthrough the Master
ofthe Order, then the silsiia,or chain of spiritual authorities,is
another such mirror. Contemporary Shaykhsor Masters today
are lid<ed to the founder(s) of their Orders and, often, to the
l1

great figures of early Islam like 'Ali b.Abi T-alib and others, by a
'chain ofspiritual descent.'7rThe Shaykh'is the spiritual heir of
the founder, whose qualities and powers become inherent in
him upon his succession.He is called shat&has satddd (master
of the prayer-mat, or skin) .. . since he inherits that oI the
founder as symbol of his authority . . . Successionto the sojjad/l
is spiritual and the shaikh was not necessarily a descendant of
the founder though in time lineal succession tended to become
the rule.'7']This siisiiaof authoritiesand leadersgoing back to a
founder mirrors, on a spiritual as well as a physical plane, the
ordinary link between the Creator,God arld created man: for
the snfi, a.rld indeed every \4uslim, the latter owes his very
existence to the Former by an unbroken chain of created
ancestors which began with Adam, whom tb Qur'an
characterises as God's h[al& (2:30). Ofcourse, the $nft \4aster
or Shaykh is in no sensea creator but, as has been emphasised
above, he has a creative responsibility to lead the brthrcn
towards the 'errinction of selllood and worldly desires(/ar,,al
and 'subsistencein God' (boqal;3
A third example of the djvine order and reality being
mirrored and articulated in some way in sufi ritual lis in the
gufi dfiibr and sanz'. The Qur'an makesit clear that one of the
functions of the angels is to praise God unceasingiy day and
night (2:30, 21:19 20). Commentingon Strd 2:30, al-Tabari
rcminds us that 'all remembrance of God according to the
Ambs is praise arrdprayer . . . and it has been said that praiseis
the prayer of the angels.'t1
In a very real sense the snfi dirhr may be said to rnirror the
perpetualangelicpraiseofGod. Indeed. the Qur'an commands
the believer to remember God often and slorify Him at dawn
and dusk (33:a1 42) ir a pbrase nuch beloved by the sufis.;3
N1arlhas a positive duty of gratitude and praisto God (31:12,
25 26). And the sufis articulate that sratitude and praise not
only in the dhibr but the sd'na'as well, the iatter being an
extension,or extm dimension, of the former.
Marietta Stepaniants reminds us that 'the propriet! of
consideringdhiLr 'the main meansof attaining God s nearness'
was upheld by numerous hddiths like l{ubamnadt 'He who
T2
INTRODUCTION
recollects God among the negligent is like a fighter in the midst
of thoswho flee,like a gree.ntree in the midst o{ dry trees.'The
l'rophet was asked what action was most virtuous. He
rnswered, 'That you should be dying and your tongue should
recollea Allah the Mighty, the Omnipotent.' The Prophet said,
'Praising Allah ... in the morning ard in the evening is better
than erecting mosques in Allah's name or generous sacifice of
In th lnfi interpretation of dreams we are told that 'th
bam-owl symbolizes aspnation confined to remembrance ...
rnd nightly visil and seclusion' while 'the nightingale
rymbolizs aspiration conined to love, audition (sarr') and
music.';i Dh[r is 'prescribed by the \{aster of the Spiritual
Path,in order to cure his disciplesofthe diseaseofthe selfand
its desiresand fears i3 while sorna' 'is listening with the ear of
the heart to music in the most profotnd sense poetry,
melodies,tunes, and rhythmic harmonies while being in a
rpecial state so deeply plunged in Love that the.e is no taint of
relf left within awareness.'7q
From all ofthe above statements whicl we have quoted, it is
clear thai the s[fi practicesof diiLr and sana' are designedto
uticulate a spcial semiotics of Love which takes its inspiration
from the Qu'en and broadens and expounds the archetypal
vrsesto manifest and expound a dgorous path towards the
l)ivine Beloved for the sifi aspirant.
The two Orders whose rituals and practicesare discrssed in
this book have not been chosenat random but for th Duroose
of illu"trating a rery uiJe Jiversrtv of pro.,l"" ,na ,yp".
Furthermore, it is certainly not claimed that these a-rethe dnb
tofi rituats and, though some conclusionswill, of course, be
drawn, it is not claimed that these are the onf' conclusions
which may be drawn from a study of snfi ritual. Finally, while it
i! true that the liturgical aspectsof both the Ni'matullahi and
Naqshbandi Orders discussed in this volume are surveyed
undr five main headings, no artifrcial nrmerical parallelism
with the five arban is intended.
Humility, poverty and asceticism are often key features in the
Diritualities and vocabularies of the snfi Orders which a-re
13
 SUI'i ITITUAL
frequently characterisedby a lack of ostentation.soThis dos
not mean, however, that the Orders have been without inlluence
down the ages. The paradigm of the Sanusiyya Order, for
example,in Libya where on Christmas Eve, 1951 .. the Head
of the Sanllsi Order Sayyid Idris, son of al-Mahdi, becamean
independent constitutional king of the United Kingdom of
Libya'3r is the ultimat proofofthat. ln Britain N may not the
foundation in 1963 by Pir Maroof Hussain Shah,u'ho arrived in
the UK in 1961, of t\e lani'dt-i Tabhghal Idan (Association
for the Preachingof Islam). Philip Lewis has emphasisedthe
commitment of this Association to the spiritualit)' propagated
by leadersof the Qadiri, Chishtr, Naqshbandi and Suhrawardi
Orders. 'Pir Maroof's first love,' Lel'is tells us. 'is idrduuut
Islamic mysticism.'3r Noteworthy too are the activities in
Britain of the Deobandis whose founders I-ewis characterises
as'reformist suiis'83 and the Barelwis3rwith their veneration
for the Prophet l{ubamrnad. and thejr srlfi stress on shrine,
shaykh and intercession3! Their Qadiri {ounder was Ahmad
Ra-zaKhan (1E56 1921).'d
Islam today in countries like llntain manilests a lascinating
fabric of sometimes harmonious and sometimcs conflicting
strands- We note, for example, the mutual anathemas
pronounced by the Deobandis and the Barelwis in the early
part of last century and the consequentlegac],of antipathy and
hostility betweenthe tu'o groups in contemporary Britain.st
Geaves has rightly drawn attention to the fact that 'the
arrival ofsubcontinent Muslims in Britain hastransplantedmto
this country all the divisions and cont.oversieswhich have
historically split the community in India and Pakistan.'33
Notable among those disputes was that over the characterand
role of Sufism. The syncretic,rural subcontinentalbrand often
emphasised 'popular devotion, the intercession of saints,
barobha tsicl. shrines, tombs of holy men. pecular powers
and miracles, singing and dancing and. above all. the
importance of the pirlmurid relationship.-A.sianfood, candles,
incense,rosewaterofferings,holy water and amuletsare all used
in religious worship. These may be used to cure the sick. to
secure the birth of a male child. or even to protect the
t.l
INT(UL]t LTI!,N
uorshipper from magical forces such as evil jinn.'3e This style
of Islam has been attacked by others, especially the reformers.eo
The sufi Ordzrs as such often maintain a lower prohle.
Furthermore, the extent to which they have been vehicles of
hermony and tolerance'qr rather than conflict will become
rpparent in the course ofthis volume. This may be due, in part
.t least, to the sense of unity of quest which is at the heart of
$0fism. Origins and ethos may differ; the actual a-rticulation of
common rituals lile the dhi[r may vary; but such fundamenta.l
rituals remain in so many of the Orders, linking and uniting
$em in their sacred quest.
Victor Danner puts it like this:
The dAiAr can be manifested ir a vaiety of forms derived from
the Queic rcvelation, these forms depending on the petspec
tiv6 of the different Sun sch@ls, the inspirations of particular
masters,and other conditions; but this variegatedmmifestation
in no way dehacts from the fundmental chracter ofthe dliAr
Consequendy, the elements of the ranqdA remain the sme after
ihe days of the Prophet, to be sure, but their amb;nations and
.xprcsim .an wry fron mtlster to m6ter and em uithin the
liJetitu ol o e n4srer Indeed, it would seem thai one of the
importmt functions of Sufrsm has ben to furnish these
elements of the path to its seekers in th .ight proportions dnd
in motturce uith the i?e& of ea.h gmerction.',
Notes
| (My italics) Edv&d Frtzse.ald (tns), The Rubabat of Omat
(,u)aan, (London: The Folio Striery 1970),v 32. The endnotes
to this first version of Fitzgerald's hanslation (on the last,
.rnnunbered page) expldn lrlE and THEE' as a reference to the
'mysticalddt;ne of Unity qith God.
2 W \.fontgomry Watt, M6lia InteUat@l: A Stud! oJ al Ghazdli,
(Fninbug.ir EdinburghUnivenity P.ess,1963),p. 179.
J see John \\blff, 'Fragmented Univdsality: Islm and lr4uslins' Ln
(ierald Paens (ed), 'Ihe Gtutth ol RelisioB Dtuersir*: Biirain Jtom
I94i: \tohN r, Trajiioro, (London: Routledgein associationwith
the Open University,1993),p. 138.
15
 5I]Fi RITlJ,\L
s Vichael G;lsenan, Recosnizins kLdtu: AnAnthrcpoloEits In6oducti6.
(London & Sydney:CrooD Helm, 1982,repr 198.1),p. ll
6 Ronald Eyre, On the Lons Searci, (Londor & clasgow, Collins,
Fount I'aperbacks,1979),p. 1,18
7 For theseterms,seethe enries l*,wel and '\taqamat in lan Riched
Netton, A Popular Dictiotury of Islan, (London: Curzon. 1992),
pp. 2 4 ,1 6 1.
8 GorgeChryss;des,'Britajr's ChangingFdths, Adaptat;onin a New
Environmdt in Gerald I']arsons(ed), Tie crouri o/ Rdlisiou
Diaersitt: Britain Jtotu 1915: Valume2: kslei, (London: Roltledge
in aNociationwith the Open UD;vrs;ty,199.1),p 5t
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid., p. 58
11 lbid., pp. 58 59.
1 2 lbi d ., p . 5 9
l:l Por two rcent surveys,see \lobammad S Raza klan in Bntaia:
P6t, Prdent dnd.rhe Fftwe, (Leicester:Volc o Press.l99l) dd
Ph;l;p l,eeis, lslatuic Brlldin. Rltston,Politics ard lrldt;\ dtuns
Bririrft Mulins Btud.Jodin the 1990s,lLoDdoD& \e\' \brk: L B.
Tauris, 1994).
14 SeeRaza,Iddft itr B'itdin, p li Lwis, lslanic B'ir&fl. p ri
15 For a discussionof alienadonin tbe context of Islan. culture-cloh
md Wsternisation,seRua, isidn in Britain. pp ;t E.l !e.le
Woltre, 'FragnentedUnivdsalib', pp. 156. 161, 16l. I.rq
16 For intemal divisionsin the Bri*h Nfuslim conrmun,t!.*c \blffc,
'FragmentedU versal;ty',p 1a2
17 lrndon: Sta.ey Intrnational,1989.
18 (lvly italics) The Independznt,3rdl\'ta! 1989
19 I b;d
20 See Javad Nurbaksh, Slt Srnlokn. ilondon & \es \brk:
Khmiqahi Nimatullahi Publications,1s87r.\i)l I rp 8t 8l
21 Se J. SpencerT;m;neham, The Sul Ordzr In iJidn. roxford:
C la re n d onP r es , 1971)p.
, 203
22 Nathan Rotenstreich, Alienotion: The Con ept dnrl Ik Rec.ptaa,
Philosophyof History md Cultlr, \irl 3. (l-cidon & New Yorl: E. J.
Brill, 1989),pp 3 4
2 3 lbi d ., p . 1 11.
24 See Raza, LLM in Btitair, pp ;7 ;9i se. also K;m Knott & Swa
Sinsh Kalsi. The Advent ofAsian Relis'ons in .\l;sta; \{N,n (ed),
Rdligiorin Lee&, (Shoud:Alan Sutton, 199.1r.pp lto 171.
2s Raza, in Drndin, pp. 1 s.
26 Ibid., p. ^lan1.
27 Ron Geaves, Se.tarian Infu.nces uirhin isian in Btnain. uith
ReJetenceta the Corcerts oJ Unnah and Connurtl, . \fonograph
16
I N T R o D L ( ] T ION
li.ies Comhmity RelieionsProject,no s, (Leeds:Depanment of
Theology dd ReliglousStud;es,UniversiR of Leds,1996),p. s9.
.ln lbid.. pp. 66 68.
)'t Raza,Islan 1n Bntdin, pp. 6, 10, 11 24.
Io Ru.nrnde -frust Comnission on Brit;sh \luslims and lslmopho
l1;^. Isld^ophobia: A ChLlknse Jar LIs Ali, (London: Runnymede
Ttust. 1997).SePhil;p I-Nis, Facinsdown the bogeymu oflslan',
(;hlr.h Tines, .l.lth October 1997,p i.
.ll klatuphobid. p. 6.
.l,l Lewis, Britdi', pp. 3E :19 For the life and work of Mawlana
Ilyu, see^idni.
lvl Anw&ul Haq, The Faith MaLenflt of Maulana
Muha@nwAIb6, (Londor: Anen & Unwin, 1e72). Fo Tabligh.i
JaMf, sealsoGaves.SectdridnInjrdc*, pp. 1i2 131
J.i An alternativetresheration.
l{ (Mv italics) Le$is, Islamic Britdifl, p. 39 See also Wolffe,
'FragmentedUnivdsality . p. 1.11.
.f5 trris, lslanic anam, p. 90 Note the activities in Btita;^ of lM'dt,i
Ishni (founddby Nlawlana\lawdudi ln 1911).Seethe impo.tant
article by R A Geave, 'The Reproduction of Jdat i Islmi in B.itaiD',
klart nnA ChrctianM6lin Rela,im, !bl.6:: (1995),pp. 187 .210.
.16 t wis, Irlaui. Bnrdm. p. 8.
.U Ibid. SeeSteveBoggd & Peter Popho, 'The Arragement Tfr.
lndapddat: fusdq Retitu',21st July 1998.p. 1
J8 WollTe FragmntedUniversality, p 155.
.r9 \'6nin Al;, 'ldentity and Community: YoungBrnish SouthAsios in
fbe 1990s in David G Bosen (ed), Tn Sdtdni. Wra: BrdlJud
Respondr,(Ilkley: Brad{ord ad Ilkley Community CoLlege,1992),
pp 6; 66. SeGeavs.Se.dndn lnjrmc,s, p 58
rtt Fiinburgh: Ldinburgh University Press,1994.
{l A versiono{ the brief critique which follows sas lirst publishedas a
book .evieu in the Jarnal ot ,lp Roldl Asid,i. So.i.rrr 3 Sr , \bL.
6:3i \ovember 1996),pp 418 4:01
12 1892 196;. S.himel refrsto his E scheinungsr{rrrun und Wrm der
Relieion.(Stuttgdt: Kohihanmer, 1961)
..f \hlnrmel. Daiphcnae th? \,rru ul /1"J. pr r r $ri
i4 l*e ibid . pp rvi-xvii.
15 lbid.. p. xiv
{6 lbid., p. 2.
17 Ibi d.,pp .l 17
.18l bi d., pp. 17 :8.
a9 l bi d, pp l 9 -rl
50 lbid., p 8
5l Ibid., p .10.
52 lbid., pp. 47 87.
53 See,to. ermpl, q s;,7
1;
 5CFI FI TLAL INTRODUCTION

s4 Schimnd, D..ipltdns tl. SisB oJ Gdd, pp 89 111. l0 Sce Ja"ad Nurbathsh, Spiritul Pole,ry in S!,sn, (London:
s5 lbid., P' 90. Khoiqahi-Nimatullahi Pubiicetion,, 1984), esp pP' 1 38. See.lso
56 Ibid., pp. 102 103. A J. Arberry (t@s.), Discd's.s oJRrna (Richmond: Curzon Press,
57 Ibid., p. 104. 1993), p. 1s4. F6 th Persiu tat, se Jat.i al,Din Rnmi, Kirab fili
58 Ibid., p. 106. n Frhi,ed Badr"al Zamam hurnzanfd., 'lehe'r.. e,plh"Da Majl'..
s9 I bid ., p p . 113 176. 1330),p. 1,15.
60 Ibid., pp. 177 218. ff Nicola A. Ziadeh, Sdnanldl: A Sady ol a Raitalkt Motmmt ia
61 lbi d ., p . 1 87. r'bn, (Liden: E. J. Brill, 1e68),p. 124.
62 Ibid., p. 201. ae kwis, Isbnn lritain, pP. 82, 81.
63 lbid., p. 213. 13 lbid-, p. 37, w pp. 89 101; se Ceaves, Seci4ror lqqkn..s,
64 Ibid., p. 243; she follows the tres. by A. J. Arberry, Ihe Koar W 141 152,159 1t-9.
I'ierp'erd (London: Allen & Unwin/New York: M&mille, 1971), 14 &e tsis. lslanu &riuia. p a0: S.. Cedv6 \".latua lnflw^ce'.
Vol. 2, p. 191. &e Ian Richdd Netton, Ailah Trarucrn&trri Stldia ir pp.91 129
the Sttrcbtr. a d Snioti's of klni Philosophy. Theolog ud 13 Seean 'B&clwis in Nellon, Popub Dictionar!oJlsldn, pp.52 53
Cosoloer, (Lndon & Nd Yoik: Routledg, 1939), p. :121 16 Seetois, /siamt Brnain, p. 40.
65 Schmmel. D"ciphmnq ttu SicB of Co,l. p. xii 17 &e ibid-, pp. 40, 84.
66 lbi d ., p p .255- 256. $ Gav6, sardnd Itrf@ces, p. 6s.
67 lbid. p. 2s6. tl lbid.
68 Javad Nubaksh, 'Mcta md Disiple in Javad Nurbaksh, tr rtu l0 rbid.
Tddn oI Rdn: Sda Esays @.S1iq. (LoDdon: Khaniqahi- ll Tolaoce is a key fature, for exople, of one of the c6. siudies
Nimatlllahi Publiotio6, 1978), p. 111. N'.B. Dr NurboAhsA's m which ;s a ftu.e ot this tek, the Ni(natulldhi Order. md it is
fiaBqtdatim Jm Arubi. an/J Pdsian arc pr.*tud in ,he qbtat;tu powdftlly strGsed by the ddvishd of that O.de.. Iodeed, Alm A.
lron his m uuhl Godla notes that 'Dr Nurba.khsh puts love ahad of intellect s the
69 S ei b i d .,p p. 119- 123. ley to spiritual advd.ement (dt. 'Ni"matulahr.yah' in John L.
70 Trans. in ibid., p 131. EsPslrr (ed), The &f6d En .tclopudia of the Moden lslanic \Vorld,
71 Trimrghd, The Srj tldes ir Is|Zn, p. 311. (Odord/New Yo.k: Oxford Unive.,ity Prss,1995),Vol. 3, p 2s2.
72 Ibid., p. 173. :12 (My italics) Victo. Dun6, The E*ly Dwelopment of Sufisn in
73 Se arts. 'Fma" md Baqa'' in Netton, Poplldt Di.tiotuD oJ lslr , &yyed Hcsein Nar (d), blda; Spi;tdlitJi Foudaiioro, World
pp .7 9 ,5 1 -52 Spi.ituality: An Encyclopaedic History of the Religious Quest, Vol.
7,1 J. C@pr (t^s.), The C@MtoD on the Qtr'an b! Abn la"fN 19, (l,ndon: Roltledge & Kega lraul, 1987),p. 263.
M&antud B. Jdffi dl-Tahan, (Oxford: Oxford tjniversity Pres,
1989), Vol. 1, p. 225. For the Ahbi. text se al Tabut ToIfl 4l-
Iabad, ed Mahmod Mu].'allnad Shekir, (Cairo, D,r al Ma',rif
196 0 ),Vo l . 1, p. 472.
75 SeL. Gardet,dt.'Dhilr', EI', Vol. 2, p. 223.
76 Mariefta T. Stpaniants,Suj Wisdon, SUNY Seriesir lslo, (,Albmy,
NY: StateUnivebity of New Yorl Press,1994),p. 6l
77 Javad NrbaltBh, Th. Psrcholw oJ SL/.6n, (trndon & New York:
Khaniqahi Nimatulahi Publi.atioG, 1992), p. 6i.
78 ldem, 'Sulisn' in iden, In the Toutn ol Rtin. p. 7; se ale idd, In
the Patudiv oJ ile Sds, (London & New York: Khmiqahi-
Ninatuliahi Pubiications, 1989), pP 29 ,18
79 ldm, 'SdM' in idd, Jn thz TM oJ Rtin, p. 321w ate ;den, .Sd
Synbolim: Ttu NrrbalJsn Etut.lrpeaia of Suf TMiDl,s! (Lndon:
Khmiqahi NimtuIani Publiotioc, 1984),Vol. 1,pp.9s 98,188 191.

18
 Mappingthe Sacred1
The Ni'matulldhnOrder

2,1Origins

And hold fct,

All togetha, by the Rope
Which God (stretches out
For you), od be not divided
Among yourselves;
And remembd with gratitude
Cod's fauow d ral
[nftut Allahlt
For ye were oemies
And He joined your hearts
In love, so that by His crace
Ye became bredren;
And ye wre on the brinl
(X the Pi of F;e,
And He saved you from it.
Thus doth God male
His sig* clear to you:
That Ye may be gdded.
(Qu"an 3:103)'

The founder of the Ni'matullahi Order, Nor al Dm Sheh

Ni'rratullah Wali, was born in Aleppo on the 14th of Rabi.
al Awwal 731A.H. (A.D 1331).,His fatherwasArab and his
mother was Persian-rThe reasonswhy his family had movat to
$ria are unlnown 'but all the early accounts of Shah,slife
report his birth in Aleppo'.4

2l
 SUFi RITTJAL
ShaI Ni'matullah has been characterised by Trimingham
as
a 'proli6c writer of Sutr ephemeras,both prose and
ftetry,.:
Rather more enthusiastica y, Javad Nurba_khsh .ff" irirn ,if,"
qutb (axis) of those who realise Oneness, the
bst of thos
perfected' and 'one of the greatest rnaste$ and most
renownd
mystrcs of the Sth and 9th centuries A.H. (14th and 15th
centuriesA.D)' who 'bestowedfresh radianceupon the
light of
Sufism in his own time'.6 His eloquencewas such that
When ShahNi.natallel bse to speak
Even the ugels descendedto I'sten.;
Hr,.eju611;.' included rhe .tudv ot 6qh. rheroric,
and
scholaslrc.rheosophv and rheoloqyas well as worls by lbn Sina
and Ibn al-Hral'r 3
Two meetings marked the early life of Shai Ni.matullah: the
-
nrst may be compared in significance to that btwen the
youthtul Prophet Muhammad and the Christian monl
Bah[a;,
the second may be compared in its huge impact to the famous
encounlp,betueen lhe young lbn al Arabr and tbn Rushd
in
Lo'dovd, " or rhdr berweenJataldl - Drn Rr:rruand Shams
al Drn
Myha:'.nna9._Jabili in Konya.rrBoth these meetings
in the
eady life of Shai Ni'matullah wilt be adumbrated here.
In the fust, at the age of 6ve, the Shah was taken by his
^ suli
father to^a,sufi meeting. The father recounted an episode at the
Battle of Uhd in A.D. 625 in which live of ihe tropher
Muhammad's teeth had been broken. The contempoiary hermrt,
Uways aJ-Qarari.who lireJ rn rhe yemen. rmmediaretybrote
aJl
t*,1.',r The story ctearty puzzled rhe young
:::
Nr'marull;i ..ymparhy..
for there had been no rlirine Lnstru.don for thI
hermit's action. However, later, Uways appeared to him
that
mght n a dream ard interprcted th dream for him: .In love
of
)ouf ancestor (Muhammad) I broke the thirty teeth ofavarice for
thrs^uorld and rhe next . Thus, juql as Bdlur; rdentiGed
and
conJumedthe propherhoodof \luhdmmad. so rhe five yea,
old
drpamerhad his own turure missionemphcised. As pouriavady
anJ wrlson remindus Like KhiJr or the Hidden lmam
ofrhe
Shi'ites, Uways is an everJiving spiritual force (atthough
untike
them, he did suffer physical death); he appars in visions
and
).2
IfAPPINC THE SACREI] ]
ofers initiation or help in spiritual difliculties. Thus this
.rpe.ience of the five year old Ni'matullah was mor than a
childish drearn - it was a mark of his future spiritual rank'.r3
The second major encounter of Sh,-h Ni.matullah,s early life
was that between himself at the age of twenty four in Mecca and
the srfi 'Abdullah al,Ye6'i (1298-1367).ra Al ya6t. who
bclonged both to the Shadhilr Order and the yefit bra.nch of
the Qadirirya, acceptd Ni'matullah as his disciole,rs and later
lhaly'a.16The accounrofsha} Ni marutlehs ttrsi meerbe w,rh
lhis Shaylh is borh porgnanr and poerrc He encounrered
rl-Yafii in a mosque teaching hadith and he telts us that ,lll at
once perceivedmyself as a drop. and rhis man as the Oce,r, .
Ni'matullah acknowledged the Shalh as his masterl3 and for
rcven years he studied rasaruru/ with him.rq
Therea{tea following a tradition shared bv manv collectors of
[adrth. slfis and other scholars.of rravelin searchof knou tedee
$hla ft lalab ol- ilm1.i Shah Ni mamllsh emb"rked on a series
of favels, visiting, inter a.Iia, Egypt, Persia, Transoxania,
Samarqand, Shraz, Kirman and M.han.?] He met, and was
later expelled by, Trmnr-i Lang.22 In Herat he married the
granddaughter of Amir Husay'n Harawi (died c 1320 13291.23
The last twenty 6ve years of his life were spent between Mahan
lnd Kirrrr.in and the former became the focal point of arr
expanding Order as well as the place ofcomposition ofmany of
his writings.za While on a visit to Knman. Shah Ni.matullah
died in A.D 1431 having already designated his son Khalilu an
(died 1455) as his successor.2s
His cof6n was car.ied to Mahan
.nd intrred in the centre of that town_ A mausoleum was
.rected over his tombr6 and this became the focus of much
pitgrimage
'
By the time of his death, Shah Ni'matullah's posthumous
rpiritual fame was assured. The people of Samarqand had
sought him out to such an extent that he had had to escaDto
the mountains rn the deprhs or wrnter for some pedce dnd
solitude.2s Javad Nurbaksh quotes .Abd al-Razzaq a.l-Kirmani
writing of him that 'his honour was outstanding among the
great people of his time in the area of discourse and exceptional
among the mastersof spiritual combat of his dav'.re
23
 tri F l R rT U ,l L
'I'he Ni'matullau- Order spread ro
India in the life of Shah
\;'marulieh rhrough rhe aqency of his grandson, Shah
Nurulldnri and, unsurprrsingly, became extremety active in
Iran.31 Today, blancqatu of one branch of the Order are to be
found as far afretd as the citis and rowns ofthe United States.
Western Europe (including England), Australia and Africa. It is
thus no xaggeration to say that the Ni.matullahiwa is now an
internationaltdriqd wilh an inrernarionalfollowi;; from manv
rutrons.I'
It has already been stressd earlier that it will not b the task
of this volume to survey and evaluate the spintualit! of the
Ordersunderdiscussion. Our concernwilt be much more with
their ritual practices. However, we should not leave this brief
survey of the life of Shah Ni.matullih without notine. as
Graham does.rhar Sh;h Ni malu ;hs origrnalconrribttion
consists in his making of Ibn 'Arabi's enunciated doctrine an
applied science. Where Ibn .Arabi was fundamentally a
thinker and a teacher, Shah Ni.matullah was first and foremost
a practrtloner, a master, concerned with the zuidance of
disciplesot rhe ranqa. Ibn 'Arabr's reachingsprovided rhe
theoretical background for Shah Ni.rnatullah s piog-n--e of
training' rr
Il
-. J:c9nt times stress has been placed on the openness of
Shah Ni'matullah: 'He did not consider Sufism limited to a
certain group of peopl. In contrast with other Sufi masters of
his time, who accepted only some seekers of God and reiected
others as unworrh), he lefr hi. door open to alt se;ke,s.
instructing in the way oflove (nahahbat\ all those in whom he
perceived a longing for the school of Unity. .Strah Ni.not AIIah
regarded all people as beins equally daseroinganl. in need of the
school of 9l4f.srr'. He said, "All those whom the saints have
rejecrrd. I willaccepr. and. accordrngio rheir capacity. I witl
periect them. J'These remark" clearly underline r}e Ni,ma
tullaii Order's stress on tolerance, frarerniry and equality as
well as service. The latter is, ofcourse, rnost apparent within rhe
hhanaqah itself.3s
24
N1APPINGTHE SACRID ]
2.2 RitualsandPracticcs
The 'method' of the Ni'matullahi Order has been characterised
I being symbolically bet,reen the East and the West. The latter
b representative of total 'externa.l activity' and the former of
'total inward attention'.36Man's world has an inner and an
outer dimension and Slfism seeks a balance between the two.
$Ofism itself has a dual dimension: one which has a public face
rrtd one which is much deeper and 'resffed for the 6lite'.37
This section eyplores the rituals and practices of that public
frce. Before we embark on this erploration, however, it is worth
dtessing, with Potrrjavady and Wilson, and against Triming-
lnm and Ivanow,33 that the Ni'matulle+f Order is not, and
nlver has been, an aristocratic Order, or one dirccted at only
dre class of society. It may however, fairly be characterised as
an urban Order.
2.2.1 Organisationan<lHierarchy
At the heart of Ni'marullahr Sufism, and its hidden and
complex spiritual hierarchy, is the concept of the Qrrb or Pole.
Eheh Ni'matullah, among others, holds this rank.3eHis poetrv
hre beenseenas indicarinehis revelationof himself.s; Qutb
vhile on earth.ao In this corporeal life the spiritual Qurb is
mirrored by a human Qutb and he is the Master of the
Ni'matullahi Order. Not only is Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh (born
1926) considered to be the present Qurb of the Munisiyya
branch of this Order, but h is the tust 'modern' Ni'matullahi
Qtrt6, having gained a medical doctorate, studied at the
Sorbonne aad been a Professor of Psychiatry at Teheran
University aad Head of the Department oi Psyciiatry there. In
him are fascinatingly reflected the East and the West, the
ucimt and the modern, the theological and the thmsophical.al
The Order has no doubt about the absolute need for a eood
Master.' Theliteofshah Ni marullahWali himsellprovrJesa
ttcet paradigm in the shape of the young man seeking
instruction in things divine from many shaykhs until finally
25
 STJFIRI'I-UAL I{APPINC TTIE SACRED1
he encounterd Shaykh .Abdulleh al yaf.i in Mecca,
as we their predecessors,t2'Mnnis 'Ali Sh.n U873 19531 never
lav1. sgel a!ove,l3 Arrd the N{aster, whose .sayings,
states and rctually officially named a successor [aJId so] there was a great
qualiries not be quesrjoned by ;h"-di".,pt". i.
.should deal of confusion at his death. According to one source, thirteen
symbol'sed by rhe wjnesellerwho is a profound irnage
of rhe Fople claimed to be Qutb'.s3
nu'shid in r he sufi vocabutaryof wine. Shan Ni,matult"ah
calted This whole matter of successionblings us natly to the siisila
tumsett (-omrnander of rhe Winesellers_r{
of the Ni'matullahi Order. The close relationship between the
In the rr-i'matullaht Order Mastership cannot
_ sirnply be Ni'matullahi silsila and that of the Shadhiliyya Order has been
Llaimed:,'Jr musr be anajned rhrough rraining under perfecr
a ooted. It is believed by some that these two Orders are among a
masrer. I he true masrerimurAd)is tinked ro rne spiritual
chain minority which have 'spread to the West in recent years in an
ol masrerswhich extends back to the propher . . the
masrer ruthentic and unaduiterated nanner'.sa Shah Ni'matullah
must have travelled the path and come to know the path
before Walr traced his silsila back through his own master Shaykh
he can lead orhers on rhe way'.a. paraltet wirh this
is Lhe 'Abdullah al-Ya6'i and his master, Shaykh Selih Barbad,
posrtronoi rhe novj{e or disciple rnridr 'who
witnesssin his through such luminaries as Ahmad al-chazali, al Junayd
hean rhe spLrilualbeaur! ot the masterand inrmedrarely
falls rn sl-Baghdadi, and al-Hasan al Basri to'Ali b. Abi T:lib and
love with thi: beauty'.s Indeed, a whole etiquette
or adab of the Prophet Muhammad himsellss The present head of the
di"ciphship' governs rhe rel,rionship between Masrer
and Mnnisirya branch of the Ni'matullahiyya, Nnr 'Ali Shah 11
Novrce. and nu/id: and rhe unquestioninq ruture
'nurdJ of the Dr Javad Nurbalhsh, traces his silsiia back to Shah Ni'ma
obedrencero be exhibited by the laner towards rhe former
is tullah Wah56 and thus, through him, also to the Prophet
based on rhe arrherypal Qur,;rJc paradrgm enshrrned
rn rhe Mr.rhammad.
encounterbetweenMoses and al_Klidr.a3
The hhandqah is at the heart of Ni'matullait spirituality and
Thts rclarionshjphas beenanicularedat grarer
,rength .muradtnutid itr mystery That senseof mystery, together with a typical lack
m dn essayentirled .Vasrer and Disciple. by
Javad of ostentation, was well evoked by Yann Richard, after his visit
)r'ilb$ " Here the aurhor surveysrhe un;Uur"s *ru.h to a Rnch &frandqah:
should be po-ssessed bv the Masrer, rhe eur,ani. subsratum or
roundalron ior Mastershp. and rhe need for a For the Ftench, Rosny-sous-Bois, m urban junction in the
Master by a
seekeror traveller. The laner poinr is elaborared suburbsof Paris,is more likely to bring road travel to mind tho
,rd"; ;A;
he-adrngsuhich include reference ro rhe obsracles Shr'ite mvsticism. Neverthelss,that is where I have m
aind
diflculties of the journey, the disease of self, gUa** appointment, in a hor:sethat is spaciousmd modern, though
tf,r""gi
spiritual sbres ,nd wirnessmgs and the desrrucrion not ccessively luxurior:s, set in flower plmted grounds.Happy
of the ego.
es$y concludeswrth a surveyof the responsibiliries to hav rea.hed this haven after the labyrinth of freeway
.lne of;he
Mdsler towards lhe drsciple, lisLedunder niner.eenpoinrs. intelcheges,I discoverthe signwritten in lalgeleiters,in both
and
rhe^twentvJour duries of rhe discrple towards his Mashr. Frenchmd Persia, that intrigles the uninitiatedpassers,by:
\h.n Nr marullah desigrarrd his successor. Houe of the Su6s, Khaneqah.eNe'tutollahi.,?
. his son K}ali
lullah. before his dearh'0and the ldfer becamerhe
secondeud This is a Barthian scenario where place is made sacred by
ol rie Ord:, I While such designarjonp,ovrdes,ds
rr were. an action. Akin to this is the description of the bhanaqah by
roearpdradrgm lor rhe succssion.this was nor always
rhe case Pourjavady and Wilson, written in 1978, which lays an equal
m rhe hisrory of rhe Order. For example,white Nur ,Ali
Shah stressor its spiritis or mystery of placeand concomitant lack of
rd,edl7g7)and \4asr AIShahrt;Sj
t8.t7,wered"sisndkdby ostentation. They characterise Persia as 'the place of the
26 lt-
 ! LFi RI TLAL
VAPPINC TIJE SACRED 1
secret'se and rmind rhe curious visitor that if he seks
Khaniqah'.6s 'these otab will be surveyed as what might b
dervishes and sufi activity on rhe strets of Teheran. a citv
tetmed the 'rule of life' of the Ni'matullaru- dervishes after a
\rith so many dervrshes.he will find none. He js direcr;
brief examination of the initiation ite into that Order.
instead to a door in a small alley of Old Teheran. One enters a
Comparisons will also be made between this rule and the
garden, and sees roses, a fountain in a courtyard and ,a
new classic Chistian rule laid down by St. Benedict.66Already,
buildingin an ancient style': the senseofny*ery presence an.r however, we may note interesting resemblances between the
profound peace is discernible from the writilq.oo
1!ff lilarrdqah and the Christian monastery in terms of purpose
lf rhe mosque is representariveof the exiernal asoecrsot
.nd goal. Our previous characterisatiol of the hhanaqah as a
Islam then he hhanaqah represmts t}|at retiejon s inner
place of love may be brielly compared with the following from
dimen'ions which protect rarher rhan oppose rhe enemals ol
the Prologva of the Rule of St. Bmed.ict:
relrgron.'I Enrrv into rhe Afi,ina4alshould be spiritual as well as
phvsical.c2lrq enrire focus is tove in Ni.maruliah rheory, Constituenda est ergo nobis Therefore we intend ro estab-
dominici schola servitii. In lish a schoollie monasterylfor
The hhaniqahis then rhe place of sin@ty, where norhins is
qua iistitutione nibil asprum, the Lord's swie. In drawins
dr.cus"ederrepr rhe tteloved tt is rhe Houseof Low, wrrhour
.ihil grave, Dos constituturos up its regulations,we hope to
folly, variety or dceiq where there is no difdence betwena
speiamus;*d et si quid pau, set doM nothing harsh, noth-
bggd and a kns All that .emains rhde is the selflessneas of lulum restrictius, dictante ing burdosm. The goo,Cof
the spiritual srate,the divirc Light in eachman. There evryone
aequitatis ratione, propter all conccned, howeveamay
follows the rituals ofth sharfah, md h6 attainedvnious levels
eme.dationem vitiorun vel prompt us to a litde strictness
of the tariqal. There are always false &antqarr! wh,e fals
conservationemwitatis pro in ordr to mnd faults and to
masterscarry out their dseptioN, bur if the method of th true
cesserit... Prcesu vao con safeguardlove . .. But as we
bian;qah were ever forgottdr the very hose of the world itslf
versationis et fidei, dilatato progressir this way of [mon-
would be ruined.6r
@rde innanabili ditectionis asticl life od in faid! we shall
The mediaeval and mo dern hhanasa]$ have lllustrious DroDhe dulcedine curritur via mmda run on the path of cod's
tic anrecedenr":Josephs lfiana4al was r-hewe : tol:le Dei.6t commandments,our hearts
Jonans was rhe
bell) ot lhe whale: Vuhammad s was Lhe Ka ba afrer he had overflow;g with the ine4res
cleansed ir ofits idols. Muhammad then described that Ka$a as sibledelightof love.63
'the Academy of Annihilation'.6a There is an ;nteresting
sifi The love of God and man, and humility, which should reign in
typology in operation here akin to rhar in Christianitv which
the hhanasAh should also reign in the Benedictine monastery;
seesrhe slorv ofJonah rhe belly of rhe whale as a 6pe of
'n the R e oJ St- Benedict reinfo.ces th need for these virtues in a
Chri.t in rhe romb for rhree daysafter rhe cruciGxion. uariety of places:
One of the principal practices of the bhanrlsah is dhib, and
_
the Ni'matullahi dfiiAr will be surveyed in due course. It is Clmt nobis scriptura divina, Brothers,divine Saipture calls
worth noting here, however, that life in the ifitndadl is strictlv fra&6, diens, Omni qui se to us saying: Whoaer enhs
governed and conrrolled. lr is nor r place of spjritua| etuItat ldnilinb'hlr et ryi se hins?IJ shal be hrnbled, and
indiscipline and chaos but a place of learning. hmiliat exaltiqtut6e uhodet h|'r.bleshinself shallbe
Javad Nuriatlstr
has surveyed the manners, the adnb, of the Ni.matullahi exalted.lo
hhanagah in an essay eotitled 'The Rules and Manners of the

29
 S [ ' FLAI TU \ L
Calitateh fraternitatis caste To their fellow monks they
impendmt, amore Deurn time show the pue love ofbrcthen;
dr. dbbalem er ro Uod lovirs
humili caritatediligmt.;!
Initiation into th sufi life cin take a variety offorms. The rites
are more elabomte in some areas and some (Jrders than others.
They can include being clothed in the lhirqa (suft ga.rment), an
oath of allegiance, receiving secret words, the drinling of water
or oil, investiture with garments addit;onal to the hhirqa.
allo.arronota personaldfiibr and orherprayers.:r
It must be stressed that the tr-i'matullahis are by no means
opposed to the exoteric aspects of Islam_ Thus, before the
Ni'matullalt initiation ceremony, both the non,I,{ustim and
Muslim aspira.nts to the sufi path are obliged to mate a ritual
adherenceto Islam.;J Pourjavady and Wilson de6ne initiation
as 'outwardly ... a ceremony whereby tne aspranr swearsto
obey the trIaster and is received into the tan-qah'.;5 Prior to the
initiation, the candidate must formulate a correct intention.t6
ard then undertake five ritual ablutions as follows: each of these
ablutions has an exoteric and an esoteric dimension: fustlv
come\ th? ablutionoJ ppc,rdn c wirh which rhe aspiranr reoents
ol pasr mi"deeds.Of rhe rhree kind. of repenranie. Lhebes rs
clearlythar ofthe.ufr who dresro all thar is not Cod.: Then
comes the ablfiion of flb'rlission or lslam referred to above. This
involves tota.l outq'ard a.rld inward surrender to the will of cod.
Islam too has three dimensions embracing the verbal profession
of fajth, 'initiation through the herrt' and firratty, that which is
clearly the best, 'the initiarion tbrough the Root of the Root of
lslam, which is surrenderand resignationand satisfacrion*,ith
both Union and separation'.i3
The third ablution is the a.blution of spi'itl:.l,I pou'rt: in rhis
the outward cleansing mirrors the inner purity. It signifies rhe
l0
NlAPIINC THE SACRED I
need for God.tq Fourth of the five ablutions cones the ablution
of pilgnmage (ie to the Master). Just as one purfies or washes
oneself and puts on clean clothes before visiting the dignitaris
of this world, so one should be clearsed outwardly before
visiting the l\,faster to receive directions for inner purification
and pilgrimage via the snfi path.3o (The Arabic and Persian
word ziyArc being translated as 'pilgrimage' here by Dr.
Nurbalhsh could equally be rendered as simply 'visitins'.)
Finally, the 6{ih ol the five ablutions is terned the ablation of
fil-ltlrnent. The aspirant prays to be allowed to reach 'the Station
of the Perfect Man' and the joy of eternal life in Paradise.3i
Five gifts, symbolic of spiitual poverty, are then prepared
and these are Fesentd to the Master by the aspirant. These
gifts comprise a coin, a white shroud, a ring, sweets and
nutmg. Each of these objects has a mystical significance: the
coin symbolises the wealth of this world arrd its presentation to
the Master symbolises acceptance of an inner spirit of poverty;
the sbroud rcpresents the seker's total surrender to God and
acceptance of asceticism; the ring signifes the binding of the
aspirant's heart to God; the sweets are a sign of the second birth
of the disciple as he enters the realms of spiritua.l povertyi
6nally, the nutmeg is symbolic of the discipte's head which is
presented as a mark of devotion to the Master.3?
The initiation qualifies the seeker to enter the hhdna.qahand
it is stressed in the literatur that this must be both a ohvsical
and a spirirualentry.3'I hu., beforerhe.eeler enterswhar is
termed 'the circle of Spiritual Poverty',3{he is required to make
6ve commitments to his Master: he must (1) undertake to
follow and obey the Sfidn'd, testifying, if Islam has not been
embraced before, with the traditional terms of tF'e shahad.o.and
adding th furthef testimony that ''Ali is the Saint ofGod'; (2)
make a cornmitment here to being kind to all God's creatures;
(3) pledge himself to keep the secrets of the Path; (4) agree to
6erve and oby the Master unquestioningly; and finally (5)
male an inward declaration of sacrifice and prepare a special
meal from a sheep for distribution among his fellow dervishes.35
TVo points may be stressed here: although, for the sake of
convenience I have written the above with reference to men. it is
3l
 ,\CFi RITUAL
clear that women are equally welcome on the Ni.matullfi
snfi
path. NurbaLhsh specially indicates this when he refers .he
to or
.he unda the headings The Five Symbols
ofspirirual poverrv.
ano t he rrve Uornrrutmenrs no Setondjy, rhe fad thar
the
process of initiation involves fle rituat abtutions, gifts
fza and
Jnue commrtments, coupled with the fre major principles
espoused by dervishes of the Ni.matualtahiyya,riiodi.ut""
ihut
the number FIVE is a favourite of the Order. ihe emphasis
here
is aI in ro r harplaced,for exampte,bv rhe tkhwanal Sala,onrhe
number Four.s The lh-hwanexptained rhat rheir predilecrjon
lor the number tour was becauserhe Crearorhad designedmuch
of His creation in groups of fours. This arrangement of
the
natural phenomena mirored the four main spirilal principles
Creltor, Universal Inteltect, Universat Soul and prime
9{
Matter.se Some clue to the predilection of the Ni.matuallalut
tor groups off?,es is to be found in The Nurbahhsh Enqclopedia
of Suf Terninolog where reference is made to ,the five Lyers .
.
of manifestationwhich are the 6ve realms ...'. The lowest
of
these, we are told, is the realm of Humaniryeo Thus, for
the snfi,
the grouping of such things as rituals in 6ves within
the
mrcro,o.rmrrsrrucrure oI the hhhnaqahmirrors or parallels
the
broader reality of rhe spirirual nranoros,nof rhe coimos.
2.2.3Rule ofliIe
Once the aspirant or seekerhas beerr initiated and gained formal
admrttance to rhe [hand4n[, it is his duty to follow the rule
of
the touse and become proficient in its manners or nlzb.
To
guide them in this, modem Nilnatultdhr dervisbes
have a
written mle which, though by no means as lensthy as that,
for
example, of St. Benedict, does nonetheless nave some rnterest_
mg points in common.
The Ni'marullehi Rule is based on the twin pilla$
of
mnsideration of God and consideration tor ones telow
dervish.q The bldna4al is defined as both .the p.i te quarters,
of the quft and 'a place where those of spiritual states
can
assemble,the school oftheir innerjourney towards perfection,.e2
32
I"IAPPIN(; THE SACRID I
Nurbalhsh reminds the snfi of the need to observe the manners
GAab) ot the hhnna4ah a\d outlines the secular and spiritual
advantagesof visiting it.q3 He surveys those who have authority
in the blrdndsah and their functions; for example, the duties and
quali6cations of the Shaykh are outlined. The latter must have
been chosen by the Qrtb and be a dervish of at least twelve yea-rs
standing.el The duties and qualifications of the dervish who
assisti the Shavkh. the Counsellor. are also covered as are those
ofanother important dervish in the Hr,anaqah, the Tea-Master.ei
The Rule then moves on to survev the servitors: these are
sufis of spcial merit and capacity for adab who are chosen to
serve in the hhanaqah.'fhey merit respect from the other
dewishes whom the servitors must, in turn, serve devotedly.
The lalter are not to show favouritism to any dervishes because
of wealth or social standing.'6
Below the rank ofthe servitors are the 'ordinarv' suirs, all of
whom also have particular duties to the bldndriah, the offrcers of
the hhauqah and their fellow dervishes. These sofrs are
counselled, inter alia, to dress neatly, forget secular aflairs on
ex,te;ng the hhanaqah. attend the $nfi gatherings on Sunday and
Thursday nights, remain silent and respectful when the Shaykh
is present and tell the latter their dreams, obey the orders ofthe
Counsellor and eschew arrogance, conceit and supedority.qi
Next the position of the travelling dervish in the hhanaqah is
considered. He should bring a gift, and the gist of the
regulations is that he shor.rld behave with the utmost courtesy,
consideration and respect within, arrd towards, the &Aandqah
where he is a guest and not attempt to take unfair advantage of
his fellow dervishes.e3
The Rule concludes with instructions for the conduct of a
sufi gathering which is deined as an assembly which takes place
whn the Qrrb or ShayLh is prcsent. Rules of posture, all of
which have a symbolic significance, are adumbrated, and ar
insistence is placed on silence and concentration on God.
Certain rituals also govern the cloth spread on the foor for
meals and the meal which is eaten from it.ee The penultimate
chapter of the Rule outlines the qualifications required ol and
duties incumbent upon, the Stewards of the bhanaqah. Between
 suFI RITU]\L
_ MAPPING THE SACRED 1
selT o,l r.hesemay be appointed by rhe
:lrT iid Shayhi. t he of this frvefold obligation will be surveyed here under the
ot all,is verv.shorr and appear" under rhe
1::f:pl" Lrenerat simptt general heading of'Liturgy'. These principles compriser (1)
ruDlc Advice Here rhe snfr is reminded of Lhe
need Dhihr (ZeAr)r11(Remembranceor Recollection)called 'the heart
trld Inendliness ro peopte who belong to
l::,"p*":* all of sufi practice';rr?(2) Fib (Fehr) (Reflection or Contempla-
nations and ret,gions(hospirdliry ro one s fellow
man;,La rhe
neeoDtorrhe lover to concenlraredll fus or her tionl; (3) Mufiqaba (Moraqebeh) (Meditation, Watching,
lhoughrson God
lne beto\edrhospiralir\, ro one.s(;.rlrran Spiritual Communion with a saint or a guide);r13(4) Muhasaba
(Mohasebeh)(Examination of conscience); (.5) Wird (.Vrd)
and irsrructive.
10(omparealt Lhisbnefl1
. .'l l"-l:J"Trlu,
wirn anorher Kutp hom anorher radition, rhat (lnvocation, 'Office' of an Orderl.tta We should sbesshere, in
of rhe mediaevi
nnsirct ot Nursratc 480 mrd or-hcmt.r
Lile rhe modem Rule Fssing, that this set of 6ve has never been intended to replace
or ue \r mdtu_ahiyva adumbrared above. the frve uhan.
the Rulc of rhe
Dmeorcrrnesis ruU ot lvildom and sheermmmon
sensefor rhe
successfulnrnning and governanceofa monastc
hous ofprayer:
as we have seen, the pmto&" stresses the p,,p""" 22.1.1Dhihrond.
Sana'
Lf im
monasreryIr.is for rhe Lord s .ervrce alld l"
.fl"_.r"riJ* f
." rhc comrnmrdroJ nores, .rhe monastery Under this headingwe will considerthe practiceofthe sdma'as
]11,-, rs a place well as the Ni"matullahi dii[r itsell Waley notes that one of the
reafn how ro servethe Lord and adudlly
]::^:so.'"ii:ff*'Ph
(ro I he qudtjtiesard duties of LheAbbor ur" features of dfrihr 'is that it represents dndmnesis,the 'unforget
su*"yoJ in ting'ofthat which, in our deepestcore, we already know. God
several pa.rts of the Rubro2 as are those
f* iil
Dedns ot rhe monateryr,rand the pnor.rtr "i "*i"t "t", deated us for this purpose'-1l5And the act of dhih can take
rc;r.f,* rr"
c.noseneverv $eek and no one is excused "-** many different forms and styles.lr6 Pourjavady and Wilson
fiom service in rhe
reasons.of sicknessor imponanr monastery confirm Waley's remarks about dhiAr: 'Ma.n'spresent low state
i::l:
Dusmr:ss. "I:p,^'"j of spiritual sleepstemsfrom forgetfulness;invocation ldhiAr] is
I he^Kdpmsisrslhar.such ser!ice incra*"
,e*"rd ,rd simply the act of constantrecollction'.rr7The wise old man in
rosrers..tove.,"' Indeed, all lhe monks
of the monasrery are
coumelledin rhe wavs of perfecrJonrhroughour the story is citd as insisting that 'by lepating his dfiihy the
Benedicr,sh"; pupil invokes God so as to acquire God's attributes, so that after
,nkrdlrd. lhey musr & obedientlo rher super;or.ru^
resLrajned in annihilation of self all that remains is God. As the pupil settles
"' atlenr,vero the Divrne uf{ice,aa and humbte
T,"i:p*:l in into the practice ofdhi&r, it begins to 'say itself instead of him
rn au rheseareasrhen.we rnaynorevery reat
11-lTl*'* between saying it, and the remembererbecomesthe Remembered'.r13
Ili"-t1'.5' rhe rwo Rulcsof Sr. Benedic,
anl rhe
r\rmrtullahis.(lris nol, ot course,suggesred Like other rituals and aspcts of the Ni'matutldhi hhanaqah,
in any wayrhatrhe
lrom the former.but simptyrhat rhe two Ruics, dhiir has its o*n rules and manners (adab).An earlier Shaykh
111"'T'-Td
or path\ lo Ljod. haremanyfeaturesin commonl. ofthe Ni'matullahr O.der, Majdhub, 'Ali Shah Hamadam (died
1823)r1especified thirteen conditions in order that the dhiAr
might be properly performed.r2oJavadNurbalhsh sets out rn
which he characterises as the dldb of dhihr:121There is an
2.2.+Lilrrgy
emphasis on th ritual purity which results from the normal
The- marull;hr Order, . haracterisricay, ,denrifiesjL,e ablutions the worshipper undertakesbeforethe live-times a day
pllncrpres prayer (1). As an adjunct to this it is necessaryto wear clean
-\r wlxch eachdervish should pracrise.roEach
"specr clothing which constituts, as it were, an outer mirror or symbol
34
3i

of inner purity of mind and heart (2). A third dirnension of the
need for purity, outer and innr, lies in the disciple smelling
pleasant (3). The latter should face the qibia in the nomal
fashion for prayer (4) and his or her eyes should be closed (s).
Paralleling the need for risht intention in so much of
mainstream ritual, the disciple during the dhifrr should mentally
invoke his Master's aid. The link with, and need for guidance
from, a sufi l\,Iaster is thus brought rieht into the arena of the
dnihr itself (6). A specilic posture is to be adopted which
stresses in symbolic form the nothingness of the snfi and the
latter's rejection of the ego. This is powerfully articulated in a
body posture wherein the arms and legs form the Arabic word
'la' ('no' or'not').r']? Once againwe havean outer reflectionof an
inner attitude of self abnesation(7). During all this the soF is
required to empty his or her mind o{all worldly proccupations
and 611it sirnply with thoughts of Cod (8) in silence(9) with
gratitude and acceptance that any feelings and experiences
encounteredduring the dfiilr are from Cod Himself (10).
Two types ofdhi&r may be identified: Vocal' (dhitr1ab) and
'Silent' (dhilr hiufr. The filst may be performed, often loudly,
by snfis in their hhandqah or at a sufi gathering. It is practised
by such Orders as the Qadiri''ya.1r3And while it is true tha.
vocal dhi&r may be undertaken when the Shaykh is present
during Ni'matullah gatherinss, or on special occasions, the
preferred mode of dhiAr among Ni'rnatullrhis is the silent
vaiety.r2a Furthermore, the practice of silent dhilr in the
middle of everydayactivities is much comrnended.rzi
In their book, Kings oflove, Navoltah Pourjavady and Peter
Lambom Wilson describe a typical dhi&r in Old Teheran.
Between one hundred arrd fifty and two hundred tale part in a
on a Thursday evening. The dervishes sit during the
'naji;
chanting of the snfi poetry and a simple vocal dhihr, based on
the Arabic shaiada, is performed. This is done in absolute
darkness. The dhibr ends with a prayer from the l\'{aster. As the
lights go on he prays for God's guidance,help and succourr:r
Beyond tbe dhilar lies the sama', the mystical or spiritual
conced. Chant has a.lwaysben permitted in mainstream Islam
in the realms of the adJratland ,4ju,td, but other forms of singing
36
I I A P P I N G T H E SAC R ED1
and the use of musical instruments have o{ten incurred the
*rath of the theoiogians and rhe law schools.l2i Owen Wright
notes that the later importance that music acquired in $rlli
ceremonial 'depended upon its being interpreted symboli
cally'.r':sSymbolic or not, the sdma'has givn rise to massive
conhoversy not only among non-sifts but within s,lfi circles
themselves.l2eThe debate has continued into modern times.
Philip Lewis cites a notable Indian Muslim scholaras counting
among the signs of the Day of Judgement 'the abundance of
singing, dancing and revelries' 130Many centuries before, the
early sufi al-Hu.iwiri (died c.1075),'r' famous for his work The
Disclosrre of the Concealed (Kash/ al-Mahj ),1rr counselled
against too much pnctice of the sano' and he laid down a
number of conditions for the pmctice of the sama" to avoid
abuse: a Shayhh was to be present, only initiates were to be
present, the dervishes were io rcmain in a state of absolute
sobriety, and whn they were spiritually moved during the
samd' they were to avoid disturbing others who were
participating in the sona'.131
N{usic and the sama' became a normative part of the sufi way.
The rationale for the sona'was that it produced 'a state of
ecstasy in the listener who [wasl properly prepared, becauseits
non verbal, non categorical meaningfulness prefigureldl the
absolute beauty which [wasl the Suli's q6al'.t:+ Here we a-re
reminded of Wright's words, cited above, about the symbolic
rnture of sufi music.
As far as the Ni'matullahr Order is concerned, music was
used as early as the majiliis of Shah Ni'matullah Wah but it
'accorded, in his opinion, with the Shari'ah', and eschewed
dancing and whirling. The sarnZ"compriseda simple diribr with
clapping and, sometimes,the use of the tambourine and reed
flute.l3: Later Nlasters of the Order developed a whole
vocabulary of s,[fi symbolism which embraced 'Wine, Music,
lr,fystical Audition (Sama'), and Convivial Gatherinss'.r36
Sdna'has been denned as'a mysticai state experiencedby
the Sufis when affected by sweet singing and enchanted
melodies.In this state of selflessness, Sufis may exhibit cetain
movements which onlookers may suppose to be a kind of
3t'
 S.Fi RITI]AL
dance'.r37 For, it is stressed, sdma. means .the realization and
discovery of mystical states whiclr is necessarily accompanied
by th loss of the faculties of retention and judgement in one
s
intemal consciousness'. r33
ln their sdna' today, the dervishes ofthe Ni.matullall- Order
bd\e a rnajor rreariseon Lhe subject by
Javad Nubal}rsh for
their gurdance.rroRrght ar the beginnineof tfus ir is suessedthar
the. ecstasy which is the product of the sand. is not something
which is superficial, and that the sdfi dance is not pedormed foi
mere idle amusement.r'uRarher.sdr.;. puts man rn roucb wirh
'the dngeficof suprasensble world rrheMalahur).111
Following,Shaykh Rnzbihan Baqh Shnazi (1128 1209),14,
.
three types ofrdnz'are idertified: that which is suitable for the
ordnary people, that Fopr to the elect, and that which
is for
those vr'ho are classified as.the elect among the lect,.rr3
Followins al cha2eh, tawfut and unlawful kinds of sama.
are
.ategorisedard rh rredrr"erhen lays down twenty rules
ol
conducl whrch musr golern rhc sd,?Z rr4 These include
rhe
need for sp-ontaneity, infrequent practice, the presence of a
sufi
Maste.r or Shaylh, lack of pretence, correct posture and a pure
heart focussed solely on God. An explanation ofwhy dnilrs
and
poetrv rarher lhan_vers5 from rhe eur'an are used during rhe
sana' rs provided, '' and it ,s emphas,sedthrt in anangi;C
a
sdmd 5essron,one musr consider rhe time. the place, and
the
people, takrnq par'rb Wh,iJe the pradice of .dnz, brings
unoour'red benehrs, rhere are certrin situations in which
rt
should not be practised.l+7 Spa:ial reference is also rnad to
rhe
musical instruments employed in the sarna..ra3
The trearr.elhen moves ro d lengthy exposrtionof rhe rh_ree
statrons ot idmd' which are identiied as undersranding,ual
(which can loosely b translatd here as ecstasyl
ano move
menr.'" The kinds and terels ol wajd ate jdenLiied and
de"cnbed. rhs includes a comparisonbetween rhe uajd ot the
begrnner ard rhe ad!anced dervish. Under rhe rubric
of
Morement (Dancing), tt is noted that .sometimes the movments
of su6s in Wajd are Jike dance movements. This indicares a very
advanced degree of Wajd'.r50 The dervish may be s&ed with
yearning for God and sramp his feet and clap in the .Dance
of
38
\IAPPINO THE SACRED ]
Oneness'.rn True sufi dance, according to Nurbakhsh, is
alwaysinvoluntary-lt2Finally, the treatiseconcludeswith a brief
eurvey of the sami:" practices of Shah Ni'matullah Wali,1s3a
tubject to which we have already briefy referred.
Although the rules goveming the sdma'specify that 'the
general public, or those not on the path, should not be
presnt'1saduring the sarna', some flavour of the singing and the
musicianship may be gleaned from the occasional public
concrts such as those mounted by th Nimatullahi Sufi Music
Ensemble at the School of Oriental and African Studies,
University o{ London, in the evening of 5th December 1990
during the thre day intmational conference on Classical
Persian Sufism entitled Tlre Legacy of Mediael)al Persian
Sufvn;rii and that performed by the same Ensemble, directed
by Muhammad Reza Lotfi, in th Lisner Auditorium of the
George Washington University campus in the evening of 11th
May 1992 during another three day international conference
mtitled Persian Suiyn from its Origiru to Rrmi.1s6
2.2.a.2Fihl
The Ni'matullahi dervish embraces the Divine Beloved by
means offLr and other sirnilar practices.r5TFor him the practice
offhr leads to that form of contemplation which results in
indeed is certitude about things divine.li3 Waley reminds us
that the practice of contemplation was by no means restricted to
the sifisrie and he draws attention to Abu Hamid al Ghazalt's
important chapter on meditation (Bab al-Tafahhuil in hrs
farnous magnum opus llya" 'IJItLm ai Dm.160 In the latte.
a.l-Ghazalr stresses the merits. nature and beneits of con,
templative meditation, distinguishing between various types of .
introspective thought.l6l He examines the appropriate subject
matter for such refection and argues, in one place at least, that
ft; is more beneficiat than dhibr.t62
As we have already noted, flr is one of the five principal
practices incumbent upon the Ni'matullehi dervish. God is the
absolutesnfi focus oftiz, with the mind emptied of all else.r63
39
 SUFi RITUAL
Sufif&r is infused with love and transcends that of the saee or
inrellectual r'anf who attempts to reach God rht"ueh th"
medium of knowledgerb':'While "ratronal contemplation is
woven. heart-based conremplaiion is ro be found.rt' The
former is motivated by reason but the latter is motivated by
God.'66 The Nilnatullahrs identify three distinct kinds of
'heart-based' contmplation: there is the restless contemplation
of rhe seekerwho lacksa Master and a par-hbur beeins; rhinl
about the need for a spiritual guide; ther is the contemplation
of the initiate who has embarked on the spiritual road in which
that initiate perceives the Master's 'spirirual h"ty';
thirdly, and 6nally, there is the fh', the contemplation of'th-rd
Advanced Su6' in which the soul is 'plunged into the Divine
Unity' and contemplation becomes wisdom.r6t From all this it
is clear that, for the Ni"marulla{n dervish, the heart ranls above
the mind, and that love is rnore powerful and more potent than
the intellect.
2 2.a3 Mtaqaba
Waley translates nurA4aba as 'conremplative vigilance' and
'contemplative watchfuiness'.163He notes that the sufi Abn
'l
Qasim a.l-Qushayri (died 1072) interpreted a very famous
hadtth as a direct reference m mura.qrbLl,e The hadrth is worth
summarising in full for one can then appreciate it context tlrc
profoundly sufi gloss that al,Qushayn gave part ofil in terms of
muAqaba.
The second Uraiifz 'Umar b. ai Khattib relates how he was
sitting one day with the Prophet Muhammad when they were
approached by a man wearing extremety white dothes and
having jet-black hair. H sat down by the Prophet and proceded
to ask him about Islam. Muhamrnad then characterised, or
summarised, Islam in terms of the five pittars (artaa) of lslam.
The stranger told the Prophet, to the amazment of those
arcund him, that h had spoken truly. Then the stranger asked
about -rrnanand was told by Muhammad that this embraced
belief in God, and His ansels, books, messmgers, rhe Day of
MAPPINC TflE SACRED 1
fudgenrent and Divine Destiny (oI qa,l.ar).Again the strarger
hpressed his approral of what Muhammad had said and thn
ded for a definition ol or information about, illsan. He was
bld that this involvedworshippingGod as if you could seeHim,
urd evenifyou could not seHim, He could seyo.u(.n ttL'I du
Allah ha amaha tafihu, Ja in lam tahlm tarahu, fa-ivahu
jaraha). The strdner'sfinal questionwas about the Last Day,
chancterisedin this batrth as TheHnr (al-Sa"a),and the 'Signs
of the Hour'. When the stranger finally leaves,'Urnar, in
responseto a quetion fiom the Prophet,confesseshis complete
iSnorancabout the questionerand is informed by Muhammad
that it was the angelJibn1, in disguise,who had come 'to teach
you your religion .r7o
From the prspective ol mwaqaba, al-Qushayri's particular
interest was in the Prophet's definition of r'llsan;al-Qushatrr says
that 'this is an a.llusion to al' mlraqoba, for nuraqaba is the
rervant's knowledge of his Lord's (be He glorfied) watchfulness
of Him. Such knowledge is extmded tbrough rn'raqaba (watch
ful contemplation) of his Lord'171 Waley stressesthat 'in this
pessageQushayd explains muldqabd as a mutual 'keeping watch'
between the Creator and the seeker on the Sufi Path'.172
Elsewhere we leam that 'adent love' has five degrees: 'The
6nal degree is "contemplation" ... of the Beloved, being the
finest and most intense of stations'.173 This quotation clearly
underpins the spirituality of the third of the frve principles of
the Ni'matullahi Order which the dervish should practis, that
and so we will turn now directly to the
of muaqrbq
Ni'matullair articulation of this principle.
In his book ln ttu Paradie o/tfie Sujs, Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh
introduces the subject with the following chaiming phrase:
'Mutaqebeh is two pople taking care of and protecting each
other The sagesof the Path have said about moraqeleh that jirst
as God takes care of and protects man, so man in his heart must
tale care of and protect God.'r74 This links up neatly with
al-Qusha1,n's exegesisof the Prophetic defrnition of il6an in the
Hadnh of Gabriel cited above and underlines Nurbakhsh's
insistence that there are two directions of mutaqaba: 'from God
to the creatioq and from the creation to God'.1ts
41
 SI]FI RITUAI.
In describing the first, 'From cod to the Crcation, under the
specrfiLheading fhe Divine Moraqebehrowardsrhe Whole or
Crearion , Nurbakhsh t learly espousesa form of whar is called
'atomism' in mediaeval Islamic philosophy.
Using thoroughtv
Aristotelian terminology, he holds that substanc"" only .erin;
in existence by virtue of the accidents which sustain them. The
lading of the latter would mean the automatic extinction of the
forme., were it not for the fact that the All_Watchful God tales
c"re to create a new accident when one fades so that the
substances are maintained in being. It is suggested that this is
the real sense of the Qur.enic verse At every momenr He is
hvolved with creation'. (Q 55,20;.,tu
Nurbakhsh foliows this sratemenr immediately with Shaykh
Ruzbihan's defnition that 'moraqebeh is God'";u,"r""""" ;,r".
every partjcle of the creation from the Divine Throne to the
lowest phenomenon, and His overseeing of all the attributes for
the purpose of granting them qrace,.t;;
Atomism, also called Occasionalism, .was a thory in
medieval Islamic theotosy according to which absolutely
everything (except cod) was made up of atoms and perishable
accldents(a",il). The theory stressedthe continuou;interven,
tion by God in the affairs of the world and hurnadty. It was
embraced (though interpreted in its derail in different wayst
by.many medrevalrheotogians inctudrngrhe \lu.razilire ALu
-r Hudhdvl al 'Allaf tborn berueen
;j2l.t ;48lq, d,ed
btween 8.10,/1 849,/501 and rhe Ash.arite theologian
al-Baqilleni ldied 10131'.r'3
The seconddirecrronof nwasaba tnoruq?beht..norr.$e
Lredrion ro Cod. ;s div;ded inro thar of rhe Shar.r, thar
or
Farth and rhe Divine Voraqebeh. rhe laner being possibleontl
for Cods sainrs. " Dr. Nurbathsh conctudesrhar rhe mosr
pefect lorm of conremplation for the sufi is where the
latter
moves itom_a parrJalro a complereprception of Realiry.r3o
He
qoeson to delrnearelhe physicalcondirronsnecessarv
for rrying
to achievethis.
-the muruqabashould be in
aa empry. unfrequenred place.
perlormed m a srale of quietude. To avoid all personal
distractions one's body should be clean, comforrable and free
12
\IAPPIN(] THE SACRED 1
hom smells. Stch muraqaba has its own dddb or ritual code: for
?rampl, it should be preceded by the ritual ablution, the
mditator should sit on the ground facing the qi6la, completely
rtill with closedeyes,ard the mind should be focussedentirely
on God. An attempt should be made to lose all sense of
individuality or desire. Three particular positions are favoured
fot nuraqaba and these are iliustrated in ln the Parad(e of the
Sufs which is both a manua.l for the novice as well as a
prceptive guid for the initiate and advanced sufi. Indeed, all
three may benefit ftom muriutraba.l31The whole object of
tturaqabd, Dr. Nurbalhsh insists, is to become a stranger to this
uorld with its dualism of'l' and 'You'. God makesman die to
relf and he is then revived in God.r32
2.2.41Mthasaba
The Arabic word mlharaba comes fiom a root embracing such
conceptsas'sttling a.naccount', 'calling (someone)to account',
'getting even (with someone)'and 'holding Gomeone)respon-
sible'.r3r lt has thus been variously rendered as 'accounting',
'bookleeping', and, in theology and $nfism, 'examination of
conscience'.r34 The word clearly has both a profoundly secula-r,
materialistic dimension and a profoundly spiritual dimension.
Waley rendersthe term as 'self-examination'and notes its very
important association with Herith b. Asad al Mubasibi of
Baghdad (died 857).135He also reminds us of the oft quoted
gdfi saying, which has been attributed io the fourth &i4lrfd "Ali,
to the effect that one should call oneself to account bfore
someonelse lcod?l called one to accotnt.l36Som years ago
Margaret Smith claimed al Muhasibi as 'the real master of
primitive Islamic mysticism ; she maintained that an examina
tion of his writings revealedhirn to be one of Islam's 'greatest
mystic theologians.rsTAl Muhasibi may also be countedas one
of the earliest, and perhaps the foremost, of the apostlesof
mthdsdbd. His very name derived from his frequent practice of
examinaxion of conscience or seli Another explanation given
for his name, which perhaps parallelsrather than replacesthe
.13
 5[ ' Fi RI TL AL
latter, is 'that he did not prcnounce a single word without
having reflectedthorougbly on it'-r33
Al Muhasibi believed that rnan's motivations in self-
examination were a m;ture of hope and fear and such self-
examrnation constituted the basis of godliness or pietv
Itd4.,{i).r30lt $as exrremely necessay if one were to espousc
the kind of rigorous ascetical thmlogy which al Muhasiti did
and avoid talti-nginlo serious.or even venial, sin.roolr was rhe
key to the Lind of mortfication proposed by al Hasan al Basn
{042 728i in which the worshipper tried ro avoid aI r}ut deh!
offend Cod in word or deed by rhe hean or LhemembersoI Lhe
body and to refuse all that might incur His disapproval.rqr Al-
Muhas'br counselledhis brerhrenro examineth" a-*," of rhei,
he,rrs and purrfv them from such sins as hdte,
"itr"*"fr""*
ard suspicion,dll of which devouredones eood aclrons.iu:
Such ua" al Vuha<ibr's enrhusiasm for mutrrisabathat he
wrote an entire trearise known both as Sirarh aI Ma.rifa wa
Badhtat Nasiha tAn Eatawtnn oI lcnosrrl Knowteaaeina *t
Giring of Good Ad.uice) awJ Kinb Muh*abat al Nufrs (T[e
Booh of the Souls' Examhation of (bscience).1e3 In this book
the master asctic provides a summary of the way in which tlle
mortification of self allects the soul of the ascetic, both fmm an
exterior and an interior perspective and enables it to undertale a
classicalmeranoia- I qa
This almost obsssive insistence by al-Muhasibi on
muhnsaba, and its pervasive rticulation in both his life and
name, has become a paradigm for other softs and sufi Orders.re5
The grear scholar snf' Abn Hamid al Gha*tr himself was no
exception;r'q6and Orders tike the Ni'matullahiyya have not only
followed suit but, as we have noted, rnade mrhtsdba one of their
The Ni'matullahis insist that the principle has a dear
Qur'anic foundation (cf. Q, 59:18) and is supported in hadrth;
as we have sen above, it is sanctioned by many of the great
slFrs in historylei Ttree kinds of muhasaba are identified for
the Ni'matullaru- dervish: that of the Self, that of the path and
that of the Divine. With regard to the fust, the snfr is advised ro
examine his conscience for a few minutes every night and go
\IAPPING TrlI SACRED I
wer all the negative and positive deeds of the day. If the former
outweigh the lattr, he should resolve to make up for this the
next day. Hovever, an excess of positive deeds should not be a
source of pride.1e3 Muh*aba of the Path constitutes a much
more advanced type of self-exa.rnination in which the snfi
attempts to break free of the chains of what is chamcteised as
'multiplicity' and achieve a more unitive state.re' H should
walk both in the presence of God and that of the Master of the
Order or hhanaqah, and be truly aware of his promises and
commitments to both.2ft
The highest, and what must clearly be reckoned the most
sublime, form of ndasaba for the Ni'matullahl $nfi is that of
the Divine. This is directed at the 'shaikh of the Path'. In a kind
of Minor fm Princes way, the rubrics here give good and clear
advice about how the Shaykh should comport himself in terms
of his differnt relationships such as that with God and those
with his fellow human beings, in terms of the claims which he
makes and the awarenessof his responsibilities both to God and
to his disciples.
One of the best defnitions of 'fluhdsaba provided for the
Ni'rnatullahr dervish is that by Shah Ni'matullah himself, cited
bv Nurbaksh:
Moha*beh, in the beginning, is a balancing of accounts
between negative ad positive acts. At the end, it is th
actualizationof pure Unity . . .'?01
Thus the types of mrt,asabaparallel the stageson the sufi path
itseli from the lnst hesitant steps of the murtd to the sublime
goalsof fanA" and baqA'.It is recognised,of course, that there
are ahrays spiritual dangers on the path and the sufi adept will
be aware of those prtaining to nuhtuaba: the attempt to
corect oneself may create a veil between oneself and the
Divine becauseone is concentnting on a being other than God
Himself.2o2If, however, one practisesmuhasabaproperly, one
may perhaps become one of the 'Servants of God'. For the
6ufis, such servants 'rep.esent theophanis.. . of the Names,
as ones who have realised the reality of one of the Divine
Names and become adorned with the realitv of that Name bv
45
 S. FI RI l' U, { L
MAPPING THE SACRlD 1
way of an Attribute'.ro3 Thus the excellent and
worth,, forgiveness of sin ard striving towards perfection that we have
practiljonero[ muhixobamav become The
Servantof the observed as a characteistic of Strfrsm. It was universally
Xecloner I Abd al Hdsibrdnd one ro whom ( iod hasgranted
rcognised that a major step on the path to God, whether stfi or
control over his nafs, as well as over his own brcath,
so"rhathe otherwise, lay in an awarness of self and the capacity of that
keps account . . . of his own nals and that of each of those
who ielf to sin. Mlrftdsdbd unlocked the dools to that awa-reness.
follow him' 204
At the basisof rhjs wholemysricalnadirion,ot course.
tiesa
ver) srmpleconcepr.rharof malinq oneselfawareofone,s
sin. 2.24.5Wid
and larrrngsthrouqh a regular inrrosperrive.examindtion
ot
cons\rence the prdcri.ein ils essnce rs by no meansuniquc We saw earlier that uird could be translated both as
to Islam although some of the more esoteric urra
_ysti.ut ';nvocation'203 and the 'oflice' of an Order.20e Trirningham's
articulations of it may be. Christian moral theology,
for latter definition brings to mind the Divine Ofiice or Liturgy of
example,.atrhe simplesrlevelshasalwavsinsrsredon
frequenr the Hours of Christian monasticism with such set piece
devotions as Lauds, N{atins, Vespersand Compline, to name
oeiore the sacramentof confessionand during daily
evenine a few, timetabled into the monastic routine. However,
prayels:0 nril recenrtyin manvtases.rhe
! Chaprer of Fautrs. Trirningham also provides three other defnitions: 'a phrase,
at whrch,mino'.rnfringemenrs
of the Rule.and smallsins,were pattemed devotion', a 'collect, and 'the order itself'.2lo The
core\sed pubrrrly rn monasreries and convenLsbefore rhe Arabic dictionary gives such definitions as 'specilied time of day
entre community, was a regular feature of many
Christian or night devoted to private worship (in addition to the Iive
monasbc and conventualorders.
prescribed prayers)' and 'a section of the Koran recited on this
A similar procedure is enshrined in the Rrle
_ of the occasion'.2rr However, u,ird (.plural aurad) may also be
Benedictinemonks in Chapter +6;
translatedsimply as 'litany' and, as Waley notes, 'the practice
Si quis dm in labore quovrs, If sommne comnits a fault of.eciting drrrzd, or litanies, can be traced to the teaching of the
in co{luina. in celiario, jn while at my work Prophet, who recommended the utterance of particular
wh;le
mrn rste rro, in pis t lino, ;n workrng in the kitchen, in the formulae on different occasionsin daily life'.212Waley stresses
horto, rn arte aliqua dum storercom, rn seruing, in rhe how many Muslims today us such phrases as 'Praise be to
laborat, vel in quocumque bakery in the gaden, in Dy God'and'God willing' automatically,2lrarld shows the
loco, aliquid deliquerit, aut c.aft or anluhere else eithr popularity of aural among such leading figures as Abn Hamid
fregerit quippim aui pddj by breaking or losing sone al'Ghazali as Sofismdeveloped.,l{ The shorter litanies of Islam
derit, vel aliud quid dcessdit thing or ftling in my other and Islamic Sthsm have much in common with the mantms of
ubiubi, e! non venims conti way in any other ptace, he Indian religions and the Jesus Prayer of Christianity as well as
nuo dte abbatm vel congre nust at once come before tbe the noranatha prayer pfuase of the latter faith.r1s Of the
gationem ipse ultm satisfecerii abbot and olruunit] Christian use of the mantra, John Main has observed:
and of
et prodjderit delictum suum h,s oq! acco.d admir his faul! You need to know only a few things to meditate. You must be
ad male satislaction . . _ro; still and in the tust few weeksle&n to str absolurlystill as the
Both this, and the examination of conscience noted above, fi.st stpin bary absolutelystill Then starrrc sayyour man a
arose
from the same wellspring of desire for the purging ceaselessll continually.The mantrabuildsup the powerin you
and

1i
 \ UFI FI TI J lL
to kep going, aDd it is tbe matra above all that tale your
attention off yourseli that curs through *lf consciousBs ,'6
We may compare this with the advice of Muhammad ibn Suwar
to Sahl ibn 'AMullah Tustarl (died 896), his nephew: 'lnvoke
in your heart. When you are in your nightcloths and turning
over from side to side, and your tongue is moving, say "God is
with me; God watchesme; God witnessesme."'Sahl began to
do this several times a night and tells us that a sweetnss
manifesteditself in my heaft'.rri
It is thus clear that the concept and practice of litany in
Sulism partakes of a great tradition practised as much by those
of Indian faiths and Christianity. And John Cassian (c 360
,135), who epitomises the meditative tradition ofthe latter faith,
has been described as one who 'was admirably suited for the
role of rnediator betveen Easten and Western monasticism'.2r3
He profoundly influenced the Benedictine monk and apostle of
twentieth century meditation, John Main (died 1982). The
latter 'rediscovered the Chrisrian tradition of meditation after
he had become a Benedictine monk. But he fust learnt to
meditate from an lndian monk'.lrq
None of this is to say, of course, thar the great sufis and their
disciples necessarily learned their tecbdques of meditation and
awrdd frorn Christian monasticism, thotgh there must have
been some cross fertilisation of prayer and other rechniques
between suft ard Cbristian mystics. What I am saying, simply,
is that the idea of a short prayer or phrase, repeated over and
over again as arr aid to self-awareness and awarenessof God in
medjtation, has an antique pedigree and that Christians and
Muslims participated in a common tradition.
The Ni'matullahis differntiate br.njeenrwo disrinct tvDes or
level.ot wird: rhe word can indicareones daily 3ob and also
one's daily prayers.'20At a second, higher level it means the
repetition at certain set times of verses from the Quian, hadnh
and various phases or \r'oids. Such utd has the doubte
requirement before it is undertaken of purity of heart and
permission from dre Mastr.221 Early sofrs such as al-Junayd
/died ql0) cledrlybelreredrhat u;d was a very ;mporrantpr
48
MAPPINC THE SA(]RED 1
of Sufism, indeed an integral part. The Ni'matullahis cite
Junayd's etymology of the word sufi, which he derives
classically from the Arabic word stl meaning wool. But it is
emphasised that the thee letters which make up the word sd/
each have a mystic significance and that the letter uau
represmts, intet alia, uird, litany.",
Continuous recitation of the litany is designed to focus the
entire being ofthe p,ifi on God,r'zrand Ni'matuilahrs seeit as a
Qur'an inspired practice of immense sisni6cance.22a It thus
ranls as the fifth oftheir five major principles in what might b
described as a parallel, or suppiementary, but by no means rival,
vt of arhan to the classical five of mainstream lslamic ritual
practice.
Th principal ritual handbook of the Ni'matullahis in the
U.K., In the Pdradiseof the Su,tis,divides roizd into two different
typs or levels: there is, firstly, the ritual prayer of Islam together
with other recommended prayers; then there is the trrird of the
sufi path which also sub divides into blro categories: litanies
recited after ea& of the fivefold ritual prayers (for example,
Allahu Ahbar recited 34 times), and special litanies which the
Master of the Order prescribes.223An example which is given of
the latter is Q 21:88 [v 87 in Yusuf Ali's edition]: 'There is no
God but Thou: Glory to Thee: I was indeed wrongl'226
r-i'matullarn-s lnow *Lis DiTd as the ytnusila since its recitation
enabled the releaseof the Prophet Jonah (Ynnus) from the belly
of the whale which represented corporeality and facilitated his
adrnission to the world of the spirit.2zt The phraseology used
here is akin to that of the lkhw:n al-Safa' who, centuries earlier
talked of humanity being 'foreign prisoners in the bonde of
nature. dro*ned in the sea of matter . . .''?rl
I observed above, briefly, that the five ritual principles of the
Ni'matulalu- Dhib, Fihr, M raqaba, Mrhhaba and Wird
constituted, in one senseat least, a kind of parallel, but not
rival, set ofarlan. And if we a.e to try and view them like this,
as a species of inner spnitual dimension for the more usual
exoteric Islamic rituals, it must b stressedonce again that in no
sensedoes the Ni'matullahr Order regard their five principles as
 iOFI RTTUAL N1,\I?ING THE 5A(]RED I
supplantlDg the 6ve mainstream arhAn. They 'Ni'mtulLhrya!' in John L. Esposito (ed.), T[ Oxlord EhqcloPaedia
are, rather.
spintual supplemenrs,based on rhe oJ the Modur Islanic Wold, Vol. 3, p 252i Hamid Alse, dt
eu,,an and desigred ro 'Ni'mat-Allthiyya , EI', Vol. 8, p. 45.
rddthe belrever rc a deeper appreciationof lslamrc
piacrice 3 Nurbalnsh. Motzrs oJtle Pati, p. 40; Triminghm, The Suf tirlets
Nowhere In rhe votume tn rhe pamdke o/ the
Su/u joes rhr: ia Islzm,p 101;Graham, 'ShahNi"natullah Wali, P. 173.
author urge a casting off of the mainstream ritual practices
of 4 Poujavady & Wilson, Ki^ss of Ltue, p.3I n. 1.
Islam as epitomised in the 6ve ar[an and elsewhere. 5 Tlminehdm. T[r SLh il',.llr' ,n /,lda. p 10 .
On the
mnrrary.he insisrsin one placeon rte."g"lr p..fo.*ar,, 6 Nu.ba.khsh, Mat's of ihe Path, p. 39.
* oi
Ine hve da y prayers'wirhoutexcusein accordance 7 Ibid., P. 48
\^ith rhe 8 lbid., p 41; s also Pourjavady& Wilson, K;ss ol Ltue, p r4t
shan'at of lslam'.2i Here is a modern arhculatior
of that Crahm, 'ShehNi"matullahWali', p. 173.
classical Ghazalian paradigm which insisted on
tull adhernce 9 SeeIbn Hisham,4l-Si'a al Ndbd,i)}d, ed. Mu*afa al'Saqqad, dl., ('1
to all prescriptions of the shan.a before one progressecl vols. in 2, n.p.: \Iu'assasa "Ulnn al-Qur'an, n.d.), !bl. 1,
to
any of-the
the higher myst cal states_.rro pp. 162 183. \ll Montgoh<y Watt translates this episode in his
\l har is inreresting in r rhir is rhat the ddd6 of MthtnMdat U d,loxford: Claendon Press,1953,pp.34-38
rmptemenune of these princrples frequently rnvolves 10 Se lbn a1'Arabi, al FrtiLhat ol-Mahhilld, (4 vols., Cairo: Der
comDrndrronot-each al'Kuttt, 1329/1911),irp.. Beirut; Dar $ddir, !d (1968)1,Vo] 1,
menral and phvsical action. or non acrion. lor" p. 153,cited md trans in R.WJ. Austin (trans.),Iba al'Atabi: The
the. suti. Lhe bodv adopts a plaroruc subservience
to rhe soul B.zek oJ w$dm, Class;csof western Spi.ituaLity,(New York:
and, th.ough such transcending asceticism. he Paulist I'ress, 1980), pp.2 3; for mothe. translation of th sm
believes that he
ls on the path to union with co{t episode see Doniniqu Urvoy, 16' Rushd fA,erroet, Arabic
Thought dd Cultrre Series,(I-ondon & New York: Routledge,
1991),p. 119.
11 SeeA. Bausmi, a.t. Dialal al Din Rnmi , EI', Vol. 2, p. 394;Aibrry
Nots (hms.), Disc@'sso/ Ruzt, p. 6. Sealso, Jalal al-Din Rnmi, ri2tn i
Shatu i Tatriz, ed. & trds by R.A Nicholsn, (Cmbridee:
, ,;Vr bv n Muua} yuur .\tt. nw rrot\ t2u.an Tc,t, CambrideeUnivcsiry Press,1898)= R.A. Nicholso\ Selecred Pael6
'l{:*,T1a,
t ta$bt@ and LmMtarr. rKutrdjr Dhd dt Salrs,t. lsSar, p Jrm rhe Ltuani Sh/mi Tabnz, edrtd ed trmslated with an
I4q.
ror orhe' rere,m@sjn rbe eur.;n ro nr tu! A at yc intrdiuction, nots md appendices, (Cambridse: Cambridge Uni
al$ e. 2:lr I
ZJ l q 5 8 . 12. 2/ . Q . la b, t8 rr' .(-t ro 1 8 .;,.8 { vdsity P.$, 1898).
1 4 .(i 2 qo;,
Q ll 3 t, Q 3r . q, Q 3s . 1.o 4 J tr 12 Porjavady & Wilsn, Ki^Esof Ld., p. 13
, u6k,:.oI ti. pdh A H6to,)_
a[ theM6ta oJth" 13 lbid., P' 14. Seal$ (iraham, 'ShahNi'matullah wali', p. 173.
tlr.\l.l,i,l orda. (N"* yort Khdqdlu Nrmdtural,i
llrrurlrllllsuri publu 14 Trininghd, The Sur' (\dzrs h Islan, p. 101; Godlas,'Ni'hatulle
rlon".,1o80r,p. 10. 5ee al$ T;mrruhJm Thc sul Gd"s hiyah', p. 252; Alga, 'Ni'mat-All.hitaa', p. 45.
in tstan,
r u r a h o qt r s hF dd re o f b i rrh d , ,.{ 0 15 Trininghd, Tid Ss-fiG&rs itr Isldn, p. 101;fourjavady & Wilen,
R t{ r0 r. N a{ o afi
:lj.jl:* i j".": L,-Ft,,w,ron
orda.
Knp.ur r,tu rh" po"t,j KinssoJLM, p.15 Sealso Nurbal:hsh,Mdte$ af th. Pdth,p.411
:y
Sun tmperraltraio Aedeml Graha, 'ShahNi'rutullah wali, p. 173.
or :,i,'y: ",, ""..r,,.*"Iaht
r n 'rro p hy ^. pubt r c dlr onn o J 0 rT e h e rrn tmp e ri a l 16 Triminshan, Tl" Su,{ atdzrs in lslan, p. 101;Nlrbakhsh, M6iers o/
phr los , ph! , t a rr,. p trnan
^cdde mv .o( . l { : T c ,D C ;a h a m, .S hj h tfia Path, p. ,l4i Grahm, 'ShahNi'natdbn Wali, p. 174.
w. lr iouds o f l h e \rm a ru J !_ Su fi O rdd. h 17 Pourjavady& Wilson,.(ings o/Lore, p. 15;Nurbakhsh,Marterso/*e
, \ r ma u u d h
:"-.lI: yl,-q.,:,i i. .rhp bEa, ol Mpdiawrpdsuns/fsn.
Y : : k . K hd,q d b r \h d u l l a l r P u b l ,u ,i o n s.l aq/).
Pdth,p. 42.
'. 1: : "1 18 Ibid.
p r / r:,Jd",':*.
d d Nu' bdr } , s h., T h . 1 \h a ru z \i i n S e D e d 19 Graham, 'Shan Ni'matulleh Walt', p. 174; Nurbakhsh, 'The
H o * i n \asr
udnte",1ntu ub,rd \p;nruJ,ryseris, ){imatullahi, p. 1,16.
i.i. ,l'ml^i4'^l-r',
, ono o n \L ^t t r *s . loo l ). p . l a ,. A ta n A C o d i a s, art. 20 Pourjavady & Wilmn, Kings oJ Lne, p. 16.
50 5l
 S ' FI RI TUAL
MA?PING THE SACRED I
21 lbid., pp. 16 24; crahd, Shen Ni.natuldh \L,ati, pP' 174 ff., descendots of both Shah Ni"mtulirl ud .Ali Hmadrni turned to
Trihinshm, T[e Slf On]'s i" lsldD, p. t0l; Nurbalhst, M6k s o/ the Shi'ite fold is merely a reflection of th flxibility ad tolerance
'hp Pd rh p. p a1 t f : \ led. N i m a r A l l a h i n d . p . .{ r
sith respect to outw&d torms which they had taughr, where social
22 T rl mrn a h m .np ibf r O dd s n l ,Itn .p . to t i u .S,t' " t' V^r-.,y
and political circumstances wre encountred which conpelled
the Path, p. 4St idd., The N;matulanr"'. p. 146; poujavady & confdmity to a particular nouid for the pupose of protecting tbe
Wilson, Kinssotlo,e, pp. 19, 22; Crahu, 'Shrh \i.matulah Wati .
esmtial mthod, th pusuit bd observdce of the iartqa, Se atso
pp. 1 8 1 -1 82.
Porjavady & Witson (Kiiss o/ro!e, p. 44)who renind us that since
'J Po u rj d !"d\ & W r l' on Kra e ) o f L o re p 2 t. C m h d (S h;h
the Ni'matullahis &e now more or less a Shi"ite Order thre is the
\ i md ru l l ahUal, p l8t q i \6 rh e d a re o f H e u , s drh d.
tmptatio. of *eing Sheh Ni'marullrh s claim in the framewort of
approhhately AD 1370.Seeals Nubalhsh, M6te6 of the path.
Shi'ite ddtrine. tsut the fact is thai Shih was born a.d in a1l
p 1.15whici givesthe date 6 A.D. 1329,as d@ the me author's
probabilitydidaSunni. SeeGnalllrcodlas,'Ni'matullahiyah',p. 2s2
article 'The Nimatullahi', p. 146.
dd Alga, Ni'rEt-Auahiyya', pp.44 45.
2'l Pourjavady & Wil$n, Kings ol Ltu, p 24.
33 Cra}lam, 'ShahNi'hatullah Wali, p. 188
2s Ibid., p. 25; Grahm, 'Shrh Ni.matu r}l Wali, p. 185:Trimnghm.
3,1 (Nty italics)Nurbalhsh, 'The N;matullahi, p. 148
The Suf Ordets ir Islan, p. 101
35 l bi d., P p. 158 159.
26 Pourjavady & Wilsn, Kings of Lote, p. 30.
.16 I'ouriavadv& u rl.on K,nErnr Ld,. p. l80.
27 Nurballsh, 'The Nimatullahi, p 159 n. 3i codla, .\i:marulla
37 lbid., pp. 186 187
hiyah', p. 252: J. Bu.ton,Pase[part ofj dt. .Ni.nat-Allahiyya , EF.
38 Seibid., pp. 137, 152 !. 2; Trin;nehm, Ths SrJriO'de's tn Islan,
Vol 8, p. .18.
28 Grahm, 'ShanNi'natu .n WaF, p. 181. P p. 101 102.
39 Pourjavady & Wilson, Kr'nsso/ Lo!., pp 10 41.
29 Nurbalhsh, Mate6 of the Path, v 17.
40 Ibid , p 27.
l0 Triminghd, ne.Sz,{ Oid"rs ttr tslan, F 102r Nurba}nsh, ,V6r"r5 o/
4l lbid., pp. x, 1, 172;seealso Nurbaklsh, 'The Nimatulteni, p. 157
42 Se Poujavady & Wilen, Klrgs oJlo,c, pp :lE 19
'. 1 nminsham. rhe tuJl Gda\ n klan. p t0) \tier *etuqt_ 43 S ibid., p. 1+
d6tnp@ing in lFra to' a rh'le, th? Ordn wds rheR n .{4 lbid., pp.62, s6 s7 Seal$
ldT , 'e'nrrodu.ed lavad Nu.bakhsh,Sxf Srnbolim, Vol. 1,
_ - '] r ' l 8 l ! m ' u\ , \ led N ' ma r A l ta tu \.]r' .p p . 4 a . 4 0l p. l o : \bi \ai ,b dl S ul u.aw dd, Kir 4A ; d- ib at Vu, : dii , d
r/ tot d btpt Harou' nd dest'ipridn of rhe EurotEa dxn6\ion at ll
iltdahh \lilson, S.hloessi.grMemorial Sris,Texts 2, (Je.usa
Order, see YaM Richdd, L Isidn Chfita: &otmces et ldabcie;
len: Hebrew Univrsity of Je.usalen, Insritute of Asid and Af.ican
(Pris: Faydd, 1991),pp 69 74= idem., trbs. by Antonia Nev;
Studies,1977[distributedby rhe lrfagnesPresql, pcon.
Shi'ite Islaft: Poib, ldeolos ond Creed, (Odotd/Cambridge, \:Iass.
45 Nurbaklsh, /a the Paradne o/ th S!,4s, p. 16.
Blekwell, 1995),pp. .19 s3. Se ale Nurbathsh, .Th N;;atullehi.
46 lbid., p. 17
pp l .; l 5 0 Cudls Ni' h d tu l l d l u -y J ,.p 2 rl , Atg d . N i mdr
47 Se ibid, pp 17 18.
Alld h i ryd . p ! , . f he d' B t rs r b rd ,h e s u t rh e N i tu ru l d l u OrJe,
{8 lie ibid; se ale my articte Theophdy as Pa.adox: tbn al .Arabi s
de ;llustrated ;n a diagr@ in M6$ud Honayouni, A'llllm ro.Sa,.r
Account of al'Khadir in His F,srs al Hihan', lountt oJ the
Qresrioro on S4Am, 2nd edn., (London: Vawtda C4ntre, 1992), p .] 1 Mtbiddin lbn'Atabi Soci?t]!Vol. Xl (1992),pp. 11 22
s@ also p. 28. Concming thee branche, * the rem&ls oi 49 \{6t. ed D6ciple'in Nurba}nsh,1r t'tu ftldn o/Rzin, pp 110 1l:
Pourjavady& Wilson (Kinss of Ine, pP- 233 2s4) who insist thar
'true s!6s should put aside th* diffeenes 50 Poujavady & Wilson, K,nes oJ Loa., p. 29.
- not only the dwishes 51 lbid., p. 87.
of the different brmchc of rhe Ni.matullahiD,ah, bor dii su6s of atl
52 &r Nribalhsh, M6ters af the Path, pp. 7 ;, u, 1A9.
o!de6 . Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh dtutv asr6: for h jn the diffeMt snfi
or d F. d rc jhr r he s hd' . o f." " n * 5-l Pourjavady& Wilson, Kines of Ltue, p. 253, seealsopp. 249 250.
,s rh a r o f tol hl 54 IHd. p. xi.
kmdness'.Rejectionof a rival or orher O.dc " r' ;,tconstirutes,in effed.
55 Nubalhsh, Ma,,'s o/ the I'dth, p 13.
reie L ' i o n., one*lf ac . or din qb Ih r, p d ' J ' g m { j e s M 6 ,m oi rr 56 Se ibjd , endpapdi ke also Chdts 1 & 2 in I,ourjavady& Witson,
/ 2r ,r Dre l ,mndD . luoldlio n /.a trd h m i n h 6 .n n te Sh a h \i m.
Kirss of L@e, pp. 2.16 218 ad 219 251 which explain Chdt 2 S@,
iultah Wali, p. 1781 not6: The faci that the imdiare sp tual
t@, Chapter7 ( How did the Ndnatolani Su6 Orde. ed its vdious
52 5J
 SUFi RI TL L
MAPPING THE SACRED I
bldchs tum: hro exisrene..) of Homayouru.A'eh
ro S@ 83 PNjavady & Wilsn, Kinss oJ L@, p. 179.
q u fi o a on f lf t n. pp 1 8 J l .6 p . th e d ;, rd
o o p. Jt, ed 84 Ndbakhsh, Rulsdd Mamqs of t.itiarion', p. 123.
,\aErcID rounarddy & pets Lmborn Wilen. ,Th. D6@dut"
ol 85 tbid., pp. 123 12s.
l\j al.wat . tstant cuttup.vot {8 I rq74r.pp 4q \;
r/- :l+ l,:rl
rn,''," rslaq, p 4q. idem., L,lr/dn Cli,k. p bs
86 Ibi d.. pp. 121,123.
^roaro.
58 se Lrwrsc 87 :ie Nurbakhsh, in rla Pd'atlise oJ the S!l$, pp. 27 ff.
Dureti. Spirir nl pI@. M.d maacdn Wnrla8..
rL o n d o n & B odon.F abe r&F a b s l o o q .p d p d b a ,ke d n 88 SeeIm Richdd Netton, M6lin N?oplzro6rsj An Inl:odw',oh ro the
_
qo l s8R ).p.1; Thoueht of th" bethrd oJ PuitJ (hhuan 61-Sdfa1,(London: Allen
P o u n a v adv& uJ s n X i n s ,o //e a p r;8
60 Ibid., pp. 168 169. & Unwin, 1982;rep.. &lhbugh: EdinburghUnivcsity prss,1991
61 l b i d ., p . 177. a Islanic S!tu? 19), pp. 10 12
6 2 l b i d ., 1 79. 89 lbid., p. 11; se Iklwan al-gafa',R6a.il, (4 vols.,Beirlt: D.r Sadir,
6 3 Ib i d , p . 181. 1957),Vol. 1, pP' 52 53.
64 Seibid., pp. 180 18j. 90 Nurbalhsh, S!,f S)r'r6olifl, (London & New Yortr Khdiqani-
ri; Tn hi" b@l( in lh" tdven oJ Rhc. pp. o.{ Ninatllifi Publications,1990),Vol. 4, p. 47
So 91 SeeNurbalhsh, 'Th Rules od Mmers of the Ktraniqah, in idm ,
a6 \ce Timorh) F^ .ed ,. RB ru80 th4 R"t" ot St
BevdnLin Lannand In thz Ta@f, oJ Ruin, pp. 63 86.
LnEIbii.uirr! l\;k". rcnllegev;lle.]\trnneera The Linuguj
I'RS 92 Ibid., p 65.
1981)fhdeafte. refened to as RBt.
6 7 I bi d ., p p. 164,166. 9-3Ibid , pp 67-69.
6 8 I bi d .,p . 165. 94 Ibid , pp. 69 72.
69 (My itdics) Ibid., p. 190. 95 lbid., pp. 72 7s.
70 (My iralics)Ib;d., p 191. 96 Ibid., pP' 75 76.
71 lbid., P' 294. 97 lbid., pp 76 E2.
72 Ibid., p. 29s 98 lbid., pp. 82-83.
7t see frirMehm. The Suy,O * in /sidn. pf tdl 99 Ibid., pp. 83-8a.
tqJ. 100 lbid., pP' 85 86.
4 E wlqon, K,n3. oJL@c. pp t;; r,8. jrvad Nurbarhsh,
:::rnalldy 101 R B P 165.
he Rulesdd Mffers of lturirrioD ,nro lhe Suh pdrh. h idem.,
.l ti 102 l i e i bi d, pP ' 171 1t' 9,223 225 , 281 285.
the PsadGe ol the S!f!, p. 120
7; Poujavady & W;ten, Kaas ot Ln". o. 1..;s 103 l bi d., pp. 217 219.
' b \ urb d th s h. Rut es 104 lbid., pp 285 287.
dnd \ t tr;s o f tn ,rrl ro n. p . l ro .
77 lbid.. p t20- Pouiaudy & Witrcn K,n8. oi i.@ 105 lbid., p 233.
178
/ d ro u rF\d d \ & wr t r n, K t n g s o ftd . p p l :tr l i o : n 106 Ibid., pp. 187 189.
\u rb a l h sh,.R ut6 107 IH d., p. 191.
Md Nl a nne6of lt unabon. p 1 2 0 .
79 NuJbakhsh,'Rulesed Mamus of Initiation p. 120;pourjavady 108 S{! ;bid, p' 211.
, & 109 lie ibid., pp. 190 203.
wilson, ( ss o/ r4?, p. 179.
80 Nurbakhsh, 'Rules and \,Ianne.s of In;harjon, pp. 110 Se Nubakhsh, ln the Puadse oJ the Sufs, pp 27fj idem., .The
tlo 121: Nimatulleh/, P' 158.
Pou.javady & WileD, K;ss oJ Ine, D. | /-s.
c P d ,rd rd d ! - & W , t $n. , ( r i s " n /L d r.;. l :s 111 Th two words under each of these live dividons ar hy
\u ,b a * i s h ..R uts hd tresliterations of the AJabic followed by Dr. Nurbakhsh s
Nra n n e rs u t lnr nahon,p L 2 l
8' fouriar"dr & Wilson. Kns" ot Ln". p. t:s. \u,bak}'str, .Rute tmliteratios of rhe Pdsid wo.d6 6 the larter apped in his tn
dnd the Pdnd;.e ol the Safrs
\ 4a Me ," o, I nir jar ion.pp j , 1 2 1 . fo r ,u rl h a d F c s i o n of l he
. unceprol rpilludl porenv w J,vad \urbalhsh. Slinrut ptud, 112 Nurba].hsh, It the Paoiise o/ rl. S!,fis, p. 29. For a extended
in discusion of sucb concepts as dtibr dd ,l' tc, seeMuhammad Isa
suJtln. I am ds,urol br d hembo of rhc \i mdtu a.h,Order
rhrr rhe Waley, 'Conthplative Disciplines in Edty Persian Sutisn, in
dllal nlmF fw hd ha no Dl{dt s,qnifi@.e Sep,however.
\h,mmet Up,iphernSrla Srgb ot Gnd pp ;8 ;a tor th nuhbe.frve Leonrd Lewi$hn (ed ), Ciascal Pe'lth Sr!.fsnj F m irr Onsra ro
tuai, (London & Ns Yorl: Khaniqahi Ninatullahi publications,
1993),P p 497 5+ 8.
54
55
 SLFI RI T( J AL \,IAPPINC THE SACRID 1
113 The fi6t treslatid ;s Nurbalhsh: (/tr th. pafliie oJ th. Sufs, 142 For Shayli Rrzbihdn, w Cdl W Ernst, Rrztrhan Baqli: Mlstiism
p. 27)j th se.ond md thifd de Eibts provided by Trimhghm dnd the Rhetiic oJ Sointhood ii pe'Jan Slrisn, Cu.?on SuIi Senes,
(Tle Su"il Oid"6 in rstdn, P' 30s). (Richmond:Curzon Press,1996)
11.1 Th tust truslation is Nurbathshk (L th. piradn oJ the SttB, 143 Nrbalhsh, 'Sama'i. his ln rne ll,m o/ R!i,, p.36.
p-2f)ith eond is Trininghm s (Th. S/f OdzE ia tslm, p 313) 144 Ibid., pp. 39 41.
__-
ll5 w l l p r. ( - on. em pt it D ,e i p l n 6 p r0 ; 14s l bi d., pp. 11-42.
1 16 l b i d ., p . 509. 146 lbid., p. 42.
I l7 Pourirvadv& w'len. Kine: oJ I^p p t-,1 '\47 lb;d., w. 42 43.
tl8 l b 'd , p 182. 148 Ibid , p. 47.
119 For his history,e Nubakhsh, MG,?R ,/ rhe pari, pp. 106 108. 149 Ibid., PP 48 61.
120 Poujavady & W;lsoo, K;nssof Low. De.61-b2. 150 lbid., pp 57 58.
l2l \urbab.h. Iathp Pdtads?olthc Sufis,Do at, J- 151 l bi d., p s8
1 22 l b i d . p p . J 6 . 17 *e alr c F i s 1 . p 8 2 152 Ibid., p. 58; se also p. 60.
lzl Nubdlhsh. .ln rlrpPdtadk" oJth" suh,. p. r,r. 5eal$ Trmincham. 1s3 lbid., pP' 61 62
I ne r,u/1 UtuJerstn lsLam,p 206 154 Ibid , p 39.
l,,a \urbdkhsh. la thp Pa dn" ol the sufrs. p J4. iilem .The 155 Se Simontta Catderhi & Alexadra R;eb (eds.), TIe &sact o/
Ni ma tu llt hi. p. 15q Me.iidaal Pdsian Sv"fsnr Fitul P'o8rdmtu * Absr'a.tl, (Londonl
125 Godld, Ni'matullrhiyah , p 2S2 Cmtre of Near md Middle Ectern Stldtes, SOAS ald the
126 Poxrjavady& Wilsn, KinssoJLotu, p l70i Seeat$ Richdd, Srri.ir" Nimatullabi Rerch Centre,1990),p. 6.
rsrah, pp 50 51; ideD , L'Islam Chi.ite, pp. 70 /-t. 156 SeP6hn .Sr|ntrm irs(riEin to Rrni: FindtProetm* Absttcts,
127 &e Owd Wriglt, \tus;c in J@ph S.ha;hl & C.E. Bcwdrh (eds), (Wdhington, DC.: The Ceorge Washinston Uniwtsity and the
Tlq.lada oJ Llan, 2nd dr, (Oxford: ()dendon prs, 1974), 44 Nihatullahi Res@ch Cnte, 1992), p. 7; Lryisoin (ed.), Ci4$.di
FL
r 2- -8 Ib i d . Patu, Sufun. tra iL Lhsrro ro Rua, p. xiir
l20 Se Waley. Conkmplalrve llis rptres . pp. it l r/b Lew;. tsiahr 1s7 hwurbaLlsh,S!,ri S]r6ola'n, (1987),Vol.2, p. s3.
tn ra ra . p. 22. 1n.l0 1s8 ldm, Suj Sp*olivn, (1988),Vol.3, p. 173.
130 Lewis, IsldaE Bnran, p. 223 n. 10. 159 Waley, 'ContemplativeDisciplines',p. 541.
I I Se .a n . dl. Hui" , r i in N e n o n .p o p l td rD .ro % rv o / k tan. p. 106 160 Ibi d., P 542.
'Jl W a l e ' n o l6 Cor em ph ti l e D rfl p | l n 6 .
p r,,l / rh a rrh i s w ort h 161 Ibi d.
'rhpediie{ ardr cun mrudl
in persh . j-e Re}notdA. Nichots. 162 lbid., pp 543 s44.
The K6hf dr.Mdhjnb: The old6t pain Ttati* on sdltu, 163 Nubalhsh, ln tha Para?n o/ rhc S,fs, p. ss.
b "Ah B.
Urhn6 Al l4llabi AI Hujuin, rras. ftom the text of the Lahore edn. 164 Ibid., pp. s4-55.
,
Il J.\\. Cr bb \ lm ddlS er ' * , V o t t; rL ,n d o n L @ .. rcpr.l a70l 165 lbid., p. 62.
ror thp peFrb rex'. F I12.h.1. di M,1to6. ed. VA. Zbulovski. 166 Ibid., Pp. 62 63.
rknrns'ad nrrdl- l lnh ltuhrdjamihx Shurds SusiyalEn.tqloJ 167 tbid., pP. 63 66.
_^^
133 Walqr 'Contenplative D;$iplines', p 523 who cit6 N;choten;s 168 Waley,'Conimplat;v Di$ipl;nes', p. 53s.
trdstahon, pp. 418 419 dd Zhotovski s edn., pp. ;44 :55. 169 lbid., pp. s35 536.
l J r Po u ri ,l ady& \ \ ds on. K i n s t o /L tu , p p :; 5 8 170 For the AraHc, wirh English trm. of this famous hadith, the Hadith
lJi Tbrd..p. i8. sJo Nurbalhsh Se. in hjs rn th. TaM oJ Rtin. of Gabriel, se An Ndtoaui\ Fortr Hadirh, trm9 by Ezzeddin
pp .6 1 6 2. rbrahim & Denys Johnson Davi6, 3rd edn , (Danas.usr The Holy
136 SeeNurbakhsh,Ssf Sln otim, Vol. 1. pp x x. 123 214. Kord PublishingHouse,1977),pp 28 J3, no. 2. SachikoMurata &
1 37 I bi d ., p . 1 88. Willid C Chittick, in their book, T e V;non oJ Istdn: The
138 lbid., P' 189. Fountat;d6 oJ Mslin Faith 4nd P'a.nce, (London & New york: I.B.
lJa \urbalhsh .sa in hjs ln rhe raam of Run. pp. | .b2. Taua\. l aqb, u.e !i - had,(has r heu r dnr ng po, r r .
110 I b'd ., p J 2. 171 Al-Qushalai, 4l-Rsalz zl-Qshd),ntJd, ed. "Abd al Halin Mahnrrd
141 I b i d .,p . 33 & Malmnd ibn al-Shdil (Cano: Der al,Kutub al Haditha, n d.)
56 57
 S[ FI RI TLAL
VoL-1, pp- 463 464, cirdt in Walela ,Contemplative Diqptines,,
p. 536 ed n_ 88.
l7l Wale) Conrempl.nveDejptinA , p sjo.
17J Nurbalhsh, suf S)d6olim, Voj 2, ;. 22
Ita ldm, rn d1ePdrddn?o/ rrr" Sufr, p 7l
175 Ib i d ., p p. 7J 77.
176 tbid., P. 73.
177 lbid. Se als Ernst, Rtsbihdn Baqh, p. 33.
178 Art. 'AloDish' in Nerloa, populat Dictitul
M. Fakhry, Isldnic O@6itu1;ffi dn IB C;tirye L:t'A1tu@s dnn
Aqrim, (London: ,{lls & Unwin, t9s8)
l7s Nubal.hsh. ]n th? Paftilsp ol th" SulB,pD ,4 ,,.
180 Ib 'd
181 ljee ibid., pp. 77 80.
182 lb i d ., p 81.
183 SeHes Weh., A D;tioMt! oI Modaa Wntta Adh, ed. Milto.
Clowe, 2nd printing, (Wicbaden: Otto H46ewitz/Lndon:
Allen & Unwn, 1966), p. 17s s i6dk (w Fom 3); s ate
Nubalhsh. ln rh. Paralr? ol thc Sufis,D u1
'84 Wehl Dnri@n oJ Modn \yriud Arahl. p t;b $ rurraabd. w
al"o Nurballr"h ]n th? t'ndnse ot th! SLJB,p al
18' Waley, ConremplarrveDre iDtine . o. 5J8
l8o Ibid
l8r Mneu* sm'rh. An Fa t M\:tn otBalhnad A StunloI Lh, L;k
te6 htae ut Hanth b. A"ad al .],{uh&}| A D /!lt 857-
5 h e td o nP r es r .t a; 7, r ep r.o i Iq J r e d n .J D
. .v u .
188 Ibid., p. 6; *e ale p 24.
189 lbi d ., p . 21j s e alr p. 11 2 .
190 Se esp.ibid., pp. 130 131.
191 I bi d ., p p . 167 168.
192 Ibid., P 173.
193 I b i d ., p . 5 3.
1 9 4 I b i d .,p . 1 76
'o c S e cWa l ey Conr em plari re l l s i p l n c , p p ,J 8 .)4 ]
196 See;b'd
'47 Sre_\ubdlhsh. ]n thePdndis" oJ thaS{8. pp et s6
l e 8 lb rd .,p p q6 99, 6p. qo 9 7
1q9 lbid., p 98
200 lbid., p. 98.
201 lbid., P' 99.
202 ldo, Suf SynSolsrn,Vot. 3, D. 40.
203 ldeh, S!_f Slarolim, (1993),Vol. ?. D 97_
2 04 lb i d ., p . 1 13.
205 &e J. Dukes (rq.), The Dd;tr MisI atd Litursital Mon@I, trth
edn., (Leds: Laverty & Sons, 1960), pp. 66 67, 60. Se ate
lv{APll\C THE SACRED 1
Catzchin oI the (ntholic Chtch, (LondoD: coffrey Chapman,
1994),pp. 327,396M. 1454,177 9.
206 RB p 246.
207 lbid , p. 24t-.
208 Nurbakhsh, In the Paradiseol rhe Sxf6, p. 27.
209 Tridnsham, Thd Slf Oda$ in Isldtu, p. 313
210 Ibid.
211 W.ht, Dictiwry ol Modem Wnuq Ardbit, p. 1060sv Di'd.
ol Isizn, p {3 j w ate 212 Waley, ContemplativeDisciFlines, p 511.
213 Ibi d.,pp. s11 sl 2
214 l bi d., pP 512 513.
215 Se Joha Main, T?re\l'oy oJ Unlnoui's, (London: Daton, Longmm
& Todd, 1989),pp. ia, 1.
216 lbid., p. -13
217 Fdid .1 Din 'Attd, lildfihdt' al-ADlia', ed. Muhanmad edwini,
ath edn., (Tehrd: N{akdi, 1968),Vol. 1, pp. 227 228,trds. A.J.
J.
A.berry, Mdlin Sdr'ntsand Ml,sti6, (I-ondon: Routledse & Kegd
Paul, 1966), p. 1s4. I owe these two referencesro Waley,
'CdntemplativeDisipljnes', P' 513 n. .12.
218 RB P. 57.
219 Laurd.e Freena OSB, 'Int oduction D Ma;D, Tl. War o/
Uabnouing, p. x;.
220 Nurbakhsh, Ia *z Pardrse otrn. ^S41is, p. 103.
221 Ibid.
ann
222 ldem, Suf S]'nSoisa, (1991),Vol s, p.31.
\Londan
2X lden, In the Patudi. o/ t}" ^Suis,p. 10s.
224 lbid., P' 104.
225 Ibid., pp. 106 11,1
226 Tres Yusuf Ali, Tie Holr Qlfan, p. 842.
227 Nubakhsh, h tie Pa?ad;eo/ tfi. S/.fs, p. 110.
228 li Ikhwe al-Safe',Raa'il, Vol. 4, p. 16: seealso Netton, M6lim
r\eopldrdisrs, p 16.
229 Nurbakhsh, /n *e PatuTiseoI rhe Stfs, p. 106.
230 Seeal-Ghazali, IIlJa'; W lvlontgomery Watt, M6tih Inte\ectul: A
Studt oJ al Gheah, p. 169.

59
 Mappingthe Sacred2
The NaqshbandiOrder

3.1 Origins

Tbe NaqshbandrSnfi Order is one ofthe most famousin Islam.

Its confidencein its o*'n pre-eminenceand importancehasonly
bnmatchedby its fierceorthodoxy and desireto adhereto the
sftan'a as a fundamental of its ethos.r In one of his discourse
th contmporary Naqshbandr Shaykh Nazim al Qubrusi

The MostDistingdshedNaqshbmdiOrdersurpa
its ability to educte our souls in . . . [the] highest ad very 6rte
spectr of Islmic taching [sic] ... The Naqshbandi Order
taches the very highest good mamers, mamers which makeits
{ollovers lovely to their l-ord md to all good pople . . . The
Naqshbandi Order o.isinatd in tbe heart of the Prophet, md
its authority vro passeddom *rough Abu Balr from on
Mastd to ihe next in m unb{oken chain of successionreachhg
nto ou. time. Sine Abu Bakr, among all the Prophet's
@npMions, was the oDly on to rcive the full inner huth of
the P.ophet's heart, the Naqshbmdi Order inherirs the fullest
md 6nest of tho* Prophetic teachiDgs.. . The 'Naqsh' Id6ign,
'tafto'l of the lrcarr is Allah. Whoever wmts that 'Naqsh' on
his hedt will come to the Naqshbmdi wala It is ,he highe* way
i all rclisiottj Th. hidlest of all relici4' is kla''.' and the
hishst bwl h Isldn i\ the Na.tshbandiordet.2
Even its enemies cannot doubt the profound impact which this
early established order has had in the development of Islam
throughout the wortd,s and not only in its development but in

bl
 5. Fi Rf TUAI
preserving that faitb from the syncretism into which rhe more
emotionally inclined might have led Istam.{
In view of all this, it is astonishing to note with Hamid
Algar that 'no adequate and comprehensive study of the
Naqshbandiyahas yet been undertaken'and that'seneral
studies of the Naqshbandryaare extremely few ; Much mon'
common are the specialised studies in article form such as
those collected in the magisterial volume edited by \Iatu
Gaborieau and others, which constitute the proceedingsof thr
Sdvres Round Table held between 2nd +th )vlay 198a
Hamid Aigar, who has himself done so much invaluable lork
in the freld of Naqshbandi studies. stressesthat much still
remains to be done.; This includes the establishment anJ
translation of many of the primary sources,especially thoit
written in Persian.3
The brief study of the Naqshbandiyya whicb follows her(.
by way of introduction to an analysisof Naqshbandi ritual in ,r
later chapter, is a survey of arr order in flux in the modcrrr
world, born ofa field of study which is stilt in flux itsll 'I hLr'.
while siving a generalword of praise to Trimingham s The .su/r
Orders in Isldm.e Algar condemns its rreatment ot itr.
Naqshbandis as rsummary, lacking in analFical depth. .rrr,l
marred by factual errors.'r0 The sameauthor lamentsthe lack ,n
a'concise biography of Khwaja Bana'ad-Drn Naqshband
a Western language.'He believesthat 'this deficiencl coincrl
'
witb a relative lack 6f interest on the parr of Naqshban,l,,
themselvesin the life of their eponym.'rr Despite this lacun,r ,r
is possibleto put together a very brief biography from ran,,rr.
sources for introductory purposes here
Althoush K. A. Nizami relers to him as the'Founder'ot rlr
Naqshbandrs,f it is better to describe or characteriseKhr,rr,r
Baha'al Din Naqshband (1318 1389), with Hamid .\lgar .r"
the 'crystalliser' of the Naqshbandiyya in its final li,rrrr '
Trimingham, indeed, stressed:'n-aqshbandrtradition d(r\ ,,,,r
resard Baha' ad din an Naqshba.ndras the founder oftht r,,,r4
which bears his name and the lines of ascription (silsii,rrrr
tarbitd) do not begin with him. ra Algar adds: 'It is panicrrlirlv
diflicult to establishwhy he should have becorncu ponv,!rr.
\ I A I P I N C T H E S AC R ED2
figure, the centrallink in the silsilaofwhich he is a part, instead
ol for xampl, Ghiljduwant.'ls However, as the eponym of
the Order, he is clearly a very importa.nt{rgure.
It is possiblethat we know so little about him becausehe
'forbade his followers to record anlthing of his deeds or sayings
during his lifetime, and writings cornposedsoon after his death
. . . concentrate upon matterc of didactic, spiritual and moral
interest.'r6What is very interestingis the way that Baha' al-Din
established his paramount role in the Order witb an insistence
on silent dhtlr and, indeed, withdrawal from those who
practised vocal dirilr. Silent diibr became the norm for the
Naqshbandis although there were occasional deviations
throughout history.lTBahe'al Din is said to have had a vision
of the six Central Asian Masters who preceded him in the
dlsiia. One of thm, Khw.ja'Abd al,Khaliq Ghijduwani (died
1220) bade him practisethe dlibr silently by contmst with the
vocal mode performed by some of his sofi associates, including
his immediate predecessorarrd teacher,Khwaia Amir Kulal.r3
Algar suggeststhat this silent dir[7, so chamcteristicof Baha'
rl"D:n tr-aqshband,rellects the sober character and nature of
the Order generally. Naqshbandi observmce oegan wnere
otlrers left off for th Naqshbandi sufi had already tamed his
aorporeality by strictly following the sfran"a.1eBaha' al Drn
tpnsidered that observing the flnna was 'the highest of &aramat
the or y one worthy of the sufi's aspiration-' Sitent dhibr
a devout orthodoxy and a lack of ostentation.zr)
Khwaja Baha' al Din Naqshbandwas born in 1318 near
Khwaia Amir Kulal instructedhim in Stfism and
' al Din later travelled to Samarqand. where he lived for
years, and Ziwartun where his training as a mystic
a seve.nyear stint herding animals and a similar period
time as a road mender.,t He died in the villase of his birth.
-i HinduwanneartsuLhara,
in 1389.r,The tomb built for
there became a major focus for Islamic pilgrimage.rr
Such are the bare bones of what was clearlv an extraordinarv
combining a love for simplicity with the ability to attract the
of suchrulers as Timur himself.2rAfter his deaththe
assumedthe epithet 'Naqshbandi' in tribute to the power
63
 strri R T T L A L
of his forceful spirituality. His own name of Naqshband is
traditionally explained as reflecting an early crreer as a waver
or embroiderer, or one who worked in rnetal. But Algar believes
that the name has a more spiritual signficance and it was given
to mark him out as a master in spirituality: one made an
impression (naqsh)of the Divine Name Allah on one's heart and
held it there 6rermarendy and exclusively-25
After the death ofBaha' al Drn Naqshband, th Order spread
in an extraordinary fashion; only the Q.dirilya has become more
widespread.r6 As it grew it producrd a galaxy of saints and great
figures.27 Now it is not the purpose of this book to supply a
mediaeval and post mediaeval hagiogaphy, so we will rder only
briefly to the latter. However, we will suwey the spread of the
Order slightly more extensively since this is of considerable
reielance to the role and location of the Order today.
Among the lurninaries of the Naqshbandilya was Khwaja
'Ubayd Allah Abrar (1403 1490) who has been characterised,
by virtue of his wealth and influence as being possibly the most
powerful of the Order's many saints.23He appears to have had
an incredible amount of land and money and yet to have won
everyon's respect. Evidence for the lafter appears in the
contemporary cbronicles. He even had a spiritual impact on the
great Babur himseli2e
The interesting combination here of wealth and piety
inevitably brings to mind a later snfi Order, the Tijaniyya,
and its founder Abmad al-Tij.m (173718-1815): his attitude
towards ascticism (zuhd), while imbued with the in&llectual
and spiritual baggage of the past, was not entirely kaditional_
Generosity to the poor was laudable but one was to schew an
excessof chariry The evident luxury of Ahmad al Tijant o*,n
lifestyle in Fez is attested by large numbers of Tijani and non-
Tijanr sources. The procession in which he travelled to prayer
was a sight to behold.3o
The contrast between Aimad al Tiiarx and Khwaja 'Ubayd
All,h Ahrer however, clearly lies in the interior attitude to wealth
of each man. That of Ahmad may, perhaps, be deduced from the
above; Nizami suggeststhat th Khwdja's attitudes were shaped
by an early poverty which contrasted with his later wealth; the
\ I A P P T N C1 H ! S AC R ED2
former allowed a developing empathy for those in need which led
him to adopra practiceofdecliningunsolicired gifrs'
Another notable Naqshbandi luminary who figures promi-
nently in the Order's galaxy of Masters was Shaykh Ahmad
Sihindi (1564 1624); he has been the subject of a majo.
monograph by Yohanan Friedmann.32 Sirhindr bears the
resounding title of 'Renwer [or renovator] of the Second
Millennium' (Musoinid i olf i thani).33 He is credited with
having helped to a large degee in the revival of mainstream
Islam in India and the restoration of its 'pristine purity' after
the heterodoxies, not to say hercsies, of the Emperor Akbar
(1542-1605).3r One may believe with Collin Davies that
Akbar's religious policy was primarily founded on the twin
dictates of dynasty and politics.3s That dos not mean to say,
however, that the interest rthich h manifested in comparative
religion was false. He held metings for the discussion of
theological problems which were attended by religious scholars
from all the great religions in India.r6 Perceiving that ther was
some good in all of the multifarious religions with which he was
surrounded, Akbar was moved by his syncretic and eclectic
instincts to found a new religion, the dtn-i iiait.:r7 It was from
the intellectual morass thus engendered that Sirhindi is credited
as having rescued Muslim India. He is also said to have been
the inspiration behind the reforms of the Mughal Emperor
Awrangzeb (1617 170i) whose devotion to the shdri'd was
rathr grea(er than thdl of his hererodox predece"sor.'3
However, some hagiography has been at work in suci views
as we shall shortly see.
ShayLh Almad Sirhindi was born in Sirhind, East Punjab,
the son of a snfi ShayLh.3eHe spent time at Akbar's court in
Delhiao and became a Naqshbandr in Delhi in 1599/1600.4'
Almad Sirhindi wmt on to bcome a leading Shaykh in that
Order and a vigorous exponent of its snfi ideals.a2In 1619, after
being summoned to court he was imprisoned by the Emperor
Jahangr (1569 1627)in Gwalior for a year; however,he and the
Emperor were later reconciled.a3
Nizami believes that Shaykh Abmad's impact on the Mughal
rulers may be judged from the way in which his descendants
65
 SLFi RI ' I UAL
N1SIPING THE SACRED2

ffH:1T#A-"':1.j,1 Ahmadr the goal of rendering anew the whole corpus of the Islamic
r-he
Naqshband; "Tlft"i*r''*",'Shavkl
, oa",'*
,,',"":;li;l:i:;T",?"'::*trJ: rimces. Slfi thought did not escapethis review.56One of his
I hednirudeof Aurangr"S..' U."""*, vorks, the Ilrrdi AlLh al Baliglra,i7 has been characterised by
lr;eamunnU"tou""lt.]
d raorcdrre acsessm.nrof Shavkh {hmad Sirhind,t role dd Aziz Almad as 'th most outsranding theological work written
requued He does nor rccepr r-harAwrangzeb. in India.'53
:1:::.: 'j
po,,oesndo The Sh.h worked in the mttdrasa founded by his father for
rhe,rmsp,rarionin Sirhindr
s worksard. indeed,
h. more than fifty years. Feeling himself to be the md.4ddtd of his
;i$:"1,::X'f"tTii:f
:?,3H::m:;;:fl
*r"";,":Ti ege,5e he worked there tirelessly, stiving to revitalise the

3i:,:::
",::Jj:"1[il,,*l*-..,n":rut
*:*ti
Muslim society in which he moved and precipitating an
'intellectual renaissance of the Muslims' in India.60 His
involvement in Naqshbandi activities has frequently been
:"J":fi ::ii;T:"'.,\i"T:ffil"Ti::1"il1.;*l**:
rhe realSirhindr.rhe sr;i. fiom the
stressd, as has his high snfi ra.nk in that Order,6l but it should
not be forgotten that, like many of the contemporary ,ulana", he
imagrnedpoliricalthinler.,
was an initiate not just of the Naqshbandrl4,abut of three other
ffi";fi:;.'_,ii1:;:I:,il:n:;; ;,1: great Indian turuq as well the Chishtiyya, the Qadiriyya ard
rir,idllandneatty "?;iilil
uirh rheconcep,
or.Jd^
the Sufuawardiyya.62

rri+T"ri'
:i:-i.l,.i],.,:

il{if: j#:
iJil*ffii:li,'"";":11'j'T
The contribution of his thought, and its role in the
intellectualdevelopmento{ the Indian sub,continent. has been

rr'"r';.ro,v
5il",Xlff,ilil';,:,:T,'j;:liio".",o
natly summed up by Marc Gaborieau: 'His synthesis was

Third olr,heleadrner'guresw[o may usetu

-l inspired by three pdnciples: a return to th pristine puritv of
Islamin rhe lighr of Hadirhstudies;concrtiation ot rheoDo;srre
. y be consiJerec viewsof the schoolsof lau and rheology:a .oncern roi iocial
here, aner Khw4d I bavd Allai Atral dnd
Shaykj,AhmaJ problems.'63 Arrd although Shah Wali Allah was, at heart, a
\hah.Walr 4,Jrahrr;oJ.i;02r. The latrerwasan
)1'f.l: qufi, Hamid Algar believesthat we should not minimise the

$rFl;:l,i_if
li:j::l,"
.fll,r'i
i::,*i);:1H:
l":,ti:'i",
Tj
ro facilihteunde,dandinsof the Lexr,, rndeed,
political aspctsof his life and writings. Algar also points out
that, although the poiitical philosophyofthe Shahas articulated
him ds .rhe sr,ongesrpersonatiry,amons n the Hujjat Allnh dl &aligha does contain many new insights,
|r,;ia .,1::,!-:,Tf,""
,'*1, it was also fumly founded upon classical motifs, such as that of
ll^i' of Lheeighreenrh .rF_ Nr;l
cenrury. the &iiiala, and iliustrated with referenceo non-conremDorarv
;:'il#: spiri,ua'
; ii:il,[i:. l::il[1 .amonq,he figures.^'
The fourth and final figure who will be considered here, by
r hegaduatdeclme
of rheMushalEmr
,.he,rrsero rerigioi","tr*,,"1r;;;^;;e;" ;,T"ffi way of introduction to the survey of Naqshbandi ritual which
i';5: :] follows, is )v1a,r'lana Khalid Kurdr (177617 1827). His life and
theoroe'ldn
ac(ordine
ro Ahmad
Ji"*li::i:T:rst ^ziz
signifcance have been surveyed in some depth bv Albert
Altdhwaseducared Houranruho gnes his nr"6u,, al Sh"hrizun,reflecrrne a binl.
...l.t.13J,] bothrn his faLher.s
nalrasa,
ran. and in rhe Hiraz.,,He p,oduced; in $e Ku,drshdisrrictof shahnzur." Vd$land Khal; rs also
yll:: i"
vu,umrnous'"*corpus ot *ririnqs both counted by Nizami as one of the 'spiritual descendants,of
,n Arab,c and iersian wirh
ShayLh Alrmad Sirhindi 66

6/'
 S.Fi RITLAL
After an early education in his home town of Qaradagh in
Shahrizur, and Sulaymaniyya, Shaykh K_hatidthen taught for a
while in the latter Baban capital before a further period of study
in Damascus and a hajj to Mecca. In Damascus he became an
initiate of the Qadiriyya taiqa. Late\ acti\g on advice from two
separate quarters, Shaykh Khalid rravelled to Delhi. Here. in
the manner of Shah Walr Allah and many others, the Shaykl,
became a member oflour further sufi Orders: the N{ujaddidi
branch of the Naqshbaadiyya, rhe Chishriyya, the Suhnwar
diyya, and the Kubrawiyya.6T This kind of spiritual snfi
eclecticism- Adams calls it 'ecumenism'63- would have siven
him a profound, ard enviable, insrght inro rhe major sufr
Orders of the age and, in particular, those of Muslim India.
However, he was not destined to remain here lons. His stav
ir Delhi wa. short and he travelled back rhrough trL ard Lhe
Grlf to Kudistan whre he recommenced his teachine career in
iulalmani,rya. Afrer falling out wirh a teadinq famity rhere.
Khalid moved to Damascus where he died; his tomb in that citv
became an object of pilgrimage.6e
Shaykh Khalid's reputation rests on two points: firstlv. the
branch of r-heNaqshbardiyla called the Knalidiyrya is cailed
after him. Secondly, the continued impact of his teachine was
traceable parLJculalv amongrhe Kurds.but alsoin Baghd;d,in
Damascus and evea beyond those counties where he himself
had lived or visited.ToShaykh Khalild is jusr one exampte or
dspect of a \aqshbandism which spread qidely i; the
niDeteenth century. The reasons for its popularity are not hard
to find- Apart from some occasionally bizaffe or 'unorthodox,
local practices prmitted or even encouraged by local Shaykhs.
the ()rder's stdct adherence to the shdn.tl must b a leadinq
one:' Alberr Houranrpurs ir in a nurshell:
Naqshbmdism offaed the poplexed \.Istirn a faith which
emphasizedtlre importanceof virruous activiry, and the claims
ofthe shart'ato be a guidingrule for iri a ftth which included
all that $'s valuable in those of irs opponents,justfied Sunni
Nfuslims h rejectins other creeds and stlengthened th6 in
lesistins attachsfrom outside. This rejection of all that is not
68
\IAIPTNC TTIE S,AC
I{ID 2
SuMi, in the nme of a Sumisn which comprehends the
demots of tNth in what it lejects, linls the Naqshbandiya both
with the Islmic past dd with certain modeln methods of
After this survey of four of the leading figures in the history of
the Naqshbandiyya Order, it is useful to survey, in a little more
daail, the geogaphical spreadofthat Order. Three major areas
are readily identifiable as key loci in the spread of the
Naqshbandi lan1.1- They are Central Asia, Turkey ard India.T:l
Each will be examined here briefly before we move to other
Iocations. They are particularly important becausethe spread of
Naqshbandism in these regions constituted a unifying and
binding factor in three major Sunni Islamic areas (the Ottoman
Empire, the Indian Mughal Empire and the States of Cntral
Asia) which had become disunited, or at last fenced off from
each other, under different rulers. Naqshbandi Siifism was a
kind of cdtural arrd mystica.l giue which bound otherwise
disparate or separate parts of the Islamic Umna.Ta
In view of ihe Order's associationswith. and venerationfor.
Knwaja Baha' al-Dm Naqshband, who was born nea-rBukhara,
it would not be unfair to chamcterise the Order as Central
Asian, if only to distinguish it from those Orders which sprarg
out ol or grew to fruition in, Arab or Persianlands.As a result
of Ahr-t activities, the Order became th dominant one
throughout Inner and Central Asia.75 And not only was the
Order a major spnitual force in Central Asia but it played a
notable political role as well. Nizami reminds us that the
Naqshbandill'a were historically responsible for wide ranging
rsistance to foreign domination in a variety of places.t6
However, much work clearly remains to be done in the study
of the Order in Central Asia. Alsar notes that'the post Ahrar
history of the order in Central Asia and the roie it played in the
Uzbek Lhanateshave not yet been explored' ard 'in general...
the development of the Naqshbandiya in post Timurid Central
Asia is an almost untouched area.'t7
Sirnilarly, there has been relatively little study of the Order in
Turkey,t8 one of the three major areas of spread identiied
69
 S' Fi RI TUAL IUAP?I\C THE SACRED 2
above. The Naqshbandiyrya took root in Western Turkey
within stressed.si To some ertent it evokes, in a non sifi context, the
a centu,yofthe dearhof KhwajaBa}a al Din Naqshband;"
rn Shi'ites' policy in Iraa prior to the a-rticulation of that stranger,
whar was clearly fruirfui ,orl: rhe order s rnsisren."
borh on ,r, directb interventionist policy beloved by the Ayatollah Khu-
Surrnl identity and rigorous observance of the
sfiari.a were mayn of uilatdt al-faqIh iD the twentieth century33 In a snfi
calculated to appeal to the C)ttoman Turks.so
It became context, it also preigures in some respects, the cooperation of
particularly strong in the tol,ns: Trimingham
raords 6ft]. the Tijaniyrya ran:,qain North Africa with the French.3e In all
two Naqshbandi tzhles b tstanbul towards the
end of th; these casesther is an alliance, in one form or another. between
nineteenth centurysl David Damrel notes that.when
the the mystical or religious and the secular <lomauls.
Shalbanidscunailed N,qshbandrpown
in Cennal Asia rhe Important though they were, however, Central Asia, Turkey
order strrl p'ospered in ()noman tandsi dnd when
Sirhindi s and India are by no means the only areas significant for the rise
claim. to be the nupd.did i a[ i thdnt convutsd
the Ind;an and spread of the Naqshbandiyya. We must note here the
r\dqshbandr)d. rhe O oman \aqshbandiya were
hardly diffusion and impact of the Order in such regions as the Middle
a,re(red.' tl r. .lear. then. thar the Order rook
deep and Easteo(especiallyPersia,erKurdistan,e2Egypt and Syriaerand
powerful root from the time of its nrst implantation
in T.urkey. the Sudan'va),the former Soviet Union,es the former Yusosla-
Indeed, the spi.irualiry and institutionalised forms
ofthe Order via,'b the Far East (particularly ChinaeTand Indonesiae3)and,
in Turtey have survived into modrn tiles.
of course, Western Europe as well-ee
Writing in the early 1990s, Sencer Ayata had this
. to say We have insisted earlier that this volume is rnuch more
about the previous decade:
concerned with the ritual practices, rather than the spirituality,
Three salient featuresof the revitalization of Islm in Turkey of the Orders. Nonetheless, it is of interst to note here a few
in
the 1980s vere rhe inffede in the Dumber of publications individual chancteristics of the spirituality of the Naqshban-
e,peciailv$e monrhJr loural., ,h" em.rqen,e of rehsious diyya before proceeding further. In one article Wiiliam C.
nerw^rk"as"o ared *i,h tocrt power .,enkesdd d Chittick appears to &aw an interesting contrast befd/een the
or
emphasis rvithin tbe Istanic movement irself in favour "h; Naqshbandilya and the Ni'matullahilrya who were the subject
of
tradirional Sufi b.otherhoods,for enmpte the Nakqibendi matter of our last chapter. He maintains that with the
t,,cl s.r Naqshbandi Shaykh Nazim al Qubrusi, the emphasis is very
Third of the ma.jor areas to which the C)der spread
was India. much on a prspective in which love is paramount but within a
The arrival of the Naqshbandiyrya tzlrilqain the
sub continent Su6sm founded upon th ShdTt'a. By contrast, the stress within
$as ol signilicance.represenrinsas j, did, ,n Alcar,s the writings of the present leader of the Ni'matuliahis, Dr.
word.. .massrve
rhe generalnan.ter of I imurid cuttureand insuturrons
from Transoxania.'ta But that was by no means Javad Nurbakhsh, is on onenessand union within a prspective
all: the Order which Chittick claims 'falls on the side ofintoxication.' Dhilr is
iought agarnst innovation and involved itself in polirics.s'
An stressedmore than Slarr'a.1oo
.xampleotrhe former.whrchhad implicatron<
for'ih" t"n"r, *r, What is also of interest in any referenceto or survev of
the wd) rn which rhe \aqshbandi*led rhe reanion
aqainsrrhe modern Naqshbandi thought is the millenarian instinct
rcri. beJief.of rhe MughatEmperorAtbar.s,The;etiberare
'yn. embraced by some its adherents. These are apparent in the
poir(y ol lhe Ndqshbandirrlni?daloneamone
the sufi Orders in teachingsof the NaqshbandrShaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi (born
rnora.nol JU\t to mix s irh rhe )\luqhalrulersbur
ro anemprro 1922) .eferred to above. His chiliastic uttera-ncesprcdict the
lnt uencerherr deedsIn the belief r har r he ruler" rhemselves
h"d irnminent arriral of th Mahdi who is believed to have been
a profound sway over their subjects, lives, caruror
be roo hislilv bom in 1941 in the Hijaz. His appearance,accordingto Shaykh

71
 SUFI RITTJ,\L
MAFIINC 1F1TSACKLD 2
Nazim, rill be srenatledbv rhe ourbreak
ot rh thi,d wortJ to wolship Cod without any intermediaries ... [and] the
y--' '.1"T:. war wrll raqefor ninerydays producrnghug. Naqshbandis claim that their means of worship is the 'nearest
un rhe.nin.ry tust day rhe Mahdr wrU appearin
:*l'""':" and easiest' for th follower to achieve the highest level of union
)w,a dnd d new uortd aeeuilt be inaugurared.
Late, al-Dal.l with Cod-{oi So il is to that worship that we shall now turn.
and the ensuing sequenceof evenrsas foretotd
),ru i?pe:J Ly This will be surveyed as previously unde. the four headings of
5haykh_ NdTrm parallels much in the t,adiiional lslamr.
Organisation and Hierarchy, Initiation, Rule of Life and
escharoloqr.,aJ rradirron:al.Dajjetwill b" kjltedby.i",.;;;;;
Liturgy.
or pedce\rr ensuebul alter the reappearance of unbelieversLhe
of Judqement wr begin ro b.
"c":".t,.11:.grear.Day
manrte.t.,'. Now, v,hile none of rhis is of direct
relevancero 3.2.1Organisationand Hierarchy
Naqshb-andi ritual, it does serve to inform the
spi'lhk lity ol
certain \aq.hbarJr groups ard may isolare.or
even alerrate. It has already been stressed that the Naqshbandls have a
such groups from rhe mainstreamofmodern lslam
which, as we profound respect for the observances of shan'ia law to which
hare obsened before.may irself be an isotared
btoc within such they adhere with rigour-106Of almost equal importance,
curures ds Weslern Brrtish sociefu This can equatty
be Lruein however, is the perceived need for a good and competent
dn n,ab environmenr.TatkingoI rhe Lebr"on,
Hobibi" nor", Master or spiritual guide.t07 Such Shaykhs will have advanced
rhdt .ot rhosewho (ame.rotrsrenro hrm
lshaykn Nazirnlonly a far along the spiritual path and may be described as 'perfect'
mrnorrtv .tdved dnd ofr hosewho conrrnuero a""".;ot" (hanil). Those who do not remain'drowned in the "sea of
*iLf, lirn
an even,smallerminorirl betievein his prophecie..
Wir} the re unification"' have the capacity to lead their novices to perfection
eslabrrshmentol peaceand rhe taiiure ofrhe
Mahdi to arrive at by instruction and 'upbringing.'103 In their emphasis on the
the stated.time most people drifted away.
Although the absolute need for a worthy Master, the Naqshbandiyya
ies,inir'ally.arrracredpeoptero Sheikh Nazim rh"ey
l:ophe( also resemble the Ni'matull.hiyya. The Naqshbandi ShayUr Nazim
drmrnrshed lus credjbilirywhen rhey fded ro come true.,ror
al-Qubrusi gos so far as to say that, without a guide, no-one
lhe erhosofbeing.a minoriry within a minority perfeoly
is can reach the presence of God. The good guide knows where
encapsulared in rhe followinqobservarions bv fiaphne Habibis you are going.loe The pious novice (m'l?1-d)should 'surrender' to
By dxing dreamsand visions wirh supersftron ed his ShayLh, that is, leave his own will behind and follow oniy
traditional
tolk dpectations borh Sheik_tjDaghistmi md SheiLI that of the ShayLh. 'Surrerrder must be inward and outward, like
tpupilof rhefornrerlhare terr Nuim
rhemselvesopenro cnu(rsmtrom a dry leaf in the wind. Even if it gets blown into a fire, nothing
"uh. dd 'uldm dtile rh"r lhevae pra.risingshrrlrserring wil you hear from it 'r 10Shaylh Nazim maintains that, once the
up
pa.tMs before the uniry ofAltah) and ee acrins novice has found his guide, he should have absolute faith in him
iresponsibty
towards their followers Jor and accept that h is at least 6fty times as knowledgeable as the
novice. The true spiritual guide is spiritualy linked to the
prophets and heir to those prophets.rrr Furthemore, true
discipleship involves testing. The Qur'aric account of al-Khidr
3.2Ritualsandpracticr and Musarl2 reflects a universal paradigm of which the
Arthurian quest for the Grail, the labours of Hercules, and
Madelain Habib has stressed that ,the Naqshbandi
doctrine the story ofJason and the Golden Fleece are but a few examples,
rests on the premise that the purpose for the creation
of mar is set within a general framework of questing and testing.
72 73
 i1,\?I'ING THE SACRlD 2
In the Qur'an Moses fails his test in a
_- spctacular fashion The mun:dln themselvesmay be totally incoryorated in the
However. Shaykh Nazrrn insrsrsLlur, il
d,nurd is eve, ro mo\r ,an-qa but there may also be those few who could be classified as
aronq rhe prth ro ( iod. he must be prepared
to be testedovur effiliates. akin to oblates of the Roman Catholic Benedictine
il:::,"i ic"'l.1, l" T"lfh Hehords
tharir is Lheproph,- Order, or tertiaries (or Secuiar Order) members of the
y. b,dsrhecuide to undenakeLherestbgoi rh. Franciscanor Carmelite friars.]r]
;f#
Klalua (seclusionor retreat)might exist aorsuch purposesas
as.rhedixrpters lrnledbv suchbondsof
,tusJu"r obedrence r,, initiationr22 but there appears to be an historicat prefercnce for
rhd\rh soroois theShalkhofrhe whote
Order,or branch avoiding such retreats and prefe(rlng 'the keeping of pious
,.i".1 rmred by rhe sitsitdro rhe foundersor epnym.
:l rne,::1","'
or company:ui.bat.'rzr Schimmel chancterises sd6a as 'the
L,rder and. ohen. ro the earliesrage of
tslam. Th. intimate conversation btween master and discipie conducted
jheir spirirual rrneaqefrom rhe rrophc. on a very high spiritual level.'l2rThe eremitica.ltradition is thus
):l'l:ilo,i,,ra*.hrmqeir,
lrom the rrst hharilaAbu Bakr, uhn absent ftom Naqshbandr uste and pmctice and the modern
il,l,lT"i
rstamic communiwf,om or2 614,and from
l:i::" il"'I1l' rnutdtn do not withdraw f.om the world but rather function as
r;trb, rhr fiounhhhaltfait For rhisamons gfis within it,1r5while meeting for a weekly dhiAr and contact
l'l " i?t
rea$nls. orher
l\aqshbdndrs (onsrderrhartheyhavea primacy
amone with their Shaykh. Physicalhhalua may sometimesbe frowned
rnerorner( rrdersrn rermsot pedrgree anu pres|Ige. uponr'z6but the &ialu,a which conslitutesa meritorious stateof
1 paflr.utarre',erence is a(corded to rhepersonof Abu Bakr
, mind wins the Order's approval. Shaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi,
r\aqsl'bdndilv?.{bu Balrrcomes,mmediarely
:v lle a_fierrhe having given advice on the cure of spiritual disease,goeson to
rrsrra and Aigar ha. emphasiseo relate how his own 'Grandsheikh' began to build a house in his
:l:fTl
nowrnellt\aq5hbandr
'n:, ^,:,lbard,
invocarion ofn bu Bakrdisrrngurshes rhar localvillage which he envisagedwould be two storeysin height.
y:::1 '1.- nea,rr, drl orhers,rf, !u,uq. w],ite nodng rha,
lle
rnerer^-asecondar):itsilawhosefocaipoint is.Alr However, when it had reached one storey, Shaykh Sharafuddin
b. Ahi T:[b instructed him to roof that storey, and enter the house for a
vrarJdrar al iadrq. Algar mamtdinslhar .6ahn
ancesrryr. hhalwa of frve years' duration. The moral of the tale is not so
nrotoundly emDhasrd. rri
much the physical nature of the intended bhalua as the
Abu.Bakr, oi mwse, bore the title of al Sr.,tdiq
which may be necessary state of mind which is ready to give up aU material
',ariou.lyrranslaLed as The Riehteous,,The ijpriqht, ,ihe
and eanhly desires at a moment's notice, as if one were
rl" or rherrurMuro* ,,"iru"1,,[n1"i
l.::"1
sa,1:to.ldve^1
Tn" propheric'
pedisee
suddenly in th presence of the Angel of Death and ready to
ie in Istamsinceir was also receivethat Aneel.r27
Dorne-by ytsut rn rhe
eur.an,r as well as ldris 1ofteniderrtiied
wln_ Lnochr.who.in Sr,raMarram,
is r alled both.propher
(rkrbi)dnd (lddrg '13_\lgar rires
Aimad S;t rnai,s ,rew rtrai ,rf,e 3.2.2Initiation
nddiq. is r-hehreheststation or sancrir), for
::l:i,:','n:
rmmedralelv dboveit lies rhe starionof prophethood a'
I do not propose to deal here with some of the famous, and
in, rne orgatusdrron ard hierarchvof rhe Order, rhen, rhe
,
.navkn prototypical initiations of the great masters of the Naqshband;
or fprnluat Leaderis pdraffounr. 0 His aur-horiry
pre-\rreeare srounJed. spirirualty.rn and Oder, lik the initiation of 'Abd al Khaliq Ghijduwani by the
rhe srLrtaofalt the Sh;ykns mystic sageal Khidr.rrs This brief sectiondealsrather with the
wno h"ve preceded him Hr" aurhoriry
is absolure for rt is initiation of the ordinary mund by the Shaykh. Initiation
surrender ro the shayk_hr_hat;s requiJed
of rhe nudd. ceremonies will differ of course, not just from one major Order
';4
 SUFi RITIJAI- MAPPI\"G THE SACRED:l
wirhinrhesameurder.panicutarly on poins,,, giving of instruction n the uartfas (prayer of6ces) of the
\1-rlllh."'l l"'
rheremay be a resr.and rhis may br Order.133 The semiotics of the plocedures and ceremonies
l-ilill , ot"3"")",
thetorm"tprocess
Il':.r,": of Adr'aloarhoi aJtegiancelrh, outlined here need litde emphasis; it is also clea-rthat aspects of
y::l:, seeks ro be initiaredinro the oider by rr. the initiation rituals have much in common with those for the
": lTd rhetdnermayrefusethesuppticanr
:1"*l',o:t up ro rhre.. edmission to other Orders whether thev be Islamic or of
nmes. -^n n^jnteresting analog.,,can be clrawn here wjrh
rh, .nother religion altogether.l3a
>t ard rhe way ir nears a would_benovi,r
^tlte,ot .u.nedrt
monx,rn Lhrrsrranrry:Chapter 58 of rhe
Ruic, enrirled Th,
tot K?cavinc B,othc6 rDe DiseiptinasLsclpi.,1,o.l.
nt
::oc.?dut: 3.2.3Ruleof Life
*"9:, no.furrhercommenr
on rhe serrionquorcJ
ill"1T,
oero$ oevond (he observdrionrhar clearlv borh rhe procedun The nearest that th Naqshbandr- taflqd comes to erecting a
arriculdtedhere, and the Naq"hbandi paradrgm
above de formal 'rule of life' is then ha.limat-i qudsitya. These constitut
oesrgnd 1o tesr and teach humiiiry
surerrry ano, mo.r eleven (originally eight) guiding principles or 'principles of
oDvrousry,perseverrnce.Tbe Rule reads:
rpiritual conduct'.r3i These principles have been stressedfrom
Noviid veniens quis ad con, Do nor grat nrycomers ro rhe classical rimes onwards and appear in both Naqshbardt as well
versationem, non ei facitG t!', monastic life an easy entry, but .s modem orientalist sources-136 Algar translates halimar i
buatu ingressus,sd sicut air as the Apctle says, I?sr rl? qdslrya as 'the sacred precepts' and characterises them as 'an
apostolus: Probdlr spinha si ex sprn* to s* i[ thel areJtm 6od rttempt to define the essenceofthe Naqshbandrpath,'137while
Deo slnt. Ergo si veniens (1 John a:1) Therefore. if Trimingham, rnore prosaically, observes that the 'eleven
pseveravent putsds et illatas soneone comes and keeps principles show the exercise-aims of the drtqd.'1r3 (It is
sibi iDiurias et dimcuttatem kn@kiDs at the dooa and if at certairiy true that th last three principles of the eleven, which
ingressus post quattuor aut the od of four or 6ve days he will shortly be itemised, refer to the practice ofdiilr.).13e K.A.
qui n q u e dies v is us f u e ri r has sho{al hiirEif parienr in Nizami holds that 'these practices, which are aimed at
patientd portale et prsistde beding his harsh treatment tegulattug the entire inner life of mar, may not have been
petitioni suae, adnuatur ei and difficulq new in spirit or content, but they gave clear and categorical
of entla and
ingressuset sit in ce a hospi has penisted in his rquest, expression to lleeting moments of spiritual experience and
tum paucis diebus .. . iit solli theo he should be alowed to identified every spiritual state, permanent or transitory'rao
citudo sit si levera DeuD dter and stay in th guest The eleven pinciples, introduced into the tdnqd in the
quartos for a few days . .. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A.D,larmay be enumer-
concem must be wheths the rted, and briefly described,as follows:14,
novic lruly seks cod 1I t hash dar dam:r! 'awarenesswhile breathing',1aa'conscious
Naq.hband,aspiranr.oncetheshaythha. remembrance of God as one inhales and exhales one's
ll-lf:
agleedto ddmrl'.h:
-c,*,.f hrm,an_inirrarjon breath.{{t This rubric embracesthe techniquesnecessaryfor
Lrurg) may ra-[.e
placewhith
can,m\otve. rni?rdlrd. claspineof rhe Shar breath control.
ki,s hand,, recitarion
o.t tn? shahtLd,t lormal staremenlofrepenlance t nazar bar qadan:1t6' watching one'ssteps';1a7
eachmovement
.a by the rnztl.
staremenls ot,\4ustimtliel a tormaldeclararion of the saliA (pilgrim) should be 'regulated and directed
bv rheShaykh
rnal the nu.!d hds beenaccepredinro rhe Orde.. towards achievementof some divine purpose.'143
finritu. ,t,.
-d,
;6 7t-
 SLIFI RTTUAL
\IAPPING TH! SACRI]D2
. safut dar ua.tan.la, .journeying in whole image of rruqul is a very powerful one, with its overtones
one,s homeland,,r.,
mtrospectivestudy of oneself'.rjr This rubric of "Arafat and the hd, rituals.
encapsulatc,
an attempt to know oneselfand move ,from As we noted above, there seemsoriginally to have been an
blameworthy r,,
praisewo.thy qualities' I 5.1 cighdold set of principles, established by Abd al-Khdliq
. bhaluat dar anjunanrrs 'solirude in a
crowd,,rra .solitudr Ghijduwanl and later supplemented by the last three
when tn company,.rssThe dervish should have principles outlined above, at the instigation of Baha' a1-Din
the capacit\
to be 'alone with God, even while preoccupred Naq"hbar'6 "' Regardlessoftheir number however, it is clear
with th.
mateial world or other EoDle.ii6 that an underlying factor in all the principles is control,
. yadhardlsi 'r-emembrance,or ,making control of the self with a view to directing that self towards a
mentron., both oral
and mental', I s3'recollection,.r re This heading further, divine goal. An extra dimension is knowledge: the
cl"_ly ."";;".
on the rmportanceof dhilr16! roul must know itself before it can attempt extra knowledge of
. bazgasht16l'restraint',r62,restraining the Divine. And while many of the principles may have a
on,s thought, iira-_
gd,dr.'6 fhj. involve.rhe effon required primary ritual orientation towards the pnctice of dhihr, they
ro prevmr on. .
thoughlslrom .rralrnq durinq rhe !eperirron provide, togther, a frame or 'rule of life' in which the dervish
oi rhe slara;,
rormurae.b' rnrer"per.ingolher ph,aes ror lives forever aware of a greater goal than the corporeal or
. nigah warchfutness.. keepinga wdrchon lhe arthly. Fudhe.more, control over that which is corporeal may
!a:h:r drt
dnd djrecron ot rhoughr'.rbThjs has similarities mean asceticism, but the eleven principles do not teach a
wrr_hrhc
prcuo'rsrubrj. and rs alsodesigredro prevenr Platonic rejection of the physical but rather a harnessingof it
drsrrartion5
durlng the reperjrionof the shaha.da formulae.rb3 towards a Divine soal.
. Jadddshi6e rrecollection',rto.concentration
upon the divine
presence,in a.ondirion o( dhau,r.t-tThis cleart) in\olv;,
rlnd ot deep rooredmedrtationor contemplationr: 3.2.4Liturgy
. ynil.i numerrcatpause.checkingrhar the henr
4ilt::.
dnrpr has been repearedrhe requi"rrenumber It is possible to consider a wide variety of both major and minor
of tjmes, ral<ins
Inlo accounrones wanderinerhouehls..,.. practices under the general rubic of Liturgy- However in this
. wuqnft zanaa:t .rempor"ip,,"; . section we will rfer only to someof the main liturgical practices
. Keepingaccountol
nov one rs spnd,ngone. rime. Thi. involves of the Naqshbandiyya; other, more minor, ones may be noted in
grvingrhank.
ror ndvrnedon good deedsand repenrine passmg.
of rime spenr in
wrongdolng.i/D
. uuqttigolkl forminqa menrdlprcrure of one.sheaJrwir
. h
rne nameol Liod engrrredrhereon.r:" keeprng i 2.a.1Dhihr
rfiehean in a
state of alertness,responsivero divin communication.,rl
Of alt the practices for u,hich the Naqshbandis are famous, the
.a.red preceprs ha\e deeper
]l::: ","'"" lli":qh:
meanlnes"as 9, silent, mental dhi&r (dhi[r []rafi) is perhaps the best known. The
welt. Trimingham. referung ro u .qrl i
zanr;.n, use of dhi[r is at the very heart of Naqshbandi ritual, mediaeval
ano ddadr.\ay. thal we ma1 picrurethe uzqy'who
'ruq4-, ha. and moden. Shayhh Nazim has made much of this point. He
rhroushhd! ing rrdn.cendedrirneand .pace.and
::1se1ro:pek
pdskd dwa) rua.da qalbiye,in the Sought r3o holds that dhi&7is important for satisfaction in this life. For him
Cenainlrt rh" it is a sourceofwisdom and a powerful vehicle for the soul to
78
 SCFi RITIJAL
IfAPPI:"C THL SACRED l
(iod. The Prophet Mutramrnad
counselled that al things coullt
of thosewho^performed The early history of the Naqshbandilya is characterised by the
f,^',",:,"::,:1 th" ,Ji,r" S".h- p";;i,:
dwetled in theprcsenc".f fu;;;; il;;;"
debate over whether the dhihr should be silent and private, or
";#:' vocal and public. Trimingham insists that strict Naqshbandi
rhen,is an easy highroad ro ursdom. Factice adhers to the private silent dhiAr and reminds us of the
^Dfrihr, tiut ofie,. Naqshbandi precpt about 'solitude in a crowd-'133Schimmel
equa y prohrabtegoajshavebeen idenrihed:
for one scholar.rh.
wirhour\ords is contemptarron |g!:ees,seeingthe silent dfti&r at the very heart of Naqshbandi
lll^:r lrltl
wnrcn subJecrand objecL are, evenrually
rnushaha.dal.
nt training and comparing it to the vocal dhilr of many of the
indiscslnillp,,a
hotdingrhar,rhedhilr brings
agrees. the tov,
other Orders which was often accompanying by musical
or L,odlo":i'',"
:TITI rheheanotrhe believerro rhe po;ntwte."ll"r" instruments, thereby rendering th vocal variety more attractive
bll H: * And The Enqcropaediao/ ; no to the populace.rseHowever, despite this presentemphasison
:1". . /starn snesses rir gilent dhiLr, there is no doubt that both the silent and the vocal
ordrirrinitscommentarv
onrheword
i"ij,ioi]r'i,'lirt*"* forms of the dhibr were in use in the Order before the period of
Baha'al Din Naqshbnd-1eoAlgar notes that it was under the
The epithet Nak$bmd
l*l is somehme! undestood in latter that the Order achieved its final form and that it was the
th" c,,ft of ernbroidery. . . . More corDmobty, impact made by Baha' al-Din which fnally caused the silent
:::T-tl.l -'thtalm ro rcfer
rc\?ver. .t B ro r_he
frxirg. in thepurifiedubter ;f dhilr to become the norm and the vrxal dhi&r to fall into disuse
rne nearr,ot ihe jm inr of rhF div,ne
nne A drr by meansuf with the Naqshbandiyya.te' This emphasis on silent dhihT
sreDtand permdent diii, rsj powerftnly distinguished the Naqshbandiyrya from other Orders
h i' clarned rhdr Abd BaJu.,rhe 6rsr lile the Yasaviyya, the sound of whose vocal diih was such that
lfidt,/a in tstam, was
rnsr,ucredby l\4uh.mmddrn rhe ir became characterised as 'dhihr of the saw' because of its
useof the af,;A,*fl""
"tf""r
*ere hidrngin rhe raveon rhe [u.rd grating sound.lq?
T," ii,-": ro \ledina.,& Yet this emphasis on silent dhilz never seemsto have become
I ne roUowrng slaremenr.by Tii
al D:n ibn Va-hdi Zarnen al
t010,.dulhor.ofrhe brief,unpaginared absolute.lerThere are indeed contemporary Naqshbandiswho
5-? 111
f.,:-.,n.,/ Episrie
on have no qualms about using modes of diribr which classical
the N.aq,hhan/liwaUd.et rRi:ataf S;un al
Nacshbandir.yar, Naqshbandism eschewed.lsaAlgar suggests that in Turkey, for
::^:!:t.at. .lCarnbridge,naa. Ms. ro;i1. example, perhaps most Naqshbandls now employ the vocal
pcrureof rheformwhichrhe
sraphic
fii'j?:;::l.l:i"i, dfiibr, either out of ignorance of what the Order rega.ds as more
appropriate, or a sense of inferiority faced with a norm which
llhe,.nfiJmu"r teep rhe rongue pre.sed aqdmst they regard as beyond their attainment.l'qs
.noutrt, hb lhe root oftus
trpr and teerh Frnrtv shur. od hotd
tus breaLh
ql'h Lhe sord la. he
mates ir ascod trom rhe
,r hdsmivedar{hcbnrn hesdysirahz 3.2.4.2Sar.a'
r:-.'-:,
o- 'h '",r'ch
1" lf,:,, .yh,
r hout dd ed l a , d h b i h e te R
s rd e .d ri v i ng i ,
ro!.eru )_Dro rhe pineat hea.through
which ir circutaresro all One of the most famous styles of mtsic in India and Pakistar is
r4p re.r o|he hodv The phrase Muhdnnad
r@rlAl,at is mad that characterised as Qaluuali. Musicologists apply the term to
rc^n. rme ,rcm rhe hft ro rhe nehr
sjde dd rhs one svs. .\ty the musical genre and also to the actual performance of that
,
'od. I h o u a! r m y qoatod " a ti s fy i n qT h R i . my a m ,ra , genre as a sufl exercise.rq6In its former sense,Qawrrali is a song
performed by a group of gatouralsor professional musicians who
80
8l
 SUFi RI TLAL
NIAPPI\C TI]E SACRED2
may be led by one or two soloists. In irs lafter
sense,eav'I'ali ,is music was xtremely powerful, no doubt as a potent aid to the
a garhering for purpose or ralizine ;aeats if tst.m,,
.rhe .ttainment of udJd itself. Schimrnel refers to a 'sober' adherent
mvstrcrsm-rhroueh lhe rirualof ,lisreningro music.orsarni .:
ror lhe surr, ea$\,ali is an a. r of worship, ofthe Naqshbandi tdn:qa in Delhi named Mu Dard who wrote
an aftempt .to arou .. r work defending music and who, albeit in arl extremely
my^stical
.love, even divine ecstasy, the .... disciplined way, held musical soir6es for himself aad his
su6sm,lq3 ";;;;-;;
Yet rherc was and srill is. a massiverhmlogjcal discipteszo;
ambivalen., In 1961 1962 Madelain Habib studied as a Fulbriqht
db?ulth: ot mrsic. ourside rhe practiceot tajwllt
Lsllsl:jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjm
cnanuns :se ', student at the American University of Cairo. Teaching there
or the qur,;'l.1u hite dfiilr could be deten;ed h\
dppllrne a snfr inrerprerarion ro rhe *r"* at the same time was a Naqshbandi named Shayln Sayyid al,
i" th" err;;;;,, ; Nu*.wa;206who furnished Habib with an interestinp descriD
..,,1,:"i* and.rndeed,m(uurasesucha pracr,c.
:fl-:i'j: rhar.music.
tion of a Naqshbardr
"ession.
u hi. h illusuaresr he.,aeof
li::]":'il. by conrrasr.
was.dangerous
ar.r though without any musical accompaniment.2oTAfter"onq.
unrawut ,h"]d t rswonh noring.however.rhat rhe
the
no. orrc(uv, eur,an doc procedingsopened with the f,ariha, a song (ndshiid)was sung
torbrdrhe useofmusicr.r".The same
ambrvaien..t followed by a silent dhi&r. Any 'e.rrtranced' siifi was persuaded
rs ro oe round w_rrtunrhe sufi ( ,rder\ rhemselves
ln someol rF. ro come out of his state by the Shaykh clapping his hands. A
mdrn\(reamsut, Orders of Lhe Indian Sub_Conrinent,
sarnu poem wa,sthen sung followed by a second dhibr. This might be
constitutes.a vital framework within
which .,"jd, followed by another song and a third d[i[r. The whole
more.lirerallyfindinc Uod /oora_kes pldce.HenceU,ders ";";;;;;
,.n,.nt,"V" hare.no he:rralon tiL. ceremony would close with a prayer'read in unison, in a
in pracrrsing ir jor
lii Ar rhr rhrthmical manner' calling cod to bless the Prophet Muham
Orders tike rhe Suhrawardiyya and
:lher,,extreme rhe mad, all prophets and messengers,angels and'righteous
/\dqsnoandryyd ma) eilher prohib,t rhe
performance of rhr worshippers' of God ard to be pleased with the frrst four
sdnd ourright or (ompromise by permitting
the performanceol caliphs of Islam, the Rdsh;dtn.2o3It is clear from all this that
mysucal songs-wlhour rhe useof musical
instrumenrs./,2tn hi there is an emphasis on sobriety and good order, despite the use
Drie, surve\ ol the_tita,of Bahd al-Drn
Naqshband, protessor of song. From this prspective, Habib makes a dramatic
na\ stressed lhal ea_rlv \aqshbandi prdd,ce,
^rgar
(-:ncern ror.sobfiety and anonymirl in i,. contrast between the Naqshbandilya and the Mawlawiyya or
implied by the choice or 'Whirling Dewishes' as they became popularly known: 'The
srrenl dhrAr toqicallv reiecredsuch practices
as lhe sdnui. ,0. Mawlawis use proetry,music and dancing to come closer to God
Ye' alrhoughrheremay be rnroterance
ot musrcalacdvirrc, and to bring about the trance, whereas the Naqshbandis evoke
amonq somegroups of Naqshbandrs,rhere
is forbeaance rn the it by mere contemplation and concentration.'2{}q Arrd Habib
rdre or drversepraclrces amongorhers.Wh;le rhe \aqshbandr
marnsrreampath.may eschewmusic, members draws attention to the use by the \{awlawis of the tambourine
of the Ctrder se and the flute.'/ro
con9emn ,ho.e who do ,,vi+ ro make rhe
:: rd'lxi, par, Her contrast is an interestingone, albeit of two extremes:on
or ieJ-son
rne,r lo
formdt- uorship. J.C.J. Ter Haar
cites Sirhindr, the one harrd, the Naqshbandiyya pride themselves on the
rl:erer:1ar,ol ot sah;, at fiin Naqshbard.s
dicrum ro rhc 'sobriety' of their dhih; on the other, the Nlawlawiyya glory in
errpcr,rhatlhesethjngs run counrerro
our parh and thercfore giving themselvesup totally to a whirling dancewhich has been
we. Naqshbdndjs. do nor do lhem: on the orher hand, whcn
enthusiasticallydescribed as 'arr expressionof the cosmic joy
orne' suhsprd.lrserhem.we do not disapprove., urThere is
no experienced by the simultaneous effect of annihilation and
oouDrrnat. ror the dveraqesufi. Naqshbandr
or nor, rhe lure or glorification . . . it is the witnessingofthe stateof perceivingthe
82 83
 SUFi RITTjAL
mysteries of God through the heavens of divinity.'rr r Th(.
tanguage here is as magniloquent and ecstatic as the dance itsell
The Naqshbandiyya, then, stand at the opposite end of rhi
ritual pole from the MawiawiD,a, as far as the physical
expression of their devotions is concerned. But the rwo strt.s
of derotronae nor rorallyinimi,ajr syncrerismrs possible.h r
known that at leasr one modern Naqshbandr group has .r
Mawlarvr sub group which performs the sana. on a regul.
basis,accordingto the classicalstyle of the lvtawlawiyya:rr
3.1a3 Munaaba
annRdbitx
Muraqaba is a techique employed both by the Ni.matullihiyl a
and the Naqshbandiyya. lt was noted earlier that the Arabie
word could be translated as 'contemplative vigilance, ancl
'contemplative watchfulness.'21rTrimingham translates
th.
word initially as'spiritual .n--,-io.,'ir but later, in his
'Glossary of Arabic Terms', he renders it as ,awareness.
watching. Spiritual communion with a saint or spiritual guide
(rlrrrsftid).2'sIn a Naqshbandrcontext h insisrs that the trm
'contemplation' is an adequate rendition
of the tuthod ai
mura4aba in the sense that one might look as at a picture, bur
not of the pro.ess.2r6
Muraqaba can involve meditation on a verse of the
eur'an.
the image of the Prophet lrluhammad, or one's o\r,n sufi
:haykh. I Trimrngham rnsi.rsrhat ir i, to be disrmguisheJ
from zabita,literally 'bond' or 'tink' with the Shaykh, altbough
he finds the latter translationsinadequaterrs (lne author links
thrs concept with rhat offdid':
He must visualisinteriorly the image of h;s shaikh He
inagines hjs image as though on his right shoulder Then
prcturing from the right shoulder to his heart a line q,hich ca
act as a passagewhereby the spirit of the shaiL}r can rate
possession ofthat organ.This processmainttned conrinuously
u.ill osure his attaining absrption in the shai].I (dl-faM"fi 1t
84
I\IAPPING THE SACRED2
It is expectd, or at least hopd, that this 'annihilation, or
absorption in the Shayhh will eventually lead to the universal
stfi goal of 'annihilation' or 'absorption' in God \fana" fi
'illah)."o ln view ofthis, it is not surprising that the practiceof
ftbitd, whatever its development down the ages, remained
extremely tnpular in Naqshbandi circles.22' It also had an
antique f,digree, going back to the early concept ol tawajjuh
espoused by Ilahe' al Drn Naqshband himself ard one of his
disciplescalled 'Ala' al-Drn 'After.222Rabir.1encapsulatesthe
idea of a relationship between the sufi novice and snF Master
whose essence is one of spirituality as well as physical
presence-223 As a means of spiritual perfection, rabita could
be more powerful that dfriftr.rra
J.2.a..'Sd6,r
Cfosely allied to the concepr ot rabita. ln the Naqshbandi
tradition is that ofsuhba. The modern dictionary defines suJrboas
'fr iend"hip. companionshrp.comradeshrp.accompanyins.com-
pany, escort; association,intercourse ...'22s In sufi parlance,
however, suhlu means 'the intimate conversation between master
and disciple conducted on a very high spiritual level.'rr6 Algar
holds that the preference for $fba rather than retreats was a
characte.istic featrne of early Naqshbandi practrce.zz| The mund.
who wished to be initiated into the Naqshbandi Order followed
the path of sr.rhba,that is, he would apprentice himself to a
Shaykh who would teach him the rituals of the Naqshbandr
tdtiqa and guide him to the knowledge of God.223 However,
although ShayLh Khalid,,e acknowledged the primacy of slhbo
among the palis leading ro God, he also introduced a hhalua or
retreat of forty days for the initiate. The practice was eschewed
by other Naqshbandi Shaykhs but it became ar intesal practice
of the Khalidi Sub Order.230(This diversity of approach, despite
the general prcference for suhla, is paralleled in the Naqshbandr
articulation of the silent dhihr rule).
A further example of diversity may be cited from South East
Asia. Algar reminds us that a distinctive characteristic of
85
 SUFI RTTUAL
Malay-Indonesian Naqshbandr practice was a ntual calle(t
sriub. SuluA was basicalty a retreat which varied ia length
during whjrh some fasLinqalso rook place. Algar is unabre r,,
sd) how rhis pracrice, \,luch is quire conrray to cla.sic I
Ndqshbandr r,adirion. oriqDated. However, he idenrihes ,
growng tendency towards a regionalisation of Naqshbandr
crstom since rhe Wahhabr conquesrof rhe Hjaz and treal ,,,
rhe links urth Mecca which ensued./rl
We noled earlier rhe approval given by Shaylh Na:im al
^
Qubrusi to a lind of menraj hhaluaz : wlxch can give a
interesting extra dimension ro the idea of suhba qr"
ship. Perhaps Shaykh Nazim foliows the counsel--i"r,ion
of khwala
'Abd al-Khaliq al-chijduwani whose aphorisms becamc
in the my"tical prdLticednd rheotosyof rh"
luidation
Order.r' One of rhc eleren famous prnciptes which h.
enuncrated was hhaluat dar aajunan which Nizami elaborares
as 'solitude when in company, that is carrying on spiritual
practicesinternally and being alone with God while
outwardlv
bu.v uith people. " Here Cod replacesthe Shaykh and rhr:
suhbd rs wirh cod Hirnself. Klaiwa becomessulba
3.2.1.5
Wnd
Under this heading, in addition to ruird, we wi also consider
the repetitive form of prayer known as jtharrn i Khuajasan
employed at rarious times by the Naqshbanclr tdr-qe. ihe
aurrdd themselves are diverse in number and trpe_ For example,
at the Naqshbandi reltu in the Bosnian town of Visolo (viich
lies abour 40 miles norrhwesrot Sara1evor,z,.rhe performarL
e
ol ddwn prayer by rhe dervishes is preceded by rhe
.the
recitation of a rhyming uird which rs called,Aurad i Faihrlrya
whoseauthorwas'Ali b. Shihabal Oin Uanaaanr
1a;earJiil,
a saint ofthe Kubrawiy1,a Order.|6 This litany appears to ha,e
become extremely popular with the \\aqshbandi; and is to
be
lound nor only in. Bosnia but in tughanistan ard Turkey
a.r
well, dlmosr supplantjnga lirany called aner Baha,ai
bin
Naqshband hirnself.z'
86
MAPPINC THE SACRED2
In England, while each mund may have his own private uird,
there also existsa leafet published in Arabic and English which
lays doum a set formula or menu of au,rZd.233 The English
version of Naqshbandi du,rad 'to b recited during the day and
night anytime after Fajr, wihin 24 hours'delineates an
extraordinarily ambitious prcgrarnm of prayerz3e in terms of
concntration, time and zal. Indeed, it begins to.ecall the
acrtions of one of the disciples of Sahl ibn "Abdullah:
Sahl ibn Abddi;n bade one of his disciples endavourto say
Allahl Allahl' the whole dav wiihour intermission.wtlen he
had acquiredthe habit ofdoing so,Sahlinstructed him ro repeat
the samesords during the night, unril they cme forth from his
hps even while he was asleep.'Noq said he, 'be silnt and
ecupy you*X with recolecting them. At last rhe disciple's
whole bing was absorbedby the thought of Allah. One day a
bs fen on his head,and the words Allah, Allah'were seeD
wirten in the blood that trickled from the wound.,ao
The Naqshbandi nundtn cleady take the ararad extremely
seriously.2alThe English version of the leaflet of Awrdd. referred
to above begins with a.nexpanded version of the shahada (tttee
times) followed by the phrase astaghfiru llah (seventy times).
Several sunu from the Qur'an follow including the cptition of
Sarat al lhhlas (eleven times). Aftet a du"a, which appears as
item 11 on the list ofaurad, item 14 comprisesth recitationof
the name Allah 1500 times. ln all the list on the leafet in English
comprises a set of 16 a&ral repeated bet,reen one and 1500
dmes according to the rubric. These are followed on the list by
five other optional du7ad, each repeated 100 times. It is worth
mentioning once again that th rubric at the top of the list reads:
'To be rcited during the day and night an)'time after Fajr,
within 24 hows'242Ht:*ever, each wird, in itself, is fairly short
a fw lines at most and in this one might make comparisons
with the aur,ad ol for example, the Burhaniyya tanq\ abranch
of which fiourishes in Cairo and performs its zi&r (dhih) in the
Mosque of Sayyidna'l,Husayn. In Cairo this Order rejoicesin
the full name ot atTariqa ol BwhaniJta al Ddstgi1'].a al-
Shndhil$ya, thereby clearly indicating its origins.2a3The aurad
 lvf^FPl\c TIJE SnCRED2
of this Order are much longer than the individual aurrad of thc Table One
Naqshbandiyya, and they are prinred in a smali but far booller
of 128 pages.2aa This booklet, which is more lile a miniatun, Habibna
Islamic breviary than a simple collection ofalrrad, besins with a IstuhJat (i) Istishlat lrs)
prarer called hhatdmal.salawaL prescribesa numbei of aurti./ (t)
Sn'dr dl l;rii4 Prayd of delegation(l )
after the pzbh and "asr prayers like 100 6denalds arrd 30t) Ii?rl,yd(100) ktichlat 115)
repetitions of Ya Dalyim, records a number of ahzab, includine Snratdl-&hiis (9) Stra, dl IA 6 (1001)
the very well-InownHizb al Bafil't amibutedro Abu I Hasan Tarl:aa lr)
?dlid (100) ?irjli]ya (100)
a.l'Shedhih himsll and concludes with two taraassulsand t*.o Sn'ar 4l l[ as (1001)
siisilalists. The final entry is a listing of'the appointed[or fixedl
Iitames (al aurad al narb*a) which are read once after the srbl Sn'ar dl-Iaitrafr (79)
prayrs and once after the "aw prayers.'ra6ln short, this Burhant Snrd dI Fatih! (7)
T4lila (100)
booklet is yet one more indlcation of the emphasis placed upon Readingsfrom Qu"a,
ararad in many ofthe Orders and the way in which they became Srpplications of 'Und
a parallel set of prayers to the fivefold sdiar itslf.
The nmhe. of rpetirionsi, in bra&ets
Another form of communal lita:ry or, better, communal and
extended repetitive prayer, espoused by the Naqshbandiyya is
that lnown as Khatm i Khwaja.gan or 'Recitation of the surveyed. Those which have not include such matters as the
Masters.'24t This comprises, inter alio,, the silent reDetition of ryrb al fatu'id ('ptoximrty brought by the prescribed religious
vanous Qur 'anic snrassut h as the Farrh{ sevenl;mes, Srrdr al duties, connectedwith prophethood')256 of the lndian Naqsh-
Iihlis one thousand and one times, foilowed by a sevenfold bandis, and tasdrzut 'the srpernatural power over other people,
Fitila once again and a concluding invocation of blessings on disciples and enemies alike, which was ascribed to the Sun
the Prophet Muhammad.2+3Tbe prayer is named after .the line saints.'2r;\!hat should be clear from all this is the generally
of Central Asian mastersof Sulism, kno*rr as the Khwaiaean. low-key nature of most of the rituals of Naqshbandism and the
oul o[ which the \aqshb di order arose. .." ntq* spirit of humility which infuses, or shotrld infuse, the
that the earliest Naqshbandi ritual manuals do not refer"rr";s".to the performance of these rituals. Trimingham rightly identified
bhatm ar,d it was quite a while before this practice of silently the Naqshbandiyya with the i\aldmatr sufi tradition which
reciting verses fmm the Qur'an became a regular feature of the rejctedostentation-rt3
Naqshbandi rarrqd every.uvhere.2ro In one of his books, the modern Naqshbandi Shaykh Nazim
It is acknowledged that the content of the Kharrn r has a Chapter entitled Attaining Real Humility in Worship: To
Khwajasan caJl differ frcm place to place.r5r Table One, while Avoid Being Self-Satisfied with the Amount of One's Devo
encapsulating the common principal fearures, also illustrates tiorx.'2seWe will concludewith someof his words which neatly
some of the variations, especially in the number of repetitions encapsulate the classical attitude of the Naqshbandiyya towards
The Table is based on the descriptions of rhe K,1dr,r i worship; for Shaykh Nazim, lack of pride and ostentation in
Khuajagan by 'frimrngham, Algar and Habib. ritual and prayer is the essenceof the ada6 of worship:
No attempt has been made in this Chapter ro cover everv
sirgle Naqshbandrrubrrc. rirual, prrcrice and cusrom. lr i" lfa person is expecting ay reward for his devotions,it meaas
hoped, however, that all th most important ones have been that.heseeshis own actionsasbeing goodenoughmd wo.thy of

88 u9
 5. FI RI TUAL
a rewdd fron Allah. Whosoever thinks lhat his actions or
worship de suitable for the Divine Prmce has no tnowtedge
of absolule trurh (Haqiqa) dd ,ts Eret Inowledges. Thcefore,
you may w thern worshipping enthusidtically, pushed on ro
ever nore devotions just becau* they re thinling: 'These re
good actions md I shall reap my rewad for them,' but it never
ccus to them that those actions aren'r suitable for the Divine
However, the Shaykh does not wish to be misunderstood:
You must be cdetul not to misunderstand me, nor to turD th
intended meDirg upside down; no doubt, as a result ofwhat we
are syns here, some people will accuse us of discounsing oE
followers fron worship far from it, Allah is my witnest We
are neve! d$ouraging anyone from worhip, we are only
teaching people the highest s@d maaners (Adab) vith then
Lord Almighty, md thal adab is: not to be co.rentd with the
ahount of your volship while you efiecrively ddtroy irs merits
with your pride md vith your thinling that it wiU be tust-clcs
in the Divine Presence; it is bette! ro present your worship to
yor.rr Lord, saying, 'Oh my Lord, I m ashmed t send this
before your Divine Presence forgive me my shortcomings and
inability to worship or tbank You as You desde to b
worshippd and thmked '161
A parable illustrates what he means and also underpins the
Naqshbandi ideal of the dhilr which is silent:
I heed of one great Saint who, evr) rime he coe ro the
mosqu to pray with the conglegation talrEt), woutd wit unril
everyore had entered, and only tben enter the mosque himsell
stmding next to the shoe-rack md praying there. Then, a sn
s the prayer was ,inished, he would run out of the mosque,
saying: 'Prai*d be the Lord, for He ha overed for me the
badness of my condition s that no one could derect it. If tho*
people were to know what I an really like inside, they would
chas m out of the bosque, throwing their shoes at me md
beathg me with th6.r6':
M A I P I N C l H I 5 AC R ED ,]
Notes
1 See H. Algd, A B;e{ History of th Naqshbandi Order' in Marc
Gaborieau, Alexmdre Popovic & Thier.y Zarcone (eds.), N4qs[b4fl-
dr: Chmi@t et Jjtut;d d.relle .I'u^ onhe nrystiquemelMn/
Hbt6i@l Deelop@ts and Ptesent Situtin o/ d M6/in Mtstt.al
(hder, A.tes dz lo Ta.bk Ronae de Seues/Proceed.ingsol the Sattes
Rtund Table,2 a tui/2.a Ma| 1985,Varia Turcica XVIII, (lstanbul:
lnstirut Frdgais d Etudes Anatolienns/lstobul & Paris: Editions
Isis, 1990)[hereafterrefened to sinply as Cabo.iau,Naqs]rbadisl,
pp 41, 42, 43, .16;sealso Daphne lIabibis, A Clompatutixe StuAtoJ
the Wothincs oJa Btunch oJ rhe Naqshbmd.isl,f'. Ordzr in l2bMon ann
tle LrK U.publishd PhD Thesis, University of London (L.S.E.),
1985,p. 71.
2 (My itali.s) Ndin al'Qubrusi, Mercy Ocearc' Eadl*s Hoizons,
lDirourss ddivred Sumer 1401/1981,in London, dd Autuhn
1401/1981in Munich &d Cyprusl, (Konya:Sbat,1982),pp. 8s, il6,
89, 90.
3 Se H. Alsar/K A Nizami, at Nakshbandiyya', EI', Vol. 7,
pp. 934 939; H. Algd, art 'Naqshbandiyah in lohn L Esposito
(ed.), The OxJord.Laqclopedla oJ the Motlern Isldic Wdld, Vol 3,
pV 22b 229t Habibis, C'mpdtatmd Stud) p. 2E. For a suvey of a
hostile appr@h towards the Naqshbudis, see WG. Shellaber, 'Ar
Exposue of Countditers', The Mulen Worll, Vol. XX:4 (October
1930),pp. 359 -170
4 SeeAmmeie S.himel, Mystrdl D@i6 oJ klan, (Chapl Hill:
University of No.th CarolinaPress,1978),p. 402.
5 H Nga, The Prcdt Stateof Naqshbmdi Studies'in Gaboiieau,
Noqsnbandn,p 46.
6 Gabo;eau, NaqsAband;.
7 Alg&, 'P.eseniStateof Naqshbd& Studies',pp. 45 46.
8 Rawd A.G. Fdhadi, 'On Some Edly Naqshband; Major Works' in
Gabonou, N'aahbandis,pp. 63, 67 Seeals H. Algd, Bibliographicll
Notes on the s-aqshbandiTriqat in G@rge F. Houmi (al.), tssals on
k14^i. Phibepb asd Sciqce,Studisin Islmic Philmphy od Scioce,
(Albany: StateUniversity of Nry York Press,1975), pP. 254-259.
9 Triminghm, The Su.f. Ord2B in Isldn, (Oxford: Cldendon Prs,,
197r).
IO Alga.. 'P.e*nt Stateof Naqshbddi Studies, pp. ,16 47.
l l Ibid , p 47
1,2 K.A. Nizmi, 'The NaqshbandiyyahOrder' in SeryedHossei! Nasr
(ed.),Iddn; Spinruliry Mdni/sr4ri'ro,p. 164.
1l Hmid Algar, Silmt dd vdal dninr i. the Naqshbandi order' in
Albrt Dietrich (d.), Ahdn des ViI KongrsA /tr Arabistih nLl
91
 SOFi RITU L \IAPPINci THE S,{CRED2
klanuismchaft, Gittingen, 15. bi 22. Atgut 1974, (c6ttingn M!'dndb al MdLfitat aLShmJa al Mdisnfl bi "l Dwu alMahn tat
Vedenhoeck & Ruprecht,1976),P 43. ai Ndtnd, (M6ca, 1316/1898 99).
14 Triminghm, The Srf Odas in Islan, D. 62 33 Friedll1lm, S;hind, p XIII; IMyannbh, dt. 'Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi',
15 H. Alga, &t'Nakshbdd', Ei'z, Vot.7,;.9J4. p 297;E ale Albert Horlm| 'Shailh Klulid ad the NaqshbandiClrda'
16 ldem, The Naqshbadi Order: A pret;minary Suruey of irs Historl. in S.NI Stm, Albert Hrumi & Viviu Brm (eds.),IsL' i Phib'opb
and Signilicoce , Srudu Islzni@, Vol. XLIV (1976),p 1j4. Sceidm. d,n thz OAidl Tratritin, (Odord: Buo Caid, 1972),p 93.
at. 'Nallhband', p. 931. 34 See Friedmam, Si'lindt, p. XIIII Inayatullah, art. Shaykh Ahnad
17 Algd, 'Silented ve.l dht&r',p. 43. S;hindi , p. 297. Se also Aziz Ahmad, Sndies in lslanic Culture in
18 ldm, an. 'NaksLbdd, p. 933- th. Itulidn Entinnqt, loxford: Cldddon Press, 1969), p. 182.
19 ldm, 'Silentod vod dhiir', p 43. 35 C. Colin Davies,an. 'Albd', Er', Vol. I, p.317.
20 Ibid. 36 lbid.
21 Nizdi, 'Naqshbddiyyah Ordei, p. 164. 37 Ibid. SzealsoNizei, 'NaqshbandilryahOrder', pp. 178 r79.
22 Ibid. Algd sives the nme of the village o Qor i Hinduvsn (.The 38 F;edlrrlm, Si'lindi, p' XIIL
NaqshbandiOrder', p 13,1).It wa renhed e6r; .Arifen in hE 39 Ibid.; Nizdi, 'Naqshbadiyyal O.der', p. 177; Ieyatullah, an.
honour (SEeAlgd art 'Naklbbdd , P' 933). 'ShaykhAhmad Sirhind,', p. 2e7.
23 Aige, 'The Naqshbddr Order', P. 136. For turther detaits dd 40 F.iedmaM, Sirhi'd,, p. XII; Inayatullah, dt. 'Shaykh Ahnad
anecdotes ofBaha' al-Din's life, se Alga, AB.ie{History,, pP 9 11 Sirhindi', p. 297.
See also j&m, dt. 'Nakgbbdd', p 934, ad al Ral,ma b. 41 lbid.
Ahnad Jmi, Ndflhat dl U6, ed. Ma]di Tawbdrpnr, ^bd (The.m: 42 F;ednad, Sirnr:nli, P' XIll.
Kitebfdnshi Sa'di, 19s7),pp. 384.389. (J.mi tived betwm 141.1 43 lt'id.; s also tnayatuliah, art. 'Shayh AJrmad Sirhindi, P. 297.
1492 md was thus bom just ovd t*o deod6 a1ler Khwdja B.nr, 44 Ntdi, NaqshbandilaahOider', p. 179.
al-Drn Naqshbmd'sdath). 45 Fridman, .Si'Iindi, p XIV
24 Niz4i, 'Naqshbodilyal1 Order', p. 164 46 lbid
25 Algd, 'The Naqshbddi Oder', pp. 136 137; @ idem, &t. .17 Ibid.
'Naksbband',p. 933. 48 Se Nizmi, Naqshbadi)yah Order', p. 179; Inayatullah, an.
26 ldem, an. 'Nake[bmd', p 933. 'Shaylh Ahmad Sirhindi', p. 297.
27 See,for exmple, Nizmi, 'Naqshbbdi],)'ah Ordei, pp' 168 fi. 49 lMyatullah, art. 'Shayh Almad Sirhindi', p 297.SeealsoJohm G.J
28 Nizani, l.'aqshbudilyah Order', p. 169 Ter Haa, The Naqshbmdi Tradition in the Eyes of Ahrud fthindi'
29 lbi d ., P 1 70. in Ga-borieau, Naqshbandr,pp. 83-93.
30 Janil ]vf Abun N6r, The Tijatiya: A 56 Or.td in rh. Modam 50 ScHmel, Mtstical Diamio6, p. 372. Se Rahimlddin Kemal and
WorA, Middte Eastan Monographs, 7, (bndon/N-ry york/Tor. Salih Keml, Shah waliullth' ; Seyyed Hossein Nasr od oliver
onto: Oxford Univdsity Prss,1965),p. 46, seeale p. {7 kM (eds.), Hirt't af klani. Pfiilosopb, Routledge History of
31 Njzmi, 'NaqshbDdiyyah Order', p. 169. Fo. nore on Khqja at World Philosophies,Volune 1, (2 Parts, kndon & New York:
Ahrar, se"Ali al Keshifi [cAl, Fallr al Dtn .AI- S.fi ibn Husaln al Roudedge,1996),Pan 1, pp.663 670
Wi'iz al-K6hifil, R(hdhat i.AJn dI HLrat tpcs;o tqtl, ed .All- i1 Schimnel, Mrsti.dl p 372.
Asghd ltr-rniya4 (2 vols.. Teheran: Buyad-i Nekuk.ri yi Nuoi, 52 lbid., p. 373. 'imennoru,
19i7). 53 Nizmi, 'NaqshbandiryahOrder', p. 184.
32 Yohmd Friednon, Shathh Ahnnl Snhind;: Aa Ottlire oJ IIs 54 Aziz Ahma4 A' Inieu?.ttuI llisror^ oJ lslan in India, lslmic Surveys
Thouetu ann d.Srud, of Hn IMs" ia the Eles o/ posrenrJ,,\tccil 7, (&linbursh: E{Inbdgh University Press,1969),p. 8.
Isloic Studies No 2, (Monrreat & London: \{ccill eueD s ii lbid ; *e also Nizmi, 'Naqshbadilyah Ordd', p. 184 md Marc
Udrrsiry Pre$. lqili. speale Sh ttuyatuttafi dr shaykh Ahmdd Gabo.idu, A Nineteenth Cntury Indid "Wahhabi' Tract Against
s 'rh i n d i . E I ' \ ol I pp 2 0 , /q r o n e o t rh e m d n $ u .6
tor h; the Cdt of Muslim Saints: Al Bdldsh al Mfiin i\ ChristiaD W Tioll
thought is his lettds, colle.ted undr the rirt Mdhfibari Innm.i (ed.), Mldr'n Siri'ss in Indtu: Thei Chatucter, Httor! and
Rabbant,ed Nn. Ahmad, (3 vols.,Karachi:&iuational p.$, 1972): Si:niluarce, klam in India: Stldies aDd Conmntaries IV (Delhi:
they we. kdslared into Anbjc by l,Iuhmad \,fu.ed .t \{aMesi, Oxford Un;versity Press,1989),p. 20'l
92 93
 S[ . Pi RI TUAL N1APPINGTHE S/\CRED2
s6 Gabdeau, 'N;etemrh Cdrury lndim ..Wa}lhabi Tract,, p 20,1. 80 Alge, art. 'Nakshbmdilya', p. 936. Se al6o ferif ]r,fddin, 'lhe
57 For a brif survey of rhjs ed Sheh Wali AI.I,S othr w.i;nes, see Nakeibendi Orda in Turlish History' in Richard Tapper (ed.), Istan
AhmaA. Intelb.hal HLttqJ, pp.69 70. in Moadn TurheJ: Re(stm, Palitics and Lite'atwe in n S.dtdr Srate.
58 Ahmad, Inreliecrul fisro,a D 70. (rindon & New York Taur;s, 1991)p. 129;dd David \rl Dd.el,
' o S e C a b onau. _Ninaem r h C n ru ^ In d i d " U d h l u b , T m cr' .p.,,0.1 'The Sprad of Naqshbmdi Polihcal Thought in rhe Islmic World
60 Nizdi,'NdqlhbddLrryah Order, p. 18.1. ; Gaborieau, Ndqslbard's, p 269.
ot Seihi,l 8l Triminehdm. Th? suf (rdat" n Lldn, p a5
62 Chdles J. Adds, 'The Naqshbudrs of India md the patista 82 DJfuel, 'Sprd of Naqshbodi Politi.al Thought , p. 269.
Movehent' in Caborieau, rvdqsnian/r. p 223. 83 lin d A'ta Tradidonal Suli OrdeB on the Periphery. Kadiri and
'N-ryl31th catury rndia.,wahlDbj Tmd., pp 204 205. Nak$bendi Istm iD Konya a.d Trabzon, in TapFr (ed.), rddn in
9] ljabo:eT,
6/ H d m,d Aed. ?olit iul As p e r, u t N d q s h b n d , H ;l o ry n C dbo, Modzn Tuthey, p 223, *e also p. 224. 5e also Thierry Zrcone,
\aqrh6andA,pp IIJ I t4 'Rmaques su le R6le S6io Politique t la Filiarion Historique des
'eau. s ha*] r K ha h d . p p d q i 0 J . b p p q 4 . F or more on
"' lf\4awl;nr
f-.-' 5.Jl N4ljbendi dds la Turquie Contemporaine' in caborieau,
\halid. *e Hrm Sha6qi A,bd@; md S H. A'M. Ndernbandn, pp. 407 ,120.Fo! mother study of modern Naqshbandts
\4aulav Khdhd Naq(frbdndi4 pdttu ot SqLn Mautad Khali) in Tukey, se Emin Yar& Dem;ci, Moderni:arion, Retigion anA
\a4-iibdndi drd Htr S&rsoq. pers,a re* by H.S .Arbami *rrh PoIiIi.s in Twkej: The Cdse ol rhe Ish.ndeeata Connhitr,
t nsl i ,h i .' ion I nhoduc ri o na n d N o r6 b ! s H . Am,n . E d,nbursh Unpublished PhD Thesis, Dept. of covermdt, Univcsity of
Ro yro n P ubl, her , . ls o. , . e \p p p . ' ro . 1 0 0{ L n C tr" hre x rl. Itdchater. 1996.
6i:, \izdhi \aqshbodi\1ah Order'. p lbt. Se ajso Burtus Abu 8{ Algd. A Brid History', p. 19.
Muneh. 'The \dqshbddryyd VuJdddidryyain rhe chtotu Ldds 85 Nihi, art. Naklbbddiyya: 3. In India', EI'/, Vol. 7, p. 939.
I n rh e Fd' lr I s r h. m r u^ D p U e tr d " s /rtd % . Vo t. \\j t (l a8.l . 86 S@ A]]md, Sti&iia iz Isldnic Cllrtre, p ra4 se also SchilrmI,
published 198a),pp 13 1,+ Mrsd@l Dia4io6, pp. 363 364.
67 Hourai, 'Shailh Khalid, pp. 94 96 Se ato Nizami .Naqshban, 87 li* K.A. Niz@i, Naqshbmdi Inffuence on Mughal Rulas and
dtlrah O!der'. p 187. Politics',lslaair Cziture,Vol. 39 (196s),pp. 41 53. Fo. mo.e on the
b8 S@ Adams, Naqshbdndrs of tndra, p. 221. NaqshbadiD,a;n Iodia, s@ S.A.A. Rizvi, 'Sixteenth Centurv
o ! Ho u rd i S la; lh K hdlid . p p o b q o N rz h r. N a q s hbmdi E ,n Naqshbrdrwa I eadoship 'n lnd.a in Crbofleal Adq"hb,ndr.
pP' 153 16sj Simon Digby, 'The Naqshbmdis in the Deccm in the
70 Hourai, 'Shaith Khatid, pp 99 j00. Se also Hatkau Halim Late Seventeenth and Early Eightenth Cnrury AD.: Bebi
'Mawlene Khalid et les pouvoirs'in Gaborieau. Palugposh, Bibi lvlusifir and Their Adherents' in ibid..
t{dqsl6andi!
pp.361 370. The latta represnts a summdy of pan of th; pp. 167 207; Yohem F.iedItm,
author,s 'The Naqshban&'s ald Awranq
d@toral thesis . titled Cnha,i des Naashbandn tu Kwd;star a, zeb:A Raonride.at on ,n ,b,d . pp lOa ,, 'O:ahcrle. J Adds Tt"e
XIx" sie.L, (Sorbonn Pdis lV, 1983). Naqshba.dis of India and the Pakisth Movement' in ibid..
71 Hourani, ShaikhKhalid, pp. 100 tot. pp- 22r 229j md Fath Mohmmad Malik, 'Naqshbandiyya and
72 I bid ., p 1 0 1. Idmlogy of lvluslin Nationalish' in ibid., pp. 231 23s.
73 Algd, A llrief History , p. 19. 88 For refeoces. see Ia Ri.hdd Netton, Text aan hatnL An Eut
74 I bid .,p . 1 6 . W"st PflM, (Richnond: Curzon Press,1996),p. 110 n. 171.
;5 Ibid i seealso Algar, dr. 'Nalsbbad , o 93a. 89 S@ Abs'Nasr, Tl ?idairrya, pp. 58 s9.
70 N, /@r- N dq" hbdd' r . y d } u rd .r' . p 1 8 ,. s e a l e A l ed. rn 90 SeeAlgd, A Brief History', esp. pp. 28 ff
'N;q:hbdd,rah. p 228 dnd Otivd Roy Lp N4+hbz';i}]a 91 SeeNizMi, 'NaqshbmdiyyahOrde!', pp. 18.1 184.
m
\fqhd fld ;n Cdboledu, Naq.hbandr,pp. rq, r,,r 92 SeMeiin vd Rruinesd, 'The NaqshbandiOrder in 17th-Century
:7 {lea. Pre"enr\!are of Ndq.hbandisrud;". p 18. Kudista in Gaboneau, Naqshbdnlis, pp 337 359; Hakim, 'Maw
7 E I bid ,P5 0 . l6nt Khalid et16 Pouvoire'inibid., pp.361 3?0;JoyceBlau, 'Le R6le
79 Alga, dt. 'Nakqhbandiyya', p. 936; se ale Tayfm Aray, \raqshbadi d6 Cheikhs Naqshbddi des le Mouvehmt National Kurde' in
S,/L ia d l.y^rpft Sarring.I npubtFhpd phI|I heri., Lnivenitr or ibid., pp. 371 377; Robert W Olen, 'The Internatio.al Conse,
Lond n n/S . ) A S , lqo. . pp. ro .j J . quen es of th SheikSait Rebellion'in ibid., pp. 379-406.
94 95
 S.Fi RITUAL \ 'I A ? P I N C T H ! SAC R ED :
93 $- Frede-rickde Jong, 'The Naqshbodiyya n Eg]"t md Sy.ia
100 Willid Cl.Chitdck, dt Sufism:$iti Thousht and P.actice'inJohn
Aspets of its History and Obwations Concerning its presnt-bav L. Esx$|ro, The Oxfod. ErctcLoped.iaoJ the Modlm lsbni Wul,l,
Condir,on Gdbontuu Nd4rhhdndts. DD \8q bol. Vol. 4, p. 108.
r)r +e \i, oh Credin. 'n A p,oposdesAei;r? de h Naqshbmd,)yad.a . 101 Daphe Habibis, Mahdisn in a Brdch of a Contemporary
lr Fodemenrs de la Kharn'y]'' du $udd r.rrie;ui straiesid d. p. 605;
Naqshbadr Order in kbdon' in Gaborieau,Naqsftbdndn,
Pouv& et R.iation Mairre/Disciple in cabo.i6u. NdasrrLnd6
se atso Habibis, Cmpurdtiv Stutlt, p. 2.
Pp b 2 l or r 102 Habibis, 'Mahdism , pp. 605 608. Sealso Ata]. NaqshbanrliSr,fisia
95 Se Atexodre Bemigsn & Chatai lamercid-euetquejay, ,Braves
a Wdrt"n Serting, pp. 199 200.
ReI]Eque su la Naqshbandiyra en Un;on iiovi6tique in dalo,iear.
103 Habibis, 'Mahdis, p. 611.
Nagsl$odn, pp 441 446t ed Heid Alge, .SLykn ZaFu ah 104 lbid., p 619, Salso ide , C@rya'dtile StuA!,p. 41r.
TF L6t c.eat Naqshbedi Shath of the Vorsa Urals 105 Madelain Habib, 'SomNotes on th NaqshbandiOrdei, Muiin
F":b:,.
Region' in Jo-Am crcss, Mulitu ir L>nttdl As@: Ea"^6 .J. W @ l d,V ol .59 (1969),pp.41 42.
Idatitt and Chanse, (Durham & London: Duke Univ*itv p.6s 106 Johd G.J. td Hd, The Importdce of th Spi.itual Guid in the
loq 2 ),p p 112 lJ
Naqshbddr Ordd' ir Lewisohn \ed.), The l*euy of Me,tidaal
96 For a geDdal orientado! for Islam in this dea, *e H.T. Nor.is.
Psian S/Eq, p.311.
t.Laa n th. Bdlha\ R?tqion d sdpty bctupa En@e dnd tht 107 Seeibid., p 318.
A u b Wor ld. { . H u r\r, S eJ s D z m ; t C ehdi r
' Lod" n
'\o. io Polri, al {'De, r" o, rhe \dq,hband, 108 lbid , pp 318 319. Se also Habibis, Conpdrdtite StwJ!,pp. 241,
' o s 4 j . DeruishOrder in Bcnir 340.
od .H e ,a qo! , qd dd luq o < ta v rai l e n e ra l t) rn C a b o rro u, N a4{ r
loe Nazin al Qlbtusi [Mev]m Sheikh Nuim Adil El-Quhus; En
bd'rda.pp 66J 668.JdsndSnic. ta Ndqshbandide Bosn,e(tlus
Naqshbandil,M.r9 Oceaa, Booi Too, (Konva:Sebat,1980),p. 20.
l'a 'tru l 'a, em pnt. eur de \ r,o to r e r L c u r, R e trt,o n srv ( d,A ur.e-
110 l bi d., p. 82.
Ordres Sods in ibid., pp. 669 679; Hdid Algd, .Sohe Nores on
111 Naim al-Qubrusi, Mercy Oceare' Hiddet TrcuurA, (Konya: Sebat,
the Naqshbandi Tarrqat in Bostia . Studiesia (hnpantiv Relein, 1981),P t 1, pp.83 84.
vol- a pp os qo . A p o p u t( & c r,;;.re n 112 Se Q 18:60 82: see also Ian Richdd Netton, 'Theophuy s
.l q; r r . t" ast]r" .
ufdtc\ M\"tqLps ddB I I:Iaa chmt'mcnrf ?r s,h4tro, A(r/.ih. Paadox: Ibn al'Arabi's Acount of al-Khadir in his Fru al
r.lls'o^ and rhe rFdl S.ienLes. . rpd;s Edirionq d.
:r:udr:. 1n Hihan ,ltundl oJ the Muhl,iddif,Ib4 A'd6t so.iety,\bl XI (1992),
t L to te d e s haut c s t r ude s e n s .rp n c e ,Sq ,a l e s .l a E5 \. p p 77 ;0.
Darro Tanaskovi., 'La siruation Adu.Ie de forde d; Naqsh 113 Naim al-Qubrusi, Ma.r OaM's Hinnd Trdlres, p. 84, sealso
bodis au Kosvo et en Macedoine in cabori@u. Naasrrbdndi, p lJ{r
pp,681-^691;H Poukon & S. Taji Farcuki
{eds.), Mslim l.tenft, 114 SeeHomi, 'Shaiur Khalid , pp. 90 91. SeealsoTrininghan, 7lE
6nd the Balbnn States, Institure of L{ustim Mino.ity Affa;s, Booi
Stf (r,lds i^ Islan, pp.92 96.
liries Vol. 6, (London: C. Hu6r, i997).
11s Alge, 'B.ief History of the Naqshbadi Order' in Gaborieau,
97 See Fcngois Aubin, 'En Idm Chinois:
euels Naqshbadis?, in Nagslbandn,p s. se also p. 4.
Gaboriqu, N'aqs&bdid6, pp. 4gr s?2 od Raphcl I$aeli, .The
116 Seeart Al-$iddiq' in Netton, Pop!/dr,idiondry oJlsbn, p.233.
Naqshbadiyla md Factionalism in Ch;es tsld in cabo.iau. 117 S Q 12,46.
Nraqsl6andn,pp. 575 s87.
118 S eeQ, 19.s6.
98 See Werne. KJaus, 'Sone Notes on the tnt.oduction of
the 119 Ahmd Snhindi,Ma&nba., (Am.jtsa, n.d.,r+r. Kdachi 1392/1972,
Naqshbadiea Knalidiyya into lDdonsia' in Galorieu, Ndqsn6an
,?dre[ar Vol. 1, P' 109, citd and trans. by Algd, 'Brief History of the
d6, pp. 69!706;.ed Deays I,mbrd. et Entrep;se a Naqshbadl Order' in Gaborieau, Naqsnbandt, p. 1 esp. n. 6. For
Dumatra: L Exenple de Syeb AMd Wanab Rot"n (c. 1s30 1926),
more on the Naqshbodr rilstld, s@ S. Moinul Haq, 'Ris of the
in Gabd@u, Na$hldnds, pp 707 i16.
oq seeA!d). Naqshbadi ad Qadiri Silsild i! the Subconiinent', lowndl af rhe
^Jd9rh!,rdrSuIs rr a We,ron Sernng.I K B. Dmpa, A c& Pd&irdn llisto*d/ Sd.ry, Vol. 25 (1977),pp. 1 33, esp p. 3; Algd,
,J , ord?, ia Bntan. L npubtished MA ThesF &.. 'N*shbad , p. 933r Nizoi, 'Naqshbmdiyyah Order', sp.
I/" !q
DQ,rtmenr of Th"olo$. Utuvosir\ ot Birlmqham. l,)S5: Habibr, pp. 162 168; Atay, NaqshbardiS!,l[.!in d W?si.n Setting,p. 315i
Loq p a ,4 h r p|r nd\ . \ um i ' N d q ,h b a n d i w a hO rd e r, p . t8 8 Habibis, C6rutatire Studu p. 236.

97
 SO FI RTTUAL MAPPINC THE SACRED 2
(.oryu,an,?
Hrbrbi,. s.dr, pp.241,4oi.
]il
lz, }e lor.:aTeter
E rrn K,ched Nehon. .The Brarh of Feticiiv
147 Triminghm, The Slf &d.ts ;n ISIM, p. 2a3.
Adab. Ahual 148 Nizmi, 'Naqshbddi'.)'ah Order', p 166; se also Trimingham, ?tp
Mlqa@r-dd Ab,rNajibal_s,r,,"*_ai
(-L&ial P6un Su/inj j,@ irsOn&a ;" r-"_i r.*;".r,- t"a ,. Snf Ordas in Isldtu, p. 203.
,oRm,.pp.o;z ,S/. t1i, I 49 See al Runi, Rirnid f Sundn.
,jl:_i1:l:,,.-*oT,"d.h JT tut4d Nenon.strr K@/pdsp 150 Triminghu, T[. Slf (hdzrs it Islan, p. 203.
t noLEntud.rtltct..i! Lh, H@ ot tskh. rRnhmond.Cuzin 1st Niami, Naqshbodiyaah Order', p. 166.
hdbba, c-mpdrzriv sid)l p. .,6q.Trminshd. 1s2 T;minghd, The Stf. O ds in lslan, p. 203.
i:l"llt.*j f* tn tstam,
t ne iu/t urde6 D t76, 153 Se! al-Rl]mi, Rira/at S"ndn.
l12 sae8. \bu.Mbne}l Kidl@a Md Ralik,n
lhe Khjrd Suboder.rn 154 Triminghm. TA. Slf Ord.ersin Islam, p. 203.
uaeh@u, pp 290_291
^aqshbaid6, 155 Nizdi, 'Naqshbdd;r1,ahOrdd, p. 167.
lzl S* i b 'd . m d A jqa, ,d N " j ,t* ,a ,, o v .H 1s6 lbid.
124 s(Nmmel Mrrr,Ldl D'?rmrdrc o., tsidn. p. loo.
1s7 Seal Rnhi, R6aldfi Su,a4
rz) ne flabrbr3, LompdratD?Srrd! D t00
158 Triminghm, 'rhe Sul Oilzr in Islo , p. 203.
126 SeeAbu,Mameh Khatu itabik, p 2sl 1s9 Nizmi, 'Naqshbadilyah Order', p. 167.
j ,.1 :"T v"9:". ^d
vd.t oedE. Boohruo. pp. 87 88
i ,The 160 SeeTrininghd, Thz Suf Oidds in Islan, p. 203
jf x:- thporheof *e sp;,uJi;uide..p. Jr5. 161 Seeal Rnmi, Rfalzt S!un.
ubper, 1_
La. Sfud]
'zr 162 Triminghd, The Suf Odas in lsld , p. 203.
130 lbid., p. 63.
163 Nimi, 'NaqshbmdiyyahO.der', p. 167.
131 (My italics)RB p.266.
164 Triminghd, The Suf Gads h lslan, p. 203 sp. n. 2.
132 (My italics) RB p. 262.
165 Seal-Rnmi, R6alatt S!en.
lll Se. exnple. Draper. L@ Srrlr. p. bJ. Compde
.tor Ata). 166 Trim;nghm, The Suf. (>dqs in Isb^, p. 203
NdqJbdnd' Su,L q a tve.pq S"ding,
_.. _ w /a aj 167 Nizd;, 'NaqshbandlryahOrder', p. 16?.
t or e\ s ple R n p p 2 b a ),-1 , 4 5 2n . 168 Trimingh@, The Srf (rda6 in lsldn, p. 203.
rr5 ,1tg&, et. 'Nats,hband.o.9la
'ro \ee ibid.- se Js Tar dl.Din ibn 169 Seal Rnni, Risa/dfi Su'utr.
Mafid, Zmm at-Rumr-.Rilaia /i 170 T.iminghm, fte Saf Ctldm in /iizn, p. 203; Nizmi, 'Naqshbd
rt@q at_t.attu ot N4g:hbLntrwa.Cmbrrdse.
Add. Nts. lo/J. il d;],.1'ahordd , p. 167.
m grdrerutto Urmbndge Unrvdnry L,brarv tor
supplvi"e me *r* 171 Trihingh@, The Stf (rders in Isldn, v 203.
, p ,l : A Ie d , .p o ti u .a l Aspeds or
a mr(rchr m o, t hr s m a n u sri
172 For the theme of contemplative prayer, compare Pegg.r'Wilkinsn,
NaqshbandiH6rorv . D l2J.
Findins rhe MJsric W;rhir yo!, (Hauppauge, NY Living Flme
'u Alcd Pol,riul_.A"p",is of Naq.hbodr Hisrory. p. t24 Pr6s, 1988).Conpare al$ Roy Cmpbdl (trans.),poe6 oJSt.lahn
I J6 | rrmnglum. Thc Sufi Ud"r a ktan,
D tuJ ottu aross,(claseow: Coll;ns,Fomt Paperbacks,1983)
1re Alq&. a'r 'Nalshband. D 9J4.
173 S@al Rumi, Rfaldf Slen
Iao N i za m. N. qs hbndiy v a hO.d " ,. o rn r
174 TriminghaD, The Slf &ders it klan, p. 2041seealso Nizmi,
l*; Th. tmporrdeof rhesprrirudl cuide..Fl .rI|. 'Naqshbandiryah Onter', p. 167.
l1!/ i l".
rn rhe ltslmg od brid desdiptron\ wlu.h
touow. aE welt a. rhe 175 Seal Rnhi, Rnald t S/tun
(qms, I.rctv hedJ\ on. cj RLm
RnrI4 Jr Stun 176 T;minghm, The Suf. OtAe6 m Isidn, p. 203 204; Nizami,
'bpdqlDdtedr:i f "tughrr-. nw Snn Gdas n tst n.W iOJ-2Oa 'Naqshbmdilyah Order', P' 167.
Ndqlhbad, r aa hOrd e ,. p p tb b .to ;: D d l " i H* , 177 Se al Rnmi, Rirnlaf Sdan.
^u d m. fm
/hpond(e ol rhe bpiriruaj Cuide . p it I Sce dj$ Anbdtur
& 1,-8 T.ihingh@, The Stf Otdas in Isldn, p. 204.
Ami,n.Mouku Khahd \larshban4i.pp. s2 9J {Engl,sb
,,, rexlr. 179 Nizmi, 'Naqshbadiyyan Order', p. 167.
,r J I ro i ro * her t , , lM s hd s rh n d i t@ d o n s .
d i e h rtva d a rned
i n a few 180 Trimingham, The Stf. Ord.B;t lslam.p. 204 n. L
lE1 td H@, The Impo.td@ of th Spiritualcuide , p. 311; sealso
la! TriDnghM, Th" Sui Od"E n l:kn.
D. 2uJ. Trimingham, Th. 36 Ordas in Islan, p. 203; tuhilmel, Mrsrtcat
1 1 5 Ni zn i , 'Naqs hbhdi' . y a hOrd 6 . D r6 h
Dimnu, p 364; Alga art. Nak!,hbod , p. 934; idem, potitical
146 Seal-Rnm- Rtrald /i Sud,
Aspcts of Naqshbm& Hisrory'. p. 123.
98
 SOFi RITLTAL \'APPINC IHE S,\LI{I! I
182 Na,zimal Qubrusi, Md.} O@dB, BoohTuo, p .t90.
209 lbid., p. 48.
183 S.hirnoel, Mrs*dt Ditu6ia$. n.1j2.
210 Ibi d
18.{ Habib, SomeNotes', p. .{2.
21I Ira Friedlmder, ?ie Whirlins Dn,isfres, (London: W;ldwood Hous,
18s Algd, an Nalq[bmd', p 933.
1975),p 87.
186 Idem, 'Th Naqshbardr Ordd, A preliminary Sutuey of;ts
Histo.\ 212 Hab;b;s, Cmpatutive Studtx p. 250.
and Sigd6cee', p 129.
213 Seabovp. 10.
187 Al Rnmi, Rnab tr S!tutr cited dd trdslared ;a Trihingbm,
11, 214 Trimngham, The Suf Odss in Islan, p. 211.
:j6 Ordc$ ;n Isla , v 202; e ats Habib, Some Not6;, p. 4.1
. .- 21s Ibid., p. 308.
188 TrimiDshan, Th. Suf Odas in Istan. o. 26b.
216 [b;d.,P 211.
l8q cch l h m el. M ndt t ' tu p ^ s i o a . p { b r.:
BenDqqen Lps rdngdr en A{e Ldhdlp in "popouc e e a ts o A terandl 217 l bi d., P 212.
& Ve,tur" 1 218 l bi d., pp. 211 212.
(eds.), L.J Onlr"s Mlsra@s, p. 3j
219 Muhmad b. 'Ali al Smnsr, al-SalsabilaL,Ma'infi "l Tata"iqdI
190 ter Har, 'The Naqshbandi TBditlon D rhe Eyes of Ahmari
Arba'u [Or the mgin of th sde author's al-Masa'ii al-'4slar (or
Sirhindi , p 81; se at$ Joseph Ftetcher, .Les ,voij
Gs,us) eune. Blsbat al Mdqaai'lfl Khdlasdtdl Mdrasi4l, (Cairo, 1353/1935)
o r-h;re h Popo\r & \e,nsrein,eds.r.ta urdra M;$,?;,, p .
cited od trmslated by Triminghd, The Sd Odets in klm,
n o v/,nr r ph ( n ps d d c s v n l h e s D ,b rd . p . .,q r,
_- P P .212 213,29i
191 Atgar, Silentand Vo.2l dit&r', p 43.
220 t6 Hd. 'The ImrDnoc ofth SpiritualGuide, p 320.
" l l ".'. A B r r eJ Hr . r o n . p . r: .e a ts o Sc h i h met, Mr.rr" i
221 lbid., w 32w321.
Di.wa..ia... p tis dnd J Fter,hcr. The \jaq\hbmrD rd rt .
222 lbid., p izr.
, - Dh i l d :air u' . / o, , r al of l x ,l a A s tu d i a . ,l 9 ;;r. p p . Il l l l 9 223 Ibid
r q, 5 e N g d r . s r t enrdnJ V d a i d } i l f. D D { 4 a u .
221 S* Michel Chodkiewicz, 'Quelques Aspects des Techniques
I9'1 Ibid., p. ,16.
Sdr;tuelles dos la Tadqa Naqshbddiyya ln Gaborieau, Ndqsn
195 Algd, A Brief Hjstoly , p. 42. SeealsoHabibis Cmpatuh1e
, Srud,-. band;, esp.pp. 76 77r seealso Abu'Mameh, 'Kldlod dd Rab,tu',
p. 248.
pp. 289 102. For a vide raneinsdiscussionof all aspecisof rabrid,
lab Rpsula trJr.lhddr eu,esh,. su6 y^\ oJ tarlia and pobi,,ttn
\da,i. c@,^r and \teanry rr se Fritz Meier, Zue; Abh^dlugd nber die Naqibandit\a 1. Die
eaDMlr. Uhbndse Srudih In Herzmbind.vg M den Me;ster 2. Krdftlht und F@strecht d.s
L 'Fn o m u.r ologv Ldbd d q e e d h rd p e L n j v e rs j t precs.l qs,
Heil,sm, Birute. Texte und Studien, Bmd 5E, (Istanbul, In
repr. 1988),p. XIII.
Komisson bi F.nz Stiner Verlag, Stuttgdt, 1994).
197 tbid.
224 WehJ, Di.rio@! oI Mod2m Wittd Ara\c, p. 504 sv $i6d.
198 tbid.
226 S.himel, Mtsti.al Di']mioa, p. 366
199 Ib i d .,p .82.
227 Alg&, a.t. 'Nakshband, p 934.
200 Ibid.
228 Abu'lr'faneh, 'rcrdiDd dd R.i6iid', pp 290 291.
'01 s.ii]lmrl Mt{lr"!l Dr'lm,ra. p tsi: *. rl.o K..\ Niam. d
229 S@ aboven. 65.
/ . L \ nl 2. p i : D rd p e r.C a p s h d l p . o .
- ^ ^L rl h l l l yS,f
d M6r. p 82 230 Abu Mdneh, 'Khdlad &a Rabna',pp. 291 292.
202 Qureshr 231 Algd, dt. 'Naqshbhdiyah', p. 228
203 Algd, &t. 'N*$band , p. 934; *e ale Schimel, Mlrnal
232 Se abover. 127.
?,* ':':* o ld0. D, " F ,. L i r p S,u d , p p h . 1 2 ,., rJ5 r ro :133Nizoi, Naqshbandi)yahOrder', p. 166.
Ad4.tbdnh Sr/b rn d tti,.km Seft,,g, p. 150
_- ^rdv_ 23,1lbid., p. 167.
20.1 ter_ He, 'The Naqshbandr Tradidon ; the Ey6 of Albad
235 Hmid Alga, 'Sone Notes on the NaqshbandiTariqat in Bosnia,
S;hindi', p. 8;.
p.81.
l u . ! h i rme l . V ! . r i. r l DinP l Mtu . p l d r. w J s o I.i mi n g hM.
Ti . 236 tbid., p. 86.
r!, ur're^ In /ddn. p 202 n 5
237 lbid.
206 Habib, 'Sone ,\..otes',p 46 n. 32.
218 S Atay NaqsAbandi Sz,4sin a ll/6rdn Setiing,pp. 158 159.
2 07 I bi d , p p. 46 + 9.
239 The NaqshhandiyJaArrdd, (Kenya, Nairobi, n.d.) lleaietlj see also
208 lb;d., esp.p 48.
Atay, N'dqsita'di .Su[s ia a West*n Sttina, p. 316, Appendix 3
100 101
 S UFI RLTU^L
which rQroduces 'the ard printed dd circulated for the ne*
membersof the tEnqlsht ommurrv
rr0 REnold {. \i;"t;n. ir Mr:tus ol ktan rlondon & Bosl-l
xoLrledqe& R.gM paul. Ia/.) papobackedn.j. p {h
-
zal
_4r
5e 1ra\. \dqs/ibdndrSunr ,n d typrkm Saftha. p. t5q Unveilingthe Sacred1
'Mv lralr(l beeJbo H^bib6 Conpdtdtfl? Stuty.p. 24s.
24.1\ee frihhshn. tre S,I oldA) ;n /rldn. pp ao. 2;5.
)4! UaJau.d AwoA at.Tanga dt Bwhaai.r\dit n",aqino ot Shndt,
The Five Arhin
I'wa. 'Lrro: lpiided ar rh. expen* ofl dl Harj yuquf Anhad
Jmal
n.d.. 7th printiDsl.
141 l b ,d .. p p S O r g. * t S n B,h j rd . R rh ta r/b r B d rtu rz (B . i rut.D dr
\5 d 'r l ao4, . pp lo . 2; , b b s ta r d In H A R . U i b b ,e d . &
ttu\ .
I hp t ta1elsot Ik BattutaA D t J 2r tJi.r, rcambddC.. pubtished
4,1 Theology
for the Haklu',r Societyar the U.iveAity prs, te.S;, Vot. t.
pp. 25-27.
2+6 Mqnn:a Au@J. n. 123. In one of the most magisterial and, indeed, distinctive
2a, Sec Alqa, some Not6 on ,he Ndcshbodi Teiqr'. pp 8J 8.. introdu. trons to Islam published rn recenl (imes. Ih? Vaion
Lrrprdliy the ph'aqe lrdstat6 a lhe dt of o/Isiam, the authors, Sachilo Munta ard William C Chittick,
[!he payeo ot] rhe
l\l a l .'. S . e Hab, b. S o meN o r6 . p p .,1 5 4 0 C o mp re * ;th l he
retell the famous hadtth of Cabriel.t The hadith relates how the
more Ind,v'dudJno!ne1 DFd or proqmme d apprcnr;sge (l
)d,\. L6 \dqshb$di de tsoejr.ptu\ partiotreremor lfu d" angelGabrielcomesto Muhammadwhile he is'*rlh Um ibn
v ,to ko er I eur c Rpla r,o n sd v e , d \u tre s Ord re S ouhs ro al-Khattab and others, and questions the Prophet about lslam
Gaborieau, N'd$hbdid6, p. 67:]) and the mardn rh,i/ (Habib;s, (submission), faith and the doing of that which is beautiful The
t oaparat re Srldr,.po. 249. 4t7r angel is unrecognised by Muhammad's companions Durng the
,, a8 Ai e a . .rr m e Nd; s ; n t h e \a q .h b d n d , td ,q a r' . p p .8 J 8 4.
dialogue,Islam (submission)is defined by the Prophet in terms
249 Ib;d
250 Ibid. p. 84. of the 6ve arlzn. When Gabriel leaves,Muhammad asks'Umar
Sone Nors on rhe Naq,hbddr rdiqar'. p 84 n 4 if he krlo*s who the mysreryvisirorardquestronerwas'Umar
i:1
\r fi 1 "1 n. Sur{O,&,s o ftlan, DD t0. JOo dearly does not and he is then iold that it was Gabriel 'who
'rmrnqhah
2(1 AJed. tiome \da on rh, \a,r.hbandi idqdl . pp 8J 8j. came to you to teach you your religion (dinabr-rm)'/
254 Habib, 'SomNot6,. DD 45 44. The articulation of Islam. then, in terms of its f've arban has
2 r Word' urtryed by rhe *Ut of ro*1" tMutha* Etend,, medine
a Prophetic sanction and authority. And one of the fundamental
rcbre unjon ad indi, ine lbdr !,\p pan(rpMts shouJdin$ddt)
lessonsto be drawn from the whole hadith is that lslam 'is built
Jo rnl h e l qr ilhes D r hp h l d ra !o tu , s d a rr w s e . d ;ed them
lhroughh,m a d chffpi ro rhe hqvenly ,alm ,Algd. tiomeNole\ on (he five pilldrs which have ro be acted uPon $ ith iman dn-d
on lne \dq\hbdd, Tdiqdr'. p. 84. R dle n .rl ihsan. Denying any one of these pillars and not wishing to fulfil
-
2s6 Schihhel, M$ri.dt Di@io;. DD.133. )0z. any one ofrhem males rou a non Mu*lrm '
-q W VadeluDs. Relreu ofl l,rz !tie,. Z@i Abhaadtunadubd D.
From their retelling of the hadith of Gabriel, Murata and
Ndq.ban4itra.Jortut oJti" Rdal Asidrr S@ipt),Jrd s . Vol b pt.
1 (Apr;l 1996).D. 92. Chittick are concerned, intet alid, to reveal the ritual essn'rtol
258 TrimiDghm, The Sufi (hdets in Islan. o. 2ort Islam,and rhe whole of their book is indecd occupiedwith
2s9 Merct OceaE' I Iinnm Trwtes, pt. t . ;D. 7 i 20 explaining and explorrng rhe maniiold dimensrons of rhis
2 60 I b i d , p . 1 17. huar*r.1 it'".. is, however, another equally interesting hadith
261 lbid., p. 118 which also incorporates the five dTlan but which is motlvated
262 lbid., pp 118 119. Cohpre N{atthN 6:1 18, Luk 18:9-t4
nor so m'ch by a needfor theoloexalorrelaleddehnirion' but
to2 l 0l

a prasmatic desireto enter ParadiseaJ}davoid Hell hre. It is also
convenientlyrecordedby afNawawi,i like the hadith ofGabriel
which we havejust considered;like the latter it is multifacetted
in the interprctations which it car bear: these include the
phenomenological,the anthropologicaland the semiot;cas well
as the theologica.l.Here we will note and stressthe theology of
reward and punishment as well as the essentialdoctrine that
Islam is a relision of faith and deeds.
The hadith is related on the authority of \Iu'adh ibn Jabal
who asks the Prophet Muharnrnad what action he should
perform which will guarantee entry to Paradis and ensure that
he does not fall into Hell. The Prophet notes the magnitude of
what he has been asked but also acknowlaJgesthat Alleh can
smooth one'spath. He goeson to illustrate with rferenceto the
five azbin: none should be worshipped but Allah; the livefold
prayer should be performed and the statutory allr.s tax (zabhl
should be paid. In addition one should fast during the month of
Ramadtn and make the pilgrimage to \fecca. Three of these,
the Prophet says,comprise'the gatesofgoodness': the shield of
fasting, charity which puts out sin as \r'ater does a fire, aid
roctumal prayer. Quoting the Qur'an, the Propht rcites:
Their limbs do forsale
Th* bedsof sleep,the while
They call on their Lord,
In Fearand Hope:
And they spend(in charityl
Out of the sustenance uhich
U/e havebestondon thn
Now no Personknows
What delightsof the e)e
Are kept hidden(in reserve)
For thern as a rewud
For the'r (goodlDeeds.6
Continuins in the metaphorical vein *'hich he commencal with
his reference to 'the gates of goodness'. the Prophet )vluhammad
then asks Mu'adh whether he would like him to ide.ntifu 'the
peak ofthe matter,its pillar, and its topmost part (rd'sal anr oa
i 0.1
LN \l ILIn''C THE SACRED I
'amudihi ua dhirua sananriir).The 6nt is Islam, the secondis
prayer and the third is jiiad. The Prophet gos on ro lecturc
Mu'adh on the need for verbal self restraint: the sins of thc
tongxe play a huge role in toppling sinners into the fires of Hell
'I'he theological lessonsto be learned from this hadlth, in
terms of reward and punishment, are clea-r:the performalce of
the arknn leadsthe believerto Paradise;but the commissionof
sins by th tongue,unrepented,can put a man in Helt. And the
emphasison deedshere is particularly important, for Islam is
not a religion ofjuslification by faith alone in the tradition of
Reformation Protestantism.
Cornmentators have drawn a number of conclusions from
this hadith concerning the 4r[an. They include the beliefs:
.'that this Hadith contums that if one fulfitls the requirements
of rhe 6ve piliars of lslaam Isirl then he is guaranteed
Paradise.'7
. 'that all the hve pillars are compulsory for a \{uslim.'3
. 'that the duties pertaining to the five pillars have been
likened to a singJeact.''q
. 'that the five pillars constitute the indivisible whole which is
Islaam.'r0
. 'that this showsthat without any one ofthe pillars we do not
have th single act, i.e. Islaam. Therefore leaving any one of
them, or denying any one of them, is kufr ard bars us from
Paradise.'11
The hadith on which these remarks are a commentary will be
referredto at various points in what follows, not only becauseof
the theologicalimplications implicit and explicit in its text, but
also from the perspectives of phe.nomenology,anthropology and
semiotics.I will characterisethe hadlth in what foliows as the
Ha.dtth of Reuard and. Punishment.
Shaheda
Each rnhn has its theological leitmotili or leitmoiios. That of the
tust sectionof the ,Shaiadocan only be tduhid, the declaration
10 i
 SI J FIRI TUAL
of God's absolute Oneness- ln the Halrth of Rarard and
P"nishmpnt th injunction against polytheism (shirb) right at the
beginning only sewes to t'olstr this seminal statemnt of
lslamic theology. The oneness of God is stressed over and over
asain in the Qur'en, and the sin of shir& is condemnedas rhe
greatestsin which will not be forgiven.rr
Schimmel remarks about the Sfiahada:'The shahadain its
two parts is the foundation of Islam, and a Muslim is a person
who pronounces it and accepts the vdidiry of the rian"d as the
God given path to watk on.'r3 In this succinctphrase,Schimmel
goes right to the heart ofthe siahada and here neatly associats
it with the willingness to be bound by the holy law of Islarn.
The foundational role of the Sftalada in lslamic theology is
everylvhere acknowledged. For example, a modem Turlish
catechismstates:'Eve4body who saysthe ... blessedsentence
[i.e. the Shairada]with word of mouth and certifresit with his
heart, is called Nlu'min (Believer). A person who wants ro
embrace Islam and follow its teachings nay join the religion of
Islam by sayingthis blessedsentence. . . [which conrains]every
beliefthat is necessaryand imporrant and constitutls] the fusr
step of faith.''a A manual designed for Muslim students,
published by the lnternational Islamic Federation of Student
Organizations,stressesthe onenssof God early in the volume
with referenceto Q. 112:1 1:
Say:He is God,
The one ud oniy;
Clod,the Etenal, Absolutei
lle begettethnot,
Nor is He begotten;
And therels none
Like untoHim r5
The title siven to rhis sr'd, Srrdr dt-I[hlas, reflectsits general
orientation: 'This snm is sometimescalled The Sura of (inity
and is said to encapsulatethe essenceof the whole Qur.an.'r6
The referencein the student manual to Q, 112:1-4 occurs in its
first chapter entitled 'The Ideolosical Foundation of Islam,; the
articulation of the remaining four azlan takes place in the third
106
U N V E I I - I N GTH E SAC R ID 1
chapterwhich bearsthe title ''I'he Application ofFaith'.1; ln all,
the discussionof the spiritual and practical significanceof the
6ve ar&anoccupiesjust under a half of the manual.
Of course, the Shai.ala embraces two dogmas, tduhtd and
nubutnea;rrand so the need for, and importanceof, Messenger-
ship and Prophethood, and in particular that of the Founder
Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, must be accountedthe second
theological leitnotit, of this foundational pillar of Islam.
Elsewhere,the Qur'an stressesthe uniquenessof Muhamrnad
as the last or 'Seal of the Prophets' (Khaiam dl rYabilyin) r'v If
this is taken as a commentary upon, or adjunct to, the second
part of the Shahado,it would not be an exaggerationto say that
the Shaiada prodaims three 4pes of uniqueness: a unique
Deity, a unique Prophet and a unique Text. The 6lst, Allah, is
utterly incomparablein every senseas the Qurran stresses;20 the
second, the Prophet \lul.rammad, is utterly incomparable for
the Muslim in human terms,?rnot leastbecausehe is the vessel
or channelof the Qur'anic revelation;and the third, the tett of
the Qur'an, beins the last revelation of God to man, is
classically possessedof the sublime quality of iiaz (inimit-
ability) and, indeed, chaitenges its opponents to pmduce
something similar.r?
One scholar has observed that'the N{uslim confessionol
faith is sometimes described as essentially negaiive, just as
Islam itself is characterisedas essentiallypassive.'However, he
continues: 'Yet in Muhammad's day it was a positive and
dange.ousstep to reject the Meccan polytheistic tradition and
accept the validity of Muhammad's prophetic mission.'ri
Schimmel reminds us that 'the "mystical No" . . . is inclusive,
and that is expressed in the transformation of the sfidhada into
the words la n.'ujnao illa Allah, "there is nothing existent but
cod," who includes everlthing.'ra In these words Schimmel
here underlines the fact that the apophatic vocabulary of God
used in the Qur'"n is distinct ftom that of the Neoplatonit
tradition-bf Plotinus and others. For in the Qur'an, God's
transcendence,expressedthus in negative terms, is but thc
reverseof a coin which revealsHis immanencetoo:
107
 S'FI RITUAL
It was We who
Creatednm, md We know
What ddk susgestionshjs soul
Makes to him: for We
Ar nearerto him
Than (hig jugularvein.'?5
In later times the Shahada was sometimes elaborated slightly
but the few additions only sewed to emphasise the tundamental
dogmas of tauhid and prophethood which we have surveyed.
The following is an interesting example drawn from th
Mrraata' of Malik b. Anas (c. i16 795):
Greetiags,good words, prayers,pue actions belongto Allah. I
testify that there is no god ex@pt AIth, alone without partner
[wahdatu la sharrtu lohr ], a'd I testii' that Muhamad is the
slaveof Allah and Hls \,lessenge. Peae be upon you, Prophet,
andthe mercyofAllah md His btessiags. Peacebe upon us and
on the slavesof AI;n who areright acting. Percebe upon you.'z6
Tarahid is much more than the simple declaration of God's
oneness in the Sfiaftada.z; Its theological dimensions are ]ast-23
The same is true of lslam's doctrine of prophets and
messengers.2q Bound up with it all is Islam's doctrine that
man will ultinately return to God to be judged by Him. Murata
and Chittick have stressed that this concept of'Rturn' is at the
heart of lslamic dogma and ritual: one cannot truly understand
the wbole reality of tduJhid and prophecy if one ignores th
reality ofthe 'Return to God' and vice versa. As they succinctly
state: 'Tau;l.rtd, prophecy, and th Return are three faces of a
single message.No matter which of the tbree is investigated, the
other two have to be iiept in view'3o
Consciously or unconsciously, every Muslim knows the
theofogy of the Shahada thus articulatd. Consciously or
unconsciously, ach strives towards the lina.l goal. Recitation of
the Shahada creates an obligtion to r:ndertale the four other
arA.anwithout whi& 'one's Islam is lacking, if not unacceptable.'rr
To summaris, the Qur'an presents a theological model of an
eternal God who is both tmnscendnt and immanent. The
Ioii
UNVEILING Ttt! SACRED 1
Shahatdaappears at frst sight to embmce only that tust aspect
in its apparently negative declaration that 'there is no god but
thought, howver, shows that an aspect of
God.'F"rttt".
present in the Shdhadd too. For the nature of God
immanence is
in Islam is revealedmore closelvto His peoplevia His holy text,
the Qur'an; and Muhammad, 'the Messengerof God', is the
vehicle and bearer of that text, from God through the Angel
GabriI, to humanity.
Salnt
In the Christian tradition, prayer has classicallv been defined as
'the raising up of the mind and heart to God.'3'/Islam stresses
both the divine and human aspects ot prayeri
Ary Muslim who fails to observe his pravers and has no
reasombleexcuseis comitting a gravoffens and a heinous
sin. This olTen* I so gravbcausit is not onlv againstGod,
which is bad enough,but is also againstthe verv nature of man
It is m instinct of mm to be inctined io adorethe great bemgs'
and to cpire to lofty goals.The greatestbeing and th loftiest
To negled praver is to oPpressthe good
goal of alt is God
qualitis in human nature ad unjustifiablv denv it the right to
adore ud love . . rr
The dominant theological iilno,ilr herc, then' is tdhin', the
praise,3{glorification or exaltation of the Creator, in a word,
adoratiorr Such adoration is to be given, formallv and rituallv,
in praver 6ve times a day As we have seen' the injunction to
or* ,. k"v fearureof borh rne H,drth of Cabriel and rhe
"
oI Rewardand Punr.hmenr'And lsl"m rnsisrsthar the
^aitn
burden of fivefold ritual daily praver is not onerous All
Muslims are familiar with the account of the Prophet
Mubammad's rni'raj during which ar initial divine injunction
to pray 6fqr times a day was reduced, at the urging of Moses, to
five.3s While the Qur'an itself does not specify the exact
number of prayers per dien - and'the times for the frve dailv
p.uy"." u." derived from the Koran as interyrcted ond
 ST'FI RITUAL UNVEILI!.iG THE SACRED 1

surylemented.Vt the ha.diths'36 the obligation to glorifu and worshipper should pray. After adomtion then, a secondary
adore God is clearly and r:nequivocally laid dolm: th."loeiirl |rit'noti, of prayer must be the need for puritv of
heart. (There are clear links here between this theologv of ritual
So (sive) glory to God,
Duritv and th semiotic dimensions of the prayer ritual which
When ye reacheventide
will be explored later on) What is interesting from a theological
Ard when ye rise
DersDecti;e about the relationship between ritual prayer and
In the morniry;
rituJ purity is the simple progrssion ftom physical to sPiritual
Yea, To Hin be praise,
purity: the worshipper begins with a physical act of purfication,
In the heavensmd on earth;
designed to mirror an inner state, moves to the actual prayer
And in the late afternoon
ritual and then 6nds that the spiritual consequence is a further
And when the day
inner cteansing of sin, dirt and impuritv in the iver of prayer'{r
Beginsio decline.r'
A third and final thmlogical leitmotiq to be derived, then, from
Schimmel reminds us that the times for prayer are announced the rituals of saizt is the idea of saiat as a function which can
by a special call, the alhan: thus 'sacred time' is ineluctably remove the stains of everyday sin. (No analogy' of course'
associated vith 'sacred presence'- For her this is 'similai to the should be attemptedhere belweensalat "nd baptism in the
enclosure that protects the spatial sanctuary from deilement.'$ Christian tradition which wipes out the stain of original sin'
This, of course, contrasts with the luji where the focus is on The laner doctrine does not erist in Islamr'ar
sacred spa.e, sealed by the wearing of ihram.re The theology of the salZt may thus be articulated in terms of
Ritual Fayer is powerfully associated w;th the concept of adoration, purification and absolution, though it cannot be
ritual purity. Those blemished and besmirched by the sin and stressd too strongly that my use of the last term conveys
pollution of the material world or body should not attempt to absolutelv no sacramntal connotation akin to that of the
enter the sacredprsenceof God in prayer in an uncleanssl state: Cbristian term. AMatati rightly stressesthat 'prayer constitutes
one pillar of Islam and is considered the Foundation of
O ye who biieve!
Retigion'la while Murata and Chittick go so far as to suggest
When ye prepare
that 'performing the saldt {ritual prayer) is, in a certain sense'
For payer, wash
even more basic [than uttering the Shahala] '+5
Your faces,ed you. hmds
(And arms)to the elbows;
Rub your heads(with water)j Z^l<et
And (wah) your feet
the obligatorvalms tax,
Zahtu. wtntr now universallvmea.ns
If ye are in a state
and which contrasts with the voluntarv almsgiving called S.ddqd,
Of ceremonialimpurity
originally meant 'virtue' or 'purity'a6 From this perspective,
Batheyour whoiebodyao
and Lhe facr thar, by givirg voluntarv alms man can achie\e
If water is unavailable, or ssrce, for t}re ritual ablution, then pardon for sin,a; there ate interestng cultic. semantrc dnd
sand, earth or even snow may be substituted.ri This exterior doctrinal links with the pillar of talat which we have just
cleansing sfiolrid constitute, of course, an external mirror of the discussed.asThe Qur'an itself maks an interesting conlunctron
interior purification of heart and mind with which the of oraver and za&.at in the same verse when rt counsels:

I t0 lll
 SUFI RITUAL UNVEII-I^-G TUE SACRED I

And be steadfastin prayer[al,sdtar]; The same author gos on to cite a Jordaniancivil servant who
Practiseregul& charity ldi zahaf]j 'neady defined :alar for me as "financial worship"' s6
And bow dom your hads
With thosewho bow down (in wobhip).l,
Sawm
The thmlogicat leitmottu of zahft must surely be generosrttl
both acknowledgingGods own generosiryto man and,
Although fasting in Ramadan is not the only kind of fast
practically, attempting to mirror that generosity in on's
mentioned in the Qur'an,:7 there is no doubt that it is the most
dealings with one's fellow man.50 There is also a thmlosv of
important. For the fastins in the month ol Ramadan celebrates
dirine ownership behind the pilat ol zahat. Cbisrooher iefers
the tust revelation of the Holy Qur'an:
to the repedredreferencesin Lhe Qur'ar) to rhe idea lhat rhe
possession of personal propdy can be justfied onlv if the Ramadhanis the (nonth)
owner gives ir away treely ,nd generously... ln In which wassentdown
"ff".r,
orvnership of wealth is nor absolute; it is a rrust from God. TieQur'.!,dag{ide
to
be used for God's purpnses.'5l To nmlind, alo cleu (signs)
Abdalati stressesthe moral dimension: 'Zakah does not onlv For g{idance and judgement
purrfu the property of rhe conrrrburorbur also purifies his hearr (Btwenright and srong).
from selnshnessand greed for we2trh. ln rerurn, it ourfies rhe So every one of you
hean of rhe recipienr from enrryand jeatousy,fromkrred ,nd Who is Fsnt (at his home)
uneasrness; and it fosters in his heart, instead, good will and During that month
warm wishes for the contributo.'ir In line with such ideas, and Shall spendit in fsting.53
linking them with th purity and purification conceDts
Despite the rigours ot the fast, celebration must be accounted
a.'ocrated with sd/dl. Murar? and Chinick observe: .lusr as
the principal theological litmotil' here. This is particularly
abhrions pur:fy rhe body and sdldrpunhes rhe sout,so zahar
evident in the eveningsof Ramadnn,in th Islamic world, when
purilies possessionsand males them pleasing to God_';r
the fast has ended: 'The streets are full of vendors, coloured
What we have, then, is a mixed theolosy of cod-orientated
lights and lantems (/auanas)and throngs of pmple especiallyin
purification and generosity deriving from the co^cept of zdh .
such areasas the qua.ter ofth Sayyidna'l-Husayn Mosque in
The former does not, usually, tead to a sufi style oi asceticism
Cairo- The mosques in Ramadan are also full of worshippers
but is designed to result in the latter zdhaL The mediaeval pedorming extra prayers.'se Commentators have drawn atten-
jurists, Iike Melik b. Anas, were fully awareofthe fundamentat
tion to the spirit o{'family closeness'which pervades the
rmportance of zalar to the um'na as a whole, and its individual
season, rather in the manner of the \i/estm Christmas. There
members, and they created a body of explanatory law which not
is the same kind of present-giving and the meeting of friends.
only served as a substratum or foundation for the theoloev of
The preparations at the end of Ramadan signal a happy
:abat, but had considerablesocialand socrologicalimpticatrons
celebrat;on and it is signiFcantrhat. in Turkey. ld al-lrrr goes
as well.ta As one modern writer puts it: ,Unlike other ereat
under the name of S gdr Bayam because of the sweets which
sacred books. rhe Qur'an sers out the basic headrnesoi the
are distributed.6o
budger and expensesofrhe srare,and hisroncaltyanLicipaedby
The specific time of the 6rst revelation of the Qur'an during
some 12 centuies th principle ofwhat we call social security.'s:
the month of Ramadan is said to have been d.urng Laylat al-
112 l ll
 SUFi RITUAL
Qddr, 'the Night of Power (or Decre) which is believed to be
the night between th 26th and 27th of Ramadan, or the 27th
night.'6r This event is immortalised in the Qur'an: the whole of
Snrat al Qad.r (The Srra of Power lor The Decree]), which is
no. 97 in the Qur'an, reads:
1. We have indeed revealed
This message
In the Night of Power [Lajat a!-Qanrl
2. And what will explain
To thee what the Night
Of Power is?
3. The Night of Power
Is betto than
A thousand Morths.
4. Therein came down
The angels and the Spirit
By God's permission
On every errand:
5. Peace!.. . This
Until the rise of Mom.62
The Fast of Ramaden, then, although it also has othe. aspcts
and connotations,63 is inexorably interlocked with the primal
event of lslam, the revelation of the Qur.an, the Mind of God
Himself, to His people and to the world. It is an event of such
cataclysmic importance fo. the Muslim that 'sanctmcation' is
dlmosr too weal a word for $,har happens.in consequence,ro
the ninth month of th Islamic lunar catendar. The obligations
of the fast, in terms of abstinence from food, drink, sx and
smoking, are, of course, well,known, but extra attention but
also be paid to living righteously. As Murara and Chittick
remind us: 'The Prophet said: "Five things break the fast ofthe
fastr lying, backbiting, slander, ungodly oaths, and looking
with passion "'61 ln Ramadan the lvluslim is under an
oblisation not only to avoid certain things which are usually
permittd but to make a positive effort to qualify himself .with
the qualities of God' (bi-ahhk4 AIIzh) in such a way that his
sinful inclinations and charactrisrics may be exchanged for
t14
IJNVEILINC THN SACRED ]
more worthy ones.65 There is alr obvious mixture here of
purification and abstinence where the outer purification of the
stomach by fasting mirrors a spiritual cleansing, and where an
outer avoidance of, or abstinence from, the Jicit goods and acts
of this world mirrors an inner asceticism and control of temper.
Some may hold that such an inner asceticism is basically un
Islamic66 but it exists nonetheless, at least during the fast of
Ramadan, and fuels the essentia.lmotif of theological celebra-
tion which is at the heart of this month.
Fasting is also regarded as a protection asainst violence or
wrongdoing. The Prophet is recorded as having said; 'Fasting is
a protection for you, so when you are fasting, do not behave
obscenely or foolisbly, and if anyone argues with you, or abuses
you, say "I am fasting, I am fasting"'.07
A secondary, but almost equally powerful, theological
Ieitmotb to be identifred with this month of Ramadan is the
twin edfice of atonement and forsiveness. Islanic tradition
tachs that whil the sats of Heaven are opened during
Ramadan, those of Hell are fumly closed and the devils are
chained.63Folklore, recordedby Lane, holds that even the jinn
are imprisoned: 'Hence, on the eve ofthe festival which follows
that month, some of the women of Eg1pt, with the view of
geventing thes objects of drad from ntering their houses,
sprinkle sa.lt upon the flools of the apartments; saying, as they
do it, 'In the name of God, the Compassionate,the Merciful.'6e
A proper observance of Ramadan, undertaken with a true
intmtion, will secureforgivenessof sin.70Prayet dvrng Laylat
al Qdlr is particularly efficacious in achieving pardon for past
sins.tr
Fina.lly, fasting brings down God's rewad. \i/e thus have a
theological triangle of celebration, atonemert and forgiveness,
and divine reward. This last is clearly speJledout in a statement
by the Prophet to the effect that 'the smell of the breath ofa man
fasting is better with Allah than the scentof musk.' The Prophet
continued: Alleh says, "He leaves his desires and his food and
&ink for My sake. Fasting is for me and I reward it. Every good
action is rewardd by ten times its Lind, up to seven hundred
times, except fasting, which is for Me and I reward it."'t2
I 15
 SI I FI RI TUAL LN"\DlLi\C TtlE SACRED I

A modern Islamic catechism confrrms this: 'Fasting is a great characterised as 'a grand rite of passage, a move from
worship performed bodily for our Creator. The Almighty gives involvement with this world to occtpation with God' and,
the reward offastjng Himsell Fasting has many advantages for therefore, 'a kind of death.'tr The tladith of Gabriel, and the
the body and soul.'t3 Hadith of Reward and Punishment, cited earlier, each
emphasise the need to make the pilgrimage to Mecca with the
two phrases 'Islam is . . . to make the pilgrimage to the House if
Haii you are able to do so' (Al'lslan an . . t/J,hujjdal'bayt in'stotd'ta
ildlhi sdbrl"")r-6and 'You shouid mal the pilgrimage to the
The ia, creates and establishes a complex threefold theological I{otse' lwa tahuiu ol bart).ii
paradigm whose interlinked constiturt elements are: Mecca has a unique role. Schimmel holds that th citv of
Mecca is blessed by the presence of the sacred Ka'ba' and
1. Commemo.ation ol and reflection upon, an archetypical
past. That past is annually rnnrored in the present and characterises it as 'an omphalos, the navel of the earth. ltis,for
the pious, th earth bound oPposite, geographicallv, to the
combhed with an expectation of the eschatological future.
celestial Ka'ba in Paradise.Ts
2. A worship of celebration,thanksgiving and confirmation.
All of these classical and modem textual references are borne
3. What may be termed here 'the fundamental theology of
out by the txt of the Qur'an itself:

Beholdl We save the sit,

The frsr element structures the haj within t'vo historical time
To Abraham, of the (sacred)House,
frames by its evocation both of the great patriarch lbralum, and
(Saying): ,Associatenot anyth'ng
the Prophet Muhammad's famous, and seminal, Pilgrimage of
(ln worship) with \{e:
Farewell. It also looks forwa.rd to a third 'time frame'. ,vith the
And wctify J\'|y House
rrrqtt at 'Arafet, that of the Last Judgement, when all mankind
For those who compass it round,
will stand in judgernent before God. The second element
Oi stmd up,
celebrates the religion of Islam, together with its associations
O. bow, or prostrate themselves
with Mecca and the Ka'ba to*'ards which all Muslims pray five
(Thereir in prayc).
times a day. It contums a,od strcngthens Muslims in their faith
Ard prmlaim the Pilgrimage
in a way that contumation in the Christian Church or Bar
Among men: they will come
Mitzvah in Judaism does for Ctristians and Jews respectively.
To thee on foot md (mountd)
The third element echoesthe Quianic injunaion to command
On oery kind of camel,
sood and forbid evilia in its'rejection of lblis,/obdienceto
Lem on accout of jouineys
God'theology.
Though deep md distant
The complexity of the physical,spiritual and ritual elements
Mountain highways;
of the pilsrimage makes it impossible to disentangle and
That they may s'itness
identify a single, dominant theological leitmotiu There is not
The beneGts(provided) for them,
one but several: a list would include the commemoration of God
,{nd celehrat the name
and His prophets,worship, obedienceto God, Islam in its full
Of Cod, through the Days
senseof submission, repentance and the seeking forgivmess for
Appointed, ov. the cattle
sin, judgement, and sacrifice to God. The lrajj has been neady
1 t6 117
 SUFi RITUAL
Which He has povided for thm
(For sacrifice):then eat ye
Theteof and feed the distressed
Then let them complete
The rites prescribed
For them,performtheir voss,
And (aeain)circummbulat
The An ient House.
Such(is the Pilgrimase):
Whoeur honoltrsthesacted
Ritesoj God, for him
It X soodin the si9ht
OJ h;s Lord l
The individual rituals, arld the chronoiogy ofthe hajj, have been
surveyed countless times in many other places.3oIt is not
proposed to duplicate those descriptions here but rather ro
concentrate on the elements of the threefold paradigm
adumbrated above. Where relevant, reference will be made, of
course,to the individual rituals and chronology of the fiajj.
Pilgrirnagewas certainly well-known in Pre lslamic Arabia
and there is abundant epigraphicevidencefor the dedicationof
people ard objects to various deities, as well as penitential
temple rites.3l
(iaudefroy Demombynes believes the pilgrimage to be 'an
hstitution of peculiar interest to the \{uslim religion' seeingit
as 'a revival and a syncretism of ancient rits common
throughout the Semitic East. sr Muslims believe that Adam
and Eve learned the rites of the pilgrimage from the angel
Gabriel.3rHowever, our first delinitive time frame;s that ofthe
prophet lbrahim. Several events in his life are commemorated,
or even rc-enacted,during the fr4J.
Firstly, Ibraiirn will be forever associated with the Ka'ba
since,with Ismail his son, he is the re,builder of that edfice.3+
Muslims circumambulate the Ka"ba during the hajft. Hasar
(Hajar) and Isma'rl, having ben cast out by Ibrahim, found
themselves in the locality of present day N{ecca. Hagar's {rantic
118
L \\ IILI\C f HE s,{C R EDI
running up and down in a search for water is commemorated by
the sevenfold sd'f between al-Safa and al-Marwa in the hdjj
rituals today.36Iblis was stoned by Ibr,lim in a.neffort by the
prophet to wa.d oIf temptation. Mtslims duing the hajj engage
in a lapidation ritual in the Valley of Mina and throw a number
of pebblesat three columns in emtlation of what lbrahim did.37
Finally, Ibrahim's srblime obedience in being willing to
sacrifice his son Isma-J in most accounts - is celebrated by
Muslims throughout the world on 'Id al'Adha.33
The linking of the pahiarch Ibrahrm to the Islamic haj, and
the annual modem emulation by pilgrims of his actions, steeps
the lai turther in a prophetic history to which it is already
linked from the beginning of time to the end of time: Adam, the
6rst prophet, is revered as the tust builder of the Ka'ba;"g *1t;1"
the uqnf at 'Arafet looks forunrd to the Day ofJudsement, the
end of human time and beginnins of an eschatological era.'qOIn
between, however, are the two major 'time frames'to which we
have referred. We have examined that of the patriarch Ibrahrmi
now we turn to that of the Prophet N{uhammad and his
Pilsimage of Farewell.
The Farewell Pilgrimage of the Prophet, undertalen in A.D.
632 shordy before his death, created the definitive ritual
paradigm for all succeedinggenerations.elThe early Muslim
sourcesconfirm that this was the case.Al-Tabari notes: 'The
Messenger o{ God proceeded to perform his pilgrimage
showing the people its rites and teaching them its customs-'e2
Ibn Istleq's words transmitted via Ibn Hisham are almost
identical: '(ln its cours) the Messengershowed the men the
rites and taught them the customs of the pilgrimage.'e3
Furthermore, as John Renard puts it, 'he sanctified deinitively
the Ka'ba and the sites in the vicinity of Makka, making them
forever integral to the Nluslim ritual of the Hajj . . .''y4
Al Tabari's account refers to the Pilgdmage of Farewell in
the context of the ival prophet Musaylima, and notes that the
'pretensions' of the latter coincided with the Prophet Muf,am
madh 6nal illness after the Pmphet's return from this pilgrim
age. Al-Tabart notes that Mutrammad began his preparations
for the pilgimage in the month of Dhu 'l Qa'da. He records
11 9
 S . FI RI TUAL
the Prophet's famous farewell speech in which he begins by
saying that he does not Lnow whether he will ever neet the
people again in that place in a succeeding year. Blood and
prope.ty are to b considered sacrosanct in th sarne way as that
day and month are regarded as sacred. The Prophet's speech is
laced with verses from the Qu.'an as he proceeds.ei
Al Tabari concludes with the Prophet's identification of
'Arafat, al Muzdalifa, and Mina as formal 'stations' of the haj
and strcsses how the Prophet instructed his people in the
diverse rituals of th pilgrimage: these included the lapidation
dtes, the ldlratof the Ka'ba, and the ritual prohibitions. 'It was
the Farewell Pllgrtmage (llajjdt al-WaAz) and the Pilgrimage
for Conveying the lvlessage (Hajjat al'Balzgh), because the
Nlessenger of God did not ma-kany pilgrimage a.fter that.'e6
Throughout this frral pilgrimage, the Prophet is portrayed as
being supremelyconsciousof the legacyof Ibrahm, whoseheir
in a very real sensehe was. Thus he emphasised the great age of
the pilgrimage arld its links with the patriarch. For example,
It {uslim notes: 'And then soing to th Place of Abraham (in the
Hanm), he recited: And adopt the Place of Abraham as a place
of prayer."' (Quran 2:12s)."
It is clear, then, that the two historical time frames to which
we have referred, at:rdwhose substance we have delineated here.
were inexorably linled fiom the very beginning of lslam and
they have continud to be linked to the present day. Not on-ty do
they frame the various theological leilnotirs of the ftajj
identified above, but, as we have sugsested, they project the
mind of the pilgrim for. ard to a final, more terrifying 'time
frame', when time will meet eternity on the yaunn al q\ana.
The uqrtat 'Arafat is the temporal mirror of that forthcoming
eschatological realit]'. This is why the themes of repentance and
meditation upon judgement are essential to the pilsrimage and
the pilg.im mentalitlr
The commemoration of a classical. archetypical past was the
6rst element which we identified in a threefold theological
paradism extrapolated from the laji. The second element was
characterised as a 'worship of celebration, thanlsgiving and
contumation.' lt will be sufveyed more briefly here.
120
U\IEILING T HE SAC R ED1
A modern Turkish catechism describes the frai as 'a worship
performed bodily and spiritually.''q3 A volume produced for
lv{alay students strcsses the diversity of purposes served by the
hat: it constitutes a huge 'annual convention of faith'i it
dmonstmtesthe 'universality of Islam and the brotherhood
and equality of the Muslims'; it confirms 'the commitment of
the Muslims to God'; it acquaintspilgrims 'with the spiitual
and historical environmmt' of the founder-Prophet Muham-
madr it commemorates,as we have seen, 'the Divine rituals
observedby Abraham ard Ishmael'; and'it is a reminder ofthe
Grand Assembly on the Day of Judgement when pmple wili
srand equal before Cod. uairrne lor rheir l-inal Desiny ""
Another author notes how the pilgrim'experiences a dim,
inward senseof the power of Islam that can bring together each
year so many men of strange races and incomprehensible
tongues.'loo
There is also a confirmatory 'political theology' which can be
extrapolated fiom this element which we have characterised as
'a worship of celebration, thanksgiving and confirmation ' The
hajj has always been multi dimensional, mixing religion inter
alid with trade, travel, politics and the exchangeof ideasl0r
Revolutions have ben startd by returnins pilgrims, under
lining the truism rhat lslamic poliiics and Islamic theology are
tecbnically lvo sides of the same coin.102The impetus for the
establishmentof snfl Orders has often had a similar origin.r03
And 'the social,political and symbolic weight'1Gofthe iajj was
recognised by leaders in the Arab arrd Islamic world such as
President Gamal Nasser: after accompanying an Egyptian
mission to Saudi Arabia to express condolences on the dath of
that state's king, Nasser stood in front of the Ka'ba aJId 'realised
the need for a radical chaage of our conception of the
Pilgrimage.'1o5He told hirnself: 'The journey to the Qaaba
[sic] should no longer be consbued as an admission card to
Paradise or as a crude attempt to buy forgiveness of sins after
teading a dissipatedlife.'r06His view was
the Pilgrimage should have a poiential political power' The
world pressshould hasto to follow and feature its news not by
121
 slfi RtTl.r.\L
drawing attractive pd picture of its rites dd rituals for the
delrctation of readers, but by its repre*othg a priodical
political conference whereir the heads of all Islmic States,
leaders of opinion, scientists,eminent industrialists od
prominent business men assernbleto draw up at this *orld
Islmic Paliment the broad lines of policies to be adoptedby
their respectivecountries and lay down the principles ensuring
their closeco-operationuntil they have againgatheredtogether
1or
in the followingsession
What Nasser envisaged, then, was not just 'a worship of
celebration, thanksgiving and confirmation' such as was
outlined above but a politicat apotheosis of lslam or, to put it
another way, an lslamic apotheosis of politrcs.
The third constituent element of our threefold thmlogical
paradigm was what may be termed 'the fundamental theolog]
of lbrahim.' This is a theology of oMience according to which
lbrahim was prepared to sacrince his son without qustion or
demur, simply becauseit was required of him by God.ro3 It
included as its substratum a rejction of lblis symbolised in
the stonins ofthe pillars in the Valley of N{inaro'q during the lajj
and contrastsvividly with the fundamental disobedienceof
IbLs in refusing to bow down and revere Allah's new creation,
Adam.rr0 A further contrast is the implicit humility of Ibra*rim
and the explicit arroganceof lblis. Muslims on the [a, model
themselvesboth on the obedienceof lbrehim when they obey
the injunction of Allah to visit the Ka'ba, I I I and on the rejction
of Iblis by Ibr,hm wher they cast their stones in N{ina.
Every r hn, thr, has its theoiogic2l l"itrnotirs: enumerated
together they inciude tauhid, nubuuud, tabbr, pUrification,
absolution, generosity, celebmtion, atonement, seeking forgive-
ness, divine reward, cornnemoration, worship, obedience.
submission, rcpntance, judgement and sacrfice. The arA.an
may thus be seen to articulate a dogmatic and ritual theology,
some of whose aspects are common to many world religions but
a few of which, tahen toeethet, delineate and define Islam as a
dtr. They are tauhd, nubuwwo and submission. The arLan
constitute a t!/o way penta structure of dogma and ritual
122
U N V E I L J N GTH E IAC R TD 1
whereby God seeksto bind man, arld man seeksto articulatc hrs
response We saw that dmong lhe l?irnutiu of the drhdn \')/'rc
-Thc
.u.lt .on,"p,. a aronementand seelrng forgrreness
Arabic languageitself provides a primarv linguistic paradtgm
in illustrating the whoie point: tdobd
*hi.h is oik"i
'el"uu"ie
rrepentance'
means and 'fie Arabic verb Ebd, said of a man'
i'to "to
indicates repeni"; when it is said of God it means
(a man) and
forgive." Thus ialuurdb means both "repentant"
"Forgiving" (God).''11
4.? PhenomenologY
It is a trursm thar thete(dnnor be an odequ'tephiJosophv uf
somelhinguithour an inJormedknowledge of thdr thine"'
This is as-true of all the great world religions as everything else
And the approaches to those religions, arrd their individual
rs
dimensions,are diverse One popular' and useful' approach
that of the phenomenolocisto];eligion 'The phenomenologv
of relision, Ninian Smart reminds us' 'seeks to draw out
a
mryini pauerns and theseare irnportant.'1laln lslam there is
'patteriiof6'e pillars, one of which is credaland four ofwhich
a
are practical oi ritualistic We v,'ill return to articulate
phenomenologyof the d|&an in a little whrle
'
PhenomeJogy generatly, and the phenomenologv. of
religion in pardcirlar, 'illuminates th necessitv for the rather
'lhe
heaiy contextualisationof religiousutterances'1tt 'hahdda
is no't proclaimed *ithilr a uoid but *ithitt a tareful framework
mav
of religious belief and ritual Phenomenologv of religion
ir'"" carefully the structuresof religion within which
"i"-;"" ritual are articulated, or, to pui it another wav' bv
belief and
which belief and ritual are clothed An examination of
structures can provide insight and illuminate the esse'ltlal
featuresof what is under discussionat anv one time "o
Ninian Smart identifies nine dimensions for a religion: the
ritual or practical, the doctrinal or philosophical'the mvthic or
nanativ; the exprientialor emotional, the ethical or lesal' the
organisationaloi social, the material or artistic, the political
12.]

and, finally, the economic.rrTHowever, for the purposesof this
sction, it is his first category that of'the ritual or practical
dimension'. which concerns us here. He defines this as the area
of religion which includes such things as 'worship, meditation,
pilgrimage, sacrilice, sacramental rites and healing activities.'
Smart confessesthat he is aware that it is unusual to consider
meditation as a ritual but he draws aftention to the fact that
meditation often has a strict pattem and thus may licitly be
included in a list which embmces the itual and the practical "8
Formal rituals may involve formal language or formal actions
or, most oftn, a mixture of both.rre Good examplesfrom the
drhan of such a mixing are in the salzt and the hdi rituals. Ritual
both feeds and responds to expeience. Mosque and Church, art
ald arch;tecturc are aids to the appreciation of th spiritual and
the divine. Ritual chant, whether it be from the minaret or the
pulpit, plays its part in sharpening one's spiritual perceptions.
Rites. Smart concludes.delineaterhe paLhof the spirir.l'0
In the domain of ritual. space and time may vanish.121The
past becomes, indeed is, the present. Smart's example is that of
the Cbristian faithful who, on Easter Sunday, proclaim 'Jesus
Cbist is risen today.'l, Another useful parallel is the Roman
Catholic belief that the sacrifice of the Mass is not a rcpetition of
Calva.ry but the same sacrifice made sacramentally present upon
the altar: 'The Eucharistis the memorial of Christ's Passover.. .
In the senseof Sacred Sc.ipture the ms,noriai is not merely the
recollection of past events but the prcclamation of the mighty
works wrought by God fot mer . . . In the lituqial celebrationof
these ermtq thej becone in a certain way present onl rea,l-'t2l
Here, in a very vivid way in Catholic belief, space and tirne are
set at naught.
Though the hayl' rituals lack the sacramental character of
what has been described, there is a very real sense in which the
twin evocations of IbreLim and Muhammad, and their
association with these rituals, as well as the evocation at 'Arafat
of the Last Judgement, all serve to transcend any senseof space
and time for the pilgrims who undertake the iajj.
Phenomenologically, the ari.4n e{hibit a dual dimension: in
the frst place, they constitute a 'block of belief, action and/or
'124
L]NVT]LINC TH! SACRED I
ritrnl', a pattem, a summary of religion, which may loosely be
paralleled by other blocks such as the seven sacraments ol
Roman Catholic Christianity or the Noble Eightfold Path of
Buddhismr?a which comprised right view, right thought, right
speech, ight action, right livelihood, ight ffort, right mind
frrlrress, right concent.ation, and which was fundamentally a
'schene of moral and spiritual self-development leading to
Enlightenment.'12i Obviously such parallels must not be
pushed too far; there are clear differences, for exampl, between
pure rituals such as the Islamic lraji and Buddhist concepts from
the Eighdold Path such as samma samadh; (ight concentra
tion).126However, thrc is no doubt that, just as the Buddhist
Path aims to defeat rhe negative aspects of every character,127
the live Islamic arlan may b said to strive towards the same
goal. And if we follow an eishteenth certury Chinese Muslim,
Ma Fu ch'u, and use his terminology of 'the Five Virtuous
Acts', thn the similarities become even more apparent:
For all lods under Heaven,
the dctrine of the Prophet ruN
comprising Rites fot humm s@iety
ard the Heavenly Path.
To confessthe SovereignGod
is the tust requirement,
and this central ritual
is most woDdrous-
The Heavenly Path is cultivated
by the Five Virtuous Acts:
the V;tuous Act of enunciatingthe Truth lshdfiaddfi]
with the heart turnd io God;
the Vinxous Act of ritualising the Truth lsdlan]
with the body adoring God;
the Virtuous Act of fastins ls(1uml
to mster the p.omptings of desire;
the Virtuous Act of havenly charity lzdean]
to 6sist the orphus dd the nedy;
the Virtuous Act of pilsimage [ldr]
forsaking home md family.l'?e
124
 SI.IFi RITTJAI-
What we have n the arhan is a thumbnail summary of the
essentials of Islam, phenomenologicaily delineated from earliest
times as a block of five key points, not all pure act, not all
dogmatic position, but a m&ture of theological statement
(sfrahada), ascetical practice (sdun and zahat) and physical
movement (sdlat and haj) which may all be characterised a-s
'rites' or 'rituals'. lfitual is a 'behaviouralor bodily activity .ra'
then this is true in one senseor another of all the ar[,nn: even the
Shahada employs the physical motor of speech except when
recited mentally. lf rituals are 'rendered efGcacious by exact
repetition'l3o then this is certarnly true of all the ar[.En. And
while the laj may be a unique experiencefor the individual
because of the constraints of time and cost. it is a seminal event
which has been repeated down the centuries by the ivluslim
Unna as a whole. Finalir', if the core, or at least one core, of
ritual in religion 'is the practice of worship, that is praise or
homaeerenderedto a God',1r1then accordingto this definition
every single one of the orian may be classifiedas a ritual since
each constitutes,in its own way, an act of worsh;p.
I sussestedearlier that, phenomenolosicallyspeaking, the
arban exhibited a dual dimensionr in the frrst place, they
constituted a fvefold 'summary of religion'. If we now turn to
the seconddimension,it is thjs: each of the five pillars may be
conceivedof as beins 'ordinary rites of religion (by contrast
with the'extraordinarv'rites such as circumcisionand initiation
into lslam, which can only take place once). These 'ordinary'
rites are located in human time and space but they sanctify or
sacralisethat human time or spacein such a way that it bcomes
sacredtime or space.In this way the spiritual path is traced or
woven,lrr and spaceand time may even seem to be abolished.
For elample, the repetition of the Shahadaalwaystakesplaceat
a moment in human time, and in a set location, but, lslamically.
it evokesa timeless.eternal God unbounded and unrestrained
by spatralconsiderations.The hall, as we have seen,evokesand
makespresentthe saintly figuresoflbrahrm and Nlubammad as
well as the powerful image arrd reality of the Last Day. Fastins
in this life during Ramadan e!'okes thoughts of an eternal
Qur'an. The generosiiyof man in giving zc&tt is an imitation,
126
U \ V E I I - I N ( ] T H E SAC R TD1
albeit a pale one, of the generosityof God Himsellrr3 faiat for
the Muslim is a ladder from the material to the spiritual, the
temporal io th etrnal, which parallels in its fivefold nature the
fivefold nature of the arh.an.All of these points conlirm Smart's
fundamental point that ritual may be a potent instrument in the
very abolition of space and time.lr1 If doctrine can bring us to
some perception of the Divine, then ritual can bring us even
closer.'$ All of this is intensely true of the five Islamic athdn
whose fundamental phenomenologymay be assessedin terms
of their being a block 'summary of religion' as well as a neatlv
structured path to the spiritual.
4.3 AnthrcPologY
From what has been said already in particular, the frequent
citations oi and references to, the Hadrth of Gabriel and the
Hadith of Reward and Punishrnent it is evident that the drhan
are of the essence of lslam. It should therefore be equallv
evident that any speciic anthropology of the drhan must derive
from and flow naturally out of, a general anthropologv of Islam
if that can be established.We staJrthen with Talal Asad's own
general question: 'What, exactlli is the anthropology of lslam?
What is its object of investigation?'And the answer is neither
selt evrdentnor easy.Li6
Diverse answers have been offered, ranging from a denial
that Islam exists as a 'theoreticalobject', through the ida that
'Islam is the anthropologist's label for a heterogeneous
collection of items, each of which has been designatedIslamic
by informants', to the concept of Islam as 'a distinctive
histoical totality which organizes various aspects of social
life.'r'For Asad, anthropologists such as Abdul Hamid El-
Zein and Michael Gilsenan got it wrongr33 Asad believesthat
Islam, and so, implicitly, we might add, the Iive pillars of lslam,
'as the object of anthropoloeical understanding should be
approached as a discursive tradition rhat connects varrously
with the formation of rnoral selves, the manipulation of
populations (or .esistance to it), and the prcduction of
r27
 SIF I R IT U AL
appropriat knowledges.'lre He insists that lslam is primarily a
tradition mther than 'a distinctive social structure' or 'hetero
geneous collection of beliefs, aitifacts, customs and morals. rrt'
Tradition is instructive discourse which relates to both past and
tuture tbrcugh the medium of the present.lat Any anthropology
of Islam must. therefore. 'seek to understand the historical
conditions that enable the production and maintenance of
specifrcdiscursivetraditions.'ra'
It is in the light of such staternents that the dr&.anmay be
evaluated and illuminated from an anthropological perspctive.
We have earlier suggested that each ru[n or pillar may be
characterised as a ritual or a rite143in one way or another. Now a
ritual may be a book or a piece of symbolic behaviour or 'apt
performance'.raa)lIost of all, however,as Denny puts it, 'ritual
is for the participant a reenactmentof a profound truth.'ra5We
have already seen how the hajj, for example constitutes a
tradition which does indeed refer back and forth to both past
(lbFhim, Mubanmad) and future (the Last Day) fiom the
litral standpoint (the u qnJat 'tuafat) ofthe present.r46Adam,
IbLs, Ibrahim, Isma'rl, Jibril, Muhammad, and God as Judge,
are evoked by means of physical materials such as stones (rlre
Black Stone in the Ka'ba, th stoning of the pi ad, and water
(Zamzam), and by means of physical actions such as running
(betwer al-Safe arrd al-Marwa) and standing (at 'Arafdt). And
;f it is insisted that th true focus, in any anthropological study
of the ar&rn must be on the htman figure himself, then it is the
figure of the Mar-Prophet, lv{uhammad, himself which tooms
large over each of the arhan, whether it be as a focus u,ithin the
Hadith of Cabriel or as a paradigm for future pilgrimage ritual,
as with Muhammad at the Pilgrimage of Farevell or as the one
who receives 6nal confrmation that prayer should be 6ve times
a day. The Man'Prophet articulates, verbally or by action, the
Five Pillars as discunive traditions which imbue the present,
hark back to the past and look forward to the tuture.r+; These
pillars constitute the elemental discourses whereby every
Muslim lives and, at a fundamental level, organiseshis daily
life. Thus any anthropology of the arban, as with any
anthropology of lslam itself, will try to comprehend the history
128
IN \fII-I\U TH T l C R E L] I
indeed the proto-histo.y, which gave rise to such discourses m
the first place.r+3
Furthermore, holv or sacred persons reifv, inhabit and
'mulriolv holv or sacred spaces Clinlon Bennet( drdw"
anenlionlo Vrrcea Eliades idea rhat religiouscenrrestend to
be replicated in other ptaces. In Islam, for example, Mecca is
the archetvoical model for a whole varietv of other tombs and
Cii"t"" holds that this is a good example of Islamic
"h'in"". where all sacred space in Islam is nothing but an
kulid
elaboration of the paradigmatic sacred space which is Mecca
itself. The'one' may have a plural manifestationbut it remams
one. This parallels the philosophicat concept beloved bv Ibn
al 'Arah and others of 'C)nenessof Being' according to which
14"AnJ r-he Ka-ba rn
erentlune is a manifestatronof Cod
Mecca, rhar cenrral focal pornr foI rhe unicirv oi lslamnacred
soace. is also a channel of comrnunication between Heaven and
earth through which passes, in Eliade's phrase' 'the A;is
Mudi.ri Clinton concludesthat 'this axis is also refer-redto in
Muslirn metaphysics as the Q'rlb i:both aris ald
"hr.h person a' well ds a
'.pirirual centre'. lt car manife.r in a
Dlace.lrr
There i. a ver\ real sen.e in uhich rhe diurnal lsalal
Shah,ada)or annuJ (5dum, bo'jj' zahat) rcpetition of individual
aspects of the arban 'conscrates' the arena within which it is
oerformed, and males present once again the prcphetic/
irophetic memories with which that ruhn is associated'
p;.allv asoects of the anthropology ol tb.e arhzn can t>e
developei into a mystical anthropolosv' as happened with Q'di
Sa'id Qummr (died 1691). Thus Corbin notes: "Wlren Qadr
Sa'rd Qummi invites us to rellct upon th general form of the
Temple- [of the Ka'ba] as the figuration of a human Person' the
Anthrooos or 'Perfect Man', 6rst divine Emanation and God's
Vicar (-Khallfat Allah) over all Creation, he speciies that bv this
we should understand him who was the firral seal of legislative
prophecy...'1"
129
 S UI i RI TLI L
4.4 &miotics
Everythins signilies.The Qur'all itselfis a *'orld of sisns: 'Soon
will We show them Our Signs in the (furthest) Regions(of thc
earth), and in their own souls.'(.Sd-mnlii'n ayddnaf.'l afaa u,)
f anlusihirn).'i We may agreewith Stiver that 'both universal
and symbolic language are indirect and inexact pointers to
truth, but both may point to truth.'ria The samemay be said ot
semiotics,an imprecisemode of analysisdespite its regimenta
tion and ordering by the great semioticiansof our age such as
Lrmberto Eco.rii We note. too, Tillich's distinction between
symbolsand signs:'Both point beyond themselves,but symbols
have more than an arbitrary or conventionalrelationship with
that to which they point. A red l;ght or a number has no
intrinsic relationship \,,'ith what it represents.but a symbol.
accordingto Tillich's secondpoini, particjpatesin the reality to
which it points. The example he gives is a country's Ilag 'i:r
These points may be borne in mind as we examinethe semiotic
truths ;mplicit for Muslims in the live dr&on.Houever, it has to
be admitted that the distinction betwen symbol and sisn ma]
not always be as clear cut, in the analysis which follows, as
Tiliich might have liked.
Everything signifiesas we havejust observed.Everl religion
has its sign system,often implicitly or explicitly bound up with.
or into, both dogma and ritual. Catholic Christianity, for
example, has a 'sign system' of seven sacramnts,Christ
founded in the eyesofthe believer.the true semiotic impulse oi
which is irticulated in the classical definition of the word
'sacrament' as 'ar outwi sign of inward grace, ordained by
Jesus Christ, by which grace is given to our souls.'r';
Sacramentalsigns have a past, present ard future dimension.
just as the hdjj in Islam has a similar threefold aspect. St.
Thomas Aquinas noted: 'Therefore a sacramentjs a sign that
commemorateswhat precedesit Christ's Passion; demon
strateswhat is accomplishedin us through Christ's Passion
grace;and prefigureswhat that Passionpledgesto us futu.e
glorl'.'rssHugh of St. Victor, whom Ta.lalAsad characterisesas
'the most iniluential theologian of the twelfth century']ie also
130
L \.'VF.I]-I\C THL SACIIEIJ I
stressed the idea of sacrament as commemorative sign:
According to Hugh, a sacrament, from rts moment ot
authoritative foundation, is a complex network of signifiers
and signifiedswhich acts,like an icon, commemorativety.What
this icon signihesis alreadypresentin the minds ofparticipants.
It points backward to their memory and forward to their
expctation. .'160,{sad believesthat here Hugh uses as his
source Augustine's De Docnind Cirisridnd with its notion that
'signs are things that give knou4edgeof other things . . '161ln
what follows, it will become evident that the a7han, very
different though they are, theologicall! and ritually, from the
sevensacramentsof Catholic Clhristianrtl nonethelessconlorm
to th fundamentalparadigmjust articulatedof the elementsof
a 'faith summarl" or 'package as commemotuhre sqns
Furthermore, just as we sa$ that $e sacramentwas dehned
classically as 'an out*ard sisn of inward srace', so roo, the
ar&an and the rituals associatedwith them have 'an outward
form and an inner meaning'.]"]
Cornmnting on the ShdftadaSchimmel says that she can
easilyundersrandhou rhe qorJ" of ir. ruo parts c.nsrirured
powerful fortification which provides a safe reftge 1or the
N,Ius1im.r6rHere she clearly echoes al-Cihazali sho, citins a
hd.dnh qud:i, notes that man's naturc is fundamentally weak
Only th Siuhadd can prevent ihe realisation of his greatest
horror, the eternallires of Hell. God has siven marl the Sldradd
as a castleof protection: the entrant of that castleis safe liom
God s wrarh 'b+
'l'he .Shahadacommemoratesor, better, evokes God as an
eternai,single Realitl',past, presentand futu.e, and evokes,too,
the name of the Prophet Nfuhammadwhose earthly life may be
in the past but u'ho lives ia erernity now and who will intercede
for Nfuslim sinners on the Last Day, in the future The
statementsignalsan uncompromising monotheism as well as a
belief in \{ubammad as the seal of the prophets. The out}'ard
form ofthe verbal articulation ofthe Shdiadd, which admits the
would be convert to Islarn and rraintaiasthat personwithin the
fold, mirrors an inner acceptanceol and devotion to, td&tid
and nablurua. The Ism.'ili Qadr ai Nu'mtn (died 97a) held
1ll
 SUfI RITUAL
that belief (d/-t ran) included profession of the tongue (qarl
bi-'l-lls.n) as well as confirmation in the heart (la'diq i',
'I-janan).16! The verbal Shahala should therefore be tht
semiotic indicator, par excellence,of the believing heart.
John Renard reminds us that the Persian mystic and poel
Rumi (1207 1273) likened the fivefold sdlat to the 6\'i
senses.rbb Al-Nawawr reported that'Prayer is light' (al-saiat
ntr)r67 and characterised it as a pillar ('and).r63 As a
commemorativesign, the salat evokesa Prophetic, and N.Iosaic.
past in which the fivefold nunber of prayers was settled durine
the r1i"aj, reilies that past in the present and looks to an
eschaiolosicalfuture in which Lluhammad's prayerful inter
cession(sia,/h?) will savesinful Nluslims.'6eAs the Testanent
(Wasilya) ascribedto Abn Hiintfa puts it: 'The intercessionof
our prophet Nfuhammad is a reaiity for all the Pmple of
l'aradise, even for hirn rvho had commired a sreat sin.'r;o
The sdl.l also has outward forms and inward meanings.Thc
most notable example is the need lor tahdra (purificationr
before prayer. The outward ablution signalsan internal 'prayer
of forgiveness and mercy'r;1 Thus outer purilication is
associatedwith inner cleansing and prayer:'1'he Propher
lvluhammad has said: "He who rnales ablution afresh revives
and refresheshis faith."'r72
The compulsory alms tax, zahat, is a sign of purilication as
well. An older classicalmeaning of the Arabic word zal,ar uas
'purity'and the zaA'' was one uho was 'l'ure from sin.
Righteous, Compassionate.'1;-1 Al-Nawawt held that the. at
fi rst, closely related rollniarl alms-giving (al :a&rqa)' extln
guishes sin as water extinguishes lire ''7i There is, then, a
permanent liDk in the mind between 'virtue', 'purit_v.
'purification from sin on the one hand, and alrns tar' and
a.lmsgiving'on th other in the sema.nticrangeofsuch words as
zahat and sadaqa.l;'The Qur'ar in several places applauds
'benevolence'and 'giving' as a sign of the true believerand hrs
virtue. Za[ar also has a.*'ide commemorativerange.signallinga
heroic past in which zalai became transformed into a '6scal
institution', r;6 a presentin which the believersare reminded of
their obligations to those less well off than themselves,and a
132
I I \ V E I L I N G T H E SA( ]R ED]
future in eternity in *hich A ah's purposes will have been
fnltuled and there will be no need of sadaq.Lr'ot zdhat
Al Nawawi characterised fasting (al saum) as a 'shield'
'protection' or 'shel'
0 flnd).';; The $ord also translates as
ter'.r;!i As we have already noted the fast in Rama<lan
commemorates,indeed celebrates,the hrst revelation of rhe
Holy Qur'an which occurred in a Prophetic past but which is
made present by a rigid month long ascesissignalling the
eternal importance of that sacredevent. The fast of Ramadan
also signalsa future eternalhappinessfor the devout observerof
that fast. Ashraf suggeststhat the two jovs of fasting identified
by the Prophet Nluhammad the joy of ftat at the end of each
dayt fasting, and the sighting of the nev moon signalling the
eni of the month of Ramadan are sisns of a further, celestial
p",r otjoy": the siahLof Paradr"e-airer Jearh and rhe ''el'r ol
Cod on the Dar of Resurrection '"
\{alik ibn Anas, as we have seen, recounts a hmorrs badith in
which God is said to prefer the smell of a faster's heath to ihe
smell of musk. The hadnh soes on to stressthai, becausethe
fasting is done for the sale of God alone, Cod rewards that actlon
in a special wa1,13oThe sheer power of the fa-st of Ramadar is
sisnaLled in the following quotation. also noted above' from
Nl-lik: 'Yahya related to me from MaLik from his paternal uncle
Abu Suhayl ibn \{alik from his father that Abu Huravra sard,
"Whm Ramadan comes the gales ofthe Garden are opened and
3'
the gatesofthe Fire are locked,and the shavtansare chained"'r
The fast ofRamadan, then, is an annualcommemorationofa
past event vr'hosedevout observance in the present signals for
it" lvt""tinr o"ty increasein spiitual power in his own
"ot "n
age over the forces of darkness but the promise of eternal
happiness in the future lrs outward form of phvsical
ren;nciation mirrors ar inner meaning which embraces,again,
a purification and cleansingof soul and a turning ln repentance
and hope to the Creator' Iadeed, the outward form is
deliberately desisned to foster the'inner fast'\lherebv the
aspirant on the spiritual path accepts the discipline of
abstinencefrom even those things permitted bv the law and
ultimately tries to avoid all and everything in an endeavour,at
133
 Sf Fi F I ' I LAL
the hishest stageof inner fasting, to focus on cod.'3: Such. ot
course, is the constant aspiration of the sufi.
The semioticsof the ha, are wide ranging. Only a few will
be highlighted here. In the 6rst place, the links of the grear
Patriarch lbranirn with the hd, signal the twir themes ot
submission and obedience,as we have already seen.Secondl,,.
the Prophet l{uhammad's Pilgrimageof Fareweltestablisheda
ritual paradigm and signalled tle need for religious continuitl..
Thirdly, the haj signalsthe need for community. Renard points
out that just as the hijra constitutes a forceful metaphor in terms
of Muslims self-understandingofthe;r slobal role and position.
so the hajj 'epiromizes this sense of identity as a unique
communitJoI fatth.' He draws attention to Islam's view of itseif
as a non extreme 'middle way' and quotes, in support, Slra
2:143i 'We have therefore fashioned you into an Umrna in
equilibrium so that you miqht be witness to humankind and
that the N{essenger[\fuhammad] might be a witnessto you.'r33
The commemorativesignds or signsofthe iajj in rheir past,
presentand future dimensionshave alreadvbeen alluded to and
they wilt not b reiterated here. What may be stressedis the facr
that the har, Iike the other four arlan, has an outward form and
an inner meaning. The outward rituals betoken once more an
inner desire for repentance, purity ard purfication. Ir is
signiiicant that this leitmoti! of purification runs tbrough, or
underlies, so many of the arlAn. -fhere is no doubt, of course.
that from an anthropoiogical, political and a seniotic perspec
tive 'rituals of purity and impuriry create' and sisnal 'unity in
experience.'134Mary Douglas believes that 'ideas about
separating, purifying, demarcating ard punishing transgres
sioDs have as their main function to impose system on an
inherently untidy experience''3i All this is true of the hajj
whose rituals, particularly purifcatory, do impose both a moral
and a sociologicalorder arld systemwhereby there is an at least
theoretical 'equality of purity' among atl the pilgrims. The
purilication rituals of the haTj impose an outward discipline
which should mirror an inner spiritual frame of rnind.
The need for rituai purity during the [a1] was signalled from
the beginning:136
13.1
t \IIILINIi 1 H E SAC R EDI
When the month of Dh,l al Qa'dah startedthis year, that is, the
fo. the pilgrimage
year 10/632,the Prophetmadepreparations
dd ordered the people to get ready.
Ibn Humayd'Salamah Ibn kbaq-"AM al Rahnan b Qasim
his tather 'A'i"h"h th" Prophet'swife: The Prophet
departed for the pilgrlmage on the lwenty-GJth of Dhn al-
Q.a'dah.Nither he noi th peopletalked of an)thing but the
pilgrimage, until when he was ir Sarif and had driven with ltrm
the ecrificial animalsassone nobleshad alsodone,he ordered
the p@pleto removetheir pilgrim garmdts, exceptfor those
who had brought the sacrincialanimals lwith theml
That day my mensesstarted.He calledon ne while I was
weeprne and.a,d. \\h,r b Lhemarry urrh you.rt \ shah
Ate you in yout menses?''Yes l rcplied,'l wishedI had not
come with you on rhis journey this yd.' 'Don ! do that, he
said,'Don't say that, for you can carry out lall rh dtesl
performedby a pilgim exceptthat you will oot citcumanbulate
the Ka%atr'L3i
Al-Ghazalt held that the circumbulation of the Ka'ba was a
prayer in which the worshipper resembledthe angelsclosestto
God who circumambulated His throne. Al-Ghazali goeson to
suggest that the primary pr.rrposeof the taurdf around the Ka"ba
is the circumbulation by the heart of God Himself, the Lord of
the Ka'ba, by means of dhihr. For al-Ghazah the Ka'ba is an
outward manifestation of the unseen presence of God rather in
the samway that the body may be describedas a simiiar kind
of manifestationofthe heartwhich is hidden within the bodv.133
In such a wise does al Ghazali articulate the semioticsof both
tauaf and Ka'ba, and elaborate the inner meaning of the
out lard form of both the itual and the building Confirming
all this, Syed AIi Ashraf holds that the ldural of farewell (tauaf
al roada')'symbolizesman's dtachmentfrom the lowest region
and his journey to that region which is the highest of the high,
his real homeland.'r3'q
Ninian Smart has identiied three tyPical symbolic phasesin
any pilgrimage: the setting out, the visit to the sacredsite and
the return home.leoIi is not difficult to extrapolatefrom this
135
 SUFI RI TUAL
general rubic to the specifics and semiotics of the lslamic ha!.
The would-be hajji (or, more classically, i.ajj) signals his desired
purity of heart and intention by the settlement of debt arld the
assumptionofihran; arriving in Mecca he signalsthat purity of
hea.t and intention by voice and ritual action, labbayha ar'd
tduai returned home from Mecca, he signals his 'otherness' in
terms of present inner purification by the proud acceptance of
the title hajji/hai, and serves as an icon and al) inspiration
within his or her community for those who have yet to
undertake this most onerous, and most semiotic, of the live
arlzn, whose inner puihcation is so frequently signa[ed by its
Noles
1 SachiloVurala md Will;am al Chittick,The VLnonof khn: The
Ftunlat;aB aJ Mulin Fd;thdnd Pnrtte. (Lo or & New York:LB.
Tauris,19961, pp. L\V X\VI. Al \a*awis ForiyHzi,t'fiprovides
e$y accessto theArabictext:seeEzzedinIbrahih & DenysJohnen
Da*s (hms.), Matn al'Atba'in dl Ndbaeila [An \:d&Ln's Fo'b
Ilddthl, (3rd edn , I)anascus: rhe Holy Kors PublishingHoue,
I9i7), pp.28 33 (Hadith .o 2l LHereafter this text is efded ro a
al-Nawawi,dl Arbd'tl.
2 Ibid ln another hadith (Hadith no ; in dl Nawa$i, a/.Arbd'in,
pp 44 45), we find din defined as sincerity (lAla): 'Religion is
s;ncer;tyWe said, To whon? He said:To A ,n dd His Bmk, and
llis Messeger, and to the leadersof the h{uslims md th* common
folk.
3 Abu Muntsir ibn \Ioh& 'Ali, GLi)r to An l;sLwi\ 40 Hadith,
(Ipswich:Jm'iat lhyaa'Ivlinhaj al Sunnal. 1990),p. 5. Saeate al-
Nawaqt, d/-Arba'in,pp. 34 3i (lladith no. 31,pp. 46 17 (Hadlth no
8) dd pp. 76 77 (Hadith no. l2).
4 \ 4ura rd& Chi, r i, l Uqn, o r i ' i ,n p \I\l
5 Al Nawawi, ai Arbd'u, pp. 98 101 lHadtth no.29).
6 (I 32:16 17i trds. Yusuf Ali, T[. Hol] Qul4n, p. 1096 Comp&e 1
Corinthians2:9, lsaiah 64:.1.
7 'A li, G d e ,p. 3+ .
8 lbid.
9 Ibid., pp. 31 3s.
1 0 lbid ., p . 3 s.
1 1 I bid.
136
TN\EILI\G T H E !1 C KETTI
12 Seeq 4:a8.
13 Schimel, Dedpherins the S;sB ol God, p 246
14 Mehmt Soyme., Concise Islanic L)teclisn, trans & ed bv
Ekmeleddin Ihsaolu, (4th rec edn, Ankara: Directorate oi
ReligiousAffairs, 1991),p. 1.1
15 See Hmudati Abdalati, Isldn in Fl,ro, (KuMit: International
Islmic Fedqation of StudentOrgmizations,1981),p 't; Q. 112:1 4
trm. Yusu{ Ali, 'Ihe Holy Qytan, p 1806
16 Seart. l{l'Ik} as' in Nxtoq Popdar Dctinart of k/dn P. 118
17 SeeAHalati, lsldm in Fod, pP. s3 10s.
18 Q ,17:19, Q. a8i 29;* e al soQ, 4: 136
19 Q -33:40.
20 Q,6:103,Q 42:11.
2l SeeQ, 9a:1;*e al$ YusufAli, Tle Holr Qat'an,P 1755n 6188:'The
holy Propht's humd nature had ben purfied, expanded&d elevated
e that he b(,ne a ifd.y to all Creatron (conmdt on Q 91:1)
22 (! 2:23 21.
23 John B. Christophd, The Islanic Tradition Major Traditions of
World Civilization,(New York, Evuston San Fimcisco & London:
Harper & Row' 1972),p. 39.
24 S.hirmel, D.iphennsthd Sisru o/God, p 249; seeals P 22s
25 Q, 50:16;tlds. YusufAli,'the Ho\ Qtr"n, p.1412 SealsoNetton,
Allah Ttfumdent, p. 22.
26 Tros by Aisha AMurahnd Bewlev, AI Mreatta of Inan Molih
ibn A6: The Fist Fomllrtin oJIslanic Ldt (Lo don & New Yotk:
Kegd Paul Intmational, 1989), p 32 i.1 13:59l For the original
Aiabic s Yalik b Aoas, Knab ai Mueatla', (Beirut: Du al Kiiab
al 'A.abi, 1996),Pt. 1, p. 80
27 Murata & Chittjck, Virid ol Islan, p 4.l
28 Seibid., pp' 4'1 131.
29 Seibid., pp 132 192.
30 Ibid., p. 193.
31 Ibi d., P . 11.
12 See,for exmple, fie Pdn] Catedhim, (Librtvville ll-r Prow Books,
Frociscm Marltown Press,1982),p 25. 1'11
33 AMalati, Islam in F.)fu, p 5s
3+ SeeSchmmel, DeapfoinE the Sigts oJ Gati, p 143
3s S.eJ Horovitz, dt. N{i'redj'in H A R Gibb & I H Krands (eds)
Shdrer Enq1.Iopudia oJ Islan, [Hereafter referred to as ij/S]'
(Leidn: E.J. Brill/bndon: Luzac, 1961), esp P 383. See Sa)f id
Abul Aala Nlaudmdi, The Nobel Prophei's Meraj or Ascent to
H@ven: Sone Travel Notes , Th. Mwlin \Votld L@Ere lounal' Vol
2a, No. 7 (Rajab 1417lNov Dc. 1996),pP 19 22 Seealso:John
Reard, In th? fatsteps of Mubanurl: Understdndins the Indnic
Erpd?ianft, (New York/lvlahwah, N.J: Paulist Press' 1992)
1t7
 5[ F' RI TU. \ L
pP' 123 128; N,Iurata& Chitricl, !'6on o/ lslan, p. 167j Schimm.l
Deaphaing the Sig s oJ God, pp. 139 140.
36 (My ital;cs) Christophet, The Islatuic Ttdtritin, p. 10. SeeSchinmcl
De.iphdins the Sis^s oJ Cod, p 139.
37q30:17 18; trms. YusufAli, T[e Ho]r Q,r"an, pp. 105.11054.
38 SchimI, ,adpnerins the SisB of God. p. 139
39 Ibid.
40 q 5,7; t.as Yusuf Ali, Tle Hob Qrr"an, P' 2a2.
41 See ibid and also at. 'Tayammuo h :atton, Poprlar DitituD al
lddn, p. 248. Muslim latr, of cous, he mucl to sy on th; ed
rlated ropics.odcern;g pnrit duing prayer See,for exmple, rhc
rlevantsetions in llalik's Ki6b dl M/uatt'd',6p. Pt I, pP 52 a;
12 For this imagese Malik b. Anas,Kitab dl Mrudnd', Pt 1. p 123 Sec
.lso Vurara & Chrnrcl . l aioi o/ Ll,n p. I
' University Press,1995).P 91
43 SeeAbdalati, Islamin Foro, p 32.
4.1 lbid., p. 55.
15 Murata & Chndck, Visiono/ lslan, p I l.
16 SeeJ.Schacht,art 'Zakat', I'IS, p.6i.r;J.G. Hava, AI.Fai'id Atubic.
Eaglisl Dictioaarr: (Beirut:Dar al Maskiq, 1970),p.293 s\ zahar.
Mu.ata & Chittick, V{ion oJ klan, p. 16; Schimel. Dedp}dirs ,i.
Sigu o/ 6od, p. 101
4 7 S e eq 2 1 271
48 SeeVurata & Chirtick. I'nion oJlslan. p. 16
49 Q 2:43rtrans. Yusuf Ali, The I IoU (b/'dn, p. 27.
50 Se W Monteomery Watt, Muftdh'zl, Ptuphet mA St4t tun
(London (\ford Univesity P.ess,196.1),pp.23 32.
51 Christopher, The kldni Tldlniaa, p 1)
52 AMalati, lsldn tn Po.a, pp. 9s 96
s:l Yisiono/lsldn, P' 16.
s,l Se ibid, od ,\bdalati, lsldm in f&s, pp. 9s 98. Se,in particula,
Mtlik b. AnB, Kitab al-MuudtbJ, Pr 7 pp. 161 188.
5s Jonathm Benthall, The Quaans Call to Alm, Tines l.;shd
E,l.wdtion Surylemdt , 3td Jhudy 1997. p I 6
s 6 I bi d ., p . 1 7.
s 7 E g ., se Q 19: 26.
58 q 2:18si tros Yu,uf Ali, TAeHob Q/r'dn, p. 73.
59 See art. 'Rdhad.n' ;n Ntton, l,oprla1 DictioturJ oI lsldn,
pp. 2rr 272. See the desript;on of Ramadd in Edwad Willim
LaLe, An Accohr aJ the Ma ne6 Lnd C$to6 ol th. Modm EsJpriatu,
(2nd edn., l,ndon: Wdd, Lock & Co.. 1890),pp. 436'4a2 & also
lvfurata& Chittick, y6id of lslan, p. 18.
60 Clristophd, Tlu Islann Trclition, p. 45.
61 Art. Laylar al Qadr' in Netton, Popular Dictiomry ol Islnn. p. r52
G B. Vo! G.unebam, Muh^wadM Festi"aLs,(t ndon: Clrzon
Press,1988),p. s2.
138
UNVIILI\C T H E SAC R ED1
62 O.97r t os Yusuf Ali, Tte HoIl Qt'M, p 1765
e: SzeVon Crunebaum, Mrhanmdaa Festiuls, pp 51 6s; Ch'istoPher,
The Islant Trailitid, P 14
61 Murata & Chittick, Virio' o/ Istdn. p 17
6l Seeibid.; *e also Schimel, DedPidins tl Sics oJ God,p 99
66 Schi|rfrel, Dddpl'41g fie SiEtu o/ Cod, P 98
67 \{.Hr b Ams, KitiLbal tttuatta', Pt 1 p. 205i trds Bewlev Al
Iru0d*a, p. 121
6s Von Grun;baun, Mrhanndridf, Festildis, p' 53; llltlik b Anas Kita6
d Muwdtd, Pt. 1, p. 206.
69 ltne, Mod.m Ea/Dria6, PP 206 207.
70 Von Grunebaum, MulMu)4n Festidk P 53
71 Divid Wan6, An lntrodlctim to Islam (Canbridg: Cdbridg'
72 lv{alik h Arc, Kifib al'Mrudtta', Pt 1' pP 205 206i t'ds Bewlev'
p. 121
-AI'Muudtra,
73 Solmen, Contu Islanic Catechin P. t02.
7' 1 S eeQ,3:104
7i Mdata & Chittic!. Vnion oJ lslan' p :10
(Engiish
76 Al Na*awi, al'Atba'in, pP 29 31 (A'abi' text), 28, 30
hds.), (Hadith no 2).
77 Ibid , pp. 99 (Alabic text) 98 (Englishtrds ), (Hadrth no 29)
;8 thilmel. DpdPh"rn! lhPiistu of Cod P i;
79 (lvly italics) Q ZZ,zo :lo, tros Ylsuf Ali, ?'t? Hob Qrr'an
pp 8trt 858.$e al$ Q l lq6 200
dn + e. i n' " dri d,A i . w e;' i .cL' J Jone! B I e"i' sr H'oa! Lr '
r o'l:
\bl t. pp .{ l 18. C l ' d;i oP \n f 4. LlJa; . i'ddJm r ' pp
,U duri ; C .rdefi o\ D emombvne* r 4u[ n lor lu'r on I ondon
Alld & Unwin. 19s0, 1961),pp 81 102i H A R' Gibb Mondmru
danim: An rli\tdi.dl Suruqr',2nd edn, (Loddon: OUP), pP 6i 66;
G.R. Hawtinc, Th. flat in the:fcond Civil War' in Im Rjchrd
N"tto" ("d), Gold- Road:: Migratiaa, Pilsr;hase dnd'IidLeI ifl
MediMd ann Modam Isldn, (Richnond: Curzon 1993) Pp 31 42;
FE. Petere,The Hq.r: The Mtslin Pitstinase ta Mera and the Holl
Pld.s, (Princeton,\'J : PrincetonUdv'sitv l\ess, 1994);\lichael
wblfe let] ). Oro Tiruaad Roddsto Meccd: Ten Cdttn$ DJhauters
\Vritins d6outti? Mulin PilSridse (New York: Grove Press'1997)i
Waines,Itt'oludim ro Isldn, Pp 91 93
81 5e K. Conti Rossini (d) Chrcsto@thia Arahicd Meiliandlis
Fpigrdphi.d,(Rome: Istituto Pr L Oriente 1931), eg nos 5 10
1.1.16, 18,21.' 15,46.
82 Mclir Inslitutim, P El
83 fthilrfrel, Dcdph.rins rn. Sisa of God p. 64
8+:e q .u:127.
85 SeSoymn,Cbeise Isldnic Cdte.hin pp 108 110 111'
119
 SUFi RITUAL I\\ E I I I N G T HE Sl L R FD I

(in ibid ) how India pilgrins intioducedrelived

Se et. 'lsma" (1)' in Ntt@, Popular Di.ti@dry of lslan. p. 1t1 '"" lais al$ notes
103
Solmen, ConciseIslamic Catecliq, p. 110. N*"ii*J* Middle East and rtumed with the sPirit of
E7 Se art. Al-Jmra' i lie1tun, Popxlar Dxt;turt of kizn, p. l.l+ -,1'"v au"n Nal ftr trianrlvo 4 surho'dd rh'
w-,iJtu"i t"*;, q t"se s \d'4
s a
O U P lo b ( ) P l 8 r rhdi |
Sotmen, Cotcise klant Cate.irin, pp. 109, 111. Modm Wd / d , t l o n d o n
r' madetum
SeeQ, 37i102 107 {br this momentous evmt in the life of Ibrahtm i;Gt oir*';-*" . V*ca bequnin l;72 ';7 whrch
on rhe 'rfi path fin'llt \rold A 7;d"h
Soymen,Con.i'e isldnic Cnkci;m, pP i09-111, 112. '"i.r'i'i. rJ
p. 83. q
ii."^""i: -"t''." i'ar n*iott'i v^*';" t'ro^ 'LPrdel
89 see Gaudefroy Denonbyns, Mulifl /atltltim, "r, r he t elieiou' dd
90 SeeAbdalati, lsiam ia Foro, pp. 99 100. S .,ti . r' ota]. p 4a' ' behe\6 thr r ds ' r eqLhor
91 Schimnel, Deciphenagtire S1s6 of God, p. 64i Wain6, lntrode,ior Uv Crdnd sdusi In Vec " the raan c
^"a' wde 'n
-,1*.
future plm-"i,n"and policie thought out and concret$d'
to /slan, p 92r Rendd, Ifl the F@'stepsoI MthamntJd, p 86.
92 Ai Tab&i, Td'nln aI Rsl tua"l Mulnh, (Vois 3-+, Cairo: a] 104 Cil*nm, Rercsnene kld6 P 1a
n" ra't"ornro' R.olurroaTntrodu'noa
I{atba'a al Husytu}ya al Miqri}ya, 1909), {heraftr re{ened to as '"" c*.r ,tSaai-**
iii
rca;o i ored'h?
ArubRepubl:cMrnisr)or
llrkLlrl, Vol. 3, p. 168; trms. lsmail K Ponawala, The H;rtdr oJ ;';;; Th.."*n
x",,J C.a.*" Se^i'
Inrormrtion los! p ol: forrhe
al Taboti (Ta'r thh al-rsl ua "l-ndnl): Vohre IX: The I^t ve&s """ (cairo:Der ar
ol rhePnph.t, Biblioth@ Persica,(Albany, N.Y: State Univmity of ;;;J tJ" *e Nawr' Farsalar dr-rhd&'a,
New York Press,1990).p. 112. Ma'erif, nd ), P 7e
Ibn Hishth, zl Sirz dl \idbddlld, d. Jm,l Thebit et a1.,(Cairc: Dd roo il*.. pir-o'l'r,f ,i Raohtiotr, p 62i idem Fakafatal Thuru'
al Harith, 1996),\b1..1,pp. 227,230itrus A Guillaume,Ttu L1t oJ P .79.
Mrhtutunatr: A Timlrti.n of tldgi Sirat R@i Allil, (Kanchi: Ot]? 107 lbid.
1955,1980),p. 650; s ale FF, Perss,A Ra'lE m Cl,1s;dl klan, I08 S eeQ 2124 Q. l t l 00 Il l tt
ro" s* *lt ,t l"-* rn \enon P"pula' Dirrrad\ oJ I ldn P
{P.inetoD, N.J.: Itineton Univrsit! Pr6, 199.1),p 94.
Roard, In tfre Fmtstups of Muhanntu\ p. 86. 110S eQ214
1r
95 Al Tabm, Tz'n&I, Vol. J, pp 167 169;trds. P@na*ala,Iaf ya'r 1 seeQ.).l ab /0r,Q.Joo a7 Q 126
ii.z s" "i r"*s. ; Neflon Poprlo' ttittimo'i or t4an P )tj
af the Prophet,pp. 107 11.1.Compare lbn Hisham, cl-.Srraal
NdbdDi]}a, ed. Jmal Thabit e, al., \bl 4, w. 22i 230. ii: ir-J- s--, Th. Phmdd oI Retlsim Philosophv of Religion
Al Tabdi, Ta"n:Ah, \b1.3, p. 170:tlas. P@mwala,I^t v?d'r otti. Sri6, (l,ndon: Ilactulld lqTl) P I
hophat, pp. 111 115. Compde th extdded veGion in L{ulim, r u ilJ.. n'^* .l ,lP S& rd ALAeron! oJ the \\o'td Betef'
Sa[i[, (Beirut] Dfu Ibn t{um, 199s1,Voi 2: Kitt} al tlat: Chap 19. (t-ondon: Ha+er Crllins' 1996) P 29 /-
no. 147, pp. 721 i27; rtns. Petere. Read"r n Cbsnal klan. lr' SIdt. Ph4ffi6@ ol Relision' P s
pp.2 8 1 2 85. 116 lbid.. p. 38.
97 Muslim, Saiiir, Vol 2, p 72si trans. Peters.Readz,d CIBical 117 Snan, Dntrioa o/ rhe Sa'td,pp 10 1l
Islam, p. 282. Se alo VarrinLings, MuhdnnsL Hk L;k BLed 6 iir iu'J.,o ro,*. "t'. 'dem Phmtunoa ot RPIIs'on
r '12
I 19 Sman. Dnrom of rh. S@Pd P 72
,tu Ea'liest' ^Sou'es,(Lndon: Islmic Texts liriety/Gorge Allen &
Unw;n, 1983),p. 333. 120 l bi d., pP 180 1E 1.
98 Soyme, Cotuie lslaai CdtechLn, p. 108- 121 l bi d., P 83
99 AMalati, lsldn in l'o.u, pp. 99 I00. 122 Ibid
100 Gaudefroy'Demombynes, M6lin lrurtt tim, p 97. iii iii' uri"o cdtechisnoJ thecathoticchuch' (LondonrGeffrev
101 &e Wensinct/Jom;erllewis an. HadjlU'(esp pp.37 38 by Lwis). C haomo, l qq4l ,
P JU o#130 2 I lbl
or
rormul"rron'
see e,pecially for Ibn Jubarr, Ibn Badnta md the PilgrirFge to r:r
' i. ii-"" n s.ia Thcari" Brddhrsm ' 1wo in f''nl'
il" o.- s't ,'.1 rhe Lrhi.' ot rhe cradu'r P'rh J
M@ca my articles ;n Ie Richdd Nefton, S?e[ K@bfue: Thousht
and Tttul in the I lae of ldan, (Richmond: Curzon, I 996) i.n-- a o*e"li" Mahinda(eds), Pali B/ddh;m'(Richmond
102 Lewis rctes (wensinck4onier/t*wis an Hdjdi', p 38) that it Curzon l'jress,1996),P 35
llondon
wc pilgrims returning froo )r{eca, whae they had beome awe of rzs Cf';"t.^ rf'-pr""vs A Pop d' Dttindt at B'ddhan
thir ow '.lisious bclwadnes', $ho instituted the Alnoravid Curan Prru, 1184,,p 'Jo s' \ahb Eiqh'foldPath
35'
ud the Almohad revolutions. 126 Bond, 'TheravedaBladhism's Two Fornulations" P

140 141
 StJI'i RITTJAL L N \ E I L I N C T TIE b AC R EDI

127 DeegalleMahinda, The Moral SignifcanceofBuddh;t N;vma in 1ss see, for exafrple, Udbrto Eco A Theorr oJ Seniotics Advdcs n
HolTman& Mahinda leds.). P..aL Bttlhin, p. r11. lieniotics, (Bloonington & London: Indima Universitv Press'
128 Ma Fu'ch'u, Ttu Ihre Chatacter Rilrud Clan on the Ktb.h 1976); idem, Smiorics a"d the Phllosapb ol Lnguce, lLot'lon:
ltrds. J. Pekr Hobson, Stutriasin Conparaliw Relidotr (Sum. \facnilla, 198'1)
Autum 1980)1,rep.. in GIassa, The CotuAe &qclop@dia of lsldn 156 Siiver, PnilosoPh] oJ Religiou lzns@ge Pp' 122 123 drawng oD
p. I32 sv FDe Pillda. Paul Tillich, Lren;s of Falti World PrsPectivsSeries,Vol l0'
129 Sman, Diruroioro or,he Sde.L p. j2 (Nev Yorl: Heper Torchbook, 19s8) pP 41 '14
130 Ibid., P. 7.1 1i7 i\'{! nalic.) T[e Pdn] Cd&.h47, p 14 (q.249)'
'lheolosia' 11t, 60 3 cited in
1 3 1 I bi d ., p .8 9. 1j8 it.-Thonas Aquinas, Sanma
1 J2 Se ei b i d .,pP . 180- 181. Cdtachiffi oJ th. L:atholic Chrrch' p 259
133 S@,lor xmple. q 80,25 32 159 Asad, Gtualogi6 oJ Ral;3ionpp. 153 154'
1-14SeeaboveD. 121. 160 Ibid., p. 1;'f.
13s SeeSDart, Dtruatoa oI thz S@eA, p A3. l ol l b .. D D l ;4 l i 5 n 2l j
136 Talal Asad, The ld.a oJan Aathropologl o/.lslam, Ocaionai Papcrs l ol S v" d.i i i \' hJaf, l he l nnr N ledins or r he lsl"m ic Fi'e" Pr "t er '
:rries, (Wdhinston, D.C.: Cent r {br ContemporaryArab Srrdi.s. P i l ermds., l -rrnq Jrl ' ao r ' cir ed Hosser n\ a<r Pd ' lsiddl
GeorgetownUniversitv 1986,p. 1. Spinrulitr: Foufldahom,P 111
r 37 I b i d . 163 Sch;nmel, De.iphennsthe SisB oJ Go.l p. )t'
1 38 lbi d ., p p I 2. 16.1 Al-Ghd.li, .Ct'}/"q'id l-a fi Shaih Md'at1 Asna' AUah dl
Fadlou A "t
Shehadi, (Beirut:Dd al Mashriq 1971) p' 7s
1 . r 9I b i d ., P 7 . fll]fu, ed.
1.10Ibid., p. I'1. For a tra.siatio" al Ghaali s fmous text, seeDavid B tsurrell &
"f Ninetr-NineBeautiFl NdnA oIcod
1 41 I b i d . -'r-aih Daler, Al Ghcali; The (Canbridge:
1 42 lbi d ., p . 1 7. AI Ma4sai aI ctu fi shalh 6M' Allai di lea,
113 Seeidem., GnealostesoJ ReliEion: Dtcipli@ Md ReB.A oJ Powet i^ Isl@ic Texts Societtl1992),esp p 63'
Chtitanirt and Islan, (Battinore & London: Jolns Hopk;ns 165 Qa.li al-N!"mdn, Da'a';n dI lslan, ed. A A A Fvzee (Cairo: Dar
University l}ss, 1991),p. 58. al V - a.i t. l qo ,/ \ol L p. l ,Ar abi r xr \ .
1 4, 1lbi d ., p p . 56, 57. 62 166 Rna.d, In !i FootstepsoJ Mthom@'I' P 154
115 lbid., p. 79 citing FNI I)Dny ( lslamic Ritu.l: Perspetives&d 167 ,A1-Nawa$,dlArba'in, pp 78 79 lHadith no 23)'
Thories' h R C. l,{artin (ed ), Apprwhu to Islan tn Relicio6 i b8 l bi d. oD 100 L0l (H adrthno 2'l)
StLdias,(Tucson:Utuversitr of Ar;zona l,r6s, 198s),p. 66)- l 6q t{" i i l emd 5mi th & Y ron ne \ azbe't H'dd'd I ir p l"loni'
146 SeeAsad, Id.a oJ dn Anthropolol p 11 Ll snan4ins oI Death dnd Rsn ctim (Albd) N'Y: SUNY
P r6s, 1981),P 81.
1 18 lb i d ., p . 1 7. l ;0 W dIw Jl A l n l l aara ' H ydsdb "d laO l r r eo dd r r dn' n W
149 Clirton BeMett, 'Islan' in JeanHolm {ed ), S&acdPlz.e, Themesin U o.i somen \r" n tl ant' t rcPt s A Spt c'r ion lslo c sur t et '
RelieiousStudiesSries,(London & New Yo.k: Pinrer, 1994),P 95 Se.ies,(Fninbureh EdinburghUniversitv Press 1994)'p' 60
1s0 Mircea Eliade, I'dtktu in Conpatutie Relision. (London: Shed & 171 Ashraf, 'Innr Meding, P 11l
Wd d , 1 9 s 8) ,p 227. 172 Ibi d. D 112
151 Bemett, 'Isld', p. 95 iz: t.C;. ti*", at Fa'a'id Ardbi. Enslish Dictiondr! P 293 sw zdhat'
152 He.ry Corb;, 'The Configuratio! of lhe Tedple of the Ka'bah o
the Secret of the Spfitual L;fe in idem. Tdral? dd C@teaplation. 17.1Al'Nawawi, di A/6d'in, PP 98 99 (Hadith no 29)
Islanic fexts dd Contexts, {London & New York: KPI in 17: SE J. Schacht,art. ZakaC,I]IS p 654
assoc;ation with lslmic Publiatjons, Lndon, 1986).p. 20.r. 176 Ibi d.
153 Q 11:sJ; trms Yusuf Ali, The rIoly Qw"aa, pp. 1302 1303. See 177 Al NasaM, aiArba'm pp 98 99 (fladlh no 29)'
Ntron,Allai Trdaen&flr. p. 321. I78 Wehr, Dirrionary o/ M od'm Wtitten Arauc, 2nd Printing, p 138 sv
151 Dan R Stivd, The Philosopheof Relisi8 Ltnsnge: Sigt, Synbol j,'-. S." A* ltail U.And, I(itab zl M!tuarl4' Pr I p' 205whde
and Story,(Canbr;dge,Nfas9/Oxfo.d: Blacksell, 1996),p 196 fa< i ns ds a p' otec t ior Udr M
' s.l dsfi d
t42 r43
179 Ashral Inner Meaning, p 119
1a0 Kifib al-Mtuatla", Pr. 1, p.206.
181 lbid., p. 206.
182 A sh rd lM d M eaning,p p . 1 1 8 1 1 9 .
183 Rmrd, In th? Fmtrteps oJ Muhdnautl. p. 83. Unveilingthe Sacred2
184 Mary Douglas, Prntr @l D6ger: An AMItsn oJ Cmepts ,,1
Pollution ana Tahoo,lLon lo.: Routledse & Kgd Paul, i 966, 19t0 The Parallel Universe of Sdff Ritual
p2 .
185 I bi d ., p 4 .
186 !@ al Tabm, Ta"riih, Vot. 3, pp. 167-168; tmns. Pdm*zl4 Ldrr
YeatsoJ the Ptophet, pp 109 lll.
187 I bi d .
188 &e al-Gbazili, Ihla"Ulnm al.Din, (RePr Beirut: Dd al lv{a'rifa. 5.1 TheologY
n.d . {1 .1 04/ 1983
4?1,V ol . 1 , p p .2 1 8 2 2 2 .
r89 Ashral 'I..er Meaning , p. 12s. which
190 Smart, Dneroim of tle S6ed. p. 88 Neithr the Ni'matullahivva nor the Naqshbandivva'
rltuar case
have earlier been presentedin this volume as two
*i*, ,f'" n*,rlan ot marnsrream lslam:nothinscould
"J"". fr". the collecrrve minds ^f eirhe! urder' Borh
il. ii,"r'"'
* ;--"*" nde[tv to these hve fundamenta]s-of the^
-""if* But, as we have shown' thev also have a number ot
dtfl.
rn sum'
supplementary rituals which mav be said to constitute
is proposed to e\prore d
a oialtet ttniuoseoJ sufi ntual Here it
ftbtta
Jection of Lheserir,rats dhihr' sama frht mwqaba
*f.4". ."a r,l,ird 'decontextualised', as it were' from
-'l,u-1, of their Orders, but examined under the same
if." f'"-"*.'f
and
four rubrics of thmlogv, phenomenologv' anthropolosv
*ru.f' J"pt.v"a in the as'e'sment of rhe five
""'" of snfr
,rl"r ir tf'" pr",,ou" .t'upi"' Ttu' parallel uruverse
""*;"ti."
orher'
,i J, *fti.f, may anractsomeand protoundlvalien"(e
perspective of that alienation ln a
will then be surveved from the
6nal chapter'
in
The tieoloey ol rhe dhi&rfor the 'ufr rs ea'rlvaniculated
is less easilv surveved in such
Qur'anic ternis; that of the sanr^a'
i"n. S.f';-*a **inds us that the practice of dfiilr' which
^-'i*f as 'mentioning' or 'recollecting' has
fr.t" t."""t"t""
"t" founder
Prooh"ti. *le."dettt' o"d eoes back ro the age of the
ro tbenumerous
ri[- r.irn*rr'sr'" arawsanenrion Qur"ini'
"i of tl" nt"U. .*t dhahatd(to remember)and citesStrd
"""q""
+'lo-: So- 13:28which respectivelymake referenceto
-a
''"-.J.i.e God after finishing the itual praver' and
'141
 STFi RI'i'UAL
proclaim that 'Verily by rcmemberjngthe Lord, heartsb.co,rj,
quiet.'r Here, then, are the sourcetexts for dhihr oar excellen,,
en.hrined rn rhe source text oI lslam ;l.eif. fhe ,ir..r.,
constitutesa form of supplementaryprayer in sofi Islam wb,.tr
may build upon, but does not replace,the tradirioDalsdtal trs
essential theology is, therefore, that of the salat. analvzed abor t
in the prcvious chapter, reinforced by the Qur,anic dicta 1,1
which we have just referred. The same dominant rheolosical
lcLrmorw ol rabbtr.which ,s dr rhe hcan of the satar,;s atsoai rt.,
heat of the dhibz.
The theologicalmerits, and salvific consequenceof dhihr. at,:
powerfulll reinfor.ed anct underlined in d norable hrdirt-
recorded by al Bulhari: it notes that Allrh has some anBelr
uho <peci6Lalll.eek our rhosepeoplewho pracrisedhrh, anJ
congregate around such people when they 6nd them. When this
happens,A1lah,even though He knows the answeralreadv,asks
rhe aneelswha( the peopleare saying The angelsrepearto,
their Lord the glorificatory words of the dhi[r Allah asts
whether his praisershave actually seenHim and, on being told
that they have not, worders how such people would speal if
thev n ruallv had wghr of Him The .neelsrespondrhar iI rh"'
had happened,then the worship and glorification would have
been even greaier and more intense.
Allah then asksabout what such practitionersofdhiLr requesr.
An angel says that they seek Paradise. He queries what they seek
to avoid and is told 'helltue' . In each casethe questioning by God
and the aJlgelic responsesfollow a simiiar pattem: even thoush
Pdradrse dnd heUh.ve not beenseen,rhe angelsmake n ctearrhar
the sight of each would respectively increase desire for Paradise
ard abhorrence and fi:ar of Hell. Allah condudes that thos vho
kep company with th parple who practise dhibr will not suffer
the pains of Hell.r From an intertextual perspective the had-rth
participates in, or relates to, that group of texts which seeksto
establish a theology oftrust. Another key textual exemplar ofthis
theology i" b John 20:2q rn which blessrngis bestowcd upon
those who have not seen br:t have believed.
Finally, for the sufi, the theology of dhiir encapsularesa
lheoloe\ of rdenrrficarion. erowth, becoming and being
146
U\VEII-Ih\G THE SACRED2
wherebv the thouqht ot and mediratjon upon Cod prrmedle'
the very labrtc of rhc ruhs bodl '-nd soul The story of the
discipte of Sahl ibn Abdullah, which we recalled in Chapter
Three, is an excetlent epitome of all that.
Sdrna', too, partakes of a thologv of tdbbt' bv praver, song'
movement and, sometimes, dance The latter has been
condemned as bid'a by manv mainstream Muslims Thus
dancrns durine rhe sdma i. an 'ttrviry wirh a somewhdr
<ame
restric;d apr;l for some lejected bv orheF rn much rhe
wav that d;ce was (ejected bv such earlv Christian Fathers of
th; Church as Origen (did 25'l)r The feelings of ecstasv
induced in the s[fi mvstic bv the dance might provide a
fortaste of 'Divine union' or Paradise for some; for others'
music dnd ddnce.ould only yield a sat'ni' rheoloel
In considering the related topoi ol frk and muraqobo' orle ts
on less thomy an<l ambiguous grounds theologicallv Both
words Darticipatin a fundamental Qur'anic theology Histori
callv fir has a *'ide semantic 6eld which the bare dictionarv
de6nition ('thinling, cogitation, reflection, meditation' spec-
ulation, contemplation, considerationi thought, idea, notion'
conceDtioDinion,view')r doesnot hightight ln the Qur'an man
i" i. refle.t :o larer the pfulusophers and rheoloeidns
"';"d facultv in
emolovedthe na"d't ftu ,o 6pn1 rhe rnrellecrual
thJ aci of thoueht, ,"flecti.'g upo., arr object of intellection'7
3
i"J tr'" io"t.u"te,l th" word with dhthr, recollection
"':fi"
Finally, 'it was the superioritv of dtuiir to "fibr which was to be-
most eenerallv affirmed 'e Be that as it may, God is the focus of
the sifr'
hh,r''"for the or,linarv readeroi rhe Qur'arr' a' for
iunJamenrallv,rhe theologvof fih' in the Qut dn is d 'emrorr'
theolow: God makes His signs clear to mankind in order that
dsht rflect upon them, (.la'allah'm Ytafohbatlmal a
'
-un
reflection which has implications for th present and future life
(ft 1'dunya uo'l ahhiTa).11 It is also a theologv with a proPheric
Ji*er'*io.', p.ope' reflection provides an insisht into th true
nature of the Prophet Nlulrarnmad who is 'but a persprcuous
1r
warner' (nalhrr mrlbin) and not mad or possessed'
The theology of,fhr in the Qur"an, then' has both a celestial
and a terrestiJ dimension: God provides man with clear signs
1li
 STIi RITI]AL
so that he might rellect upon them and ultimately come to H;r.
God also provides man with the Prophet lrluharunad antl
man's reIlction enables a corect identifrcation and charactcr
isation of that prophetic frgure. The eschatologl behind tht
phrasefr 'l dtnya wa 'l,ahlirar3 lends the whole concept offtr
and its various verbal forms used in the Qur.an, dl
eschatologicd dimension which may not be immediatet,,
apparenr.
If, then, fn, clea-riy participates in a fundamental Qur'anr
theology, which has semiotic, eschatological and Propheti.
dimensions, its sister m rtqabd (looseiy,'contemplation') ma1.
be said to hav antecedents in, or even loosely embrace, thc
Prophet Muharnmad's ptactice of tahannuth, and may thus b,c
said to participate iD a S;ra theology. The Pmphet \{u[ramrnad.
before the revelation of the Qur'an, used to go to Mount Hira ,
to practice tdhannuth. In common with Watt we note rhe
difhculty in assigning a precise mealing to this archaic Arabic
word. Watt suggests thar clearly some type of devotion is
involved and he likes the suggestionof H. Hirschfeld that the
etymolosy is the Hebre\r, tehinnat or tehimnth which had the
senseof intercess;onwith God for his favour.rr (lf course,it is
true that other s,tfi practices such as Aholua coutd also, with
reason, be traced back to the Prophets practice of alannuth.
Nonetheless,the prayerful solitude of the latter practicegivesit
at least some affinities wit|. murnqaba.
There is, horvever, a Qur'enic theology behind nuraqaba as
well. Drawing attntion to the fact that one of God's names is
'The Watchful' (a/ Raai6) fsee Q, +:t, Q, 33:s2], Waley
reminds us that in the same way that God extends His
watchfulness to man, so the $nfi should be watcMul over his
own heart lest it become distracted or a host to wicked
thoughts.ri
Abu Hamid al-chazali rakes up the basic eur,anic
references and, having defined al Raqi6 as a (nowing and
Protective Being, goes on to elaborate a Qur,anic theology of
muraqaba: tlte latter is only worthy of praise if its object is cod
and mans own heart. And it wili only be thus when man
realises that God observes his every move and that not only
118
L-N!E]LI\C] THE JACRED 2
Satan but his own soul may lead him astray Watchfulness
therefore means that he is on guard both against Sata-n and
himself.r6 The fundamental theology of muraqaba th.us
embraces the twin, and complementary, ideas of tu.niry io
cod and turnine away trom sin.
If w aftempt now to elaborate a theology of rabitd, we do
well to remember, fustly, that in $unsm the term indicates the
'bond' or 'linl' between disciple and Shaykh This mirrors
ideally in a very real sensethe bond beween God and man, and
thus the idea of rabitu may be characterised as Qur'anic in its
theology Watt puts it in a nutshell: 'Beliefin God's power and
goodness leads not only to gratitude a:rd worship but also to a
certain attitude or way of li{e in practical affairs.'I7 This
relationship of God and man, what we might cha.racterise as
Quaanic ?al'ita, is articulated at an individual levl by the
Muslim who, classically,sees no division between Islamic
politics and Islamic religion. and at an institutional level by the
sofl Order which establishesa link or silsila between the
contemporary ShayLh and N{uhammad, the Prophet of God
who, in tum, had indirect contact with Allah via Jibril. God's
gi{is reinforce the link with man. (X the Battle of Badr in A.D
624 the Qur'.n notes:
RememberHe coveredyou
With a srt of drowsinss,
To give you calm as from
Hinself, and He caused
Rain to descendon you
Fron heaven,to clem you
Therryith, to removfrom You
The stainol Satd,
To strengthen your heets
fu d Ii yatbi!.r'ala wlnbihunl
,{[d to plant your fei
Firmly therewith.lb
The word suhba, 'companionship' or 'keeping of pious
company', clearly has much in common with rabila Theolo
gically,and, ofcourse, etymologically,it is the sahabd,who'kept
 5 . FI RI TL. AL U I i V E I L I N G T HE SAC R ED2

company' with the Prophet himself, who constitute th, to, God as well as within a narrower paradigm of repentance
archetypical paradigm, and from whom may be derived th" and oenance. The verses quoted above, of course' with their
archetypicalvirtues of such companionship The sahabahari refe.enc to th 'morrow' have obvious eschatological overtones
become objects of hish veneration in Sunni Islam: they liguri i" att;. .""p..,, a 'theology of preparation' for the
"-brace
prorninently in the isna& of many hadith; they are consider.,l last times whici is paralleled bv the Parable of the Ten Virgins
-i,
to be eremplars of good practice or sunna; their foundational in N{atthew 25:1 1il.
of
role in the establishment and reinforcment of early Islam gavt Th 6nal srlf ritual to be assessedhere under the rubric
attention earlier to
them an invincible charism to the extent that mockery or insult theology is the urird or litany We have drawn
of the sahabacould incur the severestpunisbrnents.rqThmlL, the Priphet Muhammad's injunction to utter certain formulae
gically, there is no doubt that the sofi practice of szhba shares rn .. certain occasionsand John Main's emphasis on the mantra as
this paradigm whose primary fature is the relationship and a key to meditation and the penetration of self-consciousness'
cornpanionship with the Prophet lvlubammad himsell This is Vird. in tosal,'rruufcan threfore be, inter dlio' a conscious
not to say that the Shaylh necessarily parallels the sah,ala in thc meditative technilue, silent or vocal' wherebv the soul focuses
areasoutlined above, nor that th penalty for insulting a quli upon (ieator. It mav be said to havea canonica]Prophettc
Shaykh should in aay way follow that imposed for reviling the '(s ,nderlinedand elaborared in SnFsmbv the
o.iein una
"u',.t'on.or reciters of at'rad from the mediaeval age
sahaba. lt is simply to point to an ideal relationship in 5nfi eyes miy practitioners
between N{uframmad and his companions and suggest that, for
s[f]s. rhis i. Lheprimal paradremin;zfba. Of course, the Arabic term fitd has a broader semantic
'animrls
The principle of rrdasaba or 'self-examination' has a clear baseaeelhaniust lirany ltcan mean warelrngpld'e
ro
Qur'a:ric sanction.The sacredtext speciEcallyeqjoins a mode ."ir"i"e t. ttt" \rarer'. .pecified trme of da1 or n'ghr de\oled
recired on this
of self'examination,though avoiding the use ofthe actual word orivate"worship. a sectron o[ rhe Koran
nuhasaba: .rcasron./r Penrrce crre.rhe Qur'anrc usagein Sura 1a:8otwa
as:
rus.qu aI nrjnnrln itn Jahaanorn raird-) which he translates
O rrewho blieve into Hett, as cattle are driven to
"r."i *" *;ti d.;u" the wicked
of the verb warada rs
water.'22 lf then one of the root meanings
And let everysoullook life) it is not
'to arrive at uarer' (a fundamental for human
To what (p.ovision)he has a
difficult to combine the tltvo senses of uird and articulate
Sentforth for the morror. the
ii""iogy in *t;.t' *" .ecitation of certain formulae enables
upon, or even arrive at, the Divine Source of
,"-'^"a;t""
For God is well'acquainted "oi, theologv and
i.ife ltself.']3 Such would be an eminentlv snfi
With (all) rhat y do,
goal.
And be ye not lile
'lhose who forgotGod;
And He nade them iorget
5.2 Phenomenolog
Then ovn souls!Such
Are the rebellioustranssessorsl"
The phenomenon of meeting regularly for the recitation'
It is clear from this that the theologl' of muhasaba can be vhether silent or vocal, of certain ritual utterances has an
use
articulated as pa.d of a wider theolosy of fear of, and obedience antique phenomenological pedigree in manv religions The
1]0 151
 SLI i RI TLAL
of music in worship and, to a rather lessrdegree,dance ar"
similarly well'attested. We may identify at the heart of sul,
dhibr and sama' the same triple phenomena of 'thanlsgivinr'
'rnemorial' and 'presence'which underpin, for example. the
celebrationof the Roman Catholic Mass in Cbristianity.ri Ii,
say this is not in any way to suggesta theologicalidentfication
betveen the actual rituals of dhi[r and Eucharist. but onjy t,,
identify a sharing of three underlying phenomena on ,*'hich
those two rituals are built: the sufi is tlanff"l for God's bounn
durins the articulation of his vocal or silent dli[z;'z5 thc
nenorial ol trs God quietens his heart;rb and. in a mystical
sense,he gains some kind of accessto the presenceof God by his
dhi[r. Schimmel envisases th silent dhihr as a species of
mystical journey through the Arabic letters of the word Aila/r
until the sufi is at the shining heart of the 6nal h of that word.
ln the same mystical vein, she soes on to maintain that the
constant repetition of dftiAr cleanses the heart and makes it
receptive to the light of God and rellective of His beauty.:;
If it is the businessofthe phenomenologistof religion to seek
patterns and frameworks,r3and if it is true that 'structural
description reveals the dominant pictures of the focus at a given
time',2e it is clear that any analysis of the fundamental
structures of most snh Orders swiftly identifies the dominant
role of the dhilr (sometimeslinked to iarxr") within the ritual
structures. From what we have already observed, that means
that the triple phenomena of thanksgiving, memorial and
presence assume a paramountcy for each order which may
frequently exceedthe roles played by thosethree phenomenain
mainstream non srlfi Islam.
From the perspective of mystical theology, we have seen that
,fihr rvas contrasted with dhihr. Phenomenologically,slfi.f&r
implies a witl to a type of contemplativeintellection which is
beyond mere ordinary ratiocination.JavadNurbakhsh provides
a useftll siii key in his deiinition of fbr as "'heart based"
contemplation' which was to be 'found' not 'woven'.r0[rhen
one deais with the phenomenon of,4[r, thm, in wsaun{, one rs
dealing with a gnostic mode of thoughtful love of the Divine
which transcends the fundamental intllctual structures of the
1;2
LNVEIL]NC :'HN SACRED 2
traditional sdlar. Sufis hav an increased oPportunitv through
their
fhr to garner'the divine sparks'which will help them on
journey to God.jr
'
fili, then, fiom a s.fi phenomenological perspective, is
infused with a dimension of'value added' spiritualitv And if
we accept thanksgiving, memorial and Presence as the keJ
phenomenological lopoi deriving from dhi&r and sdma', then it is
ih" topos ot phe""-""on of transcendence which derives from
fh,
Mworyrba, as a phenomenon,clearlv has a dual dimension:
man keeps watch both tz'er himself and for someone else, God
We may emphasise al Qusharyi's explanation of nwraqaba as a
32 Such
mutual' 'waich keeping' between Creator and qtifi
watchfulness participates in a paradigm of pragmatic anticipa-
tion: we have noted, in a slightly different context, the Parable
of the Ten Virgins in Matthew 25:1 13 The warning which is
siven, a few verses before the narration of this parable, is
insrrucriue 'You mu'l be on lhe wdlch. then sincc )ou do nor
know the hour of your Lord's coming.'r3
The phenomenon ol rdbita h Silfrsm, the bond beF/een
disciple and Shaykh, and that of suhba' keeping pious companv,
extend and emphasise in a special wav a paradrgm or
ohenomenon established at the beginning of many of the
world's major religions, that of discipleship: Jesus Christ in
Christianity had His Apostles and disciples; Muhammad had
his sahaba: Brddha collected disciples as he travelled and
taught.ra N{any such leaders began slowlv with a few faithful
rs Rabi@ is
followers and gradually enlarged their fotlo\'"'ing
itself an aspect of this more ancient phenomenon of disciple
ship, atablished by the Prophet Muhammad himsell The
Droblem. of course, which mav arise is that the link between
Master and gofi disciple is perceived to be bevond that whicl is
36 And just as the
licit in terms of reliance and infuence
founders of manv of the world's great religions have endured
prsecution and even death, so too many of great tuti
-the
lvlasters have also been reviled and Persecuted "
The Master Discipleship relationship in Su6sm, while
mirroring the proto-relationship of the Founder of the Faith
153
 SUFI RITUAL
to his disciples, exhibits another paradigm as well, that of the
Custodian and the Recipient of mystical knowledge: the
Shaykh, tied to his mystical ancstors and predecessors via
the silsila is a primary custodian of the ancestral 'narrative' oi
the ran-qa. It is he \vho transmits tHs 'narrative' in words and
ritual to the mlr-rd or initiate, when the latter is inducted into
the Order. That 'narrative' may be two-dimnsional insofar as
it shares in the mainstleam history, beliefs and rituals of Islam.
and then adds a new ritualistic or other dimension by means of
features specific to that Order ot tLsau mf in general. In
mainstream Islam the Muslim may derive much of the
'nartatle' of ddr al-lslam fron.,the arhan. Christopher Martin
identifies four motives which reflect a religious 'narative in the
urge to pilgrimage: healing, the searci for roots, penitence and
homecoming.33As we have already seen,the Islarnic ial neatly
encapsulates all four aspects or motives which, together,
transmit the Islamic 'narrative' of pilgrimage with panicular
reference to lbrihim and Nfuhammad.
In tasararaufwe have the phenomenon of an extn dirnension
ofritual and mystical knowledge,an 'extended'narrative being
transmitted from Shaykh to discipte by means of such devices as
The obvious focal point for discussionhere, thei, is the
'dbitd.
phenomenon of authority ard the question of who may licitly
exerciseit in a modern post-Caliphal age.
Close inspection of the phenomenon of mulasaba or 'self-
examination' reveals a primary tool of sofr ascesisdesigned, like
,f&7, to lead the aspirart to God. lf sin is held to be an obstacle
on that path, then it is clear that identification of sin is the tust
step to removing that obstacle. M asabaarticulates a theology
of accountancy to God, which must be based on a phenom
enology of tota.l honesty self knowledge and perspicacity if it is
to yield valid results for the snfi in terms of salvation. Self
examination allows sin to 'be prevented at its source, and the
intention arld will mortilied in so far as they seek what is
contrary to the Divine Will.'3'! It is not diffrcult to deriv a
psychological, ascetical, moral or devotional theology from the
writings of such arch-proponents of rnuhasabaas Harith b. Asad
al-Muhasibi (781 857).From the phenomenologicalperspective,
UNVEILING THE SACRTD2
rruhasaba is to be identified as a key, and ven foundational,
asDctof the stiucture of the sdi Way in many of the tlnrq from
which so much else derives. Like f br, as a phenomenon it is not
a goal but a means. Structurally, it sits easily with other 91fi
ascaical practices and rituals Epistemologicallv, it is a device
for the sofi lo achiev rcal Lnowledge of the self together with
that rpentance and turning to God about which the Qur'an
talks so much.'o
Finally. we turn to a brief phenome.nological survev of the
rdrd, the litany, a public or private practice which has so much
in comrnon with that of dii[r' The phenomenon of praverful
repetition of certaia phrases is again well anested in many of
the world's major religions, and these have often become
insiitutionalised and ass<riatedwith specific ituals or saints
fea-rdays.The phenomenon*orls as an.id ro eon'entration
and meditation, and as such has both an obliterative and a
directive content: the recitaiion of a litany seeksto obliterate
Jisrracrronfrom rhe mind of the !e. iter dnd. at lhe samerime
direcr or focus thal mrnd on anorher godl
We have already noted that John Main used the word
'mantra' (his equivalent of one sns of raizd) in teaching
meditation. The underlying intention of both is the same lt
vields a ohenomenon which Main characterisesas 'a journev
ihrough the undergro'ith ofthe ego' He obserwesthat'the \r'av
'fhe mantra is like a beacon
tkough is the way of the mantra . -
guiding us *rough [th storm of distraction] and we must keep
our attention on it.'{r Such words have an equal applicabi}itv to
{2
the ;r:fi phenomenon of ulird
Phenomologically, we noted earlier that the hve dr&an
constituted a 'block of beliel action and/or ribral ' a
summary of religion' and also that itual not onlv feeds
experience bur also functrons ds d recpon5ero ir' Srmilar
remarks, from the same perspective, might be made about the
eieht qufi rituals which we have just suruved Phenomenolo-
grrally,rhey <rearea parallel bLrtnot alternattveunrverceor
nrual structuresfot thP sdfi, whi.h ofren haveQur'ani' or' at
least. mainstream Islarnic antecdents'origins or echoes and
which build theseinto a paralleistructure or pattern, sometrmes
 .. 1,FI FI I L. \ L
as an adjurlct to mainstream ritual. These rituals of Srtfrsm are
contextualised within the extra curricular framework of, for
example,'presence','thanksgiving','transcendence'and other
similar phenomena as we have seen; structural analysis reveals a
central focus on love of God achieved by ascesisand its multiple
tools. The supererogatory rinals employed by Snfism not or y
fuel the mystical experienLe bur enable a response,somerime.
in a Lind of two way dialogue, for example as in nuraAba.
Finally, if, as Eliade and Smart insist, ritxal in general 'rnay
abolish spaceand time',43then there is no doubt that the same
may be held of many of the lnfi rituals which we have jusr
surveyed. The following quotation from a young 'turner' in the
sama' of the Mawlawiyya (Mevleviyrya) provides an excellent
illustration of this:
Sometimes,during the sema
it feels as if Mevlma
is holdingmy hdd.
I beginto smileiDside,
md my heart is warm,
and later it is as if
what Dy eyessee
is differentfrom before.'a
5.3Anthropology
The well known anthopologist Ma-ry Douglas has stressedthat
'most reiigions promise by their rites to make some changesin
external events.'asShe adds that 'somewhere the beliefs must be
safeguarded against disappointment or they may not hold
assent' and she gos on to provide a number of ways 'of
protcting ritual from scepticism-'46 Among these is 'for the
rcligious teaching to change its task. In most everyday contxrs
it tells the faithful that their fields will prosper and thir families
flourish if they obey the moral code and perform the proper
ritual services. Then, in another context, all this pious effort
is disparaged, contempt is thrown on right behaviour,
156
U\\'EILINC THE SACREDI
mate.ialistic objectives are suddenly despised. We cannot say
that they suddenly becone religions of non attachment,
pmmising only disillusionmnt in this life. Rut they travel
sone way along this path.'rt
Can at least some of the same kind of phrases be applied to
the parallel universe of snfi itual? Mainstream Islam has never
insisted upon an attitude of contempt for this worid, though it
has insisted that the less weli off should be catered for, for
example through the payment of zahat, on of the 6ve dr&an.
However, we have also seen that th parallel universe of sufi
ritual often has elements of ascesis and that there mdl be a
profound contempt for the world and all that materially
pertains to it. Indeed, st6 Orders such as the Tijaniyya, with
its acceptance of wealth and less than total emphasis on z!ld,
are the exception rather than the rule.a3
Earlier, in the anthropological assessment of the frve atuan,
w noted that the real focus should be on the human 6gure of
the Prophet N{uhammad.In the parallel universeof sofi ritual,
from an aithropological prspctive, the prima.ry focus is on the
ascetical saint or Shayl,i who may or may not be one and the
same. One Shaylh expressed the need in verse:
He aks: 'Is it incumbenton a wker to take [a] sheikh?
I replied:'Was a child everrearedwithout a fathet?'l'
With such attirudes it is hardly surprising that the Shaykh will
involve himself both as teacher and leader in the major s':fi
rituals. The reason is clear: in particular, th Shaykh, as
Cilsenanputs ir. kno*s rhe 6atin'0 Thi. is an immensesource
of power and authority.5l
It is the Shaykh who will perform the initiation and, usually,
either he or his delegatwill be presentat, aDd lead,;']the dhibr
and the snma". Trimingham insists that it is via initiation that a
nurid gains full admittance to the spiritual world, thereby
assuring succession in the Order. He cites the Uwaysi Khadir
tradition as an example of 'spiritual initiation' but notes that
'norma/|" ir ronws throushsridan,e ndlr a thi-swu1ldno:tcr."
In a typical 6ay'a formula, provided by a Shadhili Shaykh, the
mr.rr;d expresses repntance to God and acceptance of his
 SCFI RITI-AI-
teachingShaykhas mentor, Ieaderand guide to cod's presnc..
and as murshll on the sAfr Path. He promises total obdienc r{,
his Shaykh and asks God to confrm him in that obedience. llr
finally asks God to confirm him in the tan-qaof Abo 'l-Hasan
al-Shadhili who is characterised as 'the Shaykb of Shayltrs. .'
In this 6ay'a the ranks of Shaykh and saint are neatly linled
In a very real sense, the Shaykh is, for the muntrm. thc
embodiment of the path to sainthood and the world of the
spirit. For this reasonhe hgureslalg in many of the s.fl rituais.
In the Ni"matullahi dhiha for example,the Master plays a ke_v
role in the proceedings:describing the suft d[it' Pourjavad'"
and Wilson note how the Master, the Shaykh of the Order.
whom they call the Qutb, ma], or may not say a few words but,
more importantly, will be responsiblefor beginning the dfti[r,r
jali, a ritual which takes place in complete darkness. Similarly it
is the Master who will concludethe dhiir with aprayer.ij In the
ritua] meal which follows the dftihr, which is called 'hot p,ot';o;1
is the Shaykh who 'begirLsthe meal according to the sunna ofthe
Prophet with a pinch of salt ''; t ater the Master signals the
official conclusionofthe majlis by rising and leaving the room,
pmnouncjng at the sarnetime the words 'Ya 'Ali.'ir Here, in
both dhibr and ritual meal the physical,as opposedto spiritual,
focus is on the Shaykh at the beginning and at the end.
Elsewhere, the Shaykh in the Naqshbandi ritual may also make
himself responsible for counting the number of repetitions of a
phrasein the dhilr with the use ofa rosary;jeother methods of
'controlling' the proceedingsmay include the use of stonesor
marbles: the Shaylt will have a bag containing small stones or
marbles in f.ont of him. As the ritual gets under way, the
Shayl-h will remove a stone or marbte from the bag and put it on
one side. In this way he will be able to tell at a slance how many
t channelled.then'the defrenceofthe murid to his Sheikh'wilt
times a particular dhiAr has been recited.60
1'he dhiir in the Naqshabandiritual, and, indeed, in that of
other Orden, is thus clearly subiect to the direction of the
Shayi.h6r who is a primary focal point in so many of an Order's
activities.6'/ \Vriting of the Muhammadiyya Shadhiliyya,
Johansen notes a marked disparity between the official
descriptions of its rituals and the reality which he actually
158
U N V E I L I N G TH E SAC R EDT
observed during his field study in Egypt He put this down to
the poor health of the Shaykh and noted the minimalist nature
63
of the dhi&r when the Shaykh was bedridden
ln rhe light oi dll this. si\en the pa-ramount rmponrnceof a
Master or Shayhh, both ritually and administrativeln in the
tlpical lnfi Order, it comesas no surpriseto discoverthat some
critics have declared that the role of the Shaykh has become too
powerful. The wonhip due to God has been replaced, in their
eyes,'by worship of individual men.'64Such remarks,however,
reflect either a corrupted form of Sl6sm or, alternativelv, ignore
ttr- rcal anthrcpological role of the sufi Shaykh in an Order's
rituals. While it is tru that the emphasis in many of the Orders
and their rituals focuses on the role of the Shaykh together with
his teaching arrd ritual functions, it has to b borne in mind that
Sufism classically considrcd the lv{aster or Shayll to be a
channel, not a telos.Accordins to this classicalpa-radigm'the
spiritual focus is always God. Describing the dhihr ol the
Ni'matullehi]rya, Pourjavady and Wilson conclude that 'the
effect of so many voices calling on God in unison' in the
darkness which hides their ferwour and gives it an anonymity
which symbolizes the extinction of the sell the effect of their
passion for the ,Absolute is extraordinary, evn for an out-
sider.'6i
Anthropologically the Shaykh may be said often to be at the
hart of the rituali theologicallyGod is held to be the heart ol
the ritual. If it is believed that the Shaykh is a na'essdryguide to
the Divine in Sn6sm, then it follows that he must also be a
guide in terms of the ituals ol rasauwrf66 If it is corrcctlv
not be considered idolatry.6; Thus the other, more minor rituals
which we have surveyed,whether obviously focussedupon the
figure of a Shaykh, lile rabi& and saibd, or less obviouslv
connected like fh, wird, muraqaba and mtthdrdbd' all have as a
teaching authority or interyreter the figure of the Shaykh or
Master himself. This is evident in the seminal role played bv
the writings of the modern safl Masters, to whom we have
referred at vaious times, li.ke Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh and Shavkh
Nazim al Qubrr:si. The teachingmay be formal, by instruction
159
 U\\'EILING THE SACRED2
STFi RITU,\L

or writings, or mrly by example.63 Anthropologically the 'discursive t.adition'in lslam which makes a prachce trulv
central role of the Shaykh in administratron, leadership and Islamic. Its teacher and exponent mav be a 'alin, sofi Shavkh
ritual remains the sam. Abn al Najib al Suhrawardr (1097- or. bv contrast, even an uneducatedparent-taAsad concludes:
1168) put it lile this in his famous Suf Rule for Not';ces (Kitah 'An anthropology of Islam will therefore seek to understand the
Adab aI M"rtdt"), here companionship is interpreted as servicei historical conditions that enable the prcduction and man-
tenance of specific discursive tmditions, or their transformation
Conpmionship with the naster (uaadn) is by obedience, s it is
- una tl" of practitioners to achieve coherence '7i
"itott. a
not really compantonship but *rvice. Conplete obedience od N{uch of this is true of gifi ritual as well $'6sm establishes
to the
respect towards the master de requned. The mster in the oarallel universe of ritual structures whose parallels
the
midst of his followers is like the prophet iD the midst of his ,"e4", * *"ll as whose differences from the drhan' are
commuity. lumyd once answered a question of one of his subiectmatter of this volume. S':fi ritual highlights the diversitv
disciples md th lattd expressed objection to the eswer; oi i"t^-i. p*.ti.". Manv of its major elements claim to be
Jmayd thm said, 'If 1'ou do not bdieve in Dy words, dissiate ol
founded upon, and &awr from, the textual discourse
yourselves from me.' He should.behau touuds the Shaykh libz t"l"- The Shavktr, as the custodian of intelleciual
the Compdnions uith the Prcphet in follauing the ethis of th. -nin"t ""- and thus power' sanctions bv his knowledge of the
knowledee
practices
@,l".* 6,atin, as"well as by his silsila and his sajjada, the itual
of rhe tai4.t. Each taliqd is born at a particular 'moment" or set
We are now in a position to retum and assessthe applicability
of the remarks by Mary Douglas with which this anth-ro' '-"-."t"' in histoical tirne The rituats' and the discursive
"f in the
pological sectior commenced. Islam, like many of the world's ritual traditions of each, reflect the past as they opemte
major religions, does indeed hold forth a promise of maling present and Presagethe future-
some impact on extemal phenomena by its rites. For example,
the ritual p.ayer and the hajj foster a strong sense of
community. ArId the d'l.n are not mere ritual talisrnans 5.4 Semiotics
against death. They prodaim links with the eternal and the
arhan
Divine while also fosterine life on earth. Sufi rituals, however, Our eatlier xamination of the semioiics of the live
itself was
ftequently look to the extinction of self and can, indeed, as stressed that eve4thing signified and that the Qur'an
with a
ascesisadva:rces, become vehicles 'of non attachment. promis a world of signs. The badrth literature ioo, is replte
ing only disillusionment in this life.''o lt is from this prspctive of th" fumous hadith of Gabriel, for example' to
"e.'"" *" "isr',"i"
fi."" *""*t,imes referred, Muhammad is questioned
that we may detct the g.eatest differences, anthropologically
(Ia ahhbirnr
and theolosica.lly, between the drlan on the one hand and the about The Hour (al-Sla) and askedabout its sicls
-*.f'
lan anaratihaJ. ihe Prophet famouslv replies in terms of the-
traditional ritua.ls of the sufi Orders on the other.
of
Talal Asad, in assessing 'The ldea of an Anthropology of slaw girl giving bnth ; her mistress and the appearance
'barefooteJ nakd, destitute herdsmen competing in construct'
Islam' holds tMt one should explore ditrerences as wel as -" While thesewold' at 6rsr sighL seemro
parallels.Tr He notes that all antkopolosists of Istam will be ine lofry buildines
varrou'lv
readily aware of the wide diversity in Muslim belief and oa]ruke'of tt'" ajai6 genre o( adab rhev have been
prourded br al-Nauaui hinself r' the
practice which exists today.7'?In formulating an anthropology of inr".pr"r"a amongtho.e
to sons arrd daughters who
Islam, there is a need to return to the Iirst ts.tual principles of id* ih"t '"lau" girls will give birth
those who bore
Qur'an and hadrth
r For Asad it is the authorisation by will become free and so be the maste$ of
161
160
 S UFi RI TLAL
them.'77Classicallytbe 'Signs of The Hour' (Ishardt al-Sa';)
form an important element in eschatological literature.;3
It is from both the sign saturated Qur'an and hadr'rh that the
6ve arhan, and their related theologies, derive. We saw earlier
that ach of these classical arinn (a) could be described as a
comtEmoratiTte sign and (b) that each had 'an outward form and
an inner meaning.' In discussing now the semiotic dimensions
of the parallel univerce of sufr rituals, it is proposed here !o
examine the eisht areas of dhihr, sana', jhr, nun4aba, fibita.
s.rhba, muh.rsabd.and wird firstly in terms of whether they ar,
or are not, commemorative signs and, secondly, in terms of their
exotric arld esoteric featu.es. We will also attmpt to assess
whether each of these aspects of the paratlel ritual universe
complements the dr&an, or actually conflicts with those pillals,
thereby sigaalling an ineluctable alndtion from the main
stream of Islamic ritual.
Semiotically, the dhihr has much in common with the
shdhadr; indeed, the lafter may constitute the dhihr fior a tafiqa.
As the sense of the word implies, dhi[r signals a desire to
remember the Divine, whether by repetition of the Divine
Name or Names, or of anothe. related formula. The
performance of a dh;&r is thus a commemorative sign par
excellence, signalling monotheism, devotion, remembrance and
'belonging' in a very special qnfi way. Ritual has been neatly
defined as 'the ceremonial re enactment, or acting out, usually
in the form of liturgical celebration, of profound religious
mysteries. It is a visible sign of the invisible but active
relationship between Cod and man.'7eAII this is true of the
'liturgy' of the dhitr. The deinition highlights, too, the exoteric
and esoteric dimensions of dhibr whose outward form dassically
reveals in word, and exalts, the inner theology or, at least,
sentiments of the participant. Having observed a zib (dhihr) ;n
Aswan in Upper Egypt, Gilsenan was moved to skess the
centnlity of 'the notion of contact.' The saints and ecstasywer
intermediary channels by which tbe snfr might gain some
contact with the Divine mysteries. Gilsenan identifred the
'concentrated power'which was to be experienced by the
participant in the zi[r. Th chanting of God's names and the
162
U\VEILI^'G THE SACRET]2
rhlthmical movement seemed to him to connect the sifi 'to
forces that seem to come from outside, from the word of the
Divinity.' A combination of sPiritual emotion and phvsicai
labour in the zibr gave the s.fi an unrestmined freedom of
xprssion v/hich might easily have incurred the censure of a
more cosmopolitan, Cairene, non snfi observer'3u
Gilsenan's description immediatly raises trl/o points: the first
is the omnipresent danger of excessin irlfi itual. Dhihr mav be a
perfect complemenr to the drhar but it' over-exuberan
articulation has roused the urath of manv non'snfis and
appared to set it in conflict with those very arban x a
superstitious rival. The second point is one of authoritv. If the
mainstram. non-snft %lim from the Azhar, or faqih, mav be
characterised as the custodia.n of intellectual power, then any
oerceived or suspected antinomianism in sofi ritual and practice,
whether intended or not, may provole violent hostilitv. In surn,
while $n6sm in its ideal form may appear to belong to the realms
of private devotion and, mainly hidden ascaicism, the realitv
may sometimes reveal 'superstition and idolatrous excess'3t
The fgure of Dr. 'Umar'Abd al-Rabman' so sraphicallv
port.ayed in Johansen's S fvn and lslanic Refotn in Esvpt,
constitutes a neat modem paradigm of the kind of intolerance of
sufis which is likely to be ncountered in the modern world He
is rhe kind of enemy of Su6sm qho praisesa young man who
chooses to postpone his set prayers in pteference to joining
3r And
others in prayer in a mosque which houses a tomb
becaus there is no explicit mention of sufis either in the
Qur'an or the hadith according to him, their origins are
illeeitimate.33In sum, Sufism is an 'innovation'; its rittals and
practices should be branded as unbelief (&a,rt)and the rise oJ the
Orders is simply a mirror of the current decline of Islam.3i
It is clear from all this that the practice of dhthr would
certainly have been a major subject of Dr' 'Abd al Rahman s
6erce strictures and that dfiiit arrd other sufi practjces cannot
only rouse an acute distaste in the non-stfi but positivelv
dlienztethe sufi ffom his non-sufi co religromst
lvluch of what hasbeen said about diik can be applied to the
full sonra'. We stressedearlier the theological ambivalencein
163
 STIFIRITUAI- LNVEIL'NC THE SA(]RED 2
mvstery is
Islam regarding the use of music and chant outside the dtlan differmt fiom what Eliade calls the profane Th
within those
and Qur'anic tdJutd; there is no doubt that the use of music and that we perceive a sacred' non tenestial reality I
*..ra which much be characterrsed as prolane
dance in the sanrZ"of a slfi 4n-qa can be a profoundly alienatine ir'il""
"r'J;.
experimce for the observer raisel with even som of the vie*s ti".Jltiua" a*"= u,t*tron to a *orld of contrast' thdtofthe
of Dr. 'Abd al Rahman citd above. orofaneand the sacred where inasnangebutsignifi'antua;
with added
Thus, on the one side of the coin, for the sufi participant, the if'" f",i". * recognised bv and indeed imbued
b".""* .f *te existence of the former' With the a*an
sama" can be a profoundly commemorative religious sign. For no longer
and s,:i ritual, ihe dynamic contrast
-*";"e is, of course'
the Mawlawl dervish the sdttir' is an axplosion of joy whose must be
cont.ibutory parts are the annihilation of self and the praising of J*;"" ir-r" the profane' for both
"a.."d-und mamstream set
God. Performance of the sama' gives accessto, indeed, makes characterised as sacred. It is, rather, btween a
set which feeds off' and.
present, the sublirne state of the blessed b Paradise whose joy it of sacred rites, and a supererogatory
rhe leti: dnd rrres or
is to witness God eternalll. accordingto Rnmi (1207 1273).3' ororides an exttd dimension for.
the
On the other hand, we have the 'appalledfascination'of Ibn ;"ir*'*"- lslam Thus rne sana is nor underraken bv
anv mo{e
Battota (1304 1368/9 ot 1377), the sreat North African sufi simDh' because it focuses on dance and chant'
trees are worshipped bv anirnists for their own
traveller of the fourteenth centurv. 'when he witnessed the ir.*
""-"a sama" provides an exka dimension of the sacred'
excesses of orders like the Rifa'iyrya, whose adherents near sahes. The
just rh"lhmic movemenl
Wasit he saw indulging in tue-dancios and fire-eating during .howing somerhmethar is more rhan
."a **Ln*.r, oi herond pure dhih' uhich in
".i-.", 'nd
*.., a"p."a" uitimatelv on the mainstream Qur"an and
Jalal al Din Rlmi and Ibn Battnta, on these occasions at
least, interprted the sdma" in very differmt ways- For the !r..i"J.'eila" insiststhat stonesand treesare worshipped
they show
former, the samn' signalled a point of contact with the Divine; not bcausethey are stones and tres but'because
'33 He
for the latter it signalled excessand trickery. For the former, the something that is no longer stone or tre hrt the satred
object becomes
sdma"was a true commemorative sign of God's presence;for the eoes on: 'By manifesting the sacred, anv
iorrrethins el:i. yet ]t continues to remain itsef for it conttnues
latter, the ritiral signalled man's unbounded capacity 1or excess
io o"rticiput"; its cosmicmilieu '3e This is as true
and charlatanry. Finally, the sama' for Rnmi was an outward ".,noundingit is oI the 'worship' of stones lt
sign of the jnner reality of God; for Ibn Battuta it was an uf",r'"
"tiJ 'i*4" "am.a'as bevond
outward sign of the inner reality of mans foolisbness.And is ihis intention to focus upon, ajrd manifest, the sacred
ritual that makes rt
altbough Ibn Battuta was not alienated from Sufrsm by what he the formal boundaries of mainstream
,o a ritual like the sdma' without far
saw his career exhibits a continuing fascination with sr:fis and f". ,ft"
"o.*iUt" r, ; the "ot lack"nact
of abilitv to perceive the,sense of the
Sr:fism he did not share in Rnmi's mystical appreciation ofthe iilia".
antagontst'
rac'ed riludl. or. at ledst.nol on rhis oc.a5ion. sacred within such rituals that leads the non- s[tr
'Abd al Rahman' to whom we have referred
The other six ritual practjces which constitute our panllel *" O.. 'U-*
," Sunsm and bcome totally alienated from it
universe of rofi ritual, may be assessedmore briefly from the "*-ti"r" srfil all
""tfi*,
y"i'ii, tt'.." *t'. t'"'e a religious experiencetlike the
.emioricperspe.rr\e Frrstly.however.ir i. inslrucli!e lo note The
what Mircea Eliade has to say on the theme of the sacred. Eliade ; *p"Sf" of revealing itsetf as cosmic sacralitv
""i"."
cosmos in its entiretv can become a hierophanv
holds that the manifestadon of the sacrd is always as a reality
ritual and-
which is completely different from other 'natural' realities.We I can think of fe'rr' better semiotic analvses of sofi
of
zs 'rheacroJman{estdtion
p.*ii.". Eii"i" a"ri*" hiercph.,nt
only recognisethat which;s sacredbecauseit is so profoundly
164 165
 SUFi RTTUAL
the sacred.'el Stfi rituais and practices, for those who undertale
them, are signs and signals of the sacred. And each ritual or
practice, whethe. it be the public sam.a'or the private nltra(laba,
creates a sacrcd space. There is, Eliade tells us, an irruption of
the saqed that results in detaching a territory from th
sunounding cosmic milieu and making it qualitatively differ
ent.'" He cites the Old Testament example of Jacob's Laddel
we may cit here also the sdrn4', in its Mawlawi (Mevlevi)
articulation. Friedlander describes the 'unfolding' and whirling
of the dervishes accompanied by both music and chant. Sh
envisages celestbl energy being charurelled through the right
palrns of the turners and exiting from the body into the earrh
via the left pa.lms.Thus, she concludes,'with extended arms,
the dervish embracesGod.'er
It remains for us to xamine the semiotics of the six other
aras of snfi tual and practice to which we have refeffed at
various times in this volume: fbr, nuraqaba,
hba,
muh^aba ar,a uird- 'abita.,
In the distinctions which are sometimes made between dirlr
and fhr, it has been claimed that the appeal of dlib' is more
sensory while that offbr is more to the intellect.e+ For the sufi
the latter demands a concentration on a parricular rIigious
topic with a schematic and progressive form of meditation. ln
dii[r, however, the concentration focuses often on a single
Divine Name and the s!fi permits himself to be 'lost' in the
contempladon of that Name. For this reason repetition becomes
extremely important.e5
Fi[r signals an interior, almost arid, intellectualisation of the
sacred, producing no mere 'refreshment for the soul' as in dhibr
but a guidanc of 'the initiate towards the single divine
majesty.'eb Of its very nature it has only an internal aspect.
lacking the often public display associated with dhihr. Filzr rs
not a commemorative sign in the senseof a past event (though
one or more may be summoned to mind) but it is a process
which attempts to actualise the sacred in th present and to
create a sacred space around the practitioner or rnurdfdiiir ln
this respectit may b perceivedas lessthreateningor alienating
than the ovrt ritual of the dlthr.
166
UNVEILINC THE SACRED2
The semiotrcs of contemplation, muraqaba, are not dissimila-r
from those of jtu. Herc we find the same interiorisation of
spirituatity. Waleyk rendition of mtuaqa.ba as 'contemplativ
vigilance' and 'contemplative watchfulness' was noted earlier-e7
Muraqaba, n its diection of the mind and soul to God, ideally
signals for the su6 man's response to God's care for maJI as
articulated in the Qur'an:'3
Foi ihat We pour forth
Water in ablndance
And we split the eaJth
And producethereinCotn,
And Grapesand nutitious Plmts,
Atrd Olives and Dates
And enclosedCardens,
Dose with lofty trees,
And FNits dd Fodder,
For useand convenience
To you and your catde.'"
Just as God has thus created a sacred space on earth for the
multiplication and division of His gifts to mankind, so too must
the practitioner create a sacred space, empty and alone, for the
purpose of his mutAqdba.roo
Murzqaba thus signals an act of gratitude and drawing closer
to the Divine, a process which, for the faithful practitioner will
ultimately be transcnded by the Beatific Vision of God
Himself vhen the qnfi veils will be rent. The outwa-rd seclusion
sought by the murdqib signals or mirrors the inner seclusion and
con.mrratronon a solitaJygoal.It is not a commemorati'|ve srgn
but a sign of hope in a blissful Paradisicalfuture. lfconsidered
as an extension or outgro*th ofthe fivefold salat, it can neither
be said to be an alienating or a threatening practice to the non-
Rdbild and suhba m,y be cons'deled ds a pair'
"emrotrc
Rabird with its connotation of attachment to, indeed annihila-
tion in, the sublime 6gure of the Shaykh or Master, signals
obedience and fidelny. The archetypical paradisrn is that of
16t
 st]li RtTriAL UNVEILINC THE S,\CRTD 2

Ibrahim and Isma"rl: the latter obeyed the former while both
Our Si3rx, md failed
manifested a heroic obedince to the will of God.r0r ln this senst
To tale wdning from them
/dbitd is a commemorative sign or mirror image of all pa-;t
Those who reject Our Signs
relationships of Master Disciple in Islam in which instruction io
And the lr{eting in the Heteafter,
spirituality and/or the will of God is the key focus. The inner
Vain ae then deds:
submission (nlam) ofthe will is mirrored in the outward action of
Can thy dpct to be rewarded
obedience and potential or actual sacrince. But while the
Except as they have wrought?]oa
Ibrahirnic paradigm just outlined accords pdfectly with main
with
steam, non qufi Islam, rabi@ can atso be a focal point of Thus Moses, here, in the intimacv of his semiotic converse
(The Friend
alienation if the bond betwen Masler and disciple becornes God, and lbdhm, who bore the title Kidltl Allah
distorted or colrupted, and is petceiud (even if in reality it is not of dod),tot both provide models for the practice of t&hbd
the case)either to encroachupon that which should exist between unflawed by alienating asPcts
the worshipper and God alone or, alternatively, to be a vehicle for Mlhasala, or 'self'examination' is an easy ritual to examine
the self glorfication or even delusion of the teaching Shaykh.r0l for its semiotic content. It signa.lsa desire for metAnoid, change
to
S rba, as we have seen, has much in comrnon with rabt a and of heart. It does not commemorate so much as look forward
*'hether thev be undertaken bv the Angeis
may be said to sharein a similar semioticpool. ln its emphasis i.,t,r..
on pious companionship it may be characterised as an intense Munlur"*r-ir'"tion",Nakir106 or on the yat'n ol'Qilano itself lt is
"r'd its
forlr:, of ftbird uhereby ritual and spiritual knowledge are ffected within the innermost realms of man's being and
the
transfened from Master to novice. ln the intimacy of sp;itual intention is to alienate that person from ilture sin and
converse between the two, 5rlrba may well be described as a pale desire to cornrnit sin.
rellection of the ardent commurion of Moses with God on the Finallv, {or the lnfi, uitd is a corffnemotative sign of the
or
Mount,ror part of which is articulated in the Qur'an in univeni presence of God By the repetition of short litanies
public
characteristically semiotic phrases: o*v.rs, o,re. und ol'o again, the sufi signals and makes
i'hit he believes to be an inner realitv. The Shadhili mvstic lbn
(God)said... 'iil ,ll.f' rdred I lnq) held tbdt onlv an ignoramusuould
Thos who bhav&rogantly of lrranieseren thoughlrtanieslile the
disparage tbe recirarion
On the earth in defiance
*"'ta .u-outau*l't' u"d thdt insp;atron from Cod *a' of more
Of right them will I
value.107 Here the mystic signalled both the value and the
Turn away from NIy Sig'li: value
evanescenceof the eartblv litanv by comparison $'ith the
Evn if they seeall the Signs, he also stresses the
of what derives from the Hereafter' But
They will not believein them; that God
rn,rt,Aiw of""a'.h;" both God and man He states
And if they seethe way man to recitelitanies wfule man acrivelvseek'
a*;*
Of right conduct,they will ".,i'ay a
insonarion from Cod fr"m all thi' we mdv drticulate
Not adopt it as the Way; inspires man' and
of v""*i"e vlherebv God loves and
But if they se the way "".i;oti."
y"*ns io m"'if that love and inspiration bv praver' chant
Of error, that is -*
and litanv
The Way they will adopt. of
in this Chupt". we have examined the parallel universe
For they have rejected phenomenology'
sofi rituals ftom the perspctives of theology,

168 169
 S.Fi RITUAL LN!flll\G TH E:AC R En )

anthropology and semiotics. Tbroughout there have been 25 SeeSchimel, DecipAains tne Sigro oI God pP 1l7 148'
certain recurrent themes: one of these has been the theme of 26 lbid.. p. 147.
27 lbid., p. 148.
alienation. It is this, togethe. wi.h the $]fr doctrin offdna', 28 Smart, DiMim ot,he S@ed, P. 29i
which will constitutethe sub-stntum of the concludins chapter 29 Idem , Phmmaot oI Religim. P 3E.
30 Nubaksh, In the ParcAi.e oJ the SdE, P 62.
31 Snair, Di'l16im oJ ti ^Sd.'ed,p 6s
Notes 32 SeeWaler 'Contenplative Disciplines, p. s3b
33 N{atGew 24:.12;trans. Ronald Knox, The Hob BibLe:The Neu
Tara@t, (London: Burns & Oates/N{&nillm & Co., 1960)
1 Schimmel, Deariains the Sisrs of GoA, p. 147.
34 lje Nidd Sman, B&hsotnd to the Lns Search' (London: BBC,
2 Al Bu-khari, Sdhih olBtbhan, ed Muhmad Muhs; Kho, (3rd
1977),p 50.
rev edn.,Chiogo: Kei Publications,1979),Vol. 8: I( ab dI Da'a1Lat:
3s For m lslmic exmple, se lkhwo al Safe', Rdla\l lhhuan dl $aJa"
Chap.68, no.417, pp.278 279j s al6oMulhkdi gdhih dl B .han
Sunnatized $ahk aI Bubhnn, ed. Muhanad lvluhsin Khan.
36 SeeDjeialddin Ans{i, 'Basic Tea.hings of the Sufis in Djelalddin
(Rjyadb: Maktaba Dar al Saleh. 199+): Kitah aLDa'Mt Chap. As&i dl., V;its to S!,[ Cnt'rs: Sme Reent ResedtchI'ape$ on
20, no. 2090, pp. 979-980. "r (London: Th Scitv {or Suli Studies, 1980), pp 2
S!-lqsdnd Sl]ifl.
3 lichimel, Dedplatns ttu Siga of GaJ, p. 10a.
ff.
4 lbid ., p p . 104 10s ,p. 111n .4 0 .
37 lbid.
5 W.*, Dictioury oJ Monzm W;ttei Atubb, p.724 sv f'hr. 'Ihe Tdblet ..,1'thInre 1991,
38 Christophr\Idtin, 'Placesof Crace ,
6 L. Gadet, art. 'Filr', EI', Vol. 2, p. 891; for Qur'anic efcences se
below m. 11 & 12 W 761--764.
39 Smth, Ar rdrl:v Mrs,ic oJ PashJatl, P 1i3
7 Gddet. art. 'Fikr', p.891.
{0 Se,for dmde, q {2:25
8 tbid.
41 Main, Tle Wa! oI Unhnouins,p.33
9 Ibid., p. 892. (Al Ghaal;, however, disagreed. See Waley, Con
42 SeTriminghd, The S4 Otdds in IslM PP 2r4 215
templative Disciplines , p. s4.+).
a3 SeSmart. DJ116im of tne Sac'sd, p 83
10 Se Gddet, art Fik, p. 891. .{4 lra F.iedldder, Th" */iirlias D.roishes, p 68
1 1 q 2 ,2 1 9 2 20,s e als oQ , 2 :2 6 6 .
4s Mary Dolglas, Pt t! an'J Ddnsd: An Aulvsis af the Condpts oJ
12 q 7:184;trms. Yusuf Al;, The H oU qt1 a, p. 39/-,s& alsoQ. 34:.16
Pollutin atul Td6@, (London & New York: Rourledge rePr' 1996),
p. 175.
14 W tr4ontgomery Watt, Muhonnaa at Me@, p. +4. se al$ p. ,10.See
46 lbid.
ale Mdtin Linss, Mufidnturl: lls Life B6ed ot thz farli.xr Sares,
47 l bi d., p 176.
P '13 ,18 S.e Jmil 11. Abu N asr, 'the 'tii,nitJd: A S$ Ordd if, the MoAan
15 Waley, 'ContehplativeDisiplin6', p. 535. !.16ll, pp. 46 4 t-.
16 A1 Ghazdli, AL Mdqsdd. oLAw Ji Shath Ma'dni Ainn' AIInh al.
19 Julim Johans, Sl4'n atd klmic Refon in Espt: The Bdttle fv
H'/Aru, p. r28-
Isldai. ?radltid, Oxford Oriental Monosraphs, loxford: Cluendon
17 W Montgomdy Watt , Munannad: Prophetand Statestun. v 31.
Pr6s, 1996),P 203
18 Q,8:11i tro9 Yusuf Ali, The llolr Qr'd, p. 117
50 Gilsend, R.cosninglsldn. p 116
19 I. Goldziher,dL Dalriba, ElS, p. a88.
51 S ei bi d.,pp. 116 111.
20 q 59:18 19; trds. Yusuf Ali, ?he Holl Qtur"an,pp. ls26 1527
52 See ibid., p' 1:15for compaing Shavkhs in the dnih'l
21 Weh!, Di.tiotuD, o/ Modem Wriu^ AtabX. p. 1060 * una The Su,f Orders in Islan p. 187
53 (My italics) Triningho,
22 John Penrice, A Di.tioturt dnl CLssLtt of tie Ko r,ii, (Ri.hmond:
54 l bi d.. pp. 186 1E t
CuzoD Press,1993,rep!. ofnes edn. of 1971),P 158 sv ud"ald.
5s (My italics)Pourjavady& Wilson, Kings dIlo,e p. 170
23 Obvious analosiesfor this idea will be foud in John 4:13 1s.
56 Ibid , p. 176 n 5
24 SeeCatechsnof the CarholirChnch, pp 30s 306nn 1:l;6 1364.
57 (IIy italics)lbjd., p 171
't 71
170
 SL,FI FLTLAL L]NVEILINC THE SACREIJ2
58 tbid. 87 Mirca Eliad, 'the Sacredand rhe Prafane: The Nanre oJ Religion
59 Habib, SoneNoteson the NaqshbodrOrdc, p. 47. (San Dieeo, New York & l,ondon: Harcourt Brace & Conpdv A
60 Ibid. Havest Bok, 1959,1987),pp. 10 11.
61 SeeDraper,Ca. Srldr, p. 130. 88 Ibid., P 12.
62 SeeHabibis, ConpardttueSt!{, p 407. 89 lbid.
63 Johm*n, Sdn andftl,/nic ReJm in Estp,-p. 2r3. 90 lbid.
64 MassoudHohayouni, AiseR t .Sa4 Qu6rioa d.Sq[q, P' 17.Se 91 (My italics)lbid., p 11.
arso the remrks of selyed F Hosein, Tlp sui, o/ Tod4r. G,ndon: 92 lbid., p. 26.
DesignistComunications Ltd., 1981),p. 16. 93 F;edlmder, Whmins Detukhes, P 92
D( Pourid\ddy& U ilsoD. Kins" of Lnu?.p. t?0. 94 L. Ga.det. an. fikr', p 892.
66 SeeJohdsen, Sltsn dnn kLrnic Refm in EsJpr, pp. 180 1E2. But 95 Ibi d,p.891.
*e the rddks of Gilsend on the Shaykh of a group of Ahrudiyya 96 lbid., pp. 891 892i seAbn Bak. al Kalabadfi, Kitnb al'Ta'artuJ li
in Aswd who d6 not aslhe a l@dechip role (Recosnizins Islatu, Manhhzh Ahl a,'Taawf, ed A l Arbsrv, (Ctro Khangi, 1352/
p. 88). 1931),pp. 74 7s .ited in i$d.
67 Johasen, S,lfsn dnd Islanic Refdn in Estpt, p. 197. 97 W.ler 'ContemplativeDi*iplines', p 53s
68 Se Draper, Cr6dSr/dr, pp. 26 27; Habibis, Cmpatut;ae S'.\ly v 2i9 98 S.e Nurbal<hsh,In tle Pa'dniseoJ the Sfs, p 71.
where the Shaykh givs the mrtdin a peMnal ui'd- 99 Q,80:2s 32r trans.Yus{f Ali, fii Hob Q,a', pp 1689 1690
60 Vmdhem \',Iil{n & ,. 4 Suil RulpJd Nd\"s Kitab Adab 100 SeeNuba].hsh, In the Pdadke of the Sufs, pp 77 80
'pd. 'rdn,
oI Mur ta oJ Aba dl Ndrtb dl.Srh'@ath, (CMbrids, il1as. & 101 S e Q. 37:102107
Londotr: Hatudd University Press, 1975), pp. 46 47: abridged 102 Se, fore$mple, Anwi, BasicTeachhgsofthe Sulis',P 6 Sealso
nansLtron of {bu \r,b al {uhmsddr K 4b Adnb dt Munhn, ed Homayouoi, Aers to .Saa Qr.stions on S'fsn, pp. 16 17
Me'alem Milson, p. 37 (A.abic text of the Kir.or). 103 Seeq 7:142ff
i0 Datslaq Punt, dnd DdnEe\ p. 176. 104 (My italics) q 7: 144 147; trans Yusuf Ali, The HalJ QttM'
71 Talal Asad, The ldaa oJ dn hrhtopolos! ol Islan, p. 4. pp 383 384.
72 lbid., p. s. 105 Q.4:125.
73 Ibid., p. 1.1. 106 SeeId zuch&d Netton, The PerilsofAllegory: I{edieval Istan and
7 4 I bid., p . 1 5 . the Anslsofth Grave, nidem (ed ), Stldisia Honw ol CliIJotd
7 5 I bid., p . 1 7 Ednund lJonoth Vollne 1: Htntet oJ the E6rt Atdbi. \fld Senitic
76 Al Nawau, oi-Arba'm,pp. 30 33 (Hadith no. 2). Srudio, (Leiden/Boston/Koln:EJ Brill,2000), pp 117"427
7 7 lbid ., p .3 2 n. 7. 107 SeCrril GlAs, ?lle a'd ciseFiq.lopdedia of Isldn, pp. 418 'l19 sv
78 Se dt. 'Ishdret al-Se'a' in Netton, Porllar Dicrlioury oJ Islan, p. 125.
79 John Baldek, The Elefletts of Chtrt'ur Srrrboinn, lshafresbury.
Dorset, ElementB@ks, 1990, 1997),p. 109.
80 Gilsean, Re.osrizinsIsldn, P 89
81 Johdsen, Sursn aid Isld^i. ReJm in EsJet, p 163
82 Ibid., p 1.+7.
83 Ibid.
84 lbid.
85 Friedl@der, Whirlins Deryish5, p. 87
86 Id Richard Netton, 'Myth, Mirule md Magic iD the Ribla of lbn
Battnta in iden., Seel Kmubdge: Thoughrandkarel in the Ho@ oI
Isl4fl, (Ri.hnond, Currcn Press,1996),p 105.This &ticle orisinalt)
appearedin./SS, Vol- XXIXI (Spring 1984),pp. 131 1.10.For the
Arabc rfrence to this episode s@ Ibn Rattuta, Rihlor lbn Bafinto.
p. 1 8 4 .

172 17-1
 TheAlienated
Snfi?

6.1AlienationasRitualParadox

Throughout the chapters which have preceded this conclusion,

frequent rlerence has been made to the concept of ritua.l: a
variety of approaches have been deployed and an attempt has
been made to examine the parallel universe of 9o{i ritual in their
light and as a counterpoint or complemenf to the matnstream
arkan. Increasing reference has also been made, however, to the
concept of alienation. In this chapter th concepts of ritua.l and
alienation are examined together to illustrat a fundamenta.l

6.11 Alination

The term 'alienation' has both a technical philosophical and a

popuiar semantic range. Different thought systems frame and
interpret the term in differmt ways.r Nathan Rotenstreich
provides examples from Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx to
illustrate this fundamental point: Hegel perceived alienation
as a positive though transitional state bound up with ideas of
idntity. For Feuerbach alienation has no links with reality
Marx perceived alienation as an essentially negative process
whose fruit was the subjugation of humanity to production and
economics.2 And the whole question of alienation, and the
questrons posed by the concept itself, have not gon away
David Cooper holds, in his book on Existe'ntidlirm, 'that the
most sdous question with which philosophy has to dal is that
 S!FI RITTIAL
of alienation in its various forms alienarion from the *,orld.
from one's fellows, from oneself.'3
Much more simply, from the popular perspective, the term
'alienation' may be defined as 'being estranged',.being turned
away' or 'being diverted from.'1 Whatever the negative or
positive connotations of the word, in both technical and popular
usage, there is no doubt that tbe term has been various\.
deployed down rhe dges in a variew of guises,often rn wals
which differ frorn, and even contmdict, eacl other, and our own
age has reclothed the term in a new semantic garb.5 However,
the contemporary usage of the term is perhaps of rather less
relevance in our dual discussions of alienation and
tdna, than
the classical, Nmplatonic senses with which Plotinus imbued
the term. Por Plotinus, real contemplation meant that the soul
became alienated from itself since it was no longer conscious of
itselfand had becomeat one with The One. Real contemplation
of The One was necessarilysynonymous with reat alienation
from the selfor soul. The emanationisttuerarchyestablishedby
Plotinus gav alienation a particular charism whereby the
inferior mode of separate exjstence was swappd for a superior
mode in which the soul participated in the existence and sphere
of The One, the sourceof all emanatedbeing.6
In this concluding chapter,the term 'alienation will be used
in at least two different, but hopefu y self-explanatory, ways
reflecting both the popular usage of 'estrangement' (in our
discussions of sufi practice ?is a r,ri minstream Islamic rituai
practice), as well as the more technical usage in the Enneal: of
Plotinus (when we come to examine the conceptsoffdna, and
baqa).
6.1.2Fani"
Simple dictionary deinitions of this complex term from a single
dictionary range from 'passing away, cessation of being;
perdition, ruin, destruction, annihilation; evanescene, ranishing,
temination, extinction; exhaustion' to 'non being, nonexistence,
nonentity; extinction of individual consciousness,recedmce of
I;6
TIl L {LIF \ \TFN S I]fI'
the ego, obliteration of the self'.t It is the latter definitions which
will be of most relvance to our discussions here. The
EnqrlopaediaoI lslam n.nJate" the term as 'pds5rne-a$d
effacement',characterising it asa stage'ofthe developmentofthe
mystic in the path of gnosis's while Annemarie Schimmel uses
the translation 'annihilation'e but gos on to insist that'the
German term Entuetdm. as used by the medieval mystics, is
closer to its meaning than words lile "annihilation", "being
rrpassing away", since it is the opposite of
naughted" [src], or
"hcomins", uerdn 'i0 She goes on to explain that Jana" should
not be equated with Hindu or tsuddhist concepts of nirvana.
Islam, she insists, has no knowledge either of karma, and /dna'
does not indicate freedom from some circle of transmigration. It
should be viewed as an ethical notion whereby man annihllates
his self in order to clothe himself in the divine attributes of God
and ultimately to 6nd, and immerse himseli in the very existence
of the Divine.lr Schimmel expresses admiration for Toshihiko
Izutsuk delinition offan.' as 'the total nullification of the eso
consciousness,when there rcmains only the absolute Unity of
Reality in its puritl as arl absolute Awareness prior to its
bifurcation into subject and object l'?
It is ven better, however,to so back to the original Persian
and Arabic sources for our deinitions if we ar truly to
appreciate the real sensesof/ana'. The foltowing are but two of
a multitude of examptes:'Ali b. 'Uthman al-Jullabi al Hujwiri
(died c. 1075) had this to say n tus Ka:hf al'Mahiub (The
Disclosure of the Concealed.),which Reynold A. Nicholson
characterisdas 'the oldst Persiantreatiseon Sulism':
&eing is of two kinds: he who l@ks at mything seesit either
wjth the eyeofsubsistence (bdqt)or with th eyeofannihilation
tatui). If with the eie of he perceivesthat th whole
subsistence,
unjverse is imperfecr in compaison with his own subsistence,
for he des not regard phenonena as *lf-subsistenri and if h
lools with the eye of annihilation, he perceivesthat all created
thingsarenon-existentbsidethe subsistence of God.13
Real affrihjlation from drthing involves consciousnessof its
imprfection and absdce ofdesire for it, not merely that a mm
171

shouldsay,wben he liksa thi.g, ,I am subsisten!therein,,or
when he disliles it, that he should say,.t u amihilatd
threflom, for thes quatiries ee charact.isricof on who is ln rituai, and the useand practiceofritual, there is a clear focus
stiil seeking.In am'hilation there is no rove or hate,and in
subs'stncethre is no consciousness
of union or sparation.
These may be labelled 'classic,definitions oflana,, and it
has
been well said that 'as the oldest surviving persianSufi manual.
the Kashf al-mahjab servesas an aurhoritaiive point of reference
for the Persiancanon of Sufi literature.,rs
Al Hujwiri's views are elaborated by other authors. por
example,Abu Bakr al Kalabadhi (did 990 or 995)i6 had this
to
say on the subject:
Passing-away
lat JaM") is a state in which all passionspass
avay, so that the nystic expe.iences rc feetings towards
anyth;ng whatsoeve!,and tosesall senseof discriminarion: he
haspa$ed awayfrom all rhings, od he is wholly absorbdwith
that throughwhrh he haspassedaway. . pereisten@
qluchfouou.pd$ineauay.means.hat ldl-6dqn"l
rhemvsrjcpr5*s dwa)
irom what blongsto himsetl dd persiststhroush whar
is
God's.One of the greatsufissaid:,persistence is the stationof
Commenting on al Kalabadhi s survey of these themes, Baldict<
notes that the mystic meant subordination to the will
of God
when he talked of such things as surviving in God,s attributes
and that he did not mean to imply the totai extinction ofa
man,s
att.ibutes but.rather that'man's bad quaiities are submerged
in
pleaswe at the vjctory of God,s knowledge and justice,rs
Baldick goes on m stress,however,that .Ka[badhi ;cocn;es
rhed've,.rrvofqu6 opinion regardrng po""i"g o*"y,. ; *"t1
as rne que\rronol wherhe,rhe m'sric cdn rerum from rt ro
lu,
These quorarionsfrom primary dnu se(onoary sources
mrlor ihat drversrrl,recognisedhy at-Kalabadhr.Whatever
the specific de6nitions however, cerrain rhemes constantly
recur, most notable of which is that of,alteration' in one,s
state
of being, and alienation from what has gone before.
T H E A L I E N ,{TED S.Fi i
6.1.3RitualasShield
on being and identiry and the reinforcement of that being and
identiry There is no doubt that ritual constitutesan experience
which is essentially transformative.ro This transformation may
be symbotised, for example, by a simple cookng image in ar
African cult.j' Transformation is also seenin a most elementary
form if we examine the itual of pronouncins the Shahada for
the first time when the aspirant is transformed by that key
formula into a Nluslim. Reinforcement of that neophyte's
Musiim nessis undertaken at every subsequent reiteration of the
Slrcfiada. And ritual not only transforms, and insists upon, the
being and identity of the participant. lt becomes the very miror
or epitome of the participant's religion itsell We cannot
understand a religion if we do not fully understand its rituals.
For F.W Clothey ritual is the dramatic model of the very
intention of religion. It becomesthis 'by the use of symbols,
both visual and aural, which "aLong with intellectual and
sensualimages" provide the participant with a senseof identity.
The paradigmaticelement ofrituals is seenin that during their
performancthey transform the participant "into a new mode
ofbeing"'.rr JamesL. Cox's preferreddehnition embracessome
of this: A ritual is a repeated and symbolic dramat;zation
directing attention to a place where the sacred enters life
thrby granting identity to participants in the drama,
transforming them, communicating social meaning verbally
and non-verbally, and offering a paradigm for how the world
ought to be.'2r In Islam the {rniversal practice ol tlre arhan at a
future dat would signal in a truly significant way |he universal
spreadand accomplishmentof the d.aral-Islarn.
It is also signficant wherc the ritual ta-kes place although
ritual can, of course, sacralise its own local, naiional or
international space. The chosm place for the enactment of
the rituai is important'since it is in the sacredspacethat the
ideal can be realized during the ritual drama.'24In Islam the
ritual drama of the ha1 is played out amually in Mecca and its
envions. lt is hardly surprising iherefore, that for some
17 9
 5 . FI RI TUAL
T H E A L I E N ATED SU FI;
mediaeval N4uslim geographers and writers, Mecca was
another contxt,35 in the urge of the seeker for true knowledge,
considered to be the centre and hear:t ofthe terrestial universeri
and identification and unity with the Knower, 'man stands
as well as the natuml goal of rhe pilgrim routes.z6
outside, or even in the way, of identiry' Rotenstreichconcludes
Ritual can also serveas a powerfut shield againstalienation.
that 'hence the goal of identity has as its negative correlate
It has been arguedthat rituais 'createsolidarity in the few parts
alienation.'r6 The Plotinian paradigm, mentioned earlier, is
of societysharedby all.':i This is certainly true ofritual fasting
relevant here. True contemplation of the One means self
which has a.lsobeen characterised as a shield ( al-sautm funna)lr
alimation since the self becomesmerged with that One.37
the Arabic word junna can also be rranslated as 'protection' or
The paradox at the hert of snfi ritual, then, is that it seeks
'shelter'which makesequal sense.2e Dhibr, however,consritutes union through aLenation.The riLualLnks or unitFs mdn ro
the 'double' ritual shield par excellencefrom alienation.As we
God, man to man, and man to his o*'n spiritual core or self, on
have alreadyseenin dive.separts ofrhis volume, it linls man to
the one hand, and yet on the other, it consciously seeks to
God ard it linhs man to his fellow man, thus providing a dual
alienate him from his corporeal and terrestial links and concerns
senseof belonging ard identiry It gives a ritual structu.e and
as a meansto a higher goal.
lbcus for the emotions: as \tuir puts ii:'Rituals give accessto
emotional statesthat resist expressionin language.'roIndeed,
ritual may emote rather than nean.3] The danger is that.
6.2A Paradigmof Siili Alienation
ultimatell', there is the possibiliry at least,the emotion may end
up destroyins the ritual and thus breal the format tinks of mar
Safr ritual leads to, or at the very least bears within itself the
to God and man to man i2 Ifthat happensthen emotion infused
seeds of, a paradigm for sufl alienation.
itual becomes a self centred structu.e for alienation rather rhan
The aspects of ritual which are 'formalized, collective,
solida.rity.
institutionalized' and'repetitive'r3 are easy to understand.
Perhapsrather less obvious is the way in which 'many rituals
work like models. They present a standard or a simplified
6.1,4Ritual asAlienatioo miniature for society to follow''r, This is certainly true of the
five ar[an; r'e note in particular how prescriptive the individual
It is almost a truism that 'the repetition of evryday gestures
rituals of the hat are. 'I'hus the omission of the uuqrrtat 'Arafat
wjthin the confinesof a specialplace and time rousesemotional
(arch paradigrn in terrestial terms of the Last Judgemnt itself)
responses of fear or j oy, hate ot love, alieflotion or communion
renders the whole of the }ajj invalid.ro It is also true ofthe sufi
In that emotional evocation lies the work of the ritual.3-l
rituals which mould and bind the adherents of a particular
Paradoxically, in view of the links stressed above, the seeds of
taiqa.
alienation are ahvayspresentin sl]fi ritual. This is bcausesufi
ln this sction, then, which seeksto adumbrate a paradigm of
dtuals actively direct themselves towards the coal of fat a.,
snfi alienation, Edward Muir's excellent dennition of ritual as 'a
asceticism, abDegation and, thus, alienation Indeed, the
social activity that is repetitive, stardardized, a model or a
ma;nstreamsdlat itself can be a potent lHcle of a_nnihilation.
mirror'{r should be borne in mind.
The postureofthe individual who prays in Islam is deliberatelv
The paradigm is fundamentally a very simple one; it may be
rnterded ro he rhdr of a slavebeforehis .up,eme Lord .\.
articulatedin two parts as follows: (A) Islam in Dtr al-Harb,lor
Ashraf puts it, 'one is compelled to annihilate oneself in the
example in tsritain, has as one of its 'alienaring factors' its
presenceof the Almighty.'ra Or, as Rotenst.eich purs it in
mainstreamrituals. Those alienatedare usually non Muslims.
180
1E1

(This is not to say, of course, that dll non Muslims are liable to
such feeiings of alienation in th prcsenc of Muslim rituals)
Where such alienation does take place however, it may have the
semiotic consequenceof'the silenceddlfian.' When the local
mosque in King Street, Loughborough, U.K., sought permis
sion from Charnwood Borouqh Council to broadcast the
Nfuslim call to prayer from the mosque roof through loud
speakers,it was given a six week trial priod. However, a rash of
leaflets swiftly followed claiming that the alhan would create
noise pollution, in arr effort to persuadethe Council to refirse
the application at the end of the trial period. h{uslim leaders
promptly alleged religious discrimination. One observed thar
'church bells ring freely all around the country, but only a
handful ofMosques in Birmingharn and Bradford are permitted
to calt the faithful in a similar way. {r
Alienation thus breeds alienation. Having praised the
beautiful sound of church bells. attention was drawn in the
Muslim press to the multi faith nature of British s(riety, th
'illegal and discriminatory' nature of 'the consistmt refusalsof
many local auihorities to allow )vlosques to practise the
equivalent of church bell ringing a moment or two of the
hauntinsly beautiful call of the Koran , and the need for others
to join notable non alienatedpeople like the Prince of Wales
who 'admirably, has statedthat he wjshesto be the defenderof
all the faiths. The themesof belonging and identity wer at th
heart of the conclusion of the NJuslim editorial which
pronouncedr'lt is time for a Royal Proclamationfrom Charles,
and a ringing endorsementby the Home i,ecretar!, that from
now on the Azaan lsicl is as much a part of British religiouslife
as the peal of Christian bells.'rr
(B) Howeve., the secondpart ofthe paradigm is that Sufism,
both in Dar a|-lIarb and Dar al-lslam, has, as its fundamental
'alienating factors', potential or actual, the sufi rituals, most
notably the dhibr and the sama'. Those alienatedmay include
not only the non-\{lrslim protestersat the sound of the adhan
but, much more significantly for the \{uslim corununrty's
sense of belonging and identity, non-sufi Muslims. The
Egyptian, Dr. 'Umar 'Abd al-Rahman, to whom previous
182
T H E A L I E NATED SU I'i i
reference has been made, constitutes a paradigmatic case studv
of alienation.
The'semiotic consequences'are visible in the gulfs of
misunderstanding,suspicion and sometimesmutual accusation
which can arise between srift }luslims, non soli Muslims and
non Muslims and, more specifically, the sig mentality of the
tust group. The $ufi adherent may feel himself totally alienated
from mainstream Nluslim life. Moreover, $ufrsm is deeplv
divided upon itselfas to the 'reality' of the S.lism of others' and
who is and is not eligible to be called a true $nfi.aaThe $nfi
Orders are accusedof a lack of enlightenment and of being a
mere 'living palimpest [sicl]' of real Sr:fism.ai
The paradigm may not operatein every caseor in every land
When it does, however, the sufi may find himself alienated from
non-sufi N{uslims, non Muslims, his fellow snfis (of different
Orders or stvles of Su6sm) and, ultimately, from himself The
'silencedadhan',which signalsso powerfully 'the absenceof.
universal communal solidaritv',a6in areasof Dar al Harb like
Britain, is transmuted into something which on the surface is
far worse a senseof profound isolation and alienation but
which, paradoxically,and insofaras it may be identified with the
goal of fa n', is infinitely to be desired
Noting that, 'a further major sourceof conflict in earlv Islam
was Sufism'. Wolffe insists that 'an awarenessof these ancient
divisions is important for understanding th varieties of outlook
among tr{uslims in modern Britain.'rt lt helps to explain the
siege mentality of some lufi groups which, for example, are
profoundly suspiciousof Western education,lsand mav seekto
.etreat into, or constitute, a separatesodiety within society at
large.r'qTo observe all this is by no means to condemn it or pass
judgement upon it. These rernarks are intended simplv to
illustrate the workings of the toposof alienation within Sufism,
whether consciouslyor unconsciousiy
This sense of alienation, compounded by deep-rooted,
almost guilty, ambiguities of feeling, has been neatlv encapsu
0
latedin DaphneHabibis arricleon \lahdism Lnthe Leba-non
i\..oting that 'Tripoli stands at the crossroads of the meeting
betwem East a.d West'ir, she has a number of pertinent
183
 S.FI R]TI.]AL
observations about th mrni* who follow the Naqshbandi
Khalidi Shaykh Nazlm al-Qubrusi, to whom we have already
referred in this volume. Her remarls powerfully illustrate the
paradigm of sr:fi alienation which is the focus and conclusion of
this book.
Firstly, she draws attention to an ambiguiry of attitude
among the muraLs \rho are torn between an admiration for
Western technology and science and yet detst uhat they
perceive as the 'oppressive quality' of Wastern civilisation.
Taking Lebanese Christianity as their reference, they resent
Christian power and prominence whiJe envying their .highty
Westernised territory' They feel let down, the morc so since
Islam promisesthem final victory as in Sriar dl ,\Idr, (Srrrl 110)
of the Qur'an. Despite their incorporation into the Western
world by virtue of their education, travel and saturation by the
Western media, they are alienared both from this world and the
state of the fragmented lslamic Unrna in which they live where
a bare lip serviceis paid by maly nominal Muslims to religion
or where Islam has been transmuted for ideotogical or other
ends into_ something which they cannot comprehend or
recognise.i,Habibis concludesthar the sheer speedof change,
and the massive contrasts between that which is old and that
which is new, have left the rnunds isolated and uncertain,
alienared (my word) both from tbe old and the new. On the one
haad, they do not wish to cast off the cultural and retigious
heritage of many centuries, bequeathed to them by their
parents;on the other hand, the valuesofthe new age and other
cultures have a magnetic attraction. 'They watch what is
happening around them wjth despair.jl
Notes
1 Rotensheich, Al;Mrion, p. 15.
2 Ibid., pp. 7 16
3 David E. Cooper, Exftdtiatisn. A Reco6ttrcrion,(Cllford, Blacl
we1l,1990,1995),p. 8
4 SeJ.B.Sykes -7-fieCotciseoxford Dict;wty of Cunmt hgtish,
-(ed.),
6th edn.,(Oxfo.d; CldendoDPress,j976, 19is),p.25 sedtid;b
164
THE ALIENATED SUFIi
5 Rot6trich, Aliedti@, p. 3.
6 Ibid., p' 3 citing Plotinus,EnndadJ,Vl. 9.7.
7 W.tu, Dnri' r! oI Mollm Wdxen Atoti., p.729 s! fa@'
8 E Ralmm, arr. 'B*a' wa-Fma", EI?, Vol. 1 p. 951.
9 E.g., ke her M$tical DituNioB of kldn, p. 4i.
10 Ibid., p. 142.
11 Ibid.
12 TGhihiko Izutsu, 'The BasicStructurof MetaphysicalThinking in
Islm in lvlehdi Mohaghegh& Hrmon Lddolt (eds.),Coliected
Paper or ldanic Philosopband Mrsti.isn, (Tehran,1971),P. 39t,
cited ;n SchimI, Mystirdl Di^ im of Islafl, p t43.
1-3A1 Hrjwiii, Kchl alMabjab, p. 2l1r trms. Nichohon, Tn? Kasht
al Mdhtb, pp. 185 186.
1.1 A1 Hujwrri, K6hI dI Mdhjnb, p. 313; trms. Nicholson, The Kash/
al Mahj'tb, p. 243.
15 Jawid A. \{oladdedi, 'Extndins the Bounddi* of Sufisn: al Huj
w;i s Kci/ai Maijub', S!-f, No. 3s (Autum 1997),p. 4e.
16 For this datins se A.J. Arbdry (trms.), The Dodnre oI rhe $nJ'6
(Knnb dl Ta'anuI lirudhhab anl al tasauu/), trus. from the Aiabic
of Abn Bal. al.Kaltbedhi, (Cmbridge: CUP, 1977,repr.of 1935 edn.
publishedby CUP), p. XL
17 Al-Kalabtdhi, Kirab al-Ta'and liM hnab Anl oi-Torouud, ed.
'Abd al Halim Vahmnd md T:la 'Abd al-Baqi Surnr, (Cairo:
al tlalabi. 1960),p. 123i trds Arb6ry, DoctTineoI the SnI'l, p. 120.
18 JtrId Baldick, Mrsti.dl Isldn: An Inhaductiat to ^Su,{.M,(London:
Tauri s,1989),p.56.
l 9 l bi d.
20 I$lie S. Nthoi. ' Wosde Rit of Passag: Reflectionson the Ituiiatlon
of Wosdn4in the Cult of Vwali in Zimbabze in JDes L. Cox (ed.),
Rit s o/ I'6sage in Cmtmpour AJtica, Rlision in ContenPorary
Afria Sries.(Crdiff: Cddiff AcademicPress,1998),p. 79.
21 Ibid
22 Jm6 L. Cox, lnkoduct;on: Ritual, Rites of fasage and the
Int.raction betwen Christia md TraditionalReligiom in Cor (ed.),
Rit s o-fPaas, P. IX quoting F.W Clothey, 'Ritual' in K. Crlm (Gen.
Ed.), Abinsdon Di.tiotutr ol Li|.'ne Relisio6, (Ndhvi e: Abingdon
Prs. 1981),pP. 624 628.
23 Cox, 'Introduction, p. X.
24 lbid., p. XIIL
25 S@S. Maqbll,\hnad, an.'Djugbre6ye', EI'z,Vol.2, pp. s7s 587.
26 For the pilerim rout6, see, for evmple, Abdullah al Wohaibi, ?he
Notthem Hie in ti. ffiltinss oJ the Ardb Geosdphds 800 t154,
(Bint: AI Risalah,1973),esp pP. 313 395
2t Edwad Muir, Ritul in Earb Modem Enope, New ApProaches io
Euopd History -\'-o.11, (Canbridge: CUP, 1997),p.4.
18.
 S.!'i RITUAL
28 Al Nawawi, alAtbd'1n, p 99 (Arabic texr), p' 98 (English tres.),
(Haditb no. 29).
29 S@ Wehr, D;rioery o/ Moada Wdttn Atubi,
v r38 sv funM
30 Muir, Rtual in Ea'lr Md,)em Euopz, p. 2_
31 I b j ,d .,p .2 74.
J' Se Ahad. Gp@tolp of RpIEionp. ;2 6p. n 18.
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Te@hinsoJ llarith b. AsaA aLMuha-nbiA.D z8r 837,(Iondon:
SheldonPress,1977,repr.of 1S35edn.).
Society for Su6 Studis (ed.), RitMI, Initiai@ anl Sedetsin Sufi
arr.l/), rLondon:Desiqni.lC.lrmunications.Iq80).
StepDimts, Marietta T., Suf W6d,m. SUNY Series in tstam,
(Albany,N.Y: SUNY Press,1994).
Stern,S.M., Ho@i, Albrt, & BroM, Vivie (eds.),Is,anx philos'phl"
ot1'lthe Clsiel Trallitir, (Oxford, Brurc Csiier, 1972).
Stivd, Dan R., The PhilosophyoJ Religiot/sLansuase: Sisn, Synbol
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Tmaskovia, Duko, 'La Situation Acruelle de I'Ordre des Naqshbd
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202
N I B L I O G R A P HYO! WOR KSC ITED
Vm Bruinessen,Manin, 'The Naqshbandi Order in 17th-Century
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sss&
Attention is also drawn to a magistelial two'part article by Leonard
Lryisbn which appetred t@ late to b used ot citd elsewhere in this
volume: An introduction to the history of \lode.n Persim Sufism, Part
1: The Ni'matullahi order: pereecution,rvival md schism', Builztin o/
the Schoolof Orimtal aul AJri.4r Stldies, Vol. 61, Pt. 3 (1ss8), pp. 43 7
46.+; 'Part II: A socio cultual profile of sufism. from the Dhahabr
revival to the presniday , ibid., !bl. 62, Pt. 1 (199q), pp 36 59.
203
 Index

('al' and 'el' are discounted in the order of what follows, at the
beginning of an entry)

l{bd al Rahman,Dr. "Uma 163, 'A'ishah 13s

164,165,182 183 "aja'ib16l
'Abd al Rahme b. Qtsim 13s Akbar, Mughal Emperor6s, 70;
Abdalati,Hmmudah 111,112 din-i iLahi6a
ablutiom,ritual7,30,31,32,35, Aleppo 21
43,112,132ieeabopuit},,ritualAlgar,Hamidx, 62, 63,6+,67,
Abraharns.e Ibrahm 69, 70, 7'1,77,81, 82,85, 86,
absolution111, 122 88
Ab'l Bakr61,74,80 Ali, Yasmin6
AbHn-fa 132rWariyJa132 Ali, Yusuf49; seealsoQuim
Abn HualE 133 i{li b. Abi "lilib 12, 27, 31, 13,
Ab. Suhaylibn Nl.lik 133 74, 158
action,foffEl 124 alienation ix, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 11,72
action,nghi 125 t4s, 162,163,164,165,166,
action,sadd8, 124 167,168,169,170,175 184
ad4b161 al-"Allai Ab1: 'l Hudhayl42
ad.ab,snfi 28 29,32 34,3s 36, Allah s.? God
43, 50, g0 Almohads140n.102
Adam 12, 118,119,t22. 128 Almoravids140n.'102
Adams, CharlesJ. 68 almssie;nsseesdiaqa; zahat
a.Jhan 36, 110, 182, 183;sedLo altdation 1t8
chmt, rituatrrajDid AmericanUniversityofCairo 83
adoration of God r?" d&6iz Amir Kulel, Khvaja 63
Afghanistan 86 amulets 14
Africa 24,
16,1 mgels,angelology 9, 12,22, 40,
Ahmad,Aziz 66,67 83, 135,1'16,169:Angel of
A]trd, Khwaja'Ubayd Allah Dath7s; Munkar and Nakir
64 65,66,69 169
ahtal2,32,3a,83 animals 8

205
 sCFi RIT{JAL
aDnihilationof sell ego3s, 36,
43, 83,85, 164,16?,fi6 177,
178, 18q seealsoJanna MJs
anthropology ix, 104,105,
127 129,t34,145,156 161,
170; mysticalanthropology
129
antinomianism163
Aquinas,St. Thomas130
Arabia,Pr Islamic118
Arabic 123
'Arafat79, 116,119,120,121,
128, 181t seedlsohajt urqnf
Aristotelianism 42; seealso
substaces ald accidents
d*an \x, 13,35,40 41, 49, 50,
103 1,14,145,154,155,157,
t60, 161,162,163,163,17;,
179,181
dt ed dchitecture124
Arthur, King 73
Asad,Talal127,130,131,160,
161
ascehcrsm 13,-11,44,6i1,
112,
115,133,154,155,1i6, 157,
163,180
Ashral SyedAti 133,13s, 1u0
Asia, Cenftal69, 70, 71, 88j
lnner 69i SouthEast85
Asid 5, 6,; se?aisofood
atonnot 11;, 122,123 Bosnia86
'Atttu, 'Ala' al,Din 85
Ausustine,St. \ De Dhttitu
Ciiistidfla 131
authority154,157,159,163
aufid seeuird: Aufid i Fathitja
86
Awangzeb, Ivfughat Enperor
65,66
IN D EI
al Bukhan-146 community134,160,183ise
al Azha University1, 163 turda 8
Burhaaiyrya87, 88 Compmions of the Prophet see
Babu, Mughal Emreror 64
Badr,Battleof 149 Cairo87, 113,163 comparionshiPsee$f bd
Baghdad43, 68 Call tn prayet w anhan concrt, mystical, sPiritual see
Ba]'ira 22 Calvary124
Batdick,Julim 178 confe.enceson Snfrsm3q
Cassian,John 48
ba.qt'11,12, 43, 176,|i7.178i. catechism, Tukish 106,116,121 conErmatior116,120,127,122
contmplation 4, 78, 83, 84, 166,
al-Baqitldi 42 celebEtion 113, 115,116,117, t76. 1a1; seeakofh;
Bd llitzvah 116 120,121,122,124,133 snaqabat rnrshahada
bzda4 14;seeaLsoblssings ad chmt,.itual124,164,165,166, Cooper,David 175;
169;seealsoalhan; musiq tnstenhalArnL/5
singing; tajud Coibin, Hetry 129
Barelwis1a Chaptd of Fautts 46 Cordova22
Barthes.Roland 27 chaity 104,112 Cox, JamesL. 179
al Basn,al HasaD27, 44 Chmwood BoroughCoucil 182 Crearor 32,41,151,153isealso
bann157,161 chha 2, 71 God
ba!'d 76, 157, 13a Chishti'rya14, 67, 68, 82 cultureclash2, 4, 5
Bayrm, Sugd see'td al-Fir' Chitricl,VlC. 71,108,111,112,
being178,179 1t4, The Vnion of lslun r03 Daghistani,Sheikh72
belonging2 6, 180,182 Chrjstianity 48, 109,111,116, al-Dajjal72
Benedict,St. 29; Rde of St. 124,130,131,152,153,184 Damascus68
Benedict 29 30,32,34,46,16: Christmas 113 Danrel, David 70
seedlsooblates,Benedictine Cbristopher,John B. 112 dmce, sacredseesatna"
Benedictines48; se"dlso oblares, Chrysside, George2 dancing14, 37, 38, 39, 83, lJ4,
Benedictine;Boedict, St. chlrch bells 182 147,152,164,16, seeako
Bennett,Clinton 129 Church Fathers,Early Cbdstian musici singrng
bid'd(innovation)14i, 163,165 t47 dar al hath 181,182,183
Birmingham182 chcumambulationseelduaJ dar al-Islaflix,lo,154,179,182
blesshgsmd cur*s 8, 9, 146;see Dasuqitya87
citi6 10 Davies,Collin 6s
civilistion, Western 184
Day ofJudgement37, 40 41, 721
B.adford5, 182 Clothey,FW 179 sedlio judgenent
Britai! 2, :t, 4, 5, to, 14,12. a/', death9,22, 117,133,160
181,!82, 183 @Inmandhg good ed declarationof faith seeslahada
Duddha1s3 forbiddingevil 116;we also deeds,good8, 104,105,108,
BuddhisD2, 125,177; 115,133,156;FiveVirtuous
Q".'an
Thtravada Buddhisn 2; see comemoration 1 16, 118-119, Acts 125
dr'o nirvana; Noble Eighdold 120,122,130, 131,132,133, Delhi65,66, 68
Path 134,162,164,166,167,168, Demy, F.M. 128
Bulhaa 63, 69 169 Deobandis14
206 207
 SIFJ RITL:AL
devils115
Dewsbut' 5
dhibrlx, 11, 12,13,15,28,29,
35, 36,37, 38,39, 49, /-1,75,
77,7'3,i9 a1,85,1.{5,146,
t47, 152,133,15;, ts7, 158,
159,162,163,165,166,180,
182;dhibrjah 36,63,8r, rSB:
dhitubhaJi36,63,79 81,82,
83, 85, 90; seeatsouird
Dhn 't Qa'da 119,135
din 136n.2, 145
ttn.i ilak s@ Akbat
discipls.em!?nC(s)
Divine Destinyseeal-qadar
Divine Of6ce 34, 4?
I)ome of the Roc[ 7
l)ouglas,I{ey 134,1j6, 160
dreams,tnterpreiationof 13
Eeth 129, 167, 168
EasterSunday12,1
Fao,Umberto 130
ecstasy4, 37.38,82,83,147,162
ducation,Western183,184
Egypt1,23, 71,115,t59,162
Eliade,Mircea 129,I56, 164,
165,166
emanation129,176
emotionsand ritual 180
Empedocleanetements7
Encycbpaedia of kldm 80, 17i
Enslmd seBritain
Elntuddrree Plotinus
Enoch74
epistemology 155
eschatology9, 10, 1't6, 120.\32, Friedmm, Yohum 6s, 66
148,151,162
el'Essawy,Hesham3
erh;cst23, 160,177
Euchaist 152
Enrcpe6,24,71
Eve1l8
208
examiMt;on of con$i6c
46 4 /-. seealsotuhnmto
Eyre,Ronaldl, 3; On the Inta
Surch 1
faith8, 103,104,t03,10/^,r32;
Protestantjustification by faith
Faiih Movenot s??itliisl-i
Jdmdat;reealsoliyas, Mawlm
Jona"11, 12, 45, a4, a-i. t7O.
176 117,l7a, 180,183;see
4iso mnihnation of sli ba4a'
fsting 104,113 116,125,126,
129,133,180
Fil,ihd83, 88, 8gi ia dtroQur'a!
teatts 8; seeabo 'Id dI Adhat.Id
al-Fitr
Feuerbach. I-udwig 175
hdeliry167
tAr ix, 35, 39 +0,49, t45, t4j,
152.r53, 154,159,162,166,
I67i seedlsocontemplarion;
nriqabd: ,nudahano
tsh 22
F'itzgerald,
Edwardix, 15 n.l
folklore.Islamic115
f@d 14, 33
forgiveness 115, 116,122,123.
132
roundersof orders11, t2
foontains of Paradi* 7; seealso
French71
Friedlander,IE 166
Fulbright$holars 83
Gaborieau,Mtrc 62, 67; s@dlso
Sevre Round Table
Gabriel se Jibril; seeolso Hadith
of Gabriel
I NDEX
g&ments,Islamic8, 30
Gaudeftoy-Demornbynes,
Mauiice 118
genrosity112, 122,126-.127
geographcs,Muslim 180
GeorgeWashington University
39i Lisner Auditrriln 39
gestures180
al-Ghazali,Abn Hmid 1,38,
39, ,14,47, 50, 131,135,14il;
ll.rya''Ulnn al-thq 39
al Ghazeli, Almad 27
al'Ghijduwani,Khw.ja iAbd
al-Kh.liq63, 75,79,86
Cilsnan, Michaei1,3, 127,157,
't62,163
Glmsc,Clril 3; Concise
Bqclapaedja of Islm 3
gnosis177
God 6 ad pasin; immence
107,108,109;tescendence
107,108;sdisoGod, tseatihc
Visiotr of; God, obediencetoi
Haq;qarnamesof God; ai'tut
AllaA;Presence, Divine;hbbt';
ia iid; uion, mystical
God, BatilicVisionof 167
God, obedience to 116, 119
Golden FIce 73
gEce 130,131
Graham, Teny 24
Crail, Quest for the 73
gtatitude 167
Gull The 68
Gwalior65
Habib, N{adelain72, 83, 88
Hatibis, Daphn72, 183,184
hadirh9, 12,23,44,48,67,110,
131,133,146,150,160,161,
162,163jHadith of Gabriel
{Jibril)a0 41, 103,104,109,
117,127,12a,161;HadrtLof
ReNard md Punishmot
209
104 105,106,101, l1i , 12?l
Hagar(Hajar)118,119
hajji,68,19, r01,110,116 123,
124,125,126,128,129,130,
134 136,140n.102,151,160,
ihnml
ri9, ral seeaLso
labbalAa;al Mama; al Safa;
stj''y tuuaf rJvqnJ
Hajjat al Bolash seePllgllnfiaee
Hofiat alvaaa' seePilgrimase
of Faewell
Hdadani, 'Ali b. Shihabal'DrD
86
Hanaddni,Majdhnb 'Ah Shah
35, 53 n.32
Haqqa 9U seealsoGod
Hdawi, Amri Husayn23,52n.23
healing124,154
Heaven(al Janna)seePaadise
Hegel,G.WF. 17s
HeiLer,Friedrich6, 10
Hell (al-Naz)7,21, 104,10s,
115,131,133,146,151
Herat 23
I{ercules73
Hiddn Imm 22
hieruchy11,25 30, 73 75
hierophmy165 166
Hij.z 66, 71,86
nria 80,134
Hira', Mount 8, 1,18
Hirschfeld,H. 1a8
Hizb al-Bdhr88
Hour, The 41, 161;signsofThe
Hour 161,162;seealso
Hourui, Albert 67, 68
Hugh of St. Victor 130,131
al'Hujwiri, :{li b. 'Uthman
al Jullabl37, l1t' 178: KashJ
al MahjtLb31, r7i 178
 SUFI RITUAI- INDEX
hunan bjns,figufe 128 al-Junayd27, 48, 49, 160 Kurdt, MawlanaKhalid 67 69
humiiity13,29,30,34, 76,89,122 Intermtional Isldic Fedration junar (shield)180 Kurdisid 68, 71
of Student Organ;ations 106 Kurds 68
Iblis 128iseedlsoSatm interlexrualiry 146 Kd'bai,2a, 116,117,118,119, Kushl-i Hinduwan63
Iblis, rejectionof 116,119, 122 Dluat;on se"und 120,121,122,129,13t see
Ibn 'Abdull.b Tust&i, Sali 48, Irm 24, 68, 71rseabo Persia tdbbatko r3t seedtsohlrji
87,147 'isa. the prophet 72 al-Kalabadhi, Abn Bakr 178 laboursof Herculs 73
Ib^ al:tuabi 22,24,66,129tsee Ishmael w Isma" balitut-i E lst.la 7i 18, seealso Lane,E.\tl 11s
aLso Mhdat al-uljnd Isma"il118,1ls, 128,168 \-aqshbandi)rya langlag, formal 124
Ibn :\ta'All h 16S IsDs"ilism 131 barmat 63 lapidationritual 119,120,122,
Ibn Battora164 itrad 150; seeal,o hadith 128is?edko Mila; stones
Ibr Hisham 119 lstanbul70 Khalid, Shaykhse?Naqshbed,, Last Judgdnt, The see
Ibn Humayd 135 irtishft a7, 89 Mawlma Khtlid
Ibn Ishaq119,135 Ivanow,W 25 Khalidi branch of law sch@ls.Islmic 37; s.also
Ib. Jabal,Mu"adh 104,10s Izutsu,Toshihiko177 Naqshbandiyvasee
Ibn Rushd22 Naqshbmdiyya Larlat a.l Qdd.r113 114,llsi s
Ibn Sina22 J&ob'sLadds 166 Khalidirrya seeNaqshbandtrrya
Ibn Suw6r,Illuhmad a8 Ja'fa al Sed;q 74 EhaliJd12.23, i4, 80, r29 Lebanon72, 183,184
Ibrahrm116,117,118,119,120, Jahengn,Mughal EDperor 65 Kltalil Allah selbrahim Lewis,Philip s, 14, 37
1,22,124,126,128,134,154, ldhattun ls\ se. alsoHell Khalrlulah (sonof Nlr al-Din Lewisoh!, tenard 203
168, 16\ KhaLil Allah \69 Jdmfat,i Tablishat-Islm 14;ree ShahNi"matullahWah) 23, 26 Libya 14;seeaisoSmusiyya
'Id al Adhi 119 at o sha}, Pn Maroof Hussain hhaluaTS,7A,85, 86, 148, 167; Light7
'Id al-Fit 113 at.lanv seePtadisa' litany sdhi&r; u,itd
identity6, 179,180,181,182 Japan2 Khaa, Ahmad Raza1a liturgy34 50,J6,79 90, 124,
Jason73 hhatuqah 29
11, 24, 27, 28, , 31 162
Idlis,Sayyid14;srealsoSannsiyya Jdusalem 7; ec alsoDome of the 32, 33, 35, 36, '15;seealso l-ondon.Universityof 39
thran 110,135.136 Rmk Lote Ttee 8; seedlsoParadise
ihsan4r JesusChrist 28, 124,130,153 KILatar.al -N'd6iryin 107,131 Lot6, Muhmmad Reza3s
ilaz 107;se.alsoQur',n JesusPrayer 47; seealso dhilr; hhanaf,al-salauatA8 Loughborough,UK 1li2
Ikhwenal Safa 32, 49 Khatm i Kt ajaefu 86, 88i see Iote 13, 19 n.91,22, 24,28, 2t),
Ilyas,lvlawlmaN{uhemad 5i .Jibri-I,11,103,109,118,128,149r 30,34,39,40,'11,52 n.32,71,
seedtsoTabLiEhi lalwt seeaiso Hadith of Gabriel Kharyarn,Omar ix, 1, 15 n 1; 80,82.109,152,156,169,
iman40 41, 132 jihnd 10s Rs6airt ;, 1, 15 n.1 178,180
Jinr 15, 115 Khwajagmstl
India14,65,66, 67,6a,69,?0. Johansn,Julian1s8 159,163; al-Khidr 22, 26, 73, 75 Ma Fu ch'u 12s
71,lJ1,82 svf6n Md tslani. Rehr,tr.;t bhilali 6i, 8l seeaLsoR6hi.lnn Nlahen23
Indim relieions48 E$pt 163 hhirqa 30 I{ahdi, The 71 72
individuals9, 10 .tonar28, 4e Khumaym,Ayatouah71i uila)dt al \Iahdr (father of Sayyid Idris)
lndonGia71, 86 Jo*Ph 28 al-faqih t-r 14
inimitability sei'jaz Judaism116 Kirm,n 23 Mahdism 183
nitiation23, 29,30 32,73 77, judgement, Last Judgement9, al Kirmani,aH al Rezaq 23 Main,John47,48,151,155isce
126,157 108,116,119,120,121,122, Konya22 dlso mantra; meditation
inte ect,intellrctuals19n.91,.10, t24, 126,12a.1J1,169,181; Koran sa Qur'ar
64,152,166,l/-9 seeatsoHou, The; Day of Kubrawitl'a68, 86 Valakut 38
30, 36, 136,154 Kutr 10s, 163 malamati snffs 89
'ntention
210 211
 q T' Fi RiTU^L INDEX
Malaya86 millenrimisrn 7t 72 nnagaba ix, 33, 40 43, 49, 44, Nasser, Gamal (Jmai iA.bd
Malik 133 Mina 119,120,122;seealso 145,147,148,149,153,156, al Naqir) 121 122
Malik b Anas 108,112,133i lapi&tion ritual 159,162,166,167;seeatso
M\batta'1\8 Mr Dard 83 @Dtemplation;tAi n8iaiada
manifestarion
164,165 miracles1.+ al-Nawawi 104, 132, 133,
mantra47 +ii, 151,155iseediso 't61 t62
mitfij 109, 132 Munta, Sachiko103,108,111,
d[th4 Main, John;Dird m'rro6. Islamic8 112,rr4, ThcVLsiotuf Istan r03 Nazim, Shaykh seeal-Qubrusi
tuqanat 2,31,38, 178 monasrery, Ch.istian r lid t
\s), 1i&n 11,14,23,24, negative vocabulary of God
turuatha 17t seeale dhih\ $id mondticism29, 34, 46,47, 48, 26, 37,36,3i , 40, 43,45,i3, 74, 108 109; seealso God
Mbles 158 76 75,76,85,87,149,153,154, Neoplatonism 107, 176; seealso
N{utin, Christopher 15,1 monotheisms.e tduhtd 157,158,159,160,168,1tl4 Plotinus; Universal Intellect;
al-lr{ama 119, 128; seealsohaijl months, sfied 8; seedbo tim Universal Soul
al'Safat v'} Mnsa (Mo6s)26, 73, 7a, 109, New T6t am ent 151, 153
N{ass,sacri6@of 124, 1s2 132,168,169 Nicholson, Reynold A. 177
Mdx, Karl 17s mosques8, 163,182 \{usylima 119 ni'tut Allah 27
Mdt :Ali Sheh 26 Mughal Empire65, 66, 69 nuhalada 80: seealsofb: Ni'matullah Wali, Nrlr a.l-Din
r naste rG) 1 1 , 12, 13, 15, 22 ,2 3 , Mughals65, 66, 70 shah21.,22,23,24,25,27,37,
24, 2 5 , 2 6 , 28, 30, 31, 36, 3 t^ , Ifuhamad, The Prophet7, 9, music13,37,38,39,81, 82,83, 39,45,53n.32
3E,4 0 , 4 3 ,. 15,48, 49, 61, 6 .1 , t2, 13,14, t5, 22,26, 27,2a, 14i,152, 164,166. ee also NimatullahiSUGN{usic
73, 7 5 ,8 5 , 88, 153, 157, 1 5 8 , 10,41,4?.61,74,80, 83,84, ddlzn; dancingisinging Ensmble 39
159 , 1 6 0 , 1 67, 168;s eedijo 88, 103,104,107,108,109, trlu'tazila 42 Ni'matullehi)yaix, 13, 21 59,
shaykh i 11,r 15,116,119,120,12.t, al-Muzdalifa120 71,73,84,145,158,159,203;
N{atthew,Gospel of I 51 153 124.125,126,12a,129,t31. mysteries, scred, religious162 seedlsoN{nnislyyabranch
mausolea8, 1,1,23, 129, 163 132,133,134,135,136n.2, mystical audition s?did'nd' nirvma 177isedlsoBuddhism
M awlaw i yya9, lJ 3, 84, 156. 1 6 4 , 145,14/-,148,149,150,151, myih 9, 123 Nizami,K.A. 62,64,65.66,67,
166 153,154,157,158,160,161j 69, i7
meal, ritual 158 Khatan al.NabiJt& l\i , 1311 tuts (soul)a6,t9, 112,116,130, Noble EishtfoldPath 125ise
lvlecca7, 23, 26, 68. 86, 10,1,107, Pilgrimageof Frewel 116, 14r-,149, \51',167,li 6t see alsoBuddhism
116, 1 1 7 , 1 1r J ,11S ,129, 13 6 . 119,12O,12a,134tseaal'o dbo :lmililarion of *li go novrcse?mutid(s)
140 n 1 0 2 , 1, + 1,n. 103.179 , buda. c t\ Sta, tahannuth narb6 9, 80; namesof God 118, nutuMa 107,108,122,131
180; seealso Zamzan, Well of nrltJabdix, 35,43 47,49,145, 162. 166 al Nu'n.n, QAdl 131
media, Western 184 150 151,154 155,159,162, n4qsh61,64 numbers,numerology8, 13, 31,
Medina 80 I66, 169 Naqsl'l'a'd 80 32,34,49,54n.82
m edita ti o n .+ 748, 78, 124, 1 5 1 , al-Muhrsib,,Heith b. Aed Naqshbmd,Kt'wajaBaha' Nlr Ali Shah26
166; seealso_fbr; lv{ain, Johr ,13 44, 154;vorks 44 a1 ttn 62, 63, 64, 69, 70, 79, Nurbalhsh,Javadix, x, 22, 23,
mantra, mrtuqdbo \4uir, Edward180,181 81,82,8:,86 25,26, 27,28,31, 32,33,35,
Nfujaddid,brmch of Naqshbandi,Mawlana Khelid 85 38,39,41,42,43,45,52 n.32,
Naqshbandilya see Naqshbandrpractice,lv{alay- 71. 152,159tIn rhePuadi.eoJ
mentioning seediibl Naqshbandiyrya tle S!,Es41, 43,49,50i
messengers40, 83, 108 multi faith society 182 Naqshbandiyya x, 13, 14, NutuabhshEncr.lapediaoJ Surt
N{nnis 'Ali Shah 27 61 102,141n.103,145,158, Termirclogt 32
N,f!nisi!'l,a branch of 184;Khalidl branch68, 85; Nurull.h Shah(erandsonof Nnr
Mevlviyya se l,Iawlawi)t3 Ni'matulahirya 2;, 27 Mujaddidi branch 68; seealso a]-Din ShahNi'matullah
mIcrocosm,imacrocosma MuIIar ard Nalir 169;se"dl'o kal;'nj't i adsiyJa walt 2a
Middle Ea.t ;l al-Nar seeHell al-Nusmar,ShaykhSayyid83
2t2 2t3

obdience
11,34,74,116,t19,
122,134,t50 151,158,160,
167,168
obiates,Benedictine 75i seeziJo
Benedict, St; Benedictines
occasDnalisms"?atoniss
of6ce of an order seeuid
Old T6tament 166
one, The s??God
Onenessof cod seerdutrd
Orisen 147
ostentation,reje.tionof 89 90
Ottomm Empire69
ownershipof wealrh112
Pakistan 14,81
Pdabie ofthe Ten Virgins 151, I ;.]
P&adise7, S,31,10,+. 117,121. Pre*nce, Divine 90, 152,153,
129,132,133,1.16,147,16.+.
167;s?ealsoLote Tree
passingaway see,Iatd '
peDitence seerepentmce
PerfectVan 129
Persia23, 27, 71; seedlsoIraD
lersian177178
prson,sacred,holy 129
phenomenology ;r<,6, 7, lt,
10 11,104,105.123 127,
1,+5,151 156,169
philosophds147
phiiosophy17s
pjlgrimage
31, 63,68, 124,135,
Pilgrimageof Farewell116,119, Punjab,East65
120,128
pir l,14
place,sacred27 28,119,t7g: see
pldrs 8
Plato50, 79
Plotinus4, 107,176, 181i
Emeads 176; seealso
p.Etry 9, 13, 22, 23, 36, 3a
politics134;Islamic121 122,
119
polytheism s srrt!
Pourjavady, N4roltah 22, 2s, 27
10,35, 158,159;(titl3sof L@
36
povdry 13, 30, 31, 32, 64
prayer,ritual (saldr)9.35,36, 49.
50.87,{r8,104,10;, 108,
109-111, 112,113,116,124,
t23, 126.127,t2A, 129.132,
r+6, 147,1;3,158,167,169,
180
156,158;sedlsocod
presence, sacred110,152,153,
156;se dlsosp&e, aacred;
pride 90
Prirnellaner 32
Prince ch&les, Prince of wates
182
professionof faith seeshahndz
prohibit'ons,ritual 114,120
prophecy108, 129
Prophet, The s"e \tuhmad,
The Prophet
prophethoods?en/huDa
prophets 9, 73. 74,83, 108,116,
129,| /-8
psychratry25
punty, .itual; puity; purificarion
35 36. 110,111,112,115,
122,132,133,1:l+. 136,t52r
seealso ablrtions. ritual
211
rNDEX
rmembding seedlilr
14, 23, 36, 64, 66, 67, remnbrmces?dhi!'
Qediriyya
66 Renaid,John 119,132,134
Qdadagb 68 retutance 116, 120,122,123,
133,134,151,154,155,157
al-Qaani, Uways 22
qoruals 81, 82 repetition, ritual 124,129,166,
Qawwali,
qibla 36, 43 169,179,180,181
Resurrction,Day of se
al Qubrusi,ShaykhNazim 61,
71, 72,73,i4, 75,79,86, 89,
159,184
questing md testing 73 leturn to God 108
Sa'id 129 return to homeland, myth of 6
Qurnmi, Qadi
(Kdar) 7, 9, 10, 12, 1s, reward,divine 11s, 116,122
Qu."en
26,3a,42,+4,47,48, 49, 50, rewardmd punishment
104 105,106;seeHadith of
66,73,74,a2,84,8i,48, 104,
106,107,108,109,111,112, Rryad and Punishmat
113,114,117,118,r20,126, rhtoric22
130,132,133,136 n.2,145, Richard,Ydn 27
146,||i, t48,119,150,151, Rifa'i)Ta 164
155,160,161,162,163.164, ihla fr tala.baI "iln 23
116, lr7, 726
165,16;, 168,182,18'1;copiesrites of passage
of the Qur'o il; revelation ol
riversof Pdadise7; seedlsd
th Qur'e 113;s?edl,o Ali,
Yusuf;Faiila; ilaz; Sttar
RomD Catholicism124,12s
al Baqatu:Stuat aL-lkhlo:;
Snrdral /aiirai; St'd r@ts, searchfor 154
MaDan; Strai al Nari Strd,
offerings14
al-Qa&; tajurl; Throne Verse rosewater
Rosnysous-Bois27
qrb al fara'in 89
Naihm 175,
al Qushald, Ab. 'l-Qasirn 40, Rolenstreich,
180 181
41, 1:3
rytb 22, 25, 26, 27, 33, 129,1513
rule of life 29, 32 34, 77-79
153, Rnmi, JalalalDin (Mevlana)10,
fibila s, a4 83, 145,149,
22, 132,156,164
154,1;9, 162,166,167,168
al Rnmi, Tej al Drn ibn Mahdi
iutd-i sh4nJ89, 102 n.2as
Zaman80; RisalaJi Sudn 80
Ramadan104,L13 116,126,
133;s??dlsoLaylat al-Qadr
Ratr'hiinn83: seenlsohhilaJa al-Sa'6 4r
sacrments, saciamentalrites
Rua Mohamad S. 4
seedniAr 124,125,730,131rbaPtism
rdollecting, recolction
111i Euchdist 124;sedlso
conlirmation; Mass,sacrificeof
Refomation 105
reformds,lslamic15 sacred,mmifestationof 16'1,165
 S.FI RITIJAL
sacrifice
116,11/',122,t24, t68
sdnaqalI l, 132,133
al Safa119,128;sedlsoldti
salald 149 150,153,160
eints 84, 157,158,162
sdjjada 12, 16L Sharbh
dl sdjjada t2
salmah 13s
salit seeprayd, ritual
salvation154
sa'll.ae
9, \, 12,13,35, 36,37,
J8,39,81 81, 145,117.152, Shabrizu 67, 68
153,156,157,162,t63 164, al Shah;nri seKurdi, Mawlma
16s,166,182
sarma samadhj125jjee dl'o
Buddhism
Samarqdd 23, 6J
Sanlsi,Grand 141D 103
SandsiD'a14
Sarajevo 86
Satan149;sedlsoIblis
saudiArabia 121
ta'! 119.l28tseenlsahajj.
al-Marwa; al Sa{h
Sayyidna'l-HusaynMosque,
Cairo87. 113
Schimmel,Annemar;e6. 7, 8, 9, Shrui, ShaykhRnzbihan Baqli
10,66, 75,81, 83, 106,107,
1t0,117,131,145,1i7l
Decipheins the SisB of God 6, shrines8, 14, 129
7,8
Schoolof Oliedtal and Alr'caD
Stud;es(SOAS)3s
Sch@lsof Law, SuDntg,67
seclusionseeilalua
sectanatusm, Islamic4, g
self examinarionseenrhdrdbd
semioticsix, 13, 77, 104,t}S,
111,130 136,145,147,
161 170,182,183
2t6
h s e s 1 5 6 , 1 6 6 ,1 7 9
Ssaes Round Table 62; seeaiso
Gaboriau, M&c
al-Shadhni,Abo 't Hasan s8
Sh.dhiliyya23, 27, 87, 157,169;
lvluhmmadiraa Shedhiliyya
1;8
shafa'o r32
Shai. Pir Marmf Htrsnin I 4; se
dsolani'at i TabliehaI t.tnn
shahada31, 36, 76, 78, 87.
t05 109,111,123,12a,126,
129,t31. 132,162,163,179
Kh,tid
sharafuddin, shaykl 7i
shan'a28, 31, 3i, 42, -50,63, 65.
68, 70, il, 73, 106,t12, w
dlso law sch@ls,Istamic;
Schoolsof Lav Suntu
Shaybadds 70
shayktr 1, 11, 12, t4,23,25, 33,
34,35, 36.37, 38,45,65,68,
i1,13, /-4,75.76,83,84,85,
86,90,149,150,153,154,
157,r58, 159,160.161,167,
168: Shayhhal.sjjada 12: see
alsoDastefi sql-.ada
Shi'ism22, 27, 53 n.32, 71
34,12
stlir&106,107
dl Sid?{ s? Abn Bakr; Idn:s;
Ynsuf
signs10, 113;s?edlsosmiorics
signsof the Hour 41
sitel\t dh;br w dh;hl
silsilall, 12,27,62,63,74,aB,
89, 149,154,161
sin 110,111,114,115,t16,121,
151,169jO.iginal sin 111
stncenty136n.2
I ND EX
singing14, 36, 3i, 39, 83, 147i
seealso odidn; dmcing; music
Sira 148;seealsoMuhammad
sirhitrd65
Sirhindi, ShaykhAhmad 6s 66,
67, 70, 74, 82. Mdtztubat66t
seealsoLahdat al shuhnd
Smdt, Ninian 123,124,127,
135, 156
Smith, Margaret 43
elitude n a dowd (lhdluat drr
ani tfun) 4, i 8,8r,86
Sorbom 2s
Soviet Union 71
spacersacted space8, 10, 110,
124,126, 12t-,129, 156, 166, symboiism37, 130,179
167, 179; seealsoplace,sacred; Syria21,il,72
spiritual communion see
springs of Ptadise 7; seealso
stations seeruqamat
Stpoiants, ]vlarietta 12
Stiver, Dm R, 130
Stone, Black 7, 128; rr dlso Dom
of the Rockr (a'ba; stones
stons,7,8, 10, 128,158,165i s ee turqa,trruq11, |3,24,2t3,30,
dl'o lapidation ritual; Kd'6d
structur 1S2, 155, 180
substancesmd accidents42: s?
dlso Aiistotelianism
Sudm 71
vhl a i x, 75, 85 86, 145, 149,
150, 153, 159, 160, 162, 166 ,
167, 168 169
al Strhrawadi, Abu'l-Najib 160;
Kitab Adnb al Mtndin 160
Suhnwadiyya 14, 67, 68, 82
SulalDaniyya 68
2t7
ula& 86; seealsoNaqshbmdivva
sun 7
smtu, suni 8, 63, 68 69, 70,
150, 158
SntuMdrJam 14; sea/soQur'm
Snra YtrlJ 8i sealsoQur'o
Snrat 01 Bdqya \L seealso
Qu.'t'
Strdt dl Iiilar 87, 88, 89, 106i
seedlsoQur'an
St'at al'Irufii'ah 89; seeat'o
Q".'an
Snraial Ndr' 184iseealso
Qur'5n
Suftt al Qah l14t seedlso
al-Tabari 12, 119 120
Tablish i Jdnaat (F^;'th
N{ovement)s
Tabnzr,Shamsal Din
Mubamrud 22
tahonnuth148;w also
taj6d 36,a2, t6\ seealsootlhan;
chant,ritual; Qur'an
tahbirtoq l1o, l1l, 122,146,
147,164;sdealsoGod
53
n.32,62,6a, 69,10, i1,14,7 5,
77, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 154,
155,158,161,162,164,181,
tdsii]d89
tdbal na, n0, 135:seealsohajj;
tauaJjuh 8s
tdrubdsedrPentance
tdulid 105 106,10i,108,122,
129,131,162;seealsoGod
 SUFI FI TUAL I N D E\

tchDologyand scioce, Westm T.ipoli, kbanoD 183 Watt,WM. 148,149 Yaf ilTa 23
184 Turkey69, 70,71,81,86, 113 Yahy. 133
Teheran28, 36; Tehean weaponry Islamic 8 Yasvilrya 81
Uhud, Banle of 22 a;lalat al la4ih 7l seedlso Yabm alQiana seejdsere t
tehhe?.0,86t seeabo khanaqah; 'ulanal t, 67, 72 Khumaytu, Ayatollah Yemen 22
'Ume b. al Khafteb40, 41, 89, Wilson, PeterLobon 22,25, Yugoslavia 71
103 27, 30,35,158,159;KingsoJ
Ter Had, J.C.J.82 vnw 9, 69, 112,126,134,184: L@e 36 YinusiD'a 49; seaiso uird
tertia.ies, Carmeiite 75 s"ez60 commuDfy Ylsuf 8, 74; Ynsuf'sshirt 8j s?e
tertiaries, Francis.ar 75 union,mystical3, 4, 7, 8, 15 n.l, uid ix,35,4i 49,86 88, 145, dlso Snrd Y,trut
thanksgiving 116,L2o,t21,122, 24,45, 50,71, 72,73, 147, 1;1, 155,159,162,166,169;
152,153,156 178,181 ee alsoAufiA-i Fat!'yal z.Lhat104,tr1 t13, t2s, 126,
theolosians37, 43 United Kingdom seeBftain dhih': Khatr, i Khbajd$anl 129,132 t33, 157
theologyix, 22, 25, 67, 86, United Stares24 Zamze, Well of 7, 128;s"edlso
103.123,145 151,162,169; Universal Intellct 32i seeal', wisdom80
as.ehcal44, 154idevorional Wolffe,John 183 zawila l1t seedlsa hhana.qah,
154;dogmatic122;tDo|/?,t 46, Universal Soul 32; s?eal'o
154;mysticd152,154,162; Wright, Owen 37 el'Zein, Abdul Hamid 127
political121; psychological Uwaysi,Khadir tradition 1S7 u)snf 79, 116,It9, 120,128,
154;.itual 122itheoioevof Uzbek khanates69 181:sdlso Arafat; idt Ziwutun 63
Ibrahim 122 123 zildtu 31
theosophy22, 25 Via llluminativa 8 al Ye6'i, :{Mullah 23, 26, 27
thresholds8 Via Purgativa 8
Throne Verse89; seealso Via Unitiva 8, 9j seeaisouion,
Qu.'-
Tibet 2
al-Tijeni,Ahnad 64, 141n.103
TijaDiyya 64, 7l, 157 voal dhihr seedhihr
Titlich, Paul 130
iiDe,sadedtime8, 10,110,119, bahdat al-shuhnA66; s.e aLso
120,121,126,127, 136)see Sirhindi, Shaykh Alnad
olsomooths,saced;presence, uohd^t al utjnd 66, t29: seeoko
Ibn al-"Aiabir
Tr-mru-iLang 23, 63 Wahlabism86, 141n.103
Timtrids 66, 69, 70
tolerance 19 n.91,24 Waley,MuhDmad Isa 35, 39,
tombss?emausolea 40, 41,4i. t48. 167
tladition 128j seat'o hadith Wali Allah, Shah66 67, 68i
ftanscendence 153,156 Hujjat AU.Lhal-Baliaha67
Wasit 164
Trosoxmia 23, 70 watcMulness148,149,167
Triminghm, J Spencer 22,23, wa1lhng seenuragaba
47,62,70,77,78,81,84, 88, water7, 10, 30, 110,128;holy
8q. 15;; Ile Su,{Ordar rn water 14; seealso ablutions,

218 )19