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A process through which a business seeks to ensure that product quality is maintained
or improved and manufacturing errors are reduced or eliminated. Quality control
requires the business to create an environment in which both management and
employees strive for perfection. This is done by training personnel,
creating benchmarks for product quality, and testing products to check for statistically
significant variations.
Quality control is essential to building a successful business that delivers products that
meet or exceed customers expectations. It also forms the basis of an efficient
business that minimizes waste and operates at high levels of productivity. A quality
control system based on a recognized standard, such as ISO 9001 published by the
International Organization for Standardization, provides a strong foundation for
achieving a wide range of marketing and operational benefits.
3. Competitiveness
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4. Customer Loyalty
Providing the market with quality products helps to increase customer satisfaction and
loyalty. Satisfied customers have confidence that your products will continue to
provide reliable performance in the future, and that increases the likelihood that they
will buy from you again. Satisfied customers may also recommend your products to
other companies, either directly or by providing testimonials that you can use in your
marketing communications.
5. Reputation
6. Compliance
Compliance with recognized quality standards may be essential for doing business
with certain groups of customers. If you are part of a supply chain, for example, the
lead manufacturer may impose consistent quality standards on all members of the
chain. Some customers aim to reduce or eliminate the cost of inspecting incoming
components or materials by insisting that their suppliers implement the same quality
system. If you operate in a regulated sector, such as chemicals or food, you may have
to comply with industry quality standards.
7. Costs
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Quality control can help to reduce your production and product support costs. A
quality control system helps to lower levels of waste and rework, cutting costs and
improving productivity and production efficiency. Delivering quality products can
also reduce the number of returns you have to handle or the cost of repairing or
servicing products in the field.
The most obvious beneficiary of quality control is the customer, who receives a high-
quality product. This in turn benefits the company by ensuring customer satisfaction,
which leads to repeat business, customer loyalty, and spreading the word about the
quality of the company's product. Therefore, quality control in manufacturing pays off
for a company in both reputation and revenue.
Companies with quality control procedures in place are far less likely to face product
recalls or safety hazards from poorly constructed products. The cost associated with
these recalls can be steep: In 2009, Toyota had to recall 12.4 million cars for sticky
gas pedals and floor mats that could jam accelerators, at a cost of approximately $2
billion. This could have been avoided had quality control been properly implemented.
Old 7 tools
Paretochart
Fishbonediagram
Controlchart
Histogram
check sheet
Scatterdiagram
Stratification (flow chart or run chart)
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Feature of this tools:
New 7 tools
Relationshipdiagram
Treediagram
Arrowdiagram
Anitydiagram
Matrixdiagram
Matrixdataanalysis diagram
Processdecision programchart.(PDPC)
Combineverbalwith numerical
Lookingforrootcause
Clarify,prioritizegoals andschedule
Involveeveryoneinto fullcooperation
Generateideas
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1) Pareto chart or Pareto diagram
A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or cost (time
or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to the right.
In this way the chart visually depicts which situations are more significant.
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measurement that corresponds to one-half should be exactly opposite 50% on
the right scale.
Calculate and draw cumulative sums: Add the subtotals for the first and
second categories, and place a dot above the second bar indicating that sum.
To that sum add the subtotal for the third category, and place a dot above the
third bar for that new sum. Continue the process for all the bars. Connect the
dots, starting at the top of the first bar. The last dot should reach 100 percent
on the right scale.
Example #1 shows how many customer complaints were received in each of five
categories.
Example #2 takes the largest category, documents, from Example #1, breaks it
down into six categories of document-related complaints, and shows cumulative
values.
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2) The fishbone diagram
A Cause-and Effect Diagram also known as fish bone diagram is a tool that shows
systematic relationship between a result or a symptom or an effect and its possible
causes. It is an effective tool to systematically generate ideas about causes for
problems and to present these in a structured form. This tool was devised by Dr.
Kouro Ishikawa and as mentioned earlier is also known as Ishikawa Diagram.
Procedure
1. Agree on the definition of the 'Effect' for which causes are to be found. Place the
effect in the dark box at the right. Draw the spine or the backbone as a dark line
leading to the box for the effect.
1. Determine the main groups or categories of causes. Place them in boxes and
connect them through large bones to the backbone.
2. Brainstorm to find possible causes and subsidiary causes under each of the main
groups. Make sure that the route from the cause to the effect is correctly depicted. The
path must start from a root cause and end in the effect.
3. After completing all the main groups, brainstorm for more causes that may have
escaped earlier.
4. Once the diagram is complete, discuss relative importance of the causes. Short list
the important root causes.
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3) Check sheets
When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at
the same location.
When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems,
defects, defect location, defect causes, etc.
When collecting data from a production process.
The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephone interruptions.
The tick marks were added as data was collected over several weeks
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4) Control chart
The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time. Data are
plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for the average, an
upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit.
These lines are determined from historical data. By comparing current data to these
lines, you can draw conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent (in
control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).
Control charts for variable data are used in pairs. The top chart monitors the average,
or the centring of the distribution of data from the process. The bottom chart monitors
the range, or the width of the distribution. If your data were shots in target practice,
the average is where the shots are clustering, and the range is how tightly they are
clustered. Control charts for attribute data are used singly.
Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and plotting data.
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Look for out-of-control signals on the control chart. When one is identified, mark it
on the chart and investigate the cause. Document how you investigated, what you
learned, the cause and how it was corrected.
Out-of-control signals
A single point outside the control limits. In Figure 1, point sixteen is above the UCL
(upper control limit).
Two out of three successive points are on the same side of the centreline and farther
than 2 from it. In Figure 1, point 4 sends that signal.
Four out of five successive points are on the same side of the centreline and farther
than 1 from it. In Figure 1, point 11 sends that signal.
A run of eight in a row are on the same side of the centreline. Or 10 out of 11, 12 out
of 14 or 16 out of 20. In Figure 1, point 21 is eighth in a row above the centreline.
Obvious consistent or persistent patterns that suggest something unusual about your
data and your process.
5 Continue to plot data as they are generated. As each new data point is plotted,
check for new out-of-control signals.
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6 When you start a new control chart, the process may be out of control. If so, the
control limits calculated from the first 20 points are conditional limits. When you
have at least 20 sequential points from a period when the process is operating in
control, recalculate control limits.
5) Histogram chart
A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set of data occurs.
A histogram is the most commonly used graph to show frequency distributions. It
looks very much like a bar chart, but there are important differences between them.
Histogram Construction
Use the histogram worksheet to set up the histogram. It will help you determine the
number of bars, the range of numbers that go into each bar and the labels for the bar
edges. After calculating W in step 2 of the worksheet, use your judgment to adjust it
to a convenient number. For example, you might decide to round 0.9 to an even 1.0.
The value for W must not have more decimal places than the numbers you will be
graphing.
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Draw x- and y-axes on graph paper. Mark and label the y-axis for counting data
values. Mark and label the x-axis with the L values from the worksheet. The spaces
between these numbers will be the bars of the histogram. Do not allow for spaces
between bars.
For each data point, mark off one count above the appropriate bar with an X or by
shading that portion of the bar.
Histogram Analysis
Before drawing any conclusions from your histogram, satisfy yourself that the process
was operating normally during the time period being studied. If any unusual events
affected the process during the time period of the histogram, your analysis of the
histogram shape probably cannot be generalized to all time periods.
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6) Scatter chart
The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to
look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated, the points will
fall along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the
line.
When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your
independent variable.
When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such as
When determining whether two effects that appears to be related both occur with the
same cause.
Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis. For each pair of data, put a dot or a symbol where the x-
axis value intersects the y-axis value. (If two dots fall together, put them side by side,
touching, so that you can see both.)
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Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the data clearly form
a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are correlated. You may wish to use
regression or correlation analysis now. Otherwise, complete steps 4 through 7.
Divide points on the graph into four quadrants. If there are X points on the graph,
Count X/2 points from top to bottom and draw a horizontal line.
Count X/2 points from left to right and draw a vertical line.
If number of points is odd, draw the line through the middle point.
Add the diagonally opposite quadrants. Find the smaller sum and the total of points in
all quadrants.
A = points in upper left + points in lower right
B = points in upper right + points in lower left
Q = the smaller of A and B
N =A+ B
If Q is greater than or equal to the limit, the pattern could have occurred from random
chance.
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Scatter Diagram Example
There are 24 data points. Median lines are drawn so that 12 points fall on each side for
both percent purity and ppm iron.
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Then they look up the limit for N on the trend test table. For N = 24, the limit is 6.
Q is equal to the limit. Therefore, the pattern could have occurred from random
chance, and no relationship is demonstrated.
Here are some examples of situations in which might you use a scatter diagram:
Variable A is the number of employees trained on new software, and variable B is the
number of calls to the computer helps line. You suspect that more training reduces the
number of calls. Plot number of people trained versus number of calls.
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Even if the scatter diagram shows a relationship, do not assume that one variable
caused the other. Both may be influenced by a third variable.
When the data are plotted, the more the diagram resembles a straight line, the stronger
the relationship.
If the scatter diagram shows no relationship between the variables, consider whether
the data might be stratified.
Think creatively about how to use scatter diagrams to discover a root cause.
Drawing a scatter diagram is the first step in looking for a relationship between
variables.
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7) Stratification
Stratification is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools. When
data from a variety of sources or categories have been lumped together, the meaning
of the data can be impossible to see. This technique separates the data so that patterns
can be seen.
Stratification Procedure
Before collecting data, consider which information about the sources of the data
might have an effect on the results. Set up the data collection so that you collect that
information as well.
When plotting or graphing the collected data on a scatter diagram, control chart,
histogram or other analysis tool, use different marks or colours to distinguish data
from various sources. Data that are distinguished in this way are said to be
stratified.
Analyze the subsets of stratified data separately. For example, on a scatter diagram
where data are stratified into data from source 1 and data from source 2, draw
quadrants, count points and determine the critical value only for the data from source
1, then only for the data from source 2.
Stratification Example
The ZZ400 manufacturing team drew a scatter diagram to test whether product
purity and iron contamination were related, but the plot did not demonstrate a
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relationship. Then a team member realized that the data came from three different
reactors. The team member redrew the diagram, using a different symbol for each
reactors data:
Now patterns can be seen. The data from reactor 2 and reactor 3 are circled. Even
without doing any calculations, it is clear that for those two reactors, purity decreases
as iron increases. However, the data from reactor 1, the solid dots that are not circled,
do not show that relationship. Something is different about reactor 1.
Stratification Considerations
Here are examples of different sources that might require data to be stratified:
Equipment
Shifts
Departments
Materials
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Suppliers
Time of day
Products
Always consider before collecting data whether stratification might be needed during
analysis. Plan to collect stratification information. After the data are collected it might
be too late.
On your graph or chart, include a legend that identifies the marks or colours used.
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Now starting with new 7 quality control tool
1) Affinity Diagram
Application
An affinity diagram is used to organize into groupings large number of ideas, opinions
or concerns about a Particular topic.
Description
When a large number of ideas, opinions or other concerns about a particular topic are
being collected, this tool organizes the information into grouping~~based on the
natural relationships that exist among them. The process is designed to stimulate
creativity and full participation; It works best in groups of limited Size (a maximum
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of eight members is recommended) in which members are accustomed to working
together. This tool is often used to organize ideas generated by brainstorming.
Procedure:
Example: For next generation digital camera we can organize the customer
Complains and requirements in an Affinity Diagram.
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Affinity diagram
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2) Tree diagram
Application
A tree diagram is used to show the interrelation between a topic and its component
elements.
Description:
A tree diagram systematically breaks down a topic into its component elements. Ideas
generated by
to show logical and sequential links. This tool can be used in planning and problem
solving.
Procedure:
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3) Arrow diagram
Procedure:
1. List all the tasks or activities needed to be accomplished before the process of the
project.
2. Decide which steps are undertaken in series and which steps can be run in parallel.
Arrange the
4. Write the description of the step and decide the time required for completing each
step
5. Calculate the earliest time to reach an event node for the start of the process.
7. Ager the time for all event nodes including the completion of the process or the
project is available, one calculates the latest time by which an event node must be
reached.
Application:
The diagram is also useful in planning and scheduling steps in complicated processes,
especially in planning and scheduling projects which involve a large number of
activities.
Example:
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1. Identify the tasks. E.g.: 1,2,3,,15.
6. Calculate the earliest starting time (or the earliest finishing time of last task) and the
latest finishing time
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4) Process, Decision Program Chart (PDPC)
Def: The process decision program chart (PDPC) method helps us select the best
processes to obtain optimum results by evaluating the progress of events and various
conceivable outcomes
. Description
The process decision program chart (PDPC) method is used to define the solution
process when dealing with problems that have more than one possible outcome. [t
anticipates the unexpected Outcomes at each stage and plans for it.
Pattern I In this pattern process starts with initial condition A and proceeds to the
desired final condition Z in an organized manner .
Pattern 11- In this pattern, first the final conditions is set. Then the process from Z
to the initial point A is developed with the inclusion of various alternatives from
many points of view .
Procedure
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Possibilities could influence another set. Related items shall be linked with a
broken line.
If the department that will handle a process involving several lines is
determined, circle
the process and write the name of the department within.
Set a target date for completion.
Have regular meetings to check progress in terms of the original PDPC.
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5) Matrix diagram:
Purpose:
1) Explore the existence and the extent of relations between individual items in 2 sets
of factors or features and characteristics and express them in a symbolic form that is
easy to understand.
Procedures:
1. Determine 2 sets of factors for which the relations are needed to be established.
2. Divide the features and characteristics into primary, secondary and tertiary
characteristics.
3. Place the features vertically on the leg side of the matrix and characteristics
horizontally on top of the matrix.
4. Enter the importance of the features on the column ager that for the tertiary
features.
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5. In the main body of the matrix, use the symbols to represent the degree of
connections between the feature and characteristics.
6. Choose and define relationship symbols. Most commonly used symbols are as
given below:
Strong relationship=
Relationship =
Likely relationship=
Application
Matrix diagram can be used to solve problems by arranging data in such a way that
the relations between relevant factors are brought into sharp focus.
Example 1
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6) Matrix Data Analysis Diagram
Purpose:
To present numerical data about two sets of factors in a matrix form and
analyze it to get numerical output.
Can be applied in understanding the products and products characteristics.
Procedure
Example
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7) Relationship diagram
Description
Relations diagram is defined as a technique used to solve problems that have complex
cause and effect relationships among a number of problems and factors that influence
them.
Format
The major item or problem to be solved is located in the center, and the related factors
are arranged around the item or problem in such a way as to indicate close
relationships.
The major item or problem to be solved is located on one side of the diagram, and the
various factors arranged in accordance with the flow of their major cause-and-effect
relationships on the other side.
There are no restrictions on this format because the main point is to arrange the cause-
and-effect Relationships of the application items or factors so that they are expressed
in a straightforward manner in a Diagram.
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Procedure
1) Define the issue/problem in such a way that it is clearly understood and agreed on
by team members.
3) Layout all the ideas/issue cards that have been brought from other tools.
4) Look for cause/influence relationships between all ideas and draw relationship
arrows:
a) Choose any of the ideas as a starting point and work through them in sequence;
b)An outgoing arrow from an idea indicates that it is the stronger cause or influence;
c) Draw only one way relationship arrows in the direction of the stronger cause or
Influence. Make a decision on the stronger direction. Do not draw two headed arrows.
6) Tally the number of outgoing and incoming arrows and select key items for further
planning:
-record and clearly mark next to each issue the number of arrows going in and out of
it.
-find the items with the highest number outgoing arrows and the items with the
highest number of incoming arrows;
-a high number of outgoing arrows indicate that the item is a root cause and should be
tackle first;
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-a high number of incoming arrows indicate that the item is a key outcome and may
become a focus for planning either as a meaningful measure of overall success or as a
redefinition of the original issue under discussion
Example:
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Conclusions
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References
asq.org/learn-about-quality/seven-basic-quality-tools/.../overview.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Basic_Tools_of_Quality
www.ijergs.org/files/documents/APPLICATION-45.pd
https://src.alionscience.com/pdf/QualityTools.pdf
www3.ha.org.hk/qeh/wiser/doc/7bqt.pdf
www.math.mun.ca/~variyath/New7QCTools.pd
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