8.
19 Distillation: Basic Controls
H. L. HOFFMAN, D. E. LUPFER (1970)
L. A. KANE (1985) B. A. JENSEN
B. A. JENSEN, B. G. LIPTK (2005)
INTRODUCTION
Distillation is the most common class of separation processes
and one of the better understood unit operations. It is an
energy-separating-agent equilibrium process that uses the dif-
ference in relative volatility, or differences in boiling points,
of the components to be separated. It is the most widely used
method of separation in the process industries. The distillation
process will most often be the choice of separation unless the
following conditions exist:
Thermal damage can occur to the product.
A separation factor is too close to unity.
Extreme conditions of temperature or pressure are
needed.
Economic value of products is low relative to energy
costs.
Control involves the manipulation of the material and
energy balances in the distillation equipment to affect product
composition and purity. Difculties arise because of the mul-
titude of potential variable interactions and disturbances that
can exist in single-column fractionators and in the process
that the column is a part of.
Even seemingly identical columns will exhibit great
diversity of operation in the eld. Therefore, this section will
not attempt to provide control strategies that can be applied
1820
2006 by Bla Liptk
V
(1995)
TR R or L D
Ri or Li
F
Q
V
LF V
LF B
Flow sheet symbol
to columns in a cookbook fashion. Instead, discussion will
begin with a basic description of the distillation process and
equipment, followed by techniques used to derive a mathe-
matical column model.
The presentation in this section will then describe meth-
ods to evaluate interactions and alternative control strategies;
control models used for some product quality, pressure, and
feed ow control strategies; and nally some common feed-
forward advanced regulatory control strategies commonly
used in the regulation of fractionators.
The goal of this section is to provide the process control
engineer with the tools necessary to design unique control
strategies that will match the specic requirements of distil-
lation columns.
General Considerations
Distillation separates a mixture by taking advantage of the
difference in the composition of a liquid and that of the vapor
formed from that liquid. In the processing industries, distilla-
tion is widely used to isolate and purify volatile materials.
Thus, good process control of the distillation process is vital
to maximize the production of satisfactory purity end products.
Although engineers often speak of controlling a distilla-
tion tower, many of the instruments actually are used to
control the auxiliary equipment associated with the tower.
For this reason, the equipment used in distillation will be
discussed.

DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT
There are some basic variations to the distillation process.
One such basic difference is between continuous and batch
distillation. The main difference between these processes is
that in continuous distillation the feed concentration is rela-
tively constant, while in batch distillation it is rich in light
components at the beginning and lean in light components
at the end. While batch distillation is also described in this
section, the emphasis is on the continuous processes.
Another basic difference is in the way the condenser heat
is handled. The more common approach is to reject that heat
into the cooling water and thereby waste it. This necessitates
the use of pay heat at the reboiler, which usually is a large
part of the total operating cost of the column. An alternate
approach, also discussed in this section, is vapor recompres-
sion (Figure 8.19a), in which the heat taken out by the
condenser is reused at the reboiler after a heat pump (com-
pressor) elevates its temperature. While vapor recompression
controls are also discussed in this section, the emphasis is on
the traditional air- or water-cooled condenser designs.
The Column
The primary piece of distillation equipment is the main tower.
Other terms for this piece of equipment are column and frac-
tionator, and all three terms are used interchangeably. The
tower, column, or fractionator has two purposes: First, it sep-
arates a feed into a vapor portion that ascends the column and
a liquid portion that descends; second, it achieves intimate
Removed
heat
wasted D portion of the column above the feed is called the rectifying
D
M Compr.
F F
Work
B
Pay heat B Recovered
added heat
FIG. 8.19a
In contrast with conventional distillation, the vapor recompression
system uses recovered heat.
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1821
Condenser
Column Accumulator
Feed
pump
Reux
pump
Preheater
Reboiler
FIG. 8.19b
Distillation equipment.
mixing between the two countercurrent owing phases. The
purpose of the mixing is to get an effective transfer of the
more volatile components into the ascending vapor and cor-
responding transfer of the less volatile components into the
descending liquid. The other equipment associated with the
column is shown schematically in Figure 8.19b.
In continuous distillation, the feed is introduced contin-
uously into the side of the distillation column. If the feed is
all liquid, the temperature at which it rst starts to boil is
called the bubble point. If the feed is all vapor, the temper-
ature at which it rst starts to condense is called the dew
point. The feed entering the column is normally operated in
a temperature range that is intermediate to the two extremes
of dew point and bubble point. However, some optimization
strategies may call for designs where the feed is either super-
heated or subcooled. For effective separation of the feed, it
is important that both vapor and liquid phases exist through-
out the column.
The separation of phases is accomplished by differences
in vapor pressure, with the lighter vapor rising to the top of
the column and the heavier liquid owing to the bottom. The
section and below the feed is called the stripping section.
Packing and Trays The intimate mixing is obtained by one
or more of several methods. A simple method is to ll the
column with lumps of an inert material, or packing, that will
provide surface for the contacting of vapor and liquid.
Another effective way is to use a number of horizontal plates,
or trays, which cause the ascending vapor to be bubbled
through the descending liquid (Figure 8.19c).
1
Tray designs are numerous and varied. Tray designs
include bubble cap plate unit, valve, sieve plate, tunnel,
dual-ow, chimney, disc-and-donut, turbogrid trays, v-grid,
Perform-Kontakt, Haselden bafe tray, Kittel trays, and other
specialty-type units. Dualo trays, Flexitray, Varioex,
Bi-Frac, Max-Frac, NYE Trays, Superfrac trays,
Super-Flux trays, and Ultra-Frac trays are specialty reg-
istered tray designs from different manufacturers that are
variations of the aforementioned tray designs. Bubble caps
1822 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
L be less than 4 ft, while plate tower diameters are
L tendency to foam.
L The pressure drop through packed towers may be less
FIG. 8.19c
Intimate contact and therefore equilibrium is obtained as the vapor
bubbles ascend through the liquid held up on each tray, as the liquid
descends down the column.
and sieve trays are the most common designs used in distil-
lation applications.
2
Many different types of packings are available. They are
normally classied as random or stacked. Random packings
are those that are dumped into the containing shell. Raschig
rings, Berl saddles, Intalox saddles, and Pall rings are the
most common random packings and come in various sizes
from 1/2 to 31/2 in (1.25 to 9 cm).
Stacked packings, also known as grid or stacked packing,
include large-sized Raschig rings and Lessing rings. Packings
generally give lower pressure drops at the cost of higher
installation costs. They are made of ceramic, plastic, or metal,
depending upon the type of packing and the intended appli-
cation. Other packings such as Maspac, HyPak, Teller-
ette, IMTP FLEXIPAC KATAMAX: FLEXIGRID-2,
-3, and -4, and KOCH-GLITSCH GRID EF-25A are spe-
cialty registered packings from different manufacturers that
are just variations of the aforementioned packings.
When deciding between the use of trays and packing, the
3
following factors should be considered:
Because of liquid dispersion difculties in packed tow-
ers, the design of plate towers is considerably more
reliable and requires less safety factor when the ratio
of liquid mass velocity to gas mass velocity is low.
Towers using trays can be designed to handle wider
ranges of liquid rates without ooding.
Towers using trays are more accessible for cleaning.
Towers using trays are preferred if interstage cooling
or heating is needed because of lower installation costs
of delivery piping.
Towers using trays have a lower total dry weight,
though total weight with liquid hold-up is probably
equal.
Towers using trays are preferred when large tempera-
ture changes are expected because of thermal expan-
sion or when contraction may crush packing.
Design information for towers using trays is generally
more readily available and more reliable.
2006 by Bla Liptk
Packed towers are cheaper and easier to construct than
plate towers if highly corrosive uid must be handled.
Diameters of packed towers are generally designed to
designed to be more than 2ft.
Packed towers are preferred if the liquids have a large
The amount of liquid hold-up is considerably less in
packed towers.
than for plate towers performing the same service, mak-
ing packed towers desirable for vacuum distillation.
Thus, generally, trays work better in applications requir-
ing high ow, such as those encountered in high-pressure
distillation columns, such as depropanizers, debutanizers,
xylene purication columns, and the like. Packing works best
at lower ow parameters, as the low-pressure drop of struc-
tured packing makes it very attractive for use in vacuum
columns or ethylbenzene recycle columns of styrene plants.
The contacting between the vapor and liquid in a single-
stage contacting device will not produce total equilibrium.
The relationship between ideal and actual performance is the
efciency that translates the number of ideal separation stages
into actual nite stages that must be used to accomplish the
desired nal separation. Efciency varies, not only with the
type of mixing method used (e.g., packing or trays), but also
with uid rates, uid properties, column diameter, and oper-
ating pressure.
The inuence of plate efciency in the operation of
the distillation tower becomes important in the control of the
overhead composition. Because plate efciencies increase
with increased vapor velocities, the inuence of the reux-
to-feed ratio on overhead composition becomes a nonlinear
relationship.
Dynamics Dynamic considerations due to liquid hold-up
on the trays comes into play when discussing distillation
control. Because the liquid on each tray must overow its
weir and work its way down the column due to tray or
packing hydraulics, this change will not be seen at the bot-
toms of the tower until some time has passed. The exact
dynamics depend on column size, type of tray, number of
trays, and tray spacing. The hold-up at each tray as shown
in Figure 8.19c can be modeled by the LaPlace transform of
the form
K
KG ( s ) = 8.19(1)
(T1 s + 1)
where
KG(s) = transfer function
K = system gain
T1 = time constant
S = LaPlace transfer operator
 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1823

X(t) In that case, the condensers are called partial condensers. In

this instance, a vapor product is normally withdrawn as well
as a liquid product.
Y2 Y1
A total condenser is usually designed for accumulator

4
Y
X(t)
pressures up to 215 psia (1.48 MPa) at an operating temper-

0
Y40

Y1
4
Y 1(t) ature of 120F (49C). A partial condenser is used from
215 psia to 365 psia (1.48 to 2.52 MPa), and a refrigerant
Y 2(t)
coolant is used for the overhead condenser if the pressure is
Y4(t) greater than 365 psia (2.52 MPa).
Y10(t)
Common condensers include n fans and water coolers.
However, in order to improve efciency of heat recovery, heat
Y40(t) exchange with another process stream is often performed.
Y1 = 1 Lag Propane is the most common refrigerant used. A pressure
Y2 = 2 Lags
Y4 = 4 Lags
drop of 5 psia (34.4 KPa) across the condenser is often
Y10 = 10 Lags assumed if no measurements are available. The condenser
Y40 = 40 Lags and accumulator are the key pieces of equipment with respect
Sum of the time constants are equal. to controlling pressure in the column.
Time
Reboilers
FIG. 8.19d
Response of nth-order lags to unit step change. The liquid leaving the bottom of the column is reheated in a
reboiler. A reboiler is a special heat exchanger that provides
the heat necessary for distillation. Part of the column bottoms
These lags are cumulative as the liquid passes each tray liquid is vaporized and the vapors are injected back into the
on its way down the column. Thus, a 30-tray column could column as boil-up. The remaining liquid is withdrawn as a
be approximated by 30 rst-order exponential lags in series bottom product or as residue.
of approximately the same time constant. As shown in Figure 8.19e, reboilers come in widely vary-
ing designs. They can be internal, but most are external to
K the column. They can use natural or forced circulation.
KG (s) = 8.19(2)
(T1s + 1)n

where
n = 30 for a 30-tray column
V
Q
Figure 8.19d shows the response of nth order lags to a Q
unit step change. The effect of increasing the number of lags
in series is to increase the apparent dead time and increase
the response curve slope. Thus, the liquid trafc within the L
distillation process is often approximated by using a second- B
B
order lag plus dead time as modeled by the LaPlace transform: Internal External kettle

Ke t s
KG (s) = 8.19(3)
(T1s + 1)(T2s + 1) V V

Q
where Q
e = e of log to the base e
= dead time
T1, T2 = time constants B B
Vertical Horizontal
Condensers thermosyphon thermosyphon

The overhead vapor leaving the column is sent to a condenser
and is collected as a liquid in a receiver, or accumulator. A part
of the accumulated liquid is returned to the column as reux.
The remainder is withdrawn as overhead product or distillate.
In many cases, complete condensation is not accomplished.
FIG. 8.19e
Reboiler design variations. External kettle reboilers often use forced
circulation (pump), while the thermosyphon designs depend on nat-
ural circulation. The horizontal thermosyphon reboiler takes its
liquid from the bottom tray, while the others take it from the column
bottoms.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1824 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

The kettle reboiler is the most common external forced cir-

culation design.
Vertical and horizontal thermosiphon reboilers operate L Overhead product
by natural circulation. In these, ow is induced by the hydro- (D)
static pressure imbalance between the liquid inside the tower Feed
and the two-phase mixture in the reboiler tubes. In forced
circulation reboilers, a pump is used to ensure circulation of Steam
the liquid past the heat transfer surface. Reboilers may be (V)
designed so that boiling occurs inside vertical tubes, inside
Bottom product
horizontal tubes, or on the shell side. (B)
A newer development in reboiler design is the concept Apparent Independent
self-cleaning shell-and-tube heat exchangers for applications variables: variables
where heat exchange surfaces are prone to fouling by the C1 = overhead temperature
process uid. Common heat sources include hot oil, steam, C2 = overhead pressure 2
or fuel gas (red reboilers). Cases where simple heat exchange C3 = overhead composition
C4 = overhead ow rate 1
with another process stream is used for efciency of heat
u1 = bottom temperature
recovery are common. Thus, the choice of instrumentation to u2 = bottom pressure 2
control heat addition to the tower depends upon the type of u3 = bottom composition
reboiler used. u4 = bottom ow rate 1
u5 = feed temperature
u6 = feed pressure 2
u7 = feed composition
Interheaters/Intercoolers
u8 = feed per cent vapor 1
u9 = feed ow rate 1
In some cases, additional vapor or liquid is withdrawn from m = steam ow rate (heat input) 1
the column at points above or below the point at which the 11
feed enters. All or a portion of this sidestream can be used
FIG. 8.19f
as intermediate product. Sometimes, economical column
In a binary distillation process the number of independent variables
design dictates that the sidestream be cooled and returned to is eleven (11) and the number of defining equations is two (2).
the column to furnish localized reux. The equipment that Therefore, the number of degrees of freedom is nine (9), which is
does this is called a sidestream cooler, or intercooler. Multi- the maximum number of automatic controllers that can be used on
product fractionators often have these intercoolers in a pump- such a process.
around stream.
At other times, localized heat is required. Then, some of
the liquid in the column is removed and passed through a
composition. Other common disturbances are steam header
sidestream reboiler, or interheater, before being returned to
pressure, feed enthalpy, environmental conditions (e.g., rain,
the column. Interheaters are usually utilized in cryogenic
barometric pressure, and ambient temperature), and coolant
demethanizers.
temperature.
Often the feed is preheated before entering the column.
To handle these disturbances, column controls can be so
Common preheat mediums include the bottoms product or
designed as to make the column insensitive to these distur-
low-pressure steam. Preheating is often a convenient method
bances, or secondary controls can be designed to eliminate
to recover heat that would otherwise be wasted. the disturbances. It is also important to evaluate the expected
magnitude and duration of the likely disturbances, so that
Column Variables proper control system scaling and tuning can be achieved.
Feedforward controls are designed to compensate for
Controlling a fractionator requires the identifying of the con- these disturbance variables and are discussed later in this
trolled, manipulated, and load variables (Figure 8.19f). Con- section. There are other advanced control or optimization
trolled variables are those variables that must be maintained methods that can be designed to compensate for these dis-
at a precise value to satisfy column objectives. These nor- turbance variables. They are discussed in Section 8.21.
mally include product compositions, column temperatures,
column pressure, and tower and accumulator levels. Pairing of Variables The variables that should be controlled
Manipulated variables are those variables that can be are usually obvious. They are normally identied when pro-
changed in order to maintain the controlled variables at their cess objectives are dened and understood. Load variables
desired values. Common examples include reux ow, cool- are also easily identied. But identication of the manipu-
ant ow, heating medium ow, and product ows. Load vari- lated variables can be more difcult. The general guidelines
ables are those variables that provide disturbances to the for identifying which manipulated variables to associate with
column. Common examples include feed ow rate and feed which controlled variables are

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1825

Manipulate the stream that has the greatest inuence
on the associated controlled variable.
Manipulate the smaller stream if two streams have the
same effect on the controlled variable.
Manipulate the stream that has the most nearly linear
correlation with the controlled variable.
Manipulate the stream that is least sensitive to ambient
conditions.
Manipulate the stream least likely to cause interaction
problems.
Unfortunately, the decision on pairing controlled and
manipulated variables is complicated by the fact that the
above rules may sometimes result in conicting recommen-
dations. Section 8.20 provides information on relative gain
calculations, which can help to optimize the pairing of con-
trolled and manipulated variables. Once the pairings are com-
pleted, the equations are then solved for the manipulated
variables in terms of the controlled and load variables. In that
form, the equations are the mathematical representations of
the control systems.
Steady-State Model
The rst step in the design of a control system must be the
development of a process model. Frequently omitted in sim-
ple distillation columns, this step is essential to minimize the
need for eld reconguration of control strategies. Even with
easily recongurable process automation systems (PASs), the
development of the model is essential to fully understanding
the process.
The model denes the process with equations developed
from the material and energy balances of the unit. A common
simplifying assumption is that all components of the feed
have equal heats of vaporization, which leads to the assump-
tion of equimolal overow. Most shortcut fractionation cal-
culations are based upon this underlying assumption.
The model is kept simple by the use of one basic rule:
The degrees of freedom limit the number of controlled vari-
ables (product compositions) specied in the equations, as
was illustrated in connection with Figure 8.19f. Some of the
variables that can be manipulated to control a column are
shown in Figure 8.19g.

Material Balance For example, for a given feed rate only

MODELING AND CONTROL EQUATIONS one degree of freedom is available for material balance con-
trol. If overhead product (distillate) is a manipulated variable
The primary application of instruments in distillation is to (controlled directly to maintain composition), then the bot-
control the product purity, and secondarily, to minimize tom product cannot be independent but must be manipulated
upsets to the unit caused by a change in process inputs. The to close the overall material balance according to the follow-
instruments calculate the effects of the input changes and ing equations:
determine the corrective action needed to counteract them. F=D+B 8.19(4)
The control actions are implemented by direct manipulation Accumulation = Inow Outow 8.19(5)
of the nal control elements or by alteration of the set points Accumulation = F (D + B) 8.19(6)
of lower level controllers.
A careful analysis of limits and operating constraints is Because accumulation is zero at steady state, B is depen-
essential to the successful control of distillation columns. If dent upon F and D, as expressed by Equation 8.19(4):
the system is not designed to provide limit checks and over- B=FD 8.19(7)
rides to handle operating limits, frequent operator interven-
tion will be required during upsets. This is likely to result in
a lack of condence in the control system and will cause the V
operators to remove the column from automatic control more Heat removed
often than necessary, thereby not only reducing the effective-
Pressure
ness of the system, but also reducing safety. Reux
The rst step in the design of a good control system is rate (L)
the derivation of a process model. Knowing the dening
equations, the manipulated variables can be selected, and the Distillate rate (D)
operating equations for the control system can be developed. Feed
temperature, Composition (Y)
The instrumentation is then selected for the correct solution
Composition (Z)
of these equations. and rate (F)
The nal control system can be relatively simple or can
be a complex, interacting, multicomponent, computer-based Heat added (boilup)
system. In the discussion that follows, the procedures for
designing distillation controls is followed by examples of the Bottom rate (B)
more common applications in distillation column control. A Composition (X)
more detailed discussion of alternative strategies and
advanced distillation column controls will be presented in FIG. 8.19g
Section 8.21. Variables that fix the distillation operation.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1826 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

or if the bottoms product is the manipulated variable: Di = V Li

D=FB 8.19(8) To QT

where: L @ Tr D(y)
F = feed rate (the inow)
Li = L[1 + (Cp/H) (To Tr)]
D = overhead rate (an outow)
B = bottoms rate (an outow) B = Bi if no accumulation occurs in
the column bottoms.
D = Di if no accumulation occurs in
If the compositions of the feed, distillate product, and the accumulator
bottoms product are known, then the component material L External reux
balance can be solved: V = VB + VF F Lf Liquid ow below feed tray
Li
100 = %LLKD + %LKD + %HKD 8.19(9) Internal reux
QB Heat addition at bottom
D %LLKD = F %LLKF 8.19(10)
F (z) QT Heat removal at top
F %LKF = D %LKD + B %LKB 8.19(11) VB Vapor boilup rate
where: VF Vapor fraction in feed
%LLKF = lighter than light key in the feed (mol%) H Heat of vaporization in reboiler
HD Heat of condensation of distillate
%LKF = light key in the feed (mol%) HL Heat of vaporization of reux
%LLKD = lighter than light key in the distillate product VB = QB/H HLi Heat of condensation of
internal reux
(mol%)
%LKD = light key in the distillate product (mol%) Lf = Li + (1 VF) F
QB Bi = Lf VB
%HKD = heavy key in the distillate product (mol%)
%LKB = light key in the bottoms product (mol%) B(x)
Material balance: F = D + B
In the most general case, the feed might have four com- separation is the energy/feed
ponents, having the concentrations of LLKF , LKF , HKF , and ratio of a column. For binary
y(1 x)
HHKF . Three of these components appear in each of the process: S =
x(1 y)
bottom and overhead products. The separation of the column Separation should be controlled
is xed by specifying the heavy key component in the over- by the more pure product.
head product HKD and the concentration of the light key
FIG. 8.19h
component in the bottom product LKB. Energy balance equations can be used to describe the steady-state
Equations 8.19(9) to 8.19(11) assume no heavier than heat flow model of a distillation column.
heavy key is found in the distillate and that no lighter than light
key is found in the bottoms. Rearranging Equation 8.19(11)
gives
However, xing a value of product split does not x either
%LKD = (F %LKF B %LKB)/D 8.19(12) the distillate or bottoms composition because many combi-
nations of %LLKF , %LKF , %LKB, and %HKD could yield the
Substituting Equation 8.19(8) into Equations 8.19(10) same value of B/F.
and 8.19(12) gives
%LLKD = (F %LLKF)/(F ) 8.19(13) Energy Balance The energy balance and the separation
%LKD = (F %LKF B %LKB)/(F B) 8.19(14) obtained are closely related. Conceptually, product composition
control can be thought of as a problem of the rate of heat
Substituting Equations 8.19(13) and 8.19(14) into addition QB at the bottom of the fractionator and the rate of heat
Equation 8.19(9) to eliminate %LLKD and %LKD: removal QT at the top of the column. A series of energy balances
produces additional equations. Figure 8.19h shows a steady-
5
state internal model of these equations.
(100 %HK D %LLK F %LK F )
B/F = 8.19(15) The vapor boil-up rate VB equals the heat QB added by
(100 %HK D %LK B ) the reboiler divided by the heat of vaporization (H) of the
bottoms product:
For a given feed composition and desired product com- VB = QB /H 8.19(16)
positions, only one bottoms-to-feed ratio, B/F (product split),
will satisfy the overall and component material balances. By The vapor rate V above the feed tray equals the vapor
xing the bottoms ow, the distillate ow will be xed. boil-up rate plus the vapor entering with the feed (feed rate

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1827

F times vapor fraction VF , provided the feed is neither sub- being used by the control equation. Also, C pL and HL should
cooled nor superheated): be calculated near the existing pressure and temperature of
the external reux.
V = VB + F VF 8.19(17)
The liquid rate, LF , below the feed tray equals the internal
The internal reux rate, that is, the liquid at the top tray reux plus the liquid in the feed:
of the column is derived by a heat balance around the top of
LF = LI + (1 VF) F 8.19(25)
the tower. Assuming a steady-state heat balance where the
heat into the tower equals the heat out: The distillate rate, D, equals the vapor rate, V, above the
feed tray minus the internal reux:
D ( H D + C pD Tt ) + LI ( H LI + C pR Tt )
I D = V LI 8.19(26)
+ L (C pL Tr ) = D ( H D + C pD To ) 8.19(18)
The bottoms rate, B, equals the liquid rate, L, minus the
+ L ( H L + C pL To ) + LI (C pL Tt ) boil-up, VB :
I

where B = L VB 8.19(27)
Cp = specic heat The criterion for separation is the ratio of reux (L) to
To = overhead vapor temperature (vapor at its dew point) distillate (D) ows vs. the ratio of boil-up (V) to bottoms (B)
L = external reux ow rates. Manipulating reux affects separation equally as
Tr = external reux temperature well as manipulating boil-up, albeit in opposite directions.
LI = internal reux Consequently, only one degree of freedom exists to control
Tt = top tray temperature (liquid at its bubble point) separation. Thus, for a two-product tower, two equations
dene the process. One is an equation describing separation,
Equation 8.19(18) reduces to: and the other is an equation for material balance.

D C pD (Tt To ) + LI H LI L H L Dynamic Model

8.19(19)
+ L C pL (Tr To ) = 0 Because the tower doesnt always operate at steady state, it
is essential to also account for the dynamics of the process.
Making a simplifying assumption that the tray tempera- This necessitates extending the steady-state internal ow
ture equals overhead vapor temperature (i.e., the dew point model and requires additional considerations. Figure 8.19i
6
of the vapor equals the bubble point of the liquid; Tt = To) shows the internal ow model that includes dynamics.
produces:

LI H LI = L H L + L C pL (To Tr ) 8.19(20)
Di = V Li
DA= Di D
or
QT
To
Li H L C pL
L @ Tr
= 1.0 + (To Tr ) 8.19(21) D
L H Li H L

Li = L[1 + (Cp/H) (To TR)]
resulting in the equation
V = VB + VF F
LpI /L = K2 [1 + K1 (Tpo Tpr)] 8.19(22) GT
If a total condenser is employed, the composition of the
internal reux and external reux are the same, i.e., F
GT & GB are second order lags
H LI = H L , so the constant K2 = 1.0. Thus,
DA & BA represent accumulations in
GB the accumulator and the column
LI 8.19(23)
bottoms respectively.
L= VB = QB/H
[1 + K1 (TO Tr )] Li = GB[GT Li + (1 VF) F)
or zI = L [1 + K1 T] 8.19(24) QB
Bi = Li VB
BA = Bi B
Note: This equation is valid for whatever units are used B
for C pL or HL. Because specic heat and heat of vaporiza-
tion are nearly always in mass units, care must be taken to FIG. 8.19i
account for density differences whenever volume units are Dynamic internal flow model.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1828 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Because a change in the reux rate must work its way product separation, the degree of separation and the orienta-
down the column due to tray or packing hydraulics, this tion of separation are important. The degree of separation is
change will not be seen at the reboiler until some time has
passed. The holdup at each tray has previously been modeled (%LK D %HK B )
Degree of Separation = ln e 8.19(32)
by the LaPlace transform of Equation 8.19(1). This Laplace (%HK D %LK
KB )
transform can be converted to a simple rst-order exponential
lag equation of the form, which describes the response to a while the orientation of separation for a given degree of
step change in input: separation is dened as

t
Llag = L (1 e )
8.19(28)
where
L is the liquid incoming to the tray
Llag is the liquid leaving the tray
t is the time constant
These lags are cumulative as the liquid passes each tray
on its way down the column. However, implementation of
multiple rst-order lags is impractical. Fortunately, it can be
shown that multiple lags in series can be approximated by a
dead time and a second-order exponential lag as shown by
the LaPlace transform of Equation 8.19(3). For this reason,
two dynamic terms (GT and GB) are included in Figure 8.19i.
Equation 8.19(25) is then rewritten as
L = GB[GT LI + (1 VF) F] 8.19(29)
where
t1 t 2
GB = 1 (1 e ) (1 e )
t3 t 4
GT = 2 (1 e ) (1 e ) where a and b are functions of the relative volatility, the num-
1 and 2 are the dead times
GB and GT are the solution to the LaPlace transform of
Equation 8.19(3).
Changes in boil-up rates are observed at the condenser
in a matter of seconds. Normally, no dynamic terms are
necessary for vapor streams, as the value of use of comput-
ing resources to that of the benets by compensating for the
dynamics is negligible.
The liquid inventory in the condenser or associated accu-
mulator will change during unsteady-state actions. In the
unsteady state, the difference DI D is the rate of accumu-
lation of material in the accumulator. Similarly for the liquid
inventory at the bottom of the tower (the kettle), the differ-
ence BI B is the rate of accumulation:
DA = DII D 8.19(30)
BA = BI B 8.19(31)
where
DA is the accumulation in the overhead accumulator
BA is the accumulation in the tower bottoms
Separation Equations
The control of product compositions for a fractionator is pri-
marily a matter of control of the internal ows. In considering
%HK D
Orientation of Separation = 8.19(33)
%LK B
The relationship between x (the light key component) and
7
the energy balance was developed by Shinskey as a function
of separation S:
y(1 x )
S= 8.19(34)
x (1 y)
where
x = mole fraction of the key light component the distillate
(%LKD)
y = mole fraction of the key light component in the bot-
toms, (LKB)
The relationship between separation (S) and the ratio of
boil-up to feed (V/F) over a reasonable operating range is
V/F = a + bS 8.19(35)
ber of trays, the feed composition, and the minimum V/F. The
control system therefore computes V based on the equation:
y(1 x )
V = F a + b 8.19(36)
x (1 y)
Because y is held constant, the bottom composition con-
troller adjusts the value of the parenthetical expression if an
error should appear in x. Let V/F = y(1 x)/(1 y), and the
control equation becomes:
V = F(a + b[V/F])/x 8.19(37)
where [V/F] = the desired ratio of boil-up to feed.
Figure 8.19j illustrates four of the most common basic
controls for the ows and levels of a two-product fractionator,
where it is assumed that feed ow and tower pressure are
held constant. A different set of the above control equations
for controlling internal product ow rates will apply, depend-
ing upon the conguration of instrumentation used.
Scaling
The form of the control system equations inuences the com-
puting functions required. Boolean operands, such as high
and low selectors, and dynamic functions, such as dead times,
lead, and lag function, are also used. Most process automation
systems have these basic computing function blocks. Imple-
mentation in a distributed control system (DCS), programmable

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1829

PC PSP PC PSP

LC LC

L D L D

FC FC FC FC

DSP DSP
F LSP F LSP

QSP
QSP
FC FC

BSP
LC BSP
LC
FC FC
Q Q

B B
Case 1 Case 2

PC PSP PC PSP

LC LC

L D L D

FC FC FC FC

F LSP F
DSP LSP DSP
QSP QSP
FC FC

LC BSP LC BSP

FC FC
Q Q

B B
Case 3 Case 4

FIG. 8.19j
Four cases of conventional distillation control configurations.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1830 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

1 2 3 4 5 1.143 L
Volts
10 20 30 40 50
Analog signals

mA dc
4 8 12 16 20 100%
mA dc
1 2 3 4 5 L = 100%

Multiplier output, normalized

mA dc

manipulated variable (M)

3 6 9 12 15 PSIG 75

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 bar L = 75%

Normalized

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0

values

50
0 25% 50% 75% 100% L = 50%
93 116 138 160 182C
25
200 240 280 320 360F
Temperature transmitter L = 25%
0 0.85 1.7 2.93 3.4 m3/h
Process values

0 225 450 775 900 GPH 0% 25 50 75 100%

Linear ow transmitter Multiplier input, normalized ratio (R)
0 1.7 2.4 2.95 3.4 m 3/h

FIG. 8.19l
0 450 636 779 900 GPH
Multiplier output for the solution of Equation 8.19 (39).
Dierential pressure ow transmitter
%
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.0
3
Chromatograph output 0 to 700 gpm (0 to 2.65 m /h); and the ratio range, R, is 0
to 0.8 (R = M/L).
FIG. 8.19k
Common analog signals and their relationship to process variables.
700M = (1000L)(0.80R) 8.19(38)

Reducing to the lowest form,

logic controller (PLC), or multivariable digital controllers is
vendor-specic.
The terms of the equations are sometimes scaled because
most analog instruments and some PAS systems act on nor-
malized numbers (0100%) rather than on actual process
values. With digital instrumentation and todays process auto-
mation systems, those occurrences are rare. The calculations
become easier for those systems operating in engineering
units.
Analog, and many digital, transmitters also operate on
normalized values of the process variables. That is, the mea-
surement signal will vary from 0 to 100% as the process
variable shifts from 0 to its maximum value. Figure 8.19k
illustrates the relationship among the various forms of analog
signals and some typical process measurements.
The actual value of a process measurement is found by
multiplying the analog signal by the calibrated full-scale
value (meter factor) of the process variable. In the examples
of Figure 8.19k, the temperature, represented by a 75% ana-
log signal, is 320F (160C), the linear ow is 775 gph
3
(2.93 m /h), the output of the differential pressure transmitter
3
(ow squared) is 779 gph (2.95 m /h), and the composition
is 3.75%.
Example As an example, let us review a ow ratio system
in which the load stream, L, has the range of 0 to 1000 gpm
3
(0 to 3.79 m /h); the manipulated stream, M, has a range of
M = 1.143(L)(R) 8.19(39)
The number 1.143 is the scaling factor. M is plotted as
a function of L and R in Figure 8.19l.
In applications such as the constant separation system,
exact scaling is not critical. Exact scaling is when scaling
constants must be used as calculated from instrument spans.
The alternative is exible scaling, where exact ranges are not
needed but some arbitrary range is used to allow internal
calculations to remain within range.
The flexible scaling cannot be used (1) when compensa-
tion for feed composition is part of the model, (2) when
narrow spans must be used for reasons of stability, and
(3) when transmitter calibrations are inconsistent with mate-
rial balance ratios. Exact scaling techniques must be used for
these cases.
MULTIPLE COMPONENT DISTILLATION
With binary mixtures, only two products are removed in the
distillation column. However, most separations involve mul-
tiple components. Even then, most distillations remove only
two liquid products. In other applications a vapor product is
removed, or multiple liquid products are drawn from the
tower. Sometimes only one product is withdrawn at a time.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1831

Columns with Sidedraw

Having a sidestream product in addition to the overhead and

bottom products adds a degree of freedom to a control sys-
tem. The source of this extra degree of freedom can be seen
LIC LT
from the overall material balance equation:
X
F=D+C+B 8.19(40) FIC
FY

where C is the sidestream ow rate. Two of the product

streams can be manipulated for control purposes, and the V FT FT FIC
Dynamics FY
material balance can still be closed by the third product
stream. L
The presence of this added degree of freedom makes the Dynamics FY FT D, y1, y2
careful analysis of the process even more essential to avoid F, z1, z2 ARC
AT
mismatching of the manipulated and controlled variables. As
in the case of the previously discussed columns, the devel- Ratio C, c1, c2
RIC controller
opment of a control system for sidedraw applications also
involves developing the process model and determining the FT LT FT
relationship among the several controlled and manipulated
FIC
variables.
In this case, for a constant feed rate and column pressure, LIC
ve degrees of freedom exist: three composition specications
X
and two levels that can manipulate three product ows, and FY ARC AT
two heat balances (V and L). Several possible combinations
of variables are available and should be explored.
The possible combinations of manipulated variables for
B, x1, x2
the column in which the bottom composition and the side-
stream composition must be controlled are FIG. 8.19m
Control of composition in two product streams with a sidedraw.
Distillate and sidestream ows
Distillate and bottom ows
Distillate ow and heat input The symbols z1, y1, and c1 refer to the concentrations in
Sidestream and bottom ows the feed, distillate, and sidestream of the component under
Sidestream ow and heat input control in the sidestream. The concentrations of the key com-
Bottom ow and heat input ponent in the bottom are respectively expressed by z2, x2, and
c2 for the feed, the bottoms, and the sidestream.
Similarly, the possible combinations of manipulated vari- The resulting control system is shown in Figure 8.19m.
ables for the column in which the distillate composition and Note that in this conguration the ratio of heat input to feed
the sidestream composition must be controlled are: (and, therefore, boil-up to feed) is held constant. Separate
dynamic elements are used for the distillate loop and for the
Distillate and sidestream ows heat input and sidestream loops.
Distillate and bottom ows
Distillate ow and heat input
Sidestream and bottom ows Multiproduct Fractionators
Sidestream ow and reux Multiproduct fractionators are most common in the rening
Bottom ow and reux industry where multicomponent streams are separated into
many fractions. Examples of multiproduct fractionators are
The equations are crude towers, vacuum towers, and uidized catalytic cracking
unit (FCCU) main fractionators.
z c 8.19(41) Product quality controls are used to adjust local column
D= F 1 1 temperatures and sidedraw ow rates to control distillate
y1 c1 properties related to the product specications. An example
z x2 8.19(42) is true boiling point (TBP) cut points. TBP cut points approx-
C = F 2 imate the composition of a hydrocarbon mixture and are
c2 x2 numerically similar to the American Society for Testing and

2006 by Bla Liptk

1832 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

SP
FT FRC

D
PRC

PT Accumulator
FRC FT

D
L
Heat FRC FT FT FRC
Q
balance Boiling
logic C point

Main fractionation
calculation

FT FRC
Q FRC FT
C

FIG. 8.19n
Control of product flows and pump-around refluxes.

Materials (ASTMs) 95%. The ASTM laboratory distillate Superfractionators

evaluation method is the standard used in the petroleum ren-
ing industry for determining the value (composition) of the
distillation products.
A computer is required to calculate the product boiling
point specication, such as 95% boiling point or TBP cut
point on the basis of local temperature, pressure, steam ow,
and reux data. Local reux is derived from internal liquid
and vapor ows, as discussed previously, and the remaining
variables are measured.
Boiling point analyzers can be used to provide the mea-
surement signals. If there is no analyzer, the calculated boil-
ing points can be used by themselves, or if there is one, they
can be used as a fast inner loop with analyzer trim. Because
of the volume of liquid/vapor loads within most multiproduct
fractionators, the manipulated variables that provide the
greatest sensitivity and the quickest response are generally
the product ows.
Adjustment of reux ows, as shown in Figure 8.19n,
is an example of a heat balance control. The goal is to
8
maximize heat exchange to feed, subject to certain limits
(limits and constraints are discussed as part of the subject
of the optimization of distillation towers in Section 8.21).
The task of maximizing the heating of the feed often sim-
plies to recovering heat at the highest possible tempera-
ture, which means recovering it as low as possible in the
column.
The term superfractionator is applied to towers that are phys-
ically large. These distillation units separate streams having
their light and heavy key relative volatilities quite close to
each other. Included in this classication are deisobutanizers,
which separate isobutane from normal butane; propylene
splitters, which separate propane from propylene; ethylben-
zene towers, which separate ethylbenzene from xylene; and
xylene splitters, which separate para- and ortho-xylene from
meta-xylene.
Sometimes, the number of trays and subsequent height
make it necessary to physically divide these towers into two
or even three sections. Superfractionators have tremendous
internal vapor-liquid rates in order to achieve the separation.
Reux-to-distillate ratios are very high, as are vapor-to-bottoms
ratios.
A large pressure drop through the tower also exists. Long
dead times and lag times are experienced before any response
is seen to feed rate or reux changes. Generally, distillate
compositions of superfractionators have to be controlled with
material balance equations due to the lack of sensitivity of
response.
Batch Distillation
In batch distillation (see Figure 8.19o), an initial charge of
liquid is fed to a vessel, and the distillation process is initiated

2006 by Bla Liptk


TC
V + LqL
TT
FT
Reux, L
Wi - Initial batch quantity
yi - Initial product concentration
v
FC
FT
Steam, Q L LqL
x plish this when the vapor rate from the batch column is main-
Wi( y2)
FIG. 8.19o
Batch distillation.
by turning on the heating and cooling systems. During the
distillation process, the initial charge in the vessel continually
depletes while building up the overhead product in the dis-
tillate receiver.
Batch distillations are more common in smaller, multi-
product plants where the various products can only be man-
ufactured at different times, and where a number of different
mixtures may be handled in the same equipment.
Equation 8.19(43) is the basic equation that describes this
operation:
W = Wi Dt
where
W = amount remaining in the bottoms
Wi = the initial charge
D = distillate rate
t = time period of operation
The basic objective of the control system of this type of
separation is to keep the composition of the distillate con-
stant. Other goals include keeping the distillate ow constant
or maximizing the total distillate production. The main goal
of a batch distillation is to produce a product of specied
composition at minimum cost. This often means that operat-
ing time must be reduced to some minimum while product
purity or recovery is maintained within acceptable limits.
If product removal is too fast, separation and the quantity
of the product are reduced. Conversely, if the product is
withdrawn to maintain separation, its withdrawal rate is
reduced and operating time is increased. However, the set
point to a composition controller can be programmed so that
the average composition of the product will still be within
9
specications while withdrawal rate is maximized.
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1833
Yi
HIC FY X & mD + Yi ARC Y
AT
SP
FC
D
FY FRC
Distillate
D(y) D2
FT
Distillate
(D)
Receiver
FIG. 8.19p
Control system for batch distillation.
Figure 8.19p shows the control system that will accom-
tained constant. The equation describing this operation is:
Y = mD + yi 8.19(44)
where
y = the fraction of key component in the product
m = the rate of change of y with respect to the distillate (D)
yi = the initial concentration of the product
The only adjustment required is the correct setting of m.
The higher its value, the faster y will change and the smaller
will be the quantity of material recovered.
CONTROL OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
8.19(43) Operating objectives include the composition specications
for the top and bottom product streams. Other objectives can
include increasing throughput, enhancing column stability,
and operating against equipment constraints. Yet other con-
siderations include what product composition is considered
most important to maintain during disturbances, what are
acceptable variations in product specications, and what are
relative economic values of the product streams and cost of
10
energy used in the separation.
The column operating objectives are ultimately governed
by economic benets that are measurable, signicant, and
11
achievable. Economics of individual fractionators may con-
tinually change throughout the life of the plant. Prices and
costs may determine that energy savings are important at one
particular time but that recovery is more important at some
other time.
The economic benets of fractionator control include
shifting of less protable components into more protable
products, energy conservation, and increased throughput.
Other benets arise, including minimum disturbances prop-
agated to downstream units, minimum rework or recycle of
off-spec products, and more consistent product quality. Thus,
a given columns operating economics and, therefore, its
objectives may change with time.
1834 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
When minimization of fractionator utilities is an objec-
tive, the following guidelines are recommended:
Implement control to achieve composition control on
all products of the fractionator
Operate the fractionator to produce minimum oversep-
aration
Ascertain that the reduction in energy usage is reected
in the energy inow to the production complex
Minimize energy waste from blending of oversepa-
rated products
Alternative Control Strategies
Many choices confront the design engineer when selecting
the control variables for a column. The rst decision involves
conguration of the top or bottom control loops, which
directly determines product compositions. Once these strat-
egies are tentatively determined, the control strategies for the
remaining variables (e.g., pressure or levels) become easier
to select.
Pairings of controlled and manipulated variables are nor-
mally made according to the single-input single-output
(SISO) method. Multivariable control, where multiple-input
and multiple-output (MIMO) variables are paired, are dis-
cussed in Section 8.21. In these multivariable strategies,
although a controlled variable can be affected by several
manipulated variables, only one manipulated variable is used
to directly affect the controlled variable. The minimum num-
ber of controlled variables for a fractionator tower is four.
These include:
Controlled Variables Manipulated Variables
Overhead composition Reux ow
Bottoms composition Reboiler heating media ow
Accumulator level Distillate ow
Bottoms level Bottoms ow
This allows for 24 possible congurations (4 factorial).
Of course, most towers include pressure as a controlled vari-
able, with condenser ow or vapor bypass as a manipulated
variable. Additional manipulated variables can include feed
ow and enthalpy. If a tower includes a sidedraw stream,
another control pair is added to the possible combinations.
In fact, additional control variables increase the number
of possible control congurations factorially (e.g., six vari-
ables produce 720 possible congurations).
The pairing of controlled and manipulated variables can
follow three general control structures: energy balance con-
12
trol, material balance control, and ratio control. Energy
balance control uses reux and reboiler heating media ow
to control compositions, thus xing the energy inputs.
Material balance control uses the distillate and bottoms
product ows to control compositions, thus xing the overall
2006 by Bla Liptk
material balance. Ratio control utilizes a ratio of any two ow
rates at each end of the column. The two common examples
of ratio control are the control of reux-to-distillate ratio and
the boil-up-to-bottoms ratio. These control congurations per-
form quite differently depending upon the fractionator char-
acteristics.
CONTROL LOOP INTERACTION
The selection of which product composition to control (or
both, if control of both can be controlled) and the decision
on which variables will give better control can be aided by
calculation of a relative gain array. The concept of relative
13,14
gain provides a measure of the interaction that can be
expected between control loops. This subject is covered in
more detail in Chapter 2 in Section 2.12 and in Section 8.20.
The concept may be used to nd the control congurations
that will have the least amount of interaction. Therefore,
relative gain analysis should be considered the rst step in
evaluating alternative composition control strategies.
In addition, some pairings can be made heuristically from
operating experience and on the basis of a general under-
standing of column dynamics (Table 8.19q).
The following are general rules used to reject some pos-
sible control pairings:
15,16
1. Overhead composition and bottoms composition should
not both be controlled with material balance equations
if the objective is to control product specications at
both ends of the fractionator.
Because of lack of dynamic response the following loops
should not be paired:
1. Accumulator level should not be controlled with
reboiler heat if the reboiler is a furnace.
2. Bottoms level should not be controlled with reboiler
heat if the reboiler is a furnace.
3. Bottoms level should not be controlled with distillate
ow.
4. Accumulator level should not be controlled with bot-
toms product ow.
5. Overhead composition should not be controlled with
bottoms product ow.
6. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with
distillate ow.
7. Bottoms level should not be controlled with reux
ow.
8. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with
reux ow if the number of trays is greater than a
minimum limit (approximately 20).
9. Bottoms level should not be controlled with reboiler
heat if the diameter of the column is greater than a
minimum limit (approximately 1520 ft (4.56 m),
indicating a high volume of liquid in the bottoms).
 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1835

TABLE 8.19q
4
Dynamic Response and Sensitivity Limitations on the Pairing of Distillation Control Variables
(Both compositions should not be controlled by material balance (B,D) if both specications are important)
Manipulated
Distillate Flow Bottoms Product Flow Vaporization Rate (V) or Reflux Flow Rate
Controlled Variable
(D) (B) Heat Input at Reboiler (O) (L)
Variable
Composition of Overhead Product (ACy) OK if L/D
6 Notes 1 and 2 Note 2
Note 3
Composition of Bottoms Product (ACx) Note 3 Notes 1 and 2 OK if trays  20
Accumulator Level (LCa) OK if L/D  6 Not good with furnace OK if L/D
0.5
OK if V/B
3
Bottoms Level (LCb) OK if V/B  3 Not good if furnace is used
OK if diameter at bottom
 20 ft

Notes: 1. Control that concentration (x or y) which has the shorter residence time by throttling vapor ow (v).
2. More pure product should control separation (energy).
3. Less pure product should control material balance.
4. When controlling both x and y, the only choices for possible pairings are:
a. Control y by D and x by V.
b. Control y by D and x by L.
c. Control y by L and x by V.
d. Control y by B and x by L.

Of these, choice d is not recommended because a y/B combination is not responsive dynamically.

10. Accumulator level should not be controlled with
reboiler heat if the control objective is to maintain
overhead product specication and the V/B ratio is
less than a minimum limit (approximately 3).
Because of lack of sensitivity, these loops should not be
paired:
1. Overhead composition should not be controlled with
reux ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a mini-
mum value (approximately 6).
2. Accumulator level should not be controlled with dis-
tillate ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a max-
imum value (approximately 6).
3. Accumulator level should not be controlled with reux
ow if the reux ratio (L/D) is less than a maximum
value (approximately 0.5).
4. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a vapor phase.
5. Overhead composition should not be controlled with
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a liquid phase.
6. Bottoms composition should not be controlled with
sidedraw ow if the sidedraw is a liquid phase and the
sidedraw tray number is greater than a minimum num-
ber (approximately 20).
7. Sidedraw composition should not be controlled with
reux or distillate ow if the difference between the total
number of trays and the number of the sidestream tray
is greater than a minimum value (approximately 20).
8. Bottoms level should not be controlled with sidedraw
ow if the difference between the bottoms and the
number of the sidestream tray is greater than a mini-
mum value (approximately 100).
9. Bottoms level should not be controlled with bottoms
ow if the V/B ratio is greater than a minimum limit
(approximately 3).
Choices for controlling product compositions include
(1) controlling top or bottom composition only (generally
suitable for constant separation conditions, where specica-
tions for one product are loose or where effective feedforward/
feedback systems can be designed to compensate for load
changes) and (2) controlling of both product compositions
(minimizes energy use and provides tight specication top and
bottom products for columns in which the problems of inter-
action are small).
These choices can be broken down further into consid-
erations such as manipulation of distillate-boil-up, DV con-
guration (generally suitable for high reux columns) or
manipulation of reux-boil-up, LV conguration (generally
suitable for low reux columns), and so forth.
Further considerations include the use of decoupling con-
trol schemes (can present practical problems, such as insensi-
tive control, operating problems, and high sensitivity to errors)
and the use of temperature measurements to infer composition
or analyzers to measure composition directly (generally an
economic decision based on how well a temperature-sensitive
control point can be determined and the costs of analyzer
hardware and maintenance). These choices are based on oper-
ating objectives of the column, expected disturbance variables,
and the degree of control loop interaction.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1836 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

PRODUCT QUALITY CONTROL

Water
Conceptually, product control is a problem of making precise
adjustments to the rate of heat addition and the rate of heat PT PRC
removal from the tower. Heat removal determines the internal
reux ow rate, and the internal reux as measured on the TRC
top tray is a direct reection of the composition of the dis- Set
tillate. Heat added determines the internal vapor rate. These FRC LT LRC
TT
internal vapor and liquid ow rates determine the circulation
Set
rate, which in turn determines the degree of separation FT
FRC
between two key components.
Once interaction of the various variable pairings has been FT
established, and the columns operating objectives and dis-
turbance variables are considered, the primary composition
FIG. 8.19s
control loops of the column can be selected. Measurement
If overhead composition is to be controlled, the reflux flow to the
of these control variables can be either direct or inferred.
column is throttled by a temperature controller.

Inferring Composition from Temperature

If the cost of on-line analyzer hardware and maintenance is When composition of the distillate is more important, it
prohibitive, or if backup is desired in case of analyzer failure is desirable to maintain a constant temperature in the upper
or maintenance, and because the results of laboratory analysis section, as in Figure 8.19s. In this conguration the sensing
take too long to be usable for effective control, temperature point for column pressure control should be located near the
measurement often can be used to infer composition. temperature control point. Keeping the sensor locations close to
Because distillation separates materials according to their each other helps to x the relation between temperature and
difference in vapor pressures, and because vapor pressure is a composition at this particular point.
temperature-controlled function, temperature measurement has If column temperature proles caused by small positive
historically been used to indicate composition. This presumes and negative changes in manipulated variables, such as a 1%
that the column pressure remains constant, or that the temper- change in distillate ow (Figure 8.19t), can be generated, the
ature measurement is compensated for pressure changes, and
that feed composition is constant. Then, any change in compo-
sition within a column will be detected as a temperature change. Sensor location for
Stage maximum sensitivity
The best point to locate the temperature sensor cannot be
18
established from generalizations. The important consideration
is to measure the temperature on a tray that strongly reects
16
the changes in composition. When composition of the bottom
product is important, it is desirable to maintain a constant tem-
14
perature in the lower section. This can be done by letting the
1% decrease in D 1% increase in D
temperature measurement manipulate the reboiler steam supply
12
by resetting the steam ow controller set point (Figure 8.19r).
10
TT TRC
8
Set
FRC 6
FT
4
Steam
LT LIC
2

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

FIG. 8.19r
In this configuration the reboiler heat input is throttled by a
temperature controller to keep the bottoms product composition
constant.
Stage temperature change in C
FIG. 8.19t
Example of column temperature profiles resulting from a 1%
increase and from a 1% decrease in distillate flow.

2006 by Bla Liptk


14 TT
6 TT TDRC
SP
1 FRC
FT
Steam
FIG. 8.19u
Heat input controlled by temperature difference.
following criteria may be helpful in selecting sensor loca-
17
tions: (1) The sensitivity of the temperature-manipulated
variable pairing should be in the range of 0.1 to 0.5C/% and
(2) equal temperature changes should result when increasing
and when decreasing the manipulated variable.
For a two-product fractionator, distillation temperature
is an indication of composition only when column pressure
remains constant or if the temperature measurement is pressure-
compensated. When separation by distillation is sought between
two compounds having relatively close vapor pressures, tem-
perature measurement, as an indication of composition, is
not satisfactory.
Fixing two temperatures in a column is equivalent to
xing one temperature and the pressure. Thus, by controlling
two temperatures, or a temperature difference, the effect of
pressure variations can be eliminated. The assumption used
here is that the vapor pressure curves for the two components
have constant slopes.
Controlling two temperatures is not equivalent to con-
trolling a temperature difference. A plot of temperature dif-
ference vs. bottom product composition exhibits a maximum.
Thus, for some temperature differences below the maximum
it is possible to get two different product compositions.
Separation of normal butane and isobutane (in the
absence of other components, such as pentanes and heavier
substances) can be accomplished very well by using temper-
ature difference control. Figure 8.19u illustrates how the heat
input to such a column can be controlled by a temperature
difference controller.
Control by Analyzers
Analytical or composition control is a way to sidestep the
problems of temperature control. Although additional invest-
ment is needed for the analytical equipment, savings from
improved operation usually results. Several types of instru-
ments are available for composition analysis. Of these, the
gas chromatograph is the most versatile and most widely
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1837
FRC
FT
AT ARC
FIG. 8.119v
Distillate withdrawal controlled by chromatograph.
used. (For details, refer to Chapter 8 of Volume 1 of this
handbook.)
Once, the time required for a chromatographic analysis
(several minutes) was a great barrier to its use for automatic
control. Since then, the equipment has been enhanced so that
analyses can now be made in less than 5 min, and in many
cases for low-volatility hydrocarbons, the analysis can be
made continuous.
With careful handling, the under 5 min sampling rate will
permit closed-loop distillate control. In fact, fractionators are
successfully controlled with cycle times as long as 710 min
by applying dead time compensation algorithms.
Light ends fractionators have been satisfactorily con-
trolled by the use of chromatography. Figure 8.19v illustrates
the controls of a superfractionator designed to separate iso-
butane and normal butane. In this case, the chromatograph
continuously analyzes a sample from one of the intermediate
trays, and this measurement is used by the analyzer controller
to modulate the product draw-off valve.
Overhead and bottoms analyzers typically measure the
loss of a valuable product or the presence of impurities.
Impurity components are chosen because small concentration
variations can be measured more precisely and with better
repeatability, and can provide a more sensitive measure of
separation. For example, the change of an impurity from 1.0
to 1.1% can be measured with greater precision than a change
of the major component from 99 to 98.9%.
When composition analyzers are used in feedback con-
trol, several congurations can be considered. These include
1) direct control of a manipulated variable, 2) cascade control
adjusting the set point of a slave temperature controller, and
3) analysis control in parallel with temperature control in a
selective control conguration. The conguration used
depends on the control objective, sensitivity of control, and
analysis dead time.
Direct Control by Analyzers Analyzer controllers in a feed-
back conguration can be considered when the dead time of
each analysis update is less than the response time of the
1838 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

SP SP
FT FRC FT FRC

+ +
ARC AY AY AT
ARC AT +
PRC PRC
X
AY AY AY
PT TT SP PT TT SP Lag Dead
Accumulator Accumulator
FRC FT FRC FT time

L D L D
Fractionation

Fractionation
F F

B B

FIG. 8.19w FIG. 8.19x

Direct control of overhead product composition by an analyzer
controller (ARC) throttling the set point of a reflux flow controller
(FRC).
process. Because it is the control of the composition of the
product, which is often the objective, direct control by an
analyzer controller would seem to be better than indirect
control by temperature.
The composition controller provides feedback correction
in response to feed composition changes, pressure variations,
and variations in tower efciencies. Figure 8.19w shows the
conguration of a control system, in which a chromatograph
analyzes a liquid sample from the condenser rundown line.
A sample probe gathers the liquid sample and the
sampling system conditions and vaporizes the liquid sample
to provide a representative vapor sample to the chromato-
graph. The analyzer controller (ARC) uses the chromato-
graphic measurement to manipulate the reux ow by adjust-
ing the set point to the reux ow controller (FRC).
Smith Predictor Often the analyzer is so slow that it intro-
duces a signicant delay time that degrades the controllability
of the process. In that case, some type of dead time compen-
sation is used (see Section 2.19 in Chapter 2). A Smith
predictor compensator can serve to model the process to
predict what the analyzer measurement should be between
analysis updates. When the actual measurement is completed,
the models prediction is compared to the actual measurement
and the input to the controller is biased by the difference.
Analyzer controller with dead-time compensation cascaded to reflux
flow control.
Figure 8.19x shows the same conguration as did
Figure 8.19w except that the analyzer controller is equipped
with a rst-order Smith predictor that provides dead time
compensation.
In Figure 8.19x, the multiplier, lag, and dead time calcu-
lations (AY) provide the predicted analysis. (The lag represents
the rst-order process.) This predicted response is subtracted
from the actual measurement to give a differential of the
actual process from its own model. This delta is added to the
model without dead time to provide a modied pseudomea-
surement to the analyzer controller. Thus, the analyzer mea-
surement, which has a signicant dead time due to sampling
and cycle times, provides a trim to the predicted measurement
of the model.
Triple Cascade and Selective Control Analyzer control cas-
caded to temperature control can be used when stable tem-
perature on a particular tray is desired and the tower operates
at a constant, maintainable, and controllable pressure. An
example is cascading the analyzer controller to the overhead
temperature of a tower, which in turn is cascaded to the reux
ow rate. Because temperature is an indicator of composition
at this pressure, the analyzer controller only serves as a trim
correcting for variations in feed composition. Figure 8.19y
shows this triple cascade conguration of an analyzer con-
troller setting the temperature controller setting the reux
ow controller.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1839

SP
FT FRC PRC

PT

ARC AT
SP
PRC TRC

Absorber stripper
PT TT SP Accumulator
FRC FT

L D
FY
<
SP
TRC
Fractionation

FRC
F FT

Reboiler
ARC

Lean oil to
absorber

B FIG. 8.19z
Analyzer control in a low select configuration with a temperature
FIG. 8.19y constraint controller.
Triple cascade configuration of overhead composition control.

is often used when the fractionator is not the nal step in the
18
Analyzer controls can be used in a high or low select separation sequence. This often occurs in a natural gas
conguration in combination with temperature when a high liquids separation train where a de-ethanizer, a depropanizer,
or low limit based on temperature is important. The temper- a debutanizer, and a deisobutanizer (butane splitter) produce
ature controller is a constraint controller (see Section 2.28 in the products ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and gasoline
Chapter 2 for details) serving to prevent the temperature from as shown in Figure 8.19bb.
exceeding a limit. Specications for the primary overhead products may
An example of using this control conguration is the include limitations on the amount of both light and heavy
control of the bottoms of an absorber stripper. Here, the impurities. For example, the propane product from the over-
temperature should not exceed a certain value, as no addi- head of the depropanizer would have limitations on ethane
tional stripping of the light component in the bottoms of the as well as isobutane. The problem is that the light impurity
column could be accomplished. Even though an analyzer (lighter than light key) cannot be controlled in the tower that
controller may call for more heat, this heat would only produces that product. Rather, it must be controlled in an
increase the bottoms temperature of the recycled oil to the upstream tower.
absorber without removing the impurity, thereby reducing
the absorption capability at the absorber.
Set Override
Figure 8.19z depicts an analyzer controller in a low select point
conguration with the temperature constraint controller. EF
<
TIC FIC FY PIC PT
Note that both cascade and selective control congura-
tions require external feedback to protect them from reset Master Slave
windup. Figure 8.19aa illustrates how the external feedback TT EF EF
(EF) is applied to the master controller in a cascade cong- FT
uration (TIC) and to both controllers (FIC and PIC) in a
selective control conguration. For more details on external
A/O
feedback, refer to Section 2.28 in Chapter 2.
FIG. 8.19aa
Fractionator Trains A controller may use as its measure- In a cascade configuration the external feedback signal (EF) is the
ment the analysis of a single component, or may use the ratio slave measurement, while in selective control configurations, it is
of two components. A ratio (e.g., ethane-to-propane, C2/C3) the signal that is throttling the control valve.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1840 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
AX C3
Ethane
product
AX IC4
Deethanizer
Propane
NGL
product
Deisobutanizer
AX C5+
Depropanizer
AX C2/C3
Debutanizer
AX IC4
AX C3/IC4
Straight run
gasoline
AX NC4
FIG. 8.19bb
Analyzer placement in a fractionator train.
The lighter than light key specication in the distillate
of the downstream tower can be controlled more easily by
controlling the ratio in the bottoms of the upstream tower.
That is, the ethane content in the propane product (depro-
panizer distillate) is maintained by controlling the C2/C3 ratio
in the bottoms of the de-ethanizer. Measuring the C2/C3 ratio
in the bottoms requires an additional analyzer but eliminates
the dead time of obtaining the concentration in the overhead
of a downstream tower.
A feed analyzer is sometimes included as a part of feed-
forward control. The feed analysis is used in predicting inter-
nal reux/overhead ow and bottoms/heat input. However,
when feed composition changes slowly or when results from
the analyzer cannot be obtained faster than the dynamics of
the tower, this analyzer is omitted and the burden is placed
on feedback control from the product analyzers.
In practice, a feed analyzer is the exception rather than
the rule. Its use is mainly when the analyzer is already in
place, because it is controlling an upstream tower. For exam-
ple, the NGL separation train in Figure 8.19bb has a de-
ethanizer bottoms analyzer that could also be considered the
depropanizer feed analyzer.
Analyzer Selection The choice of analyzer control depends
upon the analytical equipment available and on the type of
separation desired. Each type of separation requires a com-
promise between the controllability and the delay of the
control system. For example, the NGL train (Figure 8.19bb)
was studied to determine the best analyzer system. In the
2006 by Bla Liptk
depropanizer (where isobutane was to be measured in the
presence of ethane, propane, and normal butane) and in
the deisobutanizer (where isobutane was to be measured in the
presence of normal butane and isopentane), an infrared analysis
was to be preferred.
AX NC4
However, in the debutanizer the goal was to measure the
Isobutane
product combined isopentane plus normal pentane concentrations in
the presence of isobutane and normal butane to control the
butane-pentane separation. Here, investigation revealed that
gas chromatography provides the best solution.
Some boiling point analyzers are reliable enough to be
used for on-line control (see Section 8.50 in Chapter 8 in
Volume 1 of this handbook). Normally, cut points between
overhead products and side-cuts are maintained by tempera-
ture controllers. These controllers generally inuence reux
N-butane
product rate or product draws to achieve the desired results. Labora-
tory distillation results are used to adjust the set points to the
temperature controllers. This method of control, however, is
cyclical because of the time lags involved in temperature
control.
To avoid exceeding the target cut points and to meet
required product specications, the cut point is set below
specication. This results in downgrading the more valuable
product to the stream of lesser value. This downgrading can
be minimized through the use of on-line boiling point ana-
lyzers. Justication of a boiling point analyzer depends upon
the value of the products, how much downgrading is occur-
ring, and the cost of analyzer maintenance. Figure 8.19cc
illustrates an end-point analyzer.
Viscosity is another property that can be measured con-
tinuously to give faster control corrections. In vacuum dis-
tillation, the viscosimeter monitors each of the streams for
which viscosity is a specication. Any deviation from the
desired viscosity is corrected by a change in the set point of
the control loop involved.
Deviation from the desired viscosity and the subsequent
downgrading of the product can occur because of frequent
variations in tower operating conditions and feed composi-
tion. In addition to normal operation, the use of a viscosity
analyzer minimizes downgrading during major upsets and
large feed compositions changes. With such an arrangement,
low viscosity vacuum bottoms can be detected quickly and
diverted to recoverable feed for protable reprocessing.
Once again, protability determination requires a thor-
ough analysis of column operation and an assessment of the
engineering, operating, and maintenance capabilities at the
location where this type of control is to be implemented.
Many other analytical instruments are being moved out
of the laboratory and into the processing area. Mobile units
containing several different kinds of analyzers can be used
to learn the best place to locate on-stream analyzers. In cases
in which permanent analyzers cannot be justied, the mobile
unit is connected to the process long enough to nd the best
operating conditions. Then, the mobile unit can be moved
elsewhere.
 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1841

Conditioned
sample
PSV Ok Ok
(fast but (slow)
not repeatable)

PC
Overhead Packed NG
condenser column

Percent Distillate
evaporated product
temperature
NG (D)
PI controller
Feed
TT TRC
(F)
FO

TC
To
distillation Ok
Boiler pot column (fast)
controls
Sample Float
outlet
valve Bottoms
Drain product
valve Heater
(B)
Ok
Analyzer Ok (slow)
euent (slow & low
FIG. 8.19cc pressure)
The end-point distillation analyzer is a miniature version of the FIG. 8.19dd
process column. The choices of sampling point locations for analyzers used in dis-
tillation column control.

Sampling Proper sampling of material in a column is nec-

essary if analyzers are to control effectively. A poor sampling
system often is responsible for the unsatisfactory perfor-
mance of plant analyzers. For details on sampling system
design, refer to Chapter 8, Section 8.2, in Volume 1 of this
handbook.
The sampling points for composition analysis should be
at, or very near, the column terminals for the following rea-
sons: (1) freedom from ambiguity in the correlation of sample
composition with terminal composition, and (2) improved
control loop behavior as a result of reduction of transport lag
(dead time) and of the time constants (lags) describing the
sampling points compositional behavior. This assumes that
the controller applies its manipulation at the same terminal
(steam or reux) where the controlled variable is measured.
The factors favoring moving the point of sampling nearer
to the feed entry point are (1) improved terminal composition
behavior as a result of earlier recognition of composition
transients as they proceed from the feed entry toward the
column terminals, and (2) less stringent analytical require-
ments as a result of (a) analyzing the control component at
a higher concentration and over a wider range, and (b) sim-
plifying the multicomponent mixture, because nonkey com-
ponents tend to exhibit constant composition zones in the
column.
Figure 8.19dd shows some of the typical sample locations
of a distillation tower. Most analyzers are designed to accept
a clean, dry, noncorrosive sample at low temperatures, pres-
sures, and ow rates. Such conditions seldom exist in the
process, so the sampling system must be designed and oper-
ated to overcome the difference between the conditions in
the process and the conditions required by the analyzer.
The sample system must provide a current and represen-
tative sample of the stream being analyzed. It must transport
the sample from the sample point to the analyzer with a
minimum of transport lag (preferably less than 30 sec and
denitely not greater than 1 min). Transportation times are
minimized using high ow rate bypass streams taken from
the process sample point and returned to the process at a
lower pressure. The sample system must condition the sample
to remove traces of foreign materials through ltering, main-
tain pressure and temperature, and maintain or change phase
for introduction into the analyzer.
For chromatographs, liquid sample points are generally
preferred (Figure 8.19ee). This is because vapor streams have
historically not provided representative samples. Vapor sam-
ples do not tend to produce repeatable values as consistently
19
and reliably because of condensation at the sample probe
and in the sample lines when hydrocarbons of high boiling

2006 by Bla Liptk

1842 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Analyzer

Sample Cooling Water Pressure Temperature Flow

Out In in out gauge gauge indicator
FI with
PI T1
needle
Control Flow valve
Self valve FI
indicator Calibration
cleaning sample
lter
Sample Shut-o
cooler Coalescer valves
Pressure
Shut-o Lab sample
regulator
valves Pressure take o
Flow relief valve
Flow indicator Pressure
FI indicator FI gauge
with
Check needle
valve PI
valve Check
valve
Shut-o
To valve
drain

FIG. 8.19ee
Sampling system for a liquid product in a refinery application.

points are present in the sample. When the sample lines are
long, some separation between components can also occur.
However, vapor samples can be used when warranted and if
the proper care can be taken.
A satisfactory point for measuring bottoms product com-
position is at the point of highest pressure. This approach
will ensure a representative sample and will provide the pres-
sure drop to return the sample bypass. The point of highest
pressure is generally immediately after the product pump.
However, if liquid holdup in the reboiler and kettle is large, a
long lag is introduced, which slows the transient response of
the measurement and control system. Alternative sample
points such as a bottoms tray or seal pan may be used, but
may require extra expense for the sample system.
A satisfactory sample-point location for measuring the
distillate is the outlet liquid of the overhead vapor condenser.
Sampling the overhead accumulator liquid after the reux or
distillate pump should be avoided because of the tremendous
process lag it introduces. Sampling the overhead vapor
reduces the process lag of sampling after the condenser if a
repeatable, representative sample can be obtained.
it requires pressure compensation if the pressure varies. As
analyzers are increasingly replacing temperature-based con-
trols, the argument favoring constant pressure operation is
also lessening. However, even when temperature control is
used, the temperature measurements can be compensated for
pressure variations.
The primary advantage of oating-pressure control is the
ability to operate at the minimum column pressure within the
constraints of the system. Lower pressure reduces the vola-
tility of distillation components, thereby reducing the heat
input required to effect a given separation. Other advantages
include increased reboiler capacity and reduced reboiler fouling
due to lower tower temperatures.
In the following paragraphs, oating-pressure control strat-
egies will be described for the following conditions: (1) liquid
distillate withdrawn when noncondensables are present,
(2) vapor distillate withdrawn when noncondensables are
present, and (3) liquid distillate withdrawn when the amount
of noncondensables is negligible.
Liquid Distillate and Inerts

In some separation processes the problem of pressure control

PRESSURE CONTROL
Most distillation columns are operated under constant pres-
sure. However, oating-pressure operation can have advan-
tages in many processes. One reason for the resistance to the
use of oating-pressure control is based on the fact that
temperature is sensitive to pressure changes, and therefore,
is complicated by the presence of large percentages of inert
gases. The noncondensables must be removed, or they will
accumulate and blanket off the condensing surface, thereby
causing loss of column pressure control.
The simplest method of handling this problem is to bleed
off a xed amount of gases and vapors to a lower pressure unit,
such as to an absorption tower, if one is present in the system.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1843

used to start opening the purge control valve (VPCV-2), when

Vent Partially the opening of PCV-1 reaches some preset limit. This can be
ooded done by means of a calibrated valve positioner or by using
VPCV condenser
2 a valve position controller (VPC-2) in Figure 8.19ff.
VPC PCV
2 1 Vapor Distillate and Inerts
PT PRC
1 In the case where the distillate is in the vapor phase and inerts
are present, the overhead product is removed under pressure
control as shown in Part A of Figure 8.19gg. In this cong-
LT LIC
uration the system pressure will quickly respond to changes
in the distillate vapor ow. In this control system a level
controller is installed on the overhead receiver to regulate the
cooling water to the condenser, so that it will condense only
enough condensate to provide the column with reux.
This control system will operate properly only if the
FIG. 8.19ff condenser is designed to provide a short residence time for
Column pressure control with inerts present. the coolant, which will minimize the level control time lag.
If this is not the case, the cooling water ow should be
maintained at a constant rate.
In this case (Part B in Figure 8.19gg), the level controller
If an absorber is not present, it is possible to install a vent can regulate the ow of condensate through a small vaporizer
condenser to recover the condensable vapors from this purge and mix it with the vapor from the pressure control valve.
stream. Often in renery applications such noncondensables go If the cooling water has fouling tendencies, it is prefer-
to the fuel gas system or to are. able to use the control system shown in Figure 8.19hh, where
It is recommended that the xed continuous purge be a pressure controller regulates a vapor bypass around the
used whenever economically possible; however, when this is condenser.
not permitted, it is possible to modulate the purge stream.
This might be desirable when the amount of inerts is subject Liquid Distillate with Negligible Inerts
to wide variations over time.
As the noncondensables build up in the condenser, the In distillation processes where the distillate is in the liquid
pressure controller will tend to open the control valve (PCV-1 phase and the amount of inerts is negligible, the column
in Figure 8.19ff) to maintain the proper rate of condensation. pressure is usually controlled by modulating the rate of con-
The controller signal that is throttling PCV-1 could also be densation in the condenser. The method of controlling the

Dry Dry
condenser condenser
Water
Vaporizer
Water

PRC PRC

PT PT
LRC Vapor (D) Vapor
(D)
LT Receiver LT LRC

A. Variable water ow B. Constant water ow

FIG. 8.19gg
Column pressure control when the distillate is in the vapor phase and contains inerts for variable (A) and constant condenser water flow
configurations (B).

2006 by Bla Liptk

1844 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Partially
ooded
condenser
P
Water PRC

P Vapor
PT LT
(D) P
PT PRC P
LIC

LT LRC

Liquid
(D)

A. Vapor distillate B. Liquid distillate

FIG. 8.19hh
Column pressure controlled by hot gas bypass throttling in case of vapor (A) and liquid (B) distillate processes.

rate of condensation depends upon the mechanical construc-
tion of the condensing equipment.
Controlling the Cooling Water Flow Figure 8.19ii describes
a control conguration where the column pressure is con-
trolled by throttling the cooling water ow from the con-
denser. This method of control is recommended only when
the cooling water is treated with chemicals that prevent the
fouling of the tubes in the event of high temperature rise
across the condenser tubes. In such conguration, the main-
tenance costs are low, because the control valve is on the
water side and the control performance is acceptable, pro-
vided the condenser is properly designed.
The best condenser for this service is a bundle-type unit
with the cooling water owing through the tubes. This water
Water Dry
condenser
PRC
PT
LIC
LT
FIG. 8.19ii
Column pressure control by throttling condenser water.
should be owing at a rate of more than 4.5 ft/s (1.35 m/s),
and the water should have a residence time of less than 45 sec.
The shorter the residence time of the water, the better will
be the quality of control obtained, owing to the decrease in
dead time or lag in the system.
With a properly designed condenser, the pressure con-
troller needs only proportional control, because a narrow
throttling range is sufcient. However, as the residence time
of the water increases, the time lag of the system will
increase, and consequently the controller will require a wider
throttling range and will need automatic reset to compensate
for the load changes.
The control obtained by using a wide proportional band
is not satisfactory for precision distillation columns because
of the length of time required for the system to recover from
an upset. Also, the dead time varies with load, and therefore
the integral setting of the PRC should be set to match the
variation in residence time.
Therefore, it is unacceptable to use this control system
on a condenser box with submerged tube sections, because
there would be a large time lag in the system due to the large
volume of water in the box. It would require the passage of
a signicant amount of time before a change in water ow
rate would change the temperature of the water in the box
and nally would affect the rate of condensation.
Controlling the Condensate Flow To reduce such unfavor-
able time lags, it becomes necessary to use a different type
of control system, one that permits the water ow rate to
remain constant and controls the amount of surface exposed
to the condensing vapors. This is done by modulating the
ow of condensate from the condenser.
When the column pressure is dropping, this condensate
throttling valve reduces the condensate ow, causing it to

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1845

Partially
PCV ooded
2 condenser
PRC-1>PRC-2
PRC PRC
1 P 2
PCV
1 PRC
PT PT Inerts
PT PRC PT
P

LT LIC LT LRC
Liquid
(D)
Liquid (D)

A. No inerts B. With inerts

FIG. 8.19jj
High-speed column pressure control.

build up and ood more tube surface and, consequently, to
reduce the condensing surface exposed to the vapors.
Thereby, the condensing rate is reduced, and the pressure in
the column rises. In such designs, a vent valve should be
installed to purge the noncondensables from the top of the
condenser if it is expected that noncondensables could build
up and blanket the condensing surface.
Control of Hot Vapor Bypass A third possible control con-
guration for applications with liquid distillate containing
negligible inerts is used when the condenser is located below
the receiver. This is frequently done to make the condenser
available for servicing and to save on steel work. It is usual
practice to elevate the bottom of the accumulator 1015 ft
(34.5 m) above the suction of the pump in order to provide
a positive suction head on the pump.
In this type of installation the control valve is placed in
a bypass of the vapor line to the accumulator (see
Figure 8.19hh, Part B). When this valve is open, it equalizes
the pressure between the vapor line and the receiver, causing
the condensing surface to become ooded with condensate
because of the 1015 ft of head in the condensate line from
the condenser back to the receiver.
The ooding of the condensing surface causes the pres-
sure to build up because of the decrease in the rate of con-
densation. Under normal operating conditions, the subcooling
that the condensate receives in the condenser is sufcient to
reduce the vapor pressure in the receiver. The difference in
pressure permits the condensate to ow up the 1015 ft of
pipe between the condenser and the accumulator.
A modication of this latter system controls the pressure
in the accumulator by throttling the condenser bypass ow
(Figure 8.19jj, Part A). The column pressure is maintained
by throttling the ow of vapor through the condenser. Con-
trolling the rate of ow through the condenser provides faster
pressure regulation for the column.
Part A of Figure 8.19jj shows the operation if there are
no inerts, as follows: If column pressure rises, PRC-1 opens
PCV-1. This increases the vapor pressure in the condenser,
which pushes some of the condensate out of it and increases
the condensing surface area exposed to the vapors. Therefore,
the rate of condensation is increased, and thereby the column
pressure is lowered back to the set point of PRC-1.
At this higher rate of condensation, the pressure drop
(P) across PCV-2 is also reduced (the valve opens). If the
column pressure drops, the opposite sequence occurs: PCV-1
closes and the ooding of the condenser increases, reducing
the rate of condensation and increasing the pressure drop
(P) across PCV-2 by slightly closing it. The setting of PRC-1
must always be above that of PRC-2.
The most common pressure control conguration is
shown in Part B of Figure 8.19jj. Here, the column pressure
controller is throttling the hot vapor bypass, as was the case in
Part A of Figure 8.19hh, but in addition a second pressure
controller is utilized on the accumulator. This PRC is set at
about 5 PSIG below the required tower pressure and is used
to vent the inert gases that may build up in the system.
Vacuum Systems
For some liquid mixtures, the temperature required to vapor-
ize the feed would need to be so high that decomposition
would result. To avoid this, it is necessary to operate the
column at pressures below atmospheric. Steam jet ejectors
are often used to create vacuum in distillation systems. These

2006 by Bla Liptk

1846 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Air Steam F Cold/cold

exchanger
C3
Propane
chiller
PRC PIC
PT

Turbo- PRC Surge

PT bypass
expander
SP
LT LIC
SC

Demethanizer
Turbine
Compressor

FIG. 8.19kk
Vacuum column pressure control.
TT TRC

can be used singly or in stages, when a wide range of vacuum

conditions are required. The acceptance of steam jet ejectors
is due to their having no moving parts and requiring very
little maintenance.
Most ejectors are designed for a xed capacity and work
best at one steam condition. Increasing the steam pressure
above the design point will not usually increase the capacity
of the ejector; instead, it will sometimes decrease the capacity
because of the choking effect of the excess steam in the
diffuser throat.
Steam pressure below a critical value for a jet will cause
the ejector operation to be unstable. Therefore, it is recom-
mended that a pressure controller be installed on the steam
to keep it at the optimum pressure required by the ejector.
The recommended control system for pressure control in
vacuum distillation applications is shown in Figure 8.19kk.
Here, a controlled rate of air or gas is bled into the vacuum
line just ahead of the ejector. Closing this bleed valve makes
the maximum capacity of the ejector available to handle any
surges or upsets in the process load. A control valve regulates
the amount of bleed air used to maintain the pressure on the
reux accumulator. Using the pressure of the accumulator
for control involves less time lag than if the column pressure
were used as the control variable.
Because ejectors are xed capacity, the variable load is
met by air bleed into the system. At low loads this represents
a substantial waste of steam. Therefore, if substantial load
variations are expected, operating costs can be lowered by
installing a larger and a smaller ejector. This makes it possible
to automatically switch to the small unit when the load drops
off, thereby reducing the steam demand.
Vapor Recompression
Vapor recompression is another means of improving energy
efciency of the operation. The overhead vapor from the
Reboiler
Residue
gas
NGL
FIG. 8.19ll
Vapor recompression pressure control.
distillation column is compressed to a pressure where its
condensation temperature is greater than the boiling point is
at the pressure of the tower bottoms. The heat of condensation
of the overhead can then be used as the source of heat for
reboiling the bottoms.
This scheme is known as vapor recompression. It is used
fairly often when the distillation involves a relatively close-
boiling mixture, and the boiling points of the top and bottom
products are similar. In cryogenic demethanization processes,
illustrated in Figure 8.18ll, the column pressure is con-
trolled by the throttling of the speed of the recompression
compressors.
The heat of condensation of the overhead is also used
as the heat for the reboilers in propylene fractionators.
Figure 8.19mm shows the pressure controls needed for the
operation of this vapor recompression via the heat pump on
this particular tower.
FCCU main fractionators and crude towers make use of
compressors to draw vapors from the tower because oper-
ation is essentially at atmospheric pressures. The pressure
control system used in this case is shown in Figure 8.19nn.
In this conguration, the tower pressure is maintained by
controlling the speed of the compressor. This is accomplished
by the manipulation of the steam used to drive the compressor
turbine.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1847

Feed Flow Control

PT A ow controller in the feed line can maintain a constant ow

PRC
rate. In some instances, the feed pump of a distillation unit is
Heat pump a steam-driven pump instead of an electrically driven one. In
this case, the controller modulates the steam to the driver.
Feed composition has a great inuence upon the opera-
tion of a distillation unit. Unfortunately, feed composition is
Propylene tower

CW seldom subject to adjustment. For this reason, it is necessary

to make changes elsewhere in the operation of the column
F
in order to compensate for the variations in feed composition.
The corrective steps are discussed later. The discussion below
SP assumes a constant feed composition.
TRC
FRC Accumulator
FT Variable Column Feed

Propylene Having constant feed conditions simplies the amount of

Reboiler (C3) control required to achieve stable operation. However, the
distillate product is often fed to a second column. Then, any
Propane
changes that occur in the rst column are reected in the
(C3)
quantity and composition of the feed to the second. If the
FIG. 8.19mm feed ow to the column is controlled by a liquid level con-
Propylene tower vapor recompression pressure control. troller of the previous column, that controller can be tuned
with a low gain, so that the level can swing over a wide range
without drastically upsetting the ow of product.
Nevertheless, the second column will receive a varying
FEED CONTROLS ow of feed if it is linked to the rst column. One way to
iron out temporary variations caused by liquid level changes
One of the best means of stabilizing the operation of almost is to cascade the level to a ow controller in the product lines.
any continuous-ow-process, including distillation, is to hold Flow controllers also serve to smooth out the pressure uc-
the ow rates and operating temperatures constant. There- tuations caused by the distillate/reux pump.
fore, whenever possible, a ow controller should be used on With variable feed rates and variable feed compositions,
the feed to maintain a constant rate of ow. cascade controls are justied. If the feed rate and composition
are relatively constant, resetting the major control loop manually
is sometimes adequate. In other cases the ow controller is
arranged as the cascade slave of the level controller
(Figure 8.19oo). The control algorithm for the level controller
SP in Figure 8.19oo is usually selected to be nonlinear to allow
FT FRC the level to oat in the surge tank without changing the FRC
set point, which would upset the feed to the next column.
PRC CW Steam
Therefore, the nonlinear controller is so congured that
Accumulator
PT as long as the level in the surge tank is between 25 and 75%,
Turbine
Compressor
Main fractionator

Nonlinear
LT LRC
Set
FRC

FT

Reboiler
FIG. 8.19oo
Feed flow to the next column is kept relatively constant by the use
FIG. 8.19nn of a nonlinear level controller (LRC) on the surge tank acting as
Main fractionator pressure control. the cascade master of the slave flow controller (FRC).

2006 by Bla Liptk

1848 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
Distillate
X Feed
FT FY FC
m feed temperature controls provided by a preheater.
Feed
FIG. 8.19pp
Feedforward control minimizes feed rate disturbances.
the set point to the FRC remains constant. This will allow
the surge tank to fulll its purpose and smooth out the load
variations between the related processes. If the level drops
below 25% or rises above 75%, the FRC set point is reduced
or increased respectively to protect it from draining or ood-
ing the tank.
If feed rate disturbances must be accepted by the column,
a feedforward control system as shown in Figure 8.19pp can
10
be used to minimize the impact of these disturbances. The
ratio, m, is selected by performance of a simple material
balance around the column. Changing the product ow in
proportion to the feed ow minimizes internal column tran-
sients and, thus, the quantity of off-spec material during
recovery.
The value of m, however, is accurate only for one feed
composition and will have to be readjusted either manually
or automatically for different feed compositions. Dynamic
compensation, which will be discussed in more detail in
Section 8.21, is also recommended here.
Another method of minimizing feed rate disturbances is
to use adaptive tuning or other nonlinear level control tech-
niques (see Section 2.36 in Chapter 2) on the level controller.
The key is to allow the accumulator, or the tower kettle, to
utilize its capacity to accommodate transient material balance
accumulations and act as a surge drum to minimize feed
ow changes to the next unit.
Feed Temperature Control
The thermal condition of the feed determines how much
additional heat must be added to the column by the reboiler.
For efcient separation, it usually is desirable to have the
feed preheated to its bubble point when it enters the column.
Unless the feed comes directly from some preceding distil-
lation step, an outside source of heat is required to achieve
that.
Steam may be used to heat the feed, and a thermocouple
inside a thermowell can detect the temperature inside the feed
2006 by Bla Liptk
To column
TRC
Set
FRC
TT FT
Steam
FIG. 8.19qq
The use of a temperature-flow cascade loop improves the column
line. In this conguration, the temperature of the feed leaving
this preheater controls the steam ow into the preheater. In
such a cascade conguration, the temperature master is usu-
ally a three-mode controller. On start-up, the initially large
correction provided by rate action of this three-mode con-
troller helps to get the unit lined out faster. A full discussion
of the advantages of cascade loops is provided in Section 2.6
in Chapter 2. Figure 8.19qq describes such a control system
on a preheater application.
An alternate feed preheating conguration is to use an
economizer on the feed stream. An economizer is a heat
exchanger designed to take advantage of the waste heat to
preheat the feed. Often, if the bottoms product is just sent to
storage, it must be cooled anyway. Therefore, exchanging its
heat content with the feed stream accomplishes both the
objective of feed preheating and that of product cooling.
Two control congurations are common. If heat from the
bottoms product stream is not sufcient, a second exchanger
using steam is also installed to augment the heating of the
feed, and on this second exchanger, a temperature control
system like that previously shown in Figure 8.19qq is used.
If the available bottoms product heat is more than sufcient,
temperature control is achieved by manipulation of a bypass
valve around the economizer, as shown in Figure 8.19rr.
Constant temperature feed does not necessarily mean
constant feed quality. If feed composition varies, its bubble
point also varies. It is common practice to set the temperature
control at a point that is equivalent to the bubble point of
the heaviest feed. As the feed becomes lighter, some of it will
vaporize, but this variation can be handled by subsequent
controls.
FEEDFORWARD CONTROLS
This section discusses the basic single-inputsingle-output
feedback control loops, serving to control the product qual-
ities, feed rate and temperature, and tower pressure. Such
feedback systems are capable of compensating for deviations
and disturbances only after they have occurred and have been

B building upon basic feedback control designs to implement
Economizer
F TF
TT
TRC
Reboiler
FIG. 8.19rr
The heat content of the bottoms products can be utilized to preheat
the feed to the column in an economizer preheater.
detected. When using these simple control schemes, the oper-
ators are required to manually adjust the set point of these
SISO loops in response to changing plant conditions as they
occur. This approach is usually sufcient to keep the distil-
lation column in operation, but it is not sufcient to achieve
optimal performance.
As will be discussed in Section 8.21 in more detail,
feedforward strategies attempt to compensate for process dis-
turbances in the shortest time possible by accounting for
process dynamics, dead times, time delays, and loop interac-
1
tions. The benets of better control are:
11
Increased throughput
Increased product recovery
Energy conservation
Reduced disturbances to other processing units
Minimum rework or recycle of off-spec products
Reduced operating personnel
Increased plant exibility
It has been reported that feedforward-based product com-
position control of distillation can give energy savings of
5
515%.
While feedback-based basic distillation controls only aim
at running the processing unit at current conditions, the objec-
tive of feedforward control is not only to do that, but also to
account for conditions that can be anticipated. The challenge
is to utilize the technique, the tools, and available resources
to design unique feedforward control strategies that will
match the specic objectives for the distillation columns. The
choice between any of these control techniques depends upon
factors such as preference and familiarity, complexity, degree
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1849
of compensation, hardware for application, and number of
variables monitored and controlled by a single strategy.
Often, additional instrumentation is not necessary when
feedforward control. However, in many cases, if key measure-
ments are not available and are needed for the feedforward
calculation or compensation, the installation of new in-line
sensors is also required.
Unlike basic feedback control, where much of the control
could be implemented by simple analog control devices,
feedforward control strategies generally require more sophis-
ticated level computing systems. In this section, the common
applications of feedback-based distillation column controls
are discussed. Section 8.21 will discuss feedforward,
model-based, and other advanced control systems, includ-
ing optimization.
CONCLUSIONS
This section deals with some of the more basic control con-
gurations for distillation towers. Section 8.20 describes the
calculation of relative gains and Section 8.21 is devoted to
the more advanced and optimized control strategies. The
separation between these three areas is not very sharp, and
some overlap does exist.
In this section, the control strategies for some of the more
common distillation problems have been described. Although
many other system congurations can exist, they usually are
combinations of those presented. Control strategies today are
no longer hardware dependent. Most modern microprocessor-
based systems are designed with control function modules to
execute a variety of the basic strategies that were discussed
in this section. Multivariable unit operations controllers of
both the model-predictive and the model-free variety are also
slowly becoming available and will be discussed in
Section 8.21.
It is important to emphasize that control by feedback
methods alone cannot approach the quality of control possi-
ble by predictive (feedforward) techniques. This is true even
though it is likely that the predictive control equations may
need to be updated by feedback. In effect, predictive control
tends to substantially reduce the size of the errors that are
left to be handled by feedback. Further discussion of feed-
forward strategies and of other techniques for optimization
are provided in more detail in Section 8.21.
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