Introduction To Electronic Communications by Tomasi (Outline)

Electronics Systems and Technologies Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications
the transmission, reception and processing of information between two or

more locations using electronic circuits electronic communications
signals that are time-varying voltages or currents that are continuously analog signals
changing, such as cosine and sine waves. It contains an infinite number
of values
signals that are voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or digital signals
levels
he invented the first workable telegraph Samuel Finley Breese Morse

(1837)
it is used to transfer information in the form of dots, dashes and spaces electromagnetic induction
between a simple transmitter and receiver using a transmission line
consisting of a length of metallic wire
they were the first to successfully transfer human conversation over a

crude metallic-wire communication system using a device they called Alexander Graham Bell
telephone Thomas A. Watson
a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually anything decibel (dB)
a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains and losses

of electronic devices and for describing relationships between signals and decibel
noise
another name for power loss attenuation

a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the
original source information to a form more suitable for transmission over
a particular transmission medium transmitter
it provides a means of transporting signals between a transmitter and a transmission medium or

receiver and can be as simple as a pair of copper wires communications channel
any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information signal system noise
a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted receiver
signals from the transmission medium and then converts those signals
back to their original form
higher-frequency analog signal carrier
the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in modulation
proportion with the information signal
a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog form, Analog communication
both the information and the carrier are analog signals system
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Electronics Systems and Technologies Engr. Jaime P. Licuanan, CCNA
it covers a broad range of communication techniques including digital and Digital communication
digital radio system
a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred between two or
more points in communication system digital transmission
the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or

more points in communication system digital radio
the information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal Amplitude modulation (AM)
the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal Frequency modulation (FM)
a circuit performing modulation in a transmitter modulator
a carrier that has been acted on by an information signal modulated wave or

modulated signal
the reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated carrier
back to the original information demodulation
it is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a channel

particular service
another name for information signal intelligence signal
the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another frequency translation

location in the total frequency spectrum
it can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire as emitted electromagnetic energy
radio waves through free space or as light waves down an optical fiber
simply the number of times a periodic motion such as sine wave of

voltage or current occurs in a given period of time frequency
an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services International

with the overall frequency spectrum Telecommunications Union
(UTI)
signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution

signals (60Hz) and low frequency telemetry signals Extremely low frequencies
signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies generally

associated with human speech, standard telephone channels Voice frequencies
signals in the 3-kHz to 30-kHz range which include the upper end of the
human hearing range, specialized government and military system Very low frequencies
(submarine communications)
signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and used primarily for marine and
aeronautical navigation Low frequencies
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signals in the 300-kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily for
commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 kHz to 1605 kHz) Medium frequency
signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are used for two-way radio
communications, Voice of America and Radio Free Europe broadcast, High frequencies
amateur radio and citizens band (CB) radio
signals in the 30-MHZ to 300-MHz and are used for mobile radio, marine,
and aeronautical communications, commercial FM broadcasting (88 MHz
to 108 MHz), and commercial television broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 Very high frequencies
(54 MHz to 216 MHz)
signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by commercial

television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile communication Ultrahigh frequencies
services, cellular telephones, certain radar and navigation systems, and
microwave and satellite radio systems
signal in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range used for microwave and satellite
radio communication system Superhigh frequencies
signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and seldom used for radio Extremely high frequencies
communication system
signal in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz range. It refers to electromagnetic Infrared

radiation generally
associated with heat
the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space.

It is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly wavelength
proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the
velocity of propagation
speed of light 3 x 108 m/s

the two most significant limitations on the performance of a noise
communication system bandwidth
simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in the bandwidth of an
information information signal
the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the bandwidth of a
channel will allow to pass through communication channel
a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate

information through electronic communications system Information theory
a measure of how much information can be propagated through a

communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission Information capacity
time
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simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is

expressed in bit per second Bit rate
any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband signal Electrical noise
implies a relationship between the signal and the noise. Exist only when a correlated
signal is present
noise present all the time whether there is signal or not uncorrelated
noise that is generated outside the device or circuit external noise
naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within Earths Atmospheric noise
surface like lightning
another name for atmospheric noise Static electricity
frequency of atmospheric noise 30 MHz
consists of electrical signal that originate from outside Earths atmosphere Extraterrestrial noise
another name for extraterrestrial noise Deep-space noise
continuously distributed throughout the galaxies Cosmic noise
another name for cosmic noise Black-body noise
simply noise that is produced by mankind Man-made noise
another name for man-made noise Industrial noise
electrical interference generated within a device or circuit internal noise
caused by random arrival of carriers at the output element of an

electronic device such as diode, field effect transistor or bipolar transistor Shot noise
any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the input to

the output of a device produces an irregular random variation Transit-time noise
the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to Thermal noise
thermal agitation
another names for thermal noise: white noise

Brownian noise
Johnson noise
occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through Harmonic distortion
nonlinear amplification
integer multiples of the original signal Harmonics
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another name for harmonic distortion Amplitude distortion
the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced

when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device Intermodulation distortion
characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise Impulse noise
spectrum
a form of external noise meaning to disturb or detract from Interference
when information signals from one source produce frequencies that fall
outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with information signals Electrical interference
from another source
the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level Signal-to-noise power ratio
CHAPTER 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing
the only two levels possible in a digital signal binary signal
four-level signals quaternary digital signal
the voltage- or current-time variations that can be Electrical signals

represented by a series of sine or cosine waves
a waveform which repeats at a uniform rate Periodic
a description of a signal with respect to time Time domain
a time-domain instrument Oscilloscope
an amplitude-versus-time representation of the signal Signal waveform
a description of a signal with respect to its frequency Frequency-domain

representation
a frequency-domain instrument Spectrum analyzer
any repetitive waveform that is comprised of more than one Sinusoidal wave
harmonically related sine or cosine wave
any periodic waveform that is not a sinusoid such as square

waves, rectangular waves and triangular waves Complex wave
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a French physicist and mathematician who used a

mathematical series to analyze a complex periodic wave Baron Jean Fourier
a mathematical tool that allows us to move back and forth

between time and frequency domains. It is used in signal Fourier analysis
analysis to represent the sinusoidal components of non-
sinusoidal periodic waveforms
it describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time

domain, that is, its relative position with respect to the Wave symmetry
horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes
a periodic voltage waveform in symmetric about vertical Even symmetry

axis that have axes, or mirror, symmetry
a periodic voltage waveform that said to have point, or Odd symmetry

skew, symmetry
a periodic voltage waveform such that the waveform for the

first half-cycle repeats itself except with the opposite sign Half-wave symmetry
for the second half cycle
a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained in the Frequency spectrum

waveform and their respective amplitudes plotted in the
frequency domain
range of frequencies contained in the spectrum

the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the information Bandwidth
the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
that the channel will allow to pass through
the rate at which energy is dissipated, delivered, or used

and is a function of the square of the voltage or current Electrical power
a time-domain signal is sampled at discrete times Discrete Fourier transform
the computing time is proportional to n log 2n rather that Fast Fourier series
n2
it reduces the information capacity of the system Bandlimiting

the process of combining two or more signals and is an Mixing
essential process in electronic communications
two ways in which signals can be combined or mixed: linearly

nonlinearly
it occurs when two or more signals combine in a linear Linear summing
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device, such as passive network or a small-signal amplifier (linear mixing)
occurs when two or more signals are combined in a

nonlinear device such as a diode or large-signal amplifier Nolinear mixing
undesired harmonics Harmonic distortion
desired harmonics Frequency multiplication
CHAPTER 3 : Oscillators, Phase-Locked Loops,

and Frequency Synthesizers
to fluctuate between two states or conditions, to vibrate or to Oscillate

change
a device that produces oscillations Oscillator
an amplifier with a feedback loop (i.e., a path to propagate Feedback oscillators

from the output back to input)
four requirements for a feedback oscillator: amplification

positive feedback
frequency-determining
components
power source
an untuned oscillator RC phase shift oscillator that uses both Wien-bridge oscillator
positive and negative feedback
oscillator circuits that utilize tuned LC tank circuits for the LC oscillators
frequency-determining components
the ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency and

is of primary importance in communication systems Frequency stability
feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit is

replaced with a crystal for the frequency-determining Crystal oscillators
component
the study of the form, structure, properties, and
classifications of crystals. It deals with lattices, bonding and Crystallography
the behavior of slices of crystal material that have been cut
at various angles with respect to the crystals axes
it occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across

a crystal lattice structure generate electrical oscillations and Piezoelectric effect
vice versa
another name for mechanical vibrations Bulk Acoustic Waves
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(BAWs)
it is consist of a crystal-controlled oscillator and a voltage- Crystal oscillator module

variable component such as varactor diode
it is often used when describing varactor diode fabrication Graded junction
CHAPTER 4 : Amplitude Modulation Transmission
the process of impressing low-frequency information signal Modulation

onto a high-frequency
the reverse process where the received signals are Demodulation

transformed back to their original form
the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high

frequency carrier signal in proportion with the Amplitude Modulation
instantaneous value of the modulating signal (AM)
frequencies that are high enough to be efficiently radiated

by an antenna and propagated through free space Radio frequency
the most commonly used amplitude modulation AM double side-band full

carrier (AM DSBFC)
a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change Coefficient of modulation

present in an AM waveform
gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output

wave when the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal Percent modulation
it use a unique arrangement of transistors and FETs to

perform signal multiplication, which is a characteristic that Linear integrated-circuit
makes them ideally suited for generating AM waveforms function generators
typically a sensitive class A linear voltage amplifier with a Preamplifier

high input impedance
a low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier used to

isolate the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers Buffer amplifier
it is sometimes called upward or downward modulation and

has absolutely nothing to do with the frequency of the Carrier shift
carrier. A form of amplitude distortion introduced when
positive and negative alternations in the AM modulated
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signal are not equal
are complex waveforms comprised of two or more Nonsinusoidal signals

frequencies
are complex waves made up of two or more harmonically

related sine waves and include square, rectangular and Complex repetitive
triangular waves
a form of amplitude modulation where signals from two

separate information sources modulate the same carrier Quadrature amplitude
frequency at the same time without interfering with each modulation
other
CHAPTER 5 : Amplitude Modulation Reception
several parameters commonly used to evaluate the ability selectivity

of a receiver to successfully demodulate a radio signal bandwidth
sensitivity
dynamic range
fidelity
insertion loss
noise temperature
a receiver parameter that is used to measure the ability of

the receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and Selectivity
reject all others
the noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the Bandwidth Improvement

bandwidth (BI)
the corresponding reduction in the noise figure to the Noise Figure Improvement
reduction in bandwidth
the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the

input to the receiver and still produce a usable Sensitivity
demodulated information signal
another name for receiver sensitivity Threshold
the difference in decibels between the minimum input level

necessary to discern a signal and the input level that will Dynamic range
overdrive the receiver and produce distortion
the output power when the RF amplifier response is 1 dB 1-dB compression point
less than the ideal linear-gain response
a measure of the ability of a communication system to

produce at the output of the receiver, an exact replica of Fidelity
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the original source information
three forms of distortion that can deteriorate the fidelity of amplitude

a communication system: frequency
phase
the predominant cause of phase distortion Filtering
the total phase shift encountered by a signal and can

generally be tolerated as long as all frequencies undergo Absolute phase shift
the same amount of phase delay
it occurs when different frequencies undergo different

phase shifts and may have a detrimental effect on a Differential phase shift
complex waveform
it occurs when the amplitude-versus-frequency

characteristics of a signal at the output of a receiver differ Amplitude distortion
from those of the original information signal
it occurs when frequencies are present in a received signal

that were not present in the original source information Frequency distortion
a parameter associated with the frequencies that fall within

the passband of a filter and is generally defined as the ratio Insertion Loss (IL)
of the power transferred to a load with a filter in the circuit
to the power transferred to a load without the filter
a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured. An

indication of the reduction in the signal-to-noise as a signal Equivalent Noise
propagates through a receiver Temperature (Te)
coherent
two basic types of radio receivers: (synchronous)
noncoherent
(asynchronous)
a type of receiver wherein the frequency generated in the

receiver and used for demodulation are synchronized to Coherent
oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter
a type of receiver where either no frequencies are

generated in the receiver or the frequencies used for Noncoherent
demodulation are completely independent from the
transmitters carrier frequency
another name for noncoherent detection because the

information is recovered from the received waveform by Envelope detection
detecting the shape of the modulated envelope
one of the earliest types of AM receivers and probably the
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simplest designed radio receiver available Tuned Radio-frequency

(TRF)
it means to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear

device or to translate one frequency to another using Heterodyne
nonlinear mixing
five sections of the superheterodyne receiver: RF section

Mixer/converter section
IF section
Audio detector section
Audio amplifier section
a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center Preselector

frequency that is tune to the desired carrier frequency. It
reduce the noise bandwidth of the receiver
it determines the sensitivity of the receiver RF amplifier
its purpose is to convert the IF signals back to the original Detector

source
the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate Tracking

either above or below the selected radio frequency carrier
by an amount equal to the intermediate frequency
throughout the entire radio frequency band
the difference between the actual local oscillator frequency Tracking error
and the desired frequency
any frequency other than the selected radio frequency

carrier that if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the Image frequency
local oscillator will produce a cross-product frequency that
is equal to the intermediate frequency
a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject Image-frequency rejection ratio

the image frequency
it occurs when a receiver picks up the same station at two Double spotting
nearby points on the receiver tuning dial
its purpose is to down-convert the incoming radio Mixer / converter

frequencies to intermediate frequencies
the most common technique used for coupling IF amplifiers

where the voltage that is applied to the primary windings of Inductive or transformer
a transformer is transferred to the secondary windings coupling
the ability of a coil to induce a voltage within its own Self-inductance

windings
the ability of one coil to induce a voltage in another coil Mutual inductance
11
the ratio of the secondary flux to the primary flux Coefficient of coupling
the transfer of flux from the primary to the secondary Flux linkage
windings
a circuit that compensates for minor variations in the Automatic Gain Control
received signal level where it automatically increases the (AGC)
receiver gain weak RF input levels and automatically
decreases the receiver gain when a strong RF signal is
received
when the receiver becomes less sensitive Automatic desensing
a circuit that has the purpose to quiet a receiver in the Squelch circuit
absence of a received signal. It keeps the audio section of
the receiver turned off or muted in the absence of a
received signal
used for removing sporadic, high amplitude noise transients Diode limiters or clippers
of short duration such as impulse noise
another circuit option commonly used for reducing the Blanking circuit
effects of high amplitude noise pulses where it detects the
occurrence of a high-amplitude, short duration noise spike
then mutes the receiver by shutting off a portion of the
receiver for the duration of the pulse
the ratio of the demodulated signal level at the output of Net Receiver Gain
the receiver to the RF signal level at the input to the
receiver
samples of receiver losses: preselector loss

mixer loss
detector loss
it includes all the gains and losses incurred by a signal as it System gain
propagates from the transmitter output stage to the output
of the detector in the receiver and includes antenna gain
and transmission line and propagation losses
the adjustment for the center frequency of the preselector

and the adjustment for the local oscillator Gang tuned
it offers higher gain and less noise than conventional Cascoded amplifier
cascaded amplifiers
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CHAPTER 6 Single-Sideband Communications System
a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is AM Single-sideband Full

transmitted at full power but only one of the sidebands is Carrier (SSBFC)
transmitted. It requires only half as much bandwidth as
conventional double sideband AM
a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is AM Single-sideband

totally suppressed and one of the sidebands removed and Suppressed Carrier
considerably less transmitted power (SSBSC)
a form of amplitude modulation in which one sideband is AM Single Side-band

totally removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
approximately 10% of its unmodulated amplitude
a form of amplitude modulation in which a single carrier AM Independent Sideband

frequency is independently modulated by two different (ISB)
modulating signals
a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and AM Vestigial Sideband

one complete sideband are transmitted but only part of the (VSB)
second sideband is transmitted
the rms power developed at the crest of the modulation

envelope when the modulating-signal frequency Peak envelope power (PEP)
components are at their maximum amplitudes
power conservation
advantages of single-sideband transmission: bandwidth conservation
selective fading
noise reduction
disadvantages of single-sideband transmission: complex receivers

tuning difficulties
a circuit that produces a double-sideband suppressed- Balanced Modulator

carrier signal
another name for balanced modulator Balanced Lattice Modulator
a small carrier component always present in the output Carrier Leak

signal
the typical amount of carrier suppression between 40 dB and 60 Db
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three transmitter configurations used for single-sideband phase-shift method

generation: filter method
third method
it is made from lead zirconate-titanate which exhibits the Ceramic filters

piezoelectric effect
a mechanically resonant transducer that when it receives

electrical energy, it converts to mechanical vibrations and Mechanical filter
then converts the vibrations back to electrical energy at its
output
four elements that comprise a mechanical filter: input transducer

series of mechanical
resonant metal disks
coupling rod
output transducer
filters that use acoustic energy rather than

electromechanical energy to provide excellent performance Surface Acoustic Wave
for precise bandpass filtering (SAW) filters
the basic SAW filter Bidirectional
it launches the acoustic wave in only one direction Unidirectional
a narrow band PLL that tracks the pilot carrier in the Recovery circuit
composite SSBRC receiver signal and uses the recovered
carrier to regenerate coherent local oscillator frequencies in
the synthesizer
a system that provide narrowband voice communications Amplitude-compandoring Single-

for land-mobile services with nearly the quality achieved sideband (ACSSB)
with FM systems and do it using less than one-third the
bandwidth
a device that performs compression and expansion Compandor

(compressor-expander)
process of combining transmissions from more than one

source and transmitting them over a common facility, like Multiplexing
metallic or optical fiber cable or a radio-frequency channel
an analog method of combining two or more analog

sources that originally occupied the same frequency band in Frequency-division Multiplexing
such a manner that the channels do not interfere with each (FDM)
other
a multiplexing method that uses double-sideband

suppressed-carrier transmission to combine two information Quadrature Multiplexing
sources into a single composite waveform that is then (QM)
transmitted over a common facility without the two
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channels interfering with each other
CHAPTER 7 Angle Modulation Transmission
it results whenever the phase angle modulation of a Angle modulation

sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time
varying the frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier directly

proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a Direct Frequency Modulation
rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal (FM)
varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier directly

proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a Direct Phase Modulation (PM)
rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal
the relative angular displacement of the carrier phase in Phase deviation ()

radians in respect to the reference phase
the relative displacement of the carrier frequency in hertz in Frequency deviation (f)
respect to its unmodulated value
four terms with reference to angle-modulation instantaneous phase

deviation
instantaneous phase
instantaneous frequency
deviation
instantaneous frequency
the instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier at a Instantaneous phase deviation
given instant of time and indicates how much the phase of
the carrier is changing with respect to its reference phase
the precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time Instantaneous phase
the instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and

is defined as the first time derivation of the instantaneous Instantaneous frequency
frequency deviation deviation
the precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time Instantaneous frequency
and is defined as the first derivative of the instantaneous
phase
it can be defined as angle modulation in which the Phase modulation
instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal voltage and the
instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the slope
or first derivative of the modulating signal
15
an angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency Frequency modulation

deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal and the instantaneous phase deviations is proportional
to the integral of the modulating signal voltage
the output-versus-input transfer functions for the modulators Deviation sensitivities

which give the relationship between what output parameter
changes in respect to specified changes in the input signal
peak phase deviation Modulation index

the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is Frequency deviation
acted on by a modulating-signal frequency
peak-to-peak frequency deviation Carrier swing
the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced to the Percent Modulation
maximum frequency deviation allowed by law stated in
percent form
a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its Phase modulator
instantaneous phase is proportional to the modulating signal
a single-frequency sinusoid Unmodulated carrier

(rest frequency)
a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its Frequency modulator
instantaneous phase is proportional to the integral of the (frequency deviator)
modulating signal
differentiator followed by an FM modulator PM Modulator
FM demodulator followed by an integrator PM demodulator
integrator followed by a PM modulator FM modulator
PM demodulator followed by a differentiator FM demodulator
rule that approximates the bandwidth necessary to transmit

an angle-modulated wave as twice the sum of the peak Carsons rule
frequency deviation and the highest modulating-signal
frequency, it defines a bandwidth that includes approximately
98% of the total power in the modulated wave
the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the

maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum Deviation Ratio (DR)
modulating-signal frequency
the interference produced when the highest side frequencies

from one channel are allowed to spill over into adjacent Adjacent Channel
channels Interference
16
the noise voltage at the output of a PM demodulator is

constant with frequency, whereas the noise voltage at the Noise Triangle
output of an FM demodulator increases linearly with
frequency
a high-pass filter Preemphasis Network
a low-pass filter Deemphasis Network
an angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is Direct FM

varied directly by the modulating signal
an angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is Direct PM

deviated indirectly by the modulating signal
a circuit that compares the frequency of the noncrystal

carrier oscillator to a crystal reference oscillator and then Automatic Frequency Control
produces a correction voltage proportional to the difference (AFC)
between two frequencies
a purpose to achieve near-crystal stability of the transmit

carrier without using a crystal in the carrier oscillator AFC loop
meaning cancel of the deviation thus removing the wipe off

modulation from the FM wave
transmitters that produce an output waveform in which the Indirect FM transmitters

phase deviation is directly proportional to the modulating
signal therefore the carrier oscillator can be a crystal because
the oscillator itself is not a
modulator
the low-pass filter that is simply 1/f filter Predistorter (frequency

correction network)
advantages of angle modulation: noise immunity

FM thresholding
capture effect
power utilization and
efficiency
it allows a receiver to differentiate between two signal Capture effect

received with the same frequency
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CHAPTER 8 : Angle Modulation Reception and FM Stereo
it rejects the image frequency Preselector
it establishes the signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure RF amplifier
down-converts RF to IF Mixer/converter
it provides most of the gain and selectivity of the receiver IF amplifiers
it removes the information from the modulated wave Detector
it is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an

output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous FM Demodulators
frequency at its input
the most common circuits used for demodulating FM signal slope detector
Foster-Seeley discriminator
ratio detector
PLL demodulator
quadrature detector
it converts FM to AM and then demodulate the AM envelope tuned-circuit frequency
with conventional peak detectors discriminators
it is the simplest form of tuned-circuit frequency Single-ended slope detector

discriminators that has the most nonlinear voltage-versus-
frequency characteristics
a simply two single-ended slope detectors connected in Balanced slope detector

parallel and fed 180 out of phase
a tuned-circuit frequency discriminator whose operation is Foster-Seeley discriminator

very similar to that of the balanced slope detector (phase shift discriminator)
it is relatively immune to amplitude variations in its input Ratio Detector

signal, it has a single tuned circuit in the transformer
secondary
it requires no tuned circuits and automatically compensates

for changes in the carrier frequency due to instability in the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) FM
transmit oscillator Demodulator
it extracts the original information signal from the composite Quadrature FM

IF waveform by multiplying two quadrature (90 out of Demodulator
phase) signals (coincidence detector)
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the minimum dB difference in signal strength between two

received signals necessary for the capture effect to suppress Capture Ratio
the weaker signal
the inherent ability of FM to diminish the effects of interfering Capture Effect

signals
it is used rather than a simple mechanical switch to reduce Electronic push-to-talk

the static noise associated with contact bounce in a (PTT)
mechanical switches
CHAPTER 9: Digital Modulation
the transmission, reception, and processing of information Electronic communications

with the use of electronic circuits
the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers)

between two or more points in a communication system Digital modulation
sometimes called for digital modulation because digitally

modulated signals can be propagated through Earths Digital radio
atmosphere and used in wireless communications systems
a digitally modulated signal where in the information signal is

digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
to the information signal
if the frequency is varied proportional to the information Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
signal
if the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
information signal
a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to

propagate information through electronic communications Information theory
systems
a measure of how much information can be propagated

through a communication system and is a function of Information capacity
bandwidth and transmission time
the most basic digital symbol used to represent information Binary digit, bit
simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and Bit rate
is expressed in bits per second (bps)
he published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal
19
relating the information capacity of a communication channel Claude E. Shannon, 1948

to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio
a term derived from the word binary M-ary
a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused

with bit rate (bps). Like bit rate, is also a rate of change; Baud
however it refers to the rate of change of a signal on the
transmission medium after encoding and modulation have
occurred
another name for amplitude-shift keying Digital Amplitude Modulation

(DAM)
a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to Frequency-Shift Keying

standard frequency modulation except the modulating signal (FSK)
is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage
levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform
the most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK Phase-locked Loop (PLL)
signals
another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital

modulation; an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to Phase-shift Keying (PSK)
conventional phase modulation except with PSK the input is a
binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output
phases possible
simplest form of PSK; a form of square-wave modulation of a Binary Phase-shift Keying

continuous wave signal (BPSK)
other names for BPSK: phase reversal keying

(PRK)
biphase modulation
it acts as a phase reversing switch in a BPSK transmitter Balanced modulator
similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is Constellation diagram,
not drawn, only the relative positions of the peaks of the sometimes called signal state-
phasors are shown space diagram
a balanced modulator wherein the output signal is the Product modulator

product of the two input signals
another form of angle-modulated constant-amplitude digital Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

modulation. An M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M (QPSK), or Quadrature PSK
= 4; four output phases are possible for a single carrier
frequency
group of two bits Dibits
20
a modified form of QPSK where the waveforms on the I and

Q channels are offset or shifted in phase from each other by Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
one-half of a bit time
a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that is in I bit (hence the name I for
phase with the reference oscillator in phase channel)
a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that is 90 Q bit (hence the name Q for
out of phase or in quadrature with the reference carrier quadrature channel)
three bits are encoded, forming bits, forming tribits and

producing eight different output places; there are eight 8-PSK
possible output phases
a code used to reduce the number of transmission errors Gray code (maximum distance
code)
a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital Quadrature-amplitude

information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase Modulation (QAM)
of the transmitted carrier; amplitude and phase-shift keying
are combined; this reduce the likelihood or error occurring
less bandwidth is required to propagate a given bit rate Bandwidth compression
often used to compare the performance of one digital Bandwidth efficiency

modulation technique to another; the ratio of the (information density or spectral
transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for efficiency)
a particular modulation scheme
the process of extracting a phase-coherent reference carrier Carrier recovery (phase

from a receiver signal referencing)
the binary data were encoded as a precise phase of the Absolute Phase Encoding
transmitted carrier
the function to determine the absolute phase of the received Carrier Recovery Circuit
carrier necessary to produce a carrier at the receiver that is
phase coherent with the transmit reference oscillator
methods of carrier recovery squaring loop

Costas loop
remodulator
an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary Differential Phase-sift Keying
input information is contained in the difference between two (DPHK)
successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase
combines encoding and modulation to reduce the probability Convolutional (tree) codes
of error, thus improving the bit error performance
the manner in which signal-state transitions are allowed to Trellis Coding

occur, and transitions that do not follow this pattern are
interpreted in the receiver as transmission errors
21
an encoding technique used for over standard telephone Trellis Code Modulation (TCM)
circuits
the ratio of the average carrier power (the combined power Carrier-to-noise Power Ratio
of the carrier and its associated sidebands)
the energy of a single bit of information Energy per bit
the thermal noise power normalized to a 1-Hz bandwidth Noise power density
used to compare two or more digital modulation systems that Energy per Bit-to-noise Power
use different transmission rates (bit rates) modulation Density
schemes
simply the ratio of the energy of a single bit to the noise Energy per Bit-to-noise Power
power present in 1 Hz of bandwidth Density
optimum signaling format Antipodal signaling
the transmitter and receiver are not frequency or phase Noncoherent FSK
synchronized
local receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase Coherent FSK
lock with the transmitted signals
CHAPTER 10: Digital Transmission
primary advantage of digital transmission Noise immunity
the processing of analog signals using digital methods and Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
includes bandlimiting the signal with filters, amplitude
equalization, and phase shifting
one of the most important aspects of any communications Bandwidth

system because it is costly and limited
consists essentially of sampling analog information signals Pulse Modulation

and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and
transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a
physical transmission medium
sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
pulse length modulation (PLM), as the width of a constant
amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the
analog signal at the time the signal is sampled
the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed Pulse Position Modulation

time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the sample (PPM)
of the analog signal
22
the amplitude of a constant width, constant-position pulse is Pulse Amplitude Modulation

varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog (PAM)
the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
bit binary code for transmission; each code has the same
number of bits and requires the same length of time
transmission
he is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for Alex H. Reeves
AT&T at its Paris laboratories
the function to periodically sample the continually changing Sampling circuit in a PCM
analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of transmitter
constant-amplitude pulses that can more easily be converted
to binary PCM code
when tops of the sample pulses retain their natural shape Natural Sampling
during the sample interval making it difficult for an ADC to
convert the sample to a PCM code
introduces less aperture distortion than natural sampling and

requires a slower analog-to-digital converter Flat-top sampling
the gradual discharge across the capacitor during conversion Droop

time caused by the capacitor discharging through its own
leakage resistance and the input impedance of voltage
follower
establishes the minimum sampling rate (f s) that can be used Nyquist sampling theorem
for a given PCM system
an impairment that occurs if minimum Nyquist sample rate is Alias or foldover distortion
less than two times maximum analog input frequency
the process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to Quantization

a finite number of conditions
type of code wherein the codes on the bottom half of the Folded binary code
table are a mirror image of the codes on the top half, except
for the sign bit
the magnitude difference between adjacent steps Quantization interval or

Quantum
it occurs if the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest Overload distortion (peak
quantization interval limiting)
the magnitude of a quantum Resolution
any round-off errors in the transmitted signal are reproduced Quantization Error (Qe)
23
when the code is converted back to analog in the receiver
another name for quantization error Quantization Noise (Qn)

the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest Dynamic Range (DR)
possible magnitude that can be decoded by the digital-to-
analog converter in the receiver
a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is Coding Efficiency

utilized; the ratio of the minimum number of bits required to
achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM
bits used
the magnitude change between any two successive code is Linear codes
the same
occurs when the input signal is at its minimum amplitude Signal voltage-to-quantization
noise voltage ratio (SQR)
during times when there is no analog input signal, the only Idle Channel Noise
input to the PAM sampler is random, thermal noise
the first quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than Midtread quantizing
the rest of the steps
the lowest-magnitude positive and negative codes have the Midrise quantization
same voltage range bas all the other codes
this type of coding compares the PAM signal to a ramp Level-at-a-time coding
waveform while a binary counter is being advanced at a
uniform rate; it requires a very fast clock
this type of coding determines each digit of the PCM code Digit-at-a-time coding
sequentially; analogous to a balance where known reference
weights are used to determine an unknown weight
flash encoders and are more complex; however they are Word-at-a-time coding
more suitable for high-speed applications
the process of compressing and then expanding Companding
amplified less than the lower-amplitude signals Compressed
amplified more than the lower-amplitude signals Expanded
it was implemented with diodes that were placed just after Analog expansion
the low-pass filter in the PCM receiver
it involves compression in the transmitter after the input Digital companding

sample has been converted to a linear PCM code and then
expansion in the receiver prior to PCM decoding
a single integrated-circuit chip function to encode and decode Codec
24
refers to the most of the more recently developed codecs as Combo chips
they include an antialising (bandpass filter), a sample-and-
hold circuit, and an analog-to-digital converter in the transmit
section and a digital-to-analog converter, a hold circuit, and a
bandpass filter in the receive section
special voice encoders/decoders; are designed to reproduce Vocoders

only the short-term power spectrum, and the decoded time
waveforms often only vaguely resemble the original input
signal
three vocoding techniques: channel vocoder

formant vocoder
linear predictive coder
he developed the first channel vocoder Homer Dudley, 1928
the spectral power of most speech energy concentrates at Formants

three or four peak frequencies
a vocoder that compressed conventional speech waveforms First channel vocoder

into an analog signal with a total bandwidth of approximately
300 Hz
a vocoder that takes advantage of the fact that the short Format vocoders
term spectral density of typical speech signals seldom
distributes uniformly across the entire voice-band spectrum;
it simply determines the location of
a vocoder that extracts the most significant portions of Linear predictive coders
speech information directly from the time waveform rather
than from the frequency spectrum as with the channel and
formant vocoders
simply the data rate at which serial PCM bits are locked out Line speed
of the PCM encoder onto the transmission line; it is
dependent on the sample rate and the number of bits in the
compressed PCM code
it uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission Delta modulation

of analog signals
the slope of the analog signal greater than the delta Slope overload
modulator
when the original analog input signal has a relatively constant Granular noise
amplitude, the reconstructed signal has variation that were
not present in the original signal
a delta modulation system where the step size of the DAC is Adaptive delta modulation
varied, depending on the amplitude characteristic of the
analog signal
secondary lobes Ringing tails
an important consideration in the transmission of pulses over Intersymbol interference (ISI)
25
circuits with a limited bandwidth and a nonlinear phase

response
it equalize the distortion for all frequencies, creating a Equalizers

uniform transmission medium and reducing transmission
impairments
placed in a communication channel to bandlimit signals and Filters

reduce or eliminate predicted noise and interference; also
used to produce specific pulse response
it resulted when the frequency characteristics of a Pulse distortion

communication channel depart from the normal or expected
values; occurs when the peaks of pulses are reduced causing
improper ringing frequencies in the time domain
simply the superposition of a series of harmonically related Pulse

sine waves with specific amplitude and phase relationships
it occurs if the relative phase relations of the individual sine Phase distortion
waves are altered
a convenient technique for determining the effects of the Eye pattern

degradations introduced into the pulses as they travel to the
regenerator
CHAPTER 11 : Digital T- Carriers and Multiplexing
the transmission of information from one or ore source to Multiplexing

one or more destination over the same transmission medium;
the transmission medium may be a metallic wire pair, a
coaxial cable, a PCS mobile telephone, a terrestrial
microwave radio system, a satellite microwave system, or an
optical fiber cable
a rather unsophisticated form of multiplexing that simply Space-division multiplexing

constitutes propagating signals from different sources on (SDM)
different cables that are contained within the same trench
transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same Time division multiplexing
facility but not at the same time; transmissions from various
sources are interleaved in the time domain
a communication system that uses digital pulse rather than Digital carrier
analog signals to encode information
stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier T1

system using PCM-encoded analog signals
26
occurs once per frame and is recovered in the receiver where Additional bit (framing bit)
it is used to maintain frame and sample synchronization
between the TDM transmitter and receiver
consists of 24 193-bit frames totaling 4632 bits, of which 24 Extended superframe format
are bits
a digital interface that provides the physical connection to a Data service unit/channel
digital carrier network service unit (DSU/CSU)
can handle bit-rate conversions on both directions Multiplexers/demultiplexers

(muldem)
provides a convenient place to make patchable interconnects Digital cross-connect (DSX)
and perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting
a low-quality video transmission for use between Picturephone

nondedicated subscribers
involves converting standard logic levels to a form more Digital line encoding
suitable to telephone line transmission
can be used to categorize the type of transmission Duty cycle
if the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)
if the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the Return to zero (RZ)
bit time
a condition when a long string of either logic 1s or 0s DC wandering

produces a condition in which a receive may lose its
amplitude reference for optimum discrimination between
received 1s and 0s
a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing Digital biphase (Manchester
component for clock recovery and does not cause dc code or diphase)
wandering
used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Biphase M

Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on
videotapes
forms of delay-modulated codes where a logic 1 condition Miller codes

produces a transition in the middle of the clock pulse and a
logic 0 produces no transition at the end of the clock intervals
unless followed by another logic 0
used for the transmission of PCM-encoded time-division T carriers

multiplexed digital signals
filters and shapes the incoming digital signal and raises its Amplifier/equalizer
power level so that the regenerator circuit can make a pulse-
no pulse decision
27
reproduces the clocking information from the received data Timing clock recovery
and provides the proper timing information to0 the
regenerator
simply a threshold detector that compares the sampled Regenerative repeater

voltage received to a reference level and determines whether
the bit is a logic 1 or logic 0
were designed to combine PCM and TDM techniques for T1 carrier systems
short-haul transmission of 24 64-kbps channels with each
channel capable of carrying digitally encoded voice-band
telephone signals or data
a technique used to ensure that sufficient transitions occur in Binary eight zero substitution
the data to maintain clock synchronization (B8ZS)
the same as added-digit framing except that digits are added Added-channel framing
in groups or words instead of as individual bits
2 methods of interleaving PCM transmissions: bit interleaving

word interleaving
a large-scale integration chip designed for use in the Codec

telecommunications industry for private branch exchanges,
central office switches, digital handsets, voice store-and-
forward systems and digital echo suppressors
combined codec chips; provide the analog-to-digital and the Combo chip
digital-to-analog conversions and the transmit and receive
filtering necessary to interface a full-duplex (four wire) voice
telephone circuit to the PCM highway of a TDM carrier system
multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency Frequency-division

spectrum are each converted to a different frequency band multiplexing (FDM)
and transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission
medium
describes the modulating signal (intelligence) in a Baseband

communications system
a double side-band suppressed carrier modulator Balanced modulator
a void band of frequencies that is not included within any Guard bands
supergroup band
involves the transmission of multiple digital signal using Wavelength division

several wavelengths without their interfering with one multiplexing (WDM)
another
separate signals with different wavelengths in a manner Demultiplexers or splitters

similar to the way filters separate electrical signals of
different frequencies
28
direct signals of a particular wavelength to a specific WDM routers

destination while not separating while not separating all the
wavelengths present on the cable
specific wavelengths are separated from the other optic Diffraction gratings or prisms
signal by reflecting them at different angles
a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a material Dichroic filter
that permits light of only one wavelength to pass through
while reflecting all other wavelengths
CHAPTER 12: Metallic Cable Transmission Media
two general category of transmission media guided

unguided
transmission media with some form of conductor that Guided transmission media
provides a conduit in which electromagnetic signals are
contained
it transports signals using electric current Copper
a guided transmission medium and can be any physical Cable transmission medium
facility used to propagate electromagnetic signals between
two locations in a communication system
include open wire, twin lead and twisted-pair copper Metallic transmission medium
wire as well as coaxial cable
the most common means of interconnecting devices in local Cable transmission medium
area networks transmission of digital signals
a metallic conductor system used to transfer energy from one Transmission lines
point to another using electrical current flow; two or more
electrical conductors separated by a nonconductive insulator
(dielectric); can be as short as a few inches or span several
thousand miles; can be used to propagate dc or low-
frequency ac or to propagate very high frequencies
the displacement (amplitude) is in the direction of Longitudinal waves

propagation; surface wave of water
the direction of propagation of displacement is perpendicular Transverse waves

to the direction of propagation; electromagnetic
29
propagation of electrical power along a transmission line Transverse electromagnetic

occurs in the form of ______________________ (TEM) waves
the E and H fields are perpendicular to each other (at 90 Space quadrature
angles) at all points
electromagnetic waves that travel along a transmission line Incident waves

from the source to the load
those that travel from the load back toward the source Reflected waves
it travel at approximately 1100 feet per second in the normal Sound waves
atmosphere
the rate at which the periodic wave repeats Frequency
the distance of one cycle occurring in space Wavelength
with two-wire balanced lines, both conductors carry current; Differential or Balanced signal
however, one conductor carries the signal, and the other transmission
conductor is the return path
currents that flow in opposite directions in a balanced wire Metallic circuit currents
pair
currents that flow in the same direction Longitudinal currents
cancellation of common mode signals Common mode rejection
with an unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at ground Single-ended or Unbalanced

potential, whereas the wire is at signal potential signal transmission
a circuit device used to connect a balanced transmission line Balun (balanced to unbalanced)
to an unbalanced load
are comprised of two or more metallic conductors separated Parallel-wire transmission lines
by a nonconductive insulating material called a dielectric
two-wire parallel conductors; consist simply of two parallel Open-wire transmission lines
wires, closely spaced and separated by air; its advantage is
its simple construction; there is no shielding, radiation losses
are high, and the cable is susceptible to picking up signals
through mutual induction
occurs when a signal on one cable interferes with a signal on Crosstalk

an adjacent cable
it is called if the sleeve is woven into a mesh Braid
it is given in dB of loss per 100 meters of cable with respect Attenuation

to frequency
given in dB of attenuation between the transmit signal and Crosstalk
30
the signal is returned due to crosstalk with higher dB values

indicating less crosstalk
the name given to the area between the ceiling and the roof Plenum
in a single building or between the ceiling and the floor of the
next higher level in a multistory building
plenum cables that coated with Teflon, which does not emit Plenum-grade PVC
noxious chemicals when ignited, or special fire-resistant PVC
a coaxial cable with one layer of foil insulation and one layer Dual shielded
of braided shielding
consist of two layers of foil insulation and two layers of Quad shielding
braided metal shielding
cables that are relatively expensive to manufacture and to Rigid-air filled coaxial
minimize losses, the air insulator must be relatively free of
moisture
have lower losses than hollow cables and are easier to Solid coaxial cables
construct, install and maintain
sometimes referred to as bayonet mount as they can be BNC connectors

easily twisted on or off
are threaded and must be screwed on and off n-type connectors
the transmission characteristics of a transmission line Secondary constants
defined as the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long Characteristic impedance
line or the impedance seen looking into a finite length of line (surge impedance)
that is terminated in a purely resistive load with a resistance
equal to the characteristic impedance of the line
used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the phase Propagation constant
shift per unit length of a transmission line (propagation coefficient)
defined simply as the ratio of the actual velocity of Velocity factor (velocity
propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given constant)
medium to the velocity of propagation through a vacuum
(free space)
the relative dielectric constant of air 1.0006
transmission lines designed to intentionally introduce a time Delay lines

delay in the path of an electromagnetic wave
a phenomenon that when current flows through an isolated Skin effect

round wire, the magnetic flux associated with it is in the form
of concentric circles surrounding the wire core
31
the ratio of the ac resistance to the dc resistance of a Resistance ratio

conductor
it caused a difference of potential between two conductors of Dielectric heating

metallic transmission line
the energy radiated if the separation between conductors in a Radiation loss

metallic transmission is an appreciable fraction of a
wavelength, the electrostatic and electromagnetic fields that
surround the conductor cause the line to act as if it were an
antenna and transfer energy to a nearby conductive material
it occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a Coupling loss

transmission line or when two sections of transmission line
are connected together
a luminous discharge that occurs between the two Corona

conductors of a transmission line when the difference of
potential between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of
the dielectric insulator
voltage that propagates from the source toward the load Incident voltage
voltage that propagates from the load toward the source Reflected voltage
a transmission line with no reflected power Flat or nonresonant line
defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
voltage or the maximum current to the minimum current of a
standing wave on a transmission lin
used to match transmission lines to purely resistive loads Quarter-wavelength

whose resistance is not equal to the characteristic impedance
of the line
simply a piece of additional transmission line that is placed Transmission-line stub

across the primary line as close to the load as possible; the
susceptance is to tune out the susceptance of the load
a technique that can be used to locate an impairment in a Time-domain reflectometry

metallic cable (TDR)
simply a flat conductor separated from a ground plane by an Microstrip

insulating dielectric material
simply a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground Stripline

planes; less likely to radiate; losses are lower
32
CHAPTER 13 : Optical Fiber transmission Media
the bandwidth of an analog communications system is Bandwidth utilizations ratio

expressed as a percentage of its carrier frequency
it was a device constructed from mirrors and selenium Photophone
detectors that transmitted sound waves over a beam of
light
he successfully transmitted images through a single glass H. Lamm

fiber
they experimented with light transmission through bundles A.C.S van Heel
of fibers H.H. Hopkins
N.S. Kapany
it was when the three scientists experimented on a bundle 1951

of glass fiber the transmission of light
he coined the term fiber optics N.S. Kapany
they wrote a paper describing how it was possible to use Charles H. Townes
stimulated emission for amplifying light waves as well as Arthur L. Schawlow
microwaves
defined as the maximum angle in which external light rays Acceptance angle
may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down
the fiber
other term used for acceptance angle Acceptance cone half-angle
closely related to acceptance angle and is figure of merit Numerical aperture

commonly used to measure the magnitude of the
acceptance angle
the refractive index of a glass core 1.5
only one path for light rays to take down a cable Single mode
more than one path Multimode
the term that means path in fiber optics technology Mode
these parameters dictate how a light propagates mode or propagation

index profile of fiber
the graphical representation of the magnitude of the Index profile

refractive index across the fiber
33
has a central core with a uniform refractive index Step-index fiber
no cladding and the refractive index of the core is Graded-index fiber

nonuniform
has a central core that is smaller in diameter that any of Single-mode step-index fiber
the multimode cables
type of fiber has a large light to fiber aperture and allows Multimode step-index optical
more external light to enter the cable fiber
the light rays that make up the pulse spread out in time, Pulse spreading
causing a corresponding reduction in the pulse amplitude
and stretching of pulse width
other term used for pulse spreading Pulse-width dispersion
UPRZ is the acronym for _____ Unipolar return to zero
a condition wherein the energy from pulse a were to fall UPNRZ transmission
back one-half of a bit time, it would interfere with pulse b
UPNRZ is the acronym for _____ Unipolar nonreturn to zero
the light energy from pulse a were to fall back one bit UPRZ
time, it would interfere with pulse b and change what was
a logic 0 to logic 1
the difference between the absolute delay times of the Pulse spreading constant
fastest and slowest rays of light propagating down a fiber
of unit length
equal to the pulse spreading constant times the total fiber Total pulse spread
length
caused by imperfect physical connections Coupling losses
the other term used for gap displacement End separation
the typical value of loss for an angular displacement less Less 0.5 dB
than 2
these are the spectral widths of a standard LED 30 nm to 50 nm
the wavelength equivalent of bandwidth Linewidth
a pn junction diode usually made from a semiconductor LED

material such as aluminum gallium arsenide or gallium
arsenide phosphide
a group iv atom used to produce light wavelengths in the Arsenide
34
800 nm range
a small batterylike device that produced a dc output Photocell

voltage proportional to the amount of light received
a special high-intensity, single frequency light source. it Laser

produces a very narrow beam of brilliant light of a specific
wavelength (color); it can penetrate atmospheric
obstacles better than other type of light,
commonly used as a light source, this is a semiconductor LED

device that puts out a low-intensity red light beam
another commonly used light source, that generates an Solid-state laser

extremely intense single frequency light beam
light sensitive device, used to detect the light pulses; Photocell or light detector
converts the light pulses to electrical signal
CHAPTER 14: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
a form of electromagnetic radiation that consist of Radio waves

traveling electric and magnetic fields
orientation of the electric field vector in respect to the Polarization

surface of earth
the polarization remains constant Linear polarization
a form of linear polarization when the electric field is Horizontal polarization

propagating parallel to the Earths surface
if the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Vertical polarization

Earths surface
if the polarization vector rotates 360 as the wave moves Circular polarization
one wavelength through the space and the field strength is
equal at all angles of polarization
when the field strength varies with changes in polarization Elliptical polarization
shows a surface of constant phase of electromagnetic Wavefront

waves; formed when points of equal phase on rays
propagated from the same source are joined together
a single location from which rays propagate equally in all Point source
directions
an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a Magnetic field
35
conductor when current is flowing through it
the rate at which energy passes through a given surface Power density
area in free space
also an invisible force fields produced by a difference in Electric fields

voltage potential between two conductors
a source that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly Isotropic radiator

in all directions
the power density is inversely proportional to the square of Inverse square law
the distance from the source
reduction in power density and occurs in free space as well Attenuation

as the Earths atmosphere
the reduction of power where in it contains particles that Absorption loss

can absorb electromagnetic energy
the reduction in power density due to nonfree-space Absorption

propagation
sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-wave Refraction

path
the angle formed between the incident wave and the Angle of incidence
normal
the angle formed between the refracted wave and the Angle of refraction
normal
the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free Refractive index
space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a
given material
the ratio of the reflected to the incident voltage intensities Reflection coefficient
a condition when an incident wavefront strikes an irregular Diffuse reflection

surface, it randomly scattered in many directions
reflection from a perfectly smooth surface Specular (mirrorlike) reflection
the fraction of power that penetrates medium two Absorption coefficient
states that a semirough surface will reflect as if it were a

smooth surface whenever the cosine of the angle of Rayleigh criterion
incidence is greater than /8d, where d is the depth of the
surface irregularity and is the wavelngth of the incident
wave
defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy Diffraction
within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an
opaque object; the phenomenon that allows light or radio
waves to propagate around corners
36
states that every point on a given spherical wavefront can Huygens principle
be considered as a secondary point source of
electromagnetic waves from which other secondary waves
are radiated outward
occurs whenever two or more waves simultaneously Linear superposition

occupy the same point in space; states that the total
voltage intensity at a given point in space is the sum of the
individual wave sectors
electromagnetic waves traveling within Earths atmosphere Terrestrial waves
communications between two or more points on Earth Terrestrial radio communications
direct and ground-reflected waves together Space waves
the cumulative sum of the direct, ground-reflected, and Ground wave

surface waves
depends on the presence of the ionized layers above the Sky wave
Earth that return some of the energy that otherwise would
be lost in outer space
an earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels over Surface waves

the surface of Earth;
travel essentially in a straight line between the transmit Direct waves

and received antennas
occurs when the density of the lower atmosphere is such Duct propagation
that electromagnetic waves are trapped between it and
Earths surface
electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon Sky waves
another term for sky wave propagation Ionospheric propagation
the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located D layer

approximately between 30 miles and 60 miles above
Earths surface
located approximately between 60 miles and 85 miles E layer

above the Earths surface; sometimes called Kennelly-
Heavyside layer
made up of two layers F1 and F2 layers; during daytime, F1 F layer

layer is located between 85 miles and 155 miles above the
earths surface; the F2 layer is located 85 miles to 185
miles above the Earths surface during winter and 155
miles to 220 miles in the summer
defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated Critical frequency (fc)
directly upward and still be returned to earth by the
37
ionosphere; depends on the ionization density and,

therefore varies with the time of day and season
the height above earths surface from which a refracted Virtual height
wave appears to have been reflected
the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave Maximum usable frequency
propagation between two specific points on Earths surface (MUF)
a law that assumes a flat Earth and a flat reflecting layer Secant law
can never exist
85% of the MUF that provides more reliable Optimum working frequency
communications (OWF)
defined as the minimum distance from a transmit antenna Skip distance

that a sky wave at a given frequency will be returned to
Earth
usually of little significance, as it tends to be much weaker Pedersen ray
than the lower ray because it spreads over a much larger
area than the lower ray
the area between where the surface waves are completely Quiet or skip zone
dissipated and the point where the first sky wave returns
to Earth
often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic Free-space path loss

wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum
with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby
objects
it occurs simply because of the inverse square law Spreading loss
loss attributed to several different phenomena and can Fading

include both short- and long- term
an additional loss is added to the normal path loss to Fade margin

accommodate temporary fading
CHAPTER 15 : Antennas and Waveguide
the plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines of the Wavefront

electric and magnetic fields
the ratio of radiate to reflected energy Radiation efficiency
antenna wherein the conductors are spread out in a Quarter-wave antenna (vertical
straight line to a total length of one-quarter wavelength monopole sometimes called
Marconi antenna)
38
a half wave dipole Hertz antenna
meaning two dipoles that is used to radiate more energy Dipole

by simply spreading the conductors farther apart
a basic antenna that cannot amplify a signal, at least not in Passive reciprocal device
the true sense of the word
a special coupling device that can be used to direct the Diplexer

transmit and receive signals and provide the necessary
isolation
a polar diagram or graph representing field strength or Radiation pattern

power densities at various angular positions relative to an
antenna
primary beam in a 90 direction Major lobe
represent undesired radiation or reception Minor lobe
the lobe that receives the most energy Front lobe
lobes adjacent to the front lobe (the 180 minor lobe) Side lobes
lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front lobe Back lobe
ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power Front-to-back ratio
the ratio of the front lobe to a side lobe Front-to-side ratio
the line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing from the Line of shoot (point of shoot)
center of the antenna in the direction of maximum
radiation
refers to the filed that is close to the antenna Near field
refers to the field pattern that is at great distance Far field
sometimes called to near field Induction field
sometimes called for far field because power that reaches Radiation field
the far field continues to radiate outward and is never
returned to the antenna
an ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the Radiation resistance
power radiated by the antenna to the square of the
current at its feedpoint
the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum Antenna efficiency
of the power radiated and the power dissipated or the
ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total
input power
the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular Directive gain

direction to the power density radiated to the same point
39
by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are

radiating the same amount of power
the maximum directive gain Directivity
the same as directive gain except that the total power fed Power gain
to the antenna is used; it is assumed that the given
antenna and the reference antenna is lossless
defined as an equivalent transmit power; the equivalent Effective Isotropic Radiated

power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to Power (EIRP)
achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at
a given point as another antenna
the power density in space and a somewhat misleading Captured power density
quantity
refers simply to the orientation of the electric field radiated Polarization of an antenna
from it.
simply the angular separation between the two half-power Beamwidth

points on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation
pattern, usually taken in one of the principal planes
vaguely defined as the frequency range over which Antenna bandwidth

antenna operation is satisfactory
normally taken as the difference between the half-power Bandwidth

frequencies but sometimes refers to variations in the
antennas input impedance
the point on the antenna where the transmission line is Feedpoint

connected
the feedpoint presents an ac load to the transmission line Antenna input impedance
an electrically short dipole Elementary doublet
a multiple of quarter-wavelength long and open circuited Resonant antenna

at the far end
a monopole antenna one-quarter wavelength long, Marconi antenna

mounted vertically with the lower end either connected to
ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network
a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected Counterpoise

above the ground; should be insulated from earth ground
a technique wherein the physical length of an antenna Loading

remains unchanged although its effective electrical length
is increased
a coil (inductor) added in series with a dipole antenna that Loading coil
effectively increases the antennas electrical length
40
a technique where in a metallic array that resembles a Top loading

spoked wheel is placed on top of the antenna
formed when two or more antenna elements are combined Antenna array
to form a single antenna
an individual radiator, such as a half- or quarter- wave Antenna element

dipole
elements that are directly connected to the transmission Driven elements

line and receive power from or are driven by source
not connected to the transmission line; they receive Parasitic element

energy only through mutual induction with a driven
element or another parasitic element
a parasitic element that is longer than the driven element Reflector

from which it receives energy; effectively reduces the
signal strength in its direction and increases it in the
opposite direction
a parasitic element that is shorter than its associated Director

driven element; increases field strength in its direction and
reduces it in the opposite direction
one of the simplest types of antenna rays; made by simply Broadside array
placing a several resonant dipoles of equal size in parallel
with each other and in a straight line
essentially the same element configuration as the End-fire array

broadside array except that the transmission line is not
crisscrossed between elements; as a result the field are
additive in line with the plane of the array
a nonresonant antenna that is capable of operating Rhombic antenna

satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth making it
ideally suited for HF transmission
essentially a single antenna made up of two elements Folded dipole
dipole elements larger in diameter; Fat dipole
antenna named after two Japanese scientists who invented Yagi-uda antenna
it and describe its operation
a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more Yagi antenna

parasitic elements: one reflector and one or more directors
formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other Turnsile antenna
90 out of phase
a class of frequency-independent antennas where in its Log-periodic antennas

primary advantage is the independence of their radiation
and radiation pattern to frequency; from the initial work
41
of V. H. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson, R. H. DuHamel and D.E.

Isbell
the ratio of the highest to the lowest frequency over which Bandwidth ratio
antenna will satisfactorily operate
simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly shorter Loop antenna

than one wavelength and carries RF current
a group of antenna or a group of antenna arrays that, Phased array antenna

when connected together function as a single antenna
whose beamwidth and direction can be changed
electronically without having to physically move any of the
individual antennas or antenna elements within the array
a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited for Helical antenna
applications for which radiating circular rather than
horizontal or vertical polarized electromagnetic waves;
used as a single element antenna or stacked horizontally
or vertically in an array to modify its radiation pattern by
increasing the gain and decreasing the beamwidth of the
primary lobe
electromagnetic radiation is in a direction at right angles to Normal mode

the axis of the helix
radiation is in the axial direction and produces a Axial mode

broadband, relatively directional pattern
defined as the ratio of its maximum gain in the forward Front-to-back ratio
direction to its maximum gain in its backward direction
used with point-to-point microwave systems Highly directional antennas
provide extremely high gain and directivity and are very

popular for microwave radio and satellite communications Parabolic reflector antennas
skills
two main parts of parabolic antenna: parabolic reflector

feed mechanism
resemble the shape of a plate or dish; a plane curve that is Parabolic reflectors
defined as the locus of a point that moves so that its (parabolic dish, dish antennas)
distance from another point added to its distance from a
straight line is of constant length
the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the mouth Aperture ratio
of the parabola
42
the resulting curved surface dish Paraboloid
energy near the edge of the dish does not reflect but Spillover or leakage
rather is diffracted around the edge of the dish
considers both the radiation pattern of the primary radiator Aperture efficiency
and the effect
the ratio of the focal length of the antenna to the reflector Aperture number
diamtere
houses the primary antenna which radiates Feed mechanism

electromagnetic waves toward the reflector
three primary types of feed mechanism for parabolic center feed

antennas: horn feed
cassegrain feed
the primary antenna is placed at the focus Center feed
the primary antenna is a small horn antenna rather than a Horn feed
simple dipole or dipole array
the primary radiating source is located in or just behind a Cassegrein feed

small opening at the vertex of the paraboloid rather than
at the focus
consists of a cone that is truncated in a pice of circular Conical horn antenna

waveguide; the waveguide in turn connects the antenna to
either the transmitter or the receiver
a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in cross Waveguides

section but sometimes circular or elliptical
the velocity at which a wave propagates; the velocity at Group velocity

which information signals of any kind are propagated; also
the velocity at which energy is propagated; can be
measured by determining the time it takes for a pulse to
propagate a given length of a waveguide
velocity at which the wave changes phase; the apparent Phase velocity
velocity of a particular phase of the wave; the velocity with
which a wave changes phase in a direction parallel to a
conducting surface; such as the walls of a waveguide
minimum frequency of operation; the absolute limiting Cutoff frequency

frequency; frequencies above the cutoff frequency will not
be propagated by the waveguide
maximum wavelength that they can propagate; defined as Cutoff wavelength

the smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to
propagate in the waveguide
43
the travel of electromagnetic waves down a waveguide in Propagation of modes

different configurations
means that the electric field lines are everywhere TE

transverse (perpendicular to the guide walls)
waveguides used in radar and microwave applications Circular waveguide

when it is necessary or advantageous to propagate both
vertically and horizontally polarized waves in the same
waveguide
waveguide that is more expensive to manufacture than a Ridged waveguide

standard rectangular waveguide; however it allows
operation at lower frequencies for a given size
consists of a spiral-wound ribbons of brass or copper; used Flexible waveguide

extensively in microwave test equipment
CHAPTER 16: Telephone Instruments and Signal
a part of global communications network which uses Public telephone network (PTN)
telephone or a data modem on a telephone network
PTN that interconnects subscribers through one or more Public switch telephone network
switches (PSTN)
the simplest and most straightforward form of telephone Plain old telephone service
service which involves subscribers accessing the public (POTS)
telephone network through a pair of wires
simply an unshielded twisted-pair transmission line (cable Subscriber loop (local loop)
pair) consisting of two insulated conductors twisted
together; generally comprised of several lengths of copper
wire interconnected at junction and cross-connect boxes
located in manholes, back alleys, or telephone equipment
rooms with large buildings and building complexes
means to connect a telephone set at a subscribers location Subscriber loop

to the closest telephone office, which is commonly called
an end office, local exchange office, or central office
enables the subscriber to access the public telephone Electronic switching system (ESS)
network
the quality of transmission over a telephone depends on: received volume

relative frequency response
of the telephone circuit
degree of interference
44
helps prevent the speaker from talking too loudly Sidetone/talkback
pair of wires connecting a subscriber to the closest Local loop

telephone office
one wire on the local loop Tip

come from the -inch-diameter two-conductor phone Tip and Ring
plugs and patch cords used at telephone company switch-
boards to interconnect and test circuits
standards for registered jacks and is sometimes called as RJ

RJ-XX; a series of telephone connection interfaces
(receptacle and plug) that are registered with the U.S. FCC
the most common telephone jack in use today and can RJ-11
have up to six conductors
reasons why a dc voltage was used rather than an ac prevent power supply hum
voltage allow service to continue in
the event of a power outage
people were afraid of ac
voltage selected to minimize electrolytic corrosion on the -48 Vdc

loop wires; used for supervisory signaling and to provide
talk battery for the microphone in the telephone set
examples of supervisory signals on-hook

off-hook
dial pulsing
placed directly across the tip and ring of the local loop; the Ringer circuit
purpose of the ringer is to alert the destination party of
incoming calls
a simple single-throw, double pole (STDP) switch placed On/off hook circuit (switch)
across the tip and ring; mechanically connected to the
telephone is idle (on hook) is open; when the telephone is
in use (off hook) is closed completing an electrical path
through the microphone between the tip and ring of the
local loop
combinations of passive components that are used to Equalizer

regulate the amplitude and frequency response of the
voice signals
the receiver for the telephone; converts electrical signals Speaker

received from the local loop to acoustical signals (sound
waves) that can be heard and understood by a human
being; connected to the local loop through the hybrid
network; typically enclosed in the handset of the telephone
along with the microphone
45
the transmitter for the telephone; converts acoustical Microphone

signals in the form of sound pressure waves from the
caller to electrical signals that are transmitted into the
telephone network through the local subscriber loop
a special balanced transformer used to convert a two-wire Hybrid network (hybrid coil or
circuit (the local loop) into a four-wire circuit (the duplex coil)
telephone set) and vice versa, thus enabling full duplex
operation over a two-wire circuit
enables the subscriber to output signals representing digits Dialing circuit

and this enables the caller to enter the destination
telephone number; either an electronic dial-pulsing circuit
or a Touch-Tone keypad which sends various combinations
of tones representing the called digits
are acknowledgement and status signals that ensure the Call progress tones and call
processes necessary to set up and terminate a telephone progress signals
call are completed in an orderly and timely manner
the exchange of signaling messages over local loops Station signaling

between stations (telephone) and telephone company
switching machines
the exchange of signaling messages between switching Interoffice signaling

machines
indicate a request for service such as going off hook or Alerting signals
ringing the destination telephone
provide call status information, such as busy or ring-back Supervising signals

signals
provide information in the form of announcements such as Controlling signals

number changed to another number, a number no longer
in service
provide the routing information such as calling and called Addressing signals
numbers
Call Progress Tone Summary

Tone or Signal Frequency Duration/Range
Dial tone 350 Hz plus 440 Hz Continuous
DTMF 697 Hz, 770 Hz, 852 Hz, 941 Hz, Two of eight tones
1209 Hz, 1336 Hz, 1477 Hz, 1633 On, 50-ms
Hz minimum
Off, 45-ms
minimum
3-s minimum
MF 700 Hz, 900 Hz, 1100 Hz, Two of six tones
1300 Hz, 1500 Hz, 1700 Hz On, 90-ms
minimum
46
120-ms maximum
Dial pulses Open/closed switch On, 39 ms
Off, 61 ms
Station busy 480 Hz plus 620 Hz On, 0.5 s
Off, 0.5 s
Equipment busy 480 Hz plus 620 Hz On, 0.2 s
Off, 0.3 s
Ringing 20 Hz, 90 vrms (nominal) On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Ring-back 440 Hz plus 480 Hz On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Receiver on hook Open loop Indefinite
Receiver off hook Dc current 20 mA minimum
80 mA maximum
Receiver-left-off- 1440 Hz, 2060 Hz, 2450 Hz, 2600 On, 0.1 s
hook alert Hz Off, 0.1 s
a 2600-Hz frequency tone placed on a circuit to indicate IDLE signal

the circuit is not currently in use
a multifrequency control tone comprised of 1100 Hz plus Key Pulse (KP) signal
1700 Hz ranging from 90 ms to 120 ms; used to indicate
the beginning of a sequence of MF digits
the method originally used to transfer digits from a Dial pulsing (rotary dial pulsing)
telephone set to the local switch
is sent from the switching machine back to the calling Station busy signal
station whenever the called telephone number is off hook;
a two-tone signal comprised of 480Hz and 620 Hz
sent from the switching machine back to the calling station Equipment busy signal
whenever the system cannot complete the call because of (congestion tone/no-circuits-
equipment unavailability available)
whenever the system is overloaded and more calls are Blocking

being placed than can be completed
sent from a central office to a subscriber whenever there is Ringing signal

an incoming call; the purpose is to ring the bell in the
telephone set to alert the subscriber that there is an
incoming call
sent back to the calling party at the same time the ringing Ring-back signal
signal is sent to the called party; the purpose is to give
some assurance to the calling party that the destination
telephone number has been accepted, processed, and is
being rung
47
simply tones that operate cords attached to the handset; a Cordless telephone
full duplex, battery-operated , portable radio transceiver
that communicates directly with a stationary transceiver
located somewhere in the subscribers office
enables the destination of a telephone call to display the Caller ID

name and telephone number of the calling party before
the telephone is answered; allows subscribers to screen
incoming calls and decide whether they want to answer
the telephone; a simplex transmission sent from the
central office switch over the local loop to a caller ID
display unit at the destination
simplex wireless communications system deigned to alert Paging transmitters

subscribers of awaiting messages; relay radio signals and
messages from wire-line and cellular telephones to
subscribers carrying portable receivers
CHAPTER 17 : The Telephone Circuit
the network bandwidth for a standard voice-band message 4 kHz

channel
the only facility required by all voice-band circuits, as it is Local subscriber loop
the means by which subscriber locations are connected to
the local telephone company
a metallic transmission line comprised of two insulated Local loop

copper wires (a pair) twisted together
an actual loss of signal strength Attenuation
occurs when two or more frequencies undergo different Phase distortions

amounts of phase shift
depend on the wire diameter, conductor spacing, dielectric Transmission characteristics

constant of the insulator separating the wires and the
conductivity of the wire
refers to the electrical characteristics of a cable uniformly Distributed parameters
distributed along its length
the largest cable used in a local loop, usually 3600 pair of Feeder cable (F1)
copper wire placed underground or in conduit
a cross-connect point used to distribute the larger feeder Serving area interface (SAI)
cable into smaller distribution cables
a smaller version of a feeder cable containing less wire Distribution cable (F2)
48
pairs
a device that serves as the demarcation point between Subscriber or standard network
local telephone company responsibility and subscriber interface (SNI)
responsibility for telephone service
the final length of cable pair that terminates at the SNI Drop wire
that portion of the local loop that is strung between poles Aerial
the location where individual cable pairs within a Distribution cable and drop-wire
distribution cable are separated and extended to the cross-connect point
subscribers location on a drop wire
an irregularity found in cables serving subscriber locations; Bridge tap

unused sections of cable that are connected in shunt to a
working cable pair
the basic yardstick used for making power measurements Decibel, dB

in communications
defined as the optimum level of a test tone on a channel Transmission level point (TLP)
on a channel at some point in a communications system
the ratio in dB of the power of a signal at that point to the Transmission level (TL)
power the same signal would be at a 0-dBm transmission
level point
a parameter used as a reference for data transmission Data level point (DLP)
used primarily in Europe; assumes a perfect receiver; Psophometric noise weighting

therefore, its weighting curve corresponds to the
frequency response of the human ear only
apply to dedicated private-line data circuits that utilize the Transmission parameters
private sector of the public telephone network circuits
with bandwidths comparable to those of standard voice-
grade telephone channels that do not utilize the public
switched telephone network
direct connections between two or more locations Private-line circuits
the difference in circuit gain of a reference frequency Attenuation distortion (frequency

response, differential gain and
1004-Hz deviation)
an indirect method of evaluating the phase delay Envelope delay distortion
characteristics of a circuit
the process used to improve a basic telephone channel; Line conditioning

improves the high frequency response of a message
channel and reduces power loss
specifies the maximum limits for attenuation and envelope C-type conditioning
delay distortion; pertains to line impairments for which
49
compensation can be made with filters and equalizers
telephone systems provided by local telephone companies Private switched networks

dedicated to a single customer, usually with a large
number of stations
a relatively low-capacity switching machine where the Private branch exchange (PBX)
subscribers are generally limited to stations within the
same building or building complex
the time delay encountered by a signal as it propagates Propagation time
from a source to a destination
delay measured in angular units, such as degrees or Phase delay

radians
the actual time required for a particular frequency to Absolute phase delay
propagate from a source to a destination through a
communications channel
evaluate not the true phase-versus-frequency Envelope delay

characteristics but rather the phase of a wave that is the
result of a narrow band of frequencies
the phase difference at the different carrier frequencies; Envelope delay distortion
indicates the relative delays of the various carrier
frequencies with respect to the reference frequency
neither reduces the noise on a circuit nor improves the D-type conditioning
signal-to-noise ratio; a requirement and does not add
anything to the circuit and it cannot be used to improve a
circuit; it simply places higher requirements on circuits
used for high-speed data transmission
unwanted multiples of the transmitted frequencies Harmonic distortion
cross products [sums and differences] of the transmitted Intermodulation distortion

frequencies (fluctuation noise or cross-
modulation noise)
the purpose is to simulate the combined signal power of a 1004-Hz test tone
standard voice-band data transmission
determine the average weighted rms noise power C-message noise
differ from standard C-message noise measurements only C-notched noise

in the fact that a holding tone is applied to the transmit
end of the circuit while the noise measurement is taken
ensures that the circuit operation simulates a loaded voice Holding current
or data transmission
a communications term that indicates the presence of a Loaded

signal power comparable to the power of an actual
message transmission
50
characterized by high-amplitude peaks (impulses) of short Impulse noise

duration having an approximately flat frequency spectrum;
can saturate a message channel; the primary source of
transmission errors in data circuits
a sudden, random change in the gain of a circuit resulting Gain hit

in a temporary change in the signal level
a decrease in circuit gain of more than 12 dB lasting longer Dropout

than 4 ms; characteristics of temporary open-circuit
conditions and are generally caused by deep fades on
radio facilities or by switching delays
sudden, random changes in the phase of a signal; are Phase hits (slips)
classified as temporary variations in the phase of a signal
lasting longer than 4 ms
a form of incidental phase modulation-a continuous, Phase jitter

uncontrolled variation in the zero crossings of a signal;
occurs at a 300 Hz rate or lower and its primary cause is
low-frequency ac ripple in power supplies
the presence of one or more continuous, unwanted tones Single-frequency interference

within a message channel
unwanted tones caused by crosstalk or cross modulation Spurious tones

between adjacent channels in a transmission system due
to system nonlinearities
occurs in coherent SSBSC systems, such as those using Phase intercept distortion
frequency-division multiplexing when the received carrier is
not reinserted with the exact phase relationship to the
received signal as the transmit carrier possessed
used to match impedances and to provide isolation Hybrid set

between the two directions of signal flow
used to convert two-wire circuits to four-wire circuits Hybrid circuits

similar to the hybrid coil found in standard telephone sets
eliminate the echo electrically subtracting it from the Echo cancellers

original signal rather than disabling the amplifier in the
return circuit
used to eliminate echo Echo suppressors
can be defined as any disturbance created in a Crosstalk

communications channel by signals in other
communications channels; a potential problem whenever
two metallic conductors carrying different signals are
located in close proximity to each other; was originally
coined to indicate the presence of unwanted speech
sounds in a telephone receiver caused by conversations on
another telephone circuit
51
crosstalk cause by inadequate control of the transfer Transmittance crosstalk

characteristics or transmittance of networks
electromagnetic coupling between two or more physically Coupling crosstalk

isolated transmission media;
crosstalk that occurs at the transmit end of a circuit and Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
travels in the opposite direction as the signal in the
disturbing channel
occurs at the far-end receiver and is energy that travels in Far-end crosstalk (FEXT)
the same direction as the signal in the disturbing channel
referenced to the level on the cable that is being interfered dBx for crosstalk
with
CHAPTER 18 : The Public Telephone Network
identifies and connects the subscribers to a suitable Switching functions

transmission path
supply and interpret control and supervisory signals Signaling functions

needed to perform the operation
involves the actual transmission system of a subscribers Transmission functions

messages and any necessary control signals
referred to the leased lines designed and configured for Private-line circuits (dedicated
their use only lines)
equipment and facilities that are available to all the public Common usage equipment
subscribers to the network which includes transmission
facilities and telephone switches
sometimes called to public telephone companies Service providers
simply the dedicated facility used to connect an instrument Local loop

at a subscribers station to the closest telephone office
similar to local loop except trunk circuits used to Trunk circuit

interconnect two telephone offices; a common usage
connection; can be simple as a pair of copper wires twisted
together or as sophisticated as an optical fiber cable
allows any telephone connected to it to be interconnected Telephone exchange

to any of the other telephones connected to the exchange
52
without requiring separate cable pairs and telephones for

each connection
the first telephone exchanges where manual interconnects Switchboards

were accomplished using patchcords and jacks
each telephone line that could have 10 or more subscribers Party line
connected to the central office exchange using the same
loop
a programmable matrix that allows circuits to be Circuit switch

connected to one another; interconnect input loop or trunk
circuits to output loop or trunk circuits
local exchanges centrally located within the area they Central offices (CO)
serve; can directly interconnect any two subscribers whose
local loops are connected to the same local exchange
a telephone call completed within a single local exchange Intraoffice call (intraswitch call)
calls placed between two stations that are connected to Interoffice calls
different local exchanges
an exchange without any local loops connected to it Tandem office
called switchers switch Tandem switch
trunk circuits that terminate in tandem switches Tandem trunks (intermediate

trunks)
was established to provide a telephone numbering system North American Telephone

for the United States, Mexico, and Canada that would Numbering Plan (NANP)
allow any subscriber in North America to direct dial
virtually any other subscriber without the assistance of an
operator
allows many subscribers to share a limited number of lines Concentrator

to a central office switch
splits the two directions of signal propagation so that the Terminating set (hybrid)
actual long-distance segment of the route can be
accomplished on a four-wire basis
allows a certain degree of route selection when Switching hierarchy

establishing a telephone call
simply a path between two subscribers and is comprised of Route

one or more switches, two local loops, and possibly one or
more trunk circuits
an equipment busy signal received by the calling party if a Blocking

call cannot be completed because the necessary trunks or
53
circuits are not available
a local exchange where subscriber loops terminated and Class 5 end office
received dial tone; end offices interconnected subscriber
loop to other subscriber loops and subscriber loops to
tandem trunks, interoffice trunks, and toll-connecting
trunks
provided no operator assistance Class 3 primary center
provide service to geographical regions varying in size Class 2 sectional center

from part of a state to all of several states, depending on
population density
the highest-ranking office in the DDD network in terms of Class 1 regional center
the size of the geographical area serves and trunking
options available
a global standard for telecommunications defined by the Common channel signaling no. 7
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) (SS7 or C7)
Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T); was developed as an
alternate and much improved means of transporting
signaling information through the public telephone
network;
a telecommunications term that describes the legal Point-of-presence

boundaries for the responsibility of maintaining equipment
and transmission lines; a demarcation point separating two
companies
allows customers to change to a different service and still Porting
keep the same telephone number
store information about subscribers services, routing of Databases

special service numbers and calling card validation for
fraud protection and provide information necessary for
advanced call-processing capabilities
provides access from one level of the protocol to another Primitive

level
CHAPTER 19 : Cellular Telephone Companies
utilized frequency modulation and were generally assigned Mobile telephone systems (MTSs)
a single carrier frequency in the 35 MHz to 45 MHz range (manual telephone system)
that was used by both the mobile unit and the base station
small handsets, easily carried by a person in their pocket Mobile telephone stations
54
or purse
suggested any radio transmitter, receiver, or transceiver Mobile

that could be moved while in operation
described a relatively small radio unit that was handheld, Portable

battery powered, and easily carried by a person moving at
walking speed
similar to two-way mobile radio in that most Cellular telephone

communications occurs between base stations and mobile
units; best describe by pointing out the primary difference
between it and two-way mobile radio
push-to-talk PTT
examples of two-way mobile radio citizens band (CB)

public land mobile radio
Evolution of Cellular Telephone
July 28, 1945

: Saturday Evening Post, E. K. Jett, then the commissioner of the FCC hinted of a cellular telephone
scheme that he referred to as simply s small zone radio telephone system
June 17, 1946
: in St. Louis Missouri, AT&T and Southwestern Bell introduced the first American commercial mobile
radio-telephone service to private customers. In the same year, similar services were offered to 25
major cities throughout the United States
early 1950s
: the FCC doubled the number of mobile telephone channels by reducing the bandwidth to 60 kHz per
channel
1960
: AT&T introduced direct-dialing, full-duplex mobile telephone service with other performance
enhancements
1966
: Don Adams, in a television show called Get Smart, unveiled the most famous mobile telephone to
date: the fully mobile shoe phone
1968
: AT&T proposed the concept of cellular mobile system to the FCC with the intent of alleviating the
problem of spectrum congestions in the existing mobile telephone system
1974
: the FCC allocated an additional 40-MHz bandwidth for cellular telephone service
1975
: the FCC granted AT&T the first license to operate a development cellular telephone service in Chicago
1976
: the Bell Mobile Phone service for metropolitan New York City offered only 12 channels that could
serve a maximum of 543 subscribers. FCC granted authorization to the American Radio Telephone
Service (ARTS) to install a second developmental system in the Baltimore- Washington, D.C., area
1983
: the FCC allocated 666 30 kHz half-duplex mobile telephone channels to AT&T to form the first U.S.
cellular telephone system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
1991
: the first digital cellular services were introduced in several major U.S. cities, enabling a more efficient
55
utilization of the available bandwidth using voice compression

November 17, 1998
: a subsidiary of Motorola Corporation implemented Iridium, a satellite-based wireless personal
communications satellite system (PCSS)
the pattern that fits the cellular concept Honeycomb
defined by its physical size; its physical size varies Cell

depending on user density and calling patterns
the smallest cells used most often in high-density areas Microcells

such as found in large cities and inside buildings; exhibit
milder propagation impairments such as reflections and
signal delays
these is used in well-shielded areas or areas with high Picocells

levels of interference
normally used in center-excited cells (center of the cell) Omnidirectional antennas
are used in edge- and corner- excited cells (three of the Sectored directional antennas
cells six vertices)
the process in which the same set of frequencies Frequency reuse

(channels) can be allocated to more than one cell,
provided the cells are separated by sufficient distance
a geographic cellular radio coverage area containing three Clusters

groups of cells
when the area of a cell, or independent component Cell splitting

coverage area of a cellular system is further divided, thus
creating more cell areas; to increase the channel capacity
and improve the availability and reliability of a cellular
telephone network
the point when a cell reaches maximum capacity occurs Maximum traffic load
when the number of subscribers wishing to place a call at
any given time equals the number of channels in the cell
decreasing co-channel interference while increasing Sectoring

capacity by using directional antennas
placing two receive antennas; improves reception by Space diversity

effectively providing a larger target for signals radiated
from mobile units
divides a group of channels into smaller groupings or Segmentation

segments of mutuality exclusive frequencies; cell sites,
which are within the reuse distance, are assigned their
own segment of the channel group; a means of avoiding
co-channel interference, lowers the capacity of a cell by
enabling reuse inside the reuse distance
56
means of avoiding full-cell splitting where the entire area Dualization

would otherwise need to be segmented into smaller cells
the locations of these radio-frequency transceivers; serves Base stations

as central control for all users within that cell
when mobile unit moves possibly from one companys Roaming

service area into another companys service area
the transfer of a mobile unit from one base stations Handoff (handover)
control to another base stations control
a connection that is momentarily broken during the cell-to- Hard handoff

cell transfer
a flawless handoff; no perceivable interruption of service Soft handoff

and normally takes approximately 200 ms which is
imperceptible to voice telephone users although the delay
may be disruptive when transmitting data
a protocol aligns with a subprotocol of the SS7 protocol IS-41

stack that facilitates communications among databases
and other network entities; allow mobile units to roam and
to perform handoffs of calls already in progress when a
mobile unit moves from one cellular system into another
without subscriber intervention
the process where a mobile unit notifies a serving MTSO of Autonomous registration
its presence and location through a base station controller
operates under the direction o switching center (MTSO); Cell-site controller

manage each of the radio channels at each site, supervises
calls, turns the radio transmitter and receiver on and off,
injects data onto the control and voice channels and
performs diagnostic tests
second part of the base station controllers Base transceiver station (BTS)
also a part of the base station subsystem; used with Radio transceivers
cellular telephone system voice channels can be either
narrowband FM for analog system
generally used to connect switching centers to cell sites Four-wire leased lines
and to the public telephone network
governs the way telephone calls are established and is Communications protocol
disconnected
the actual voice channel where mobile users communicate User channel
directly with other mobile and wireline subscribers through
a base station
is used for transferring control and diagnostic information Control channel
57
between mobile users and a cellular telephone switch

through a base station
CHAPTER 20 Cellular Telephone Systems
a standard cellular telephone service (CTS) initially placed Advanced Mobile Telephone
into operation on October 13, 1983; the idea was to System (AMPS)
eliminate the possibility of a monopoly and provide the
advantages that generally accompany a competitive
environment
a transmission mode that simultaneously transmit in both Duplexing

directions
a 34-bit binary code comprised of a three-digit area code, Mobile identification number
a three-0digit prefix (exchange number), and a four-digit (MIN)
subscriber (extension) number
a 32-bit binary code permanently assigned to each mobile Electronic serial number (ESN)
unit
indicates whether the terminal has access to all 832 AMPS Four-bit station class mark (SCM)
channel ; specifies the maximum radiated power for the
unit
a 15-bit binary code issued by the FCC to an operating System identifier (SID)
company when it issues it a license to provide AMPS
cellular service to an area
combination of cellular telephone networks and the Personal Communications System

Intelligent Network which is the entity of the SS7 (PCS)
interoffice protocol that distinguishes the physical
components of the switching network
a database that stores information about the user, Home location register (HLR)
including home subscription information and what
supplementary services the user is subscribed to
a database that stores information about subscribers in a Visitor location register (VTR)
particular MTSO serving area
a database that stores information pertaining to the Equipment identification registry

identification and type of equipment that exist in the (EIR)
58
mobile unit
allows all calls to pass through the network to the Available mode
subscriber except for a minimal number of telephone
numbers that can be blocked
the PCS equivalent to caller ID; the name of the calling Screen mode
party appears on the mobile units display, which allows
PCS users to screen calls
all calls except those specified by the subscriber are Private mode
automatically forwarded to a forwarding destination
without ringing the subscribers handset
no calls are allowed to pass through to the subscriber Unavailable mode
was originally intended to provide a short-term solution to Narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)

the traffic congestion problem in the AMPS system
used by mobile units to request access to the cellular RACH

telephone system; a unidirectional channel specified for
transmissions from mobile-to-base units only
used to transmit information from base stations to specific SPACH

mobile stations;
channels used to carry generic, system-related BCCH

information; a unidirectional base station-to-mobile unit
transmission shared by all mobile units
an access method used with standard analog AMPS FDMA
was first used by the military to ensure reliable antijam Frequency-hopping spread
and to secure communications in a battlefield spectrum
environment; the fundamental concept is to break a
message into fixed-size blocks of data with each block
transmitted in sequence except on a different carrier
frequency
a high-bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a low-bit Direct-sequence spread spectrum

rate information signal to generate a high-bit-rate
pseudorandom signal closely resembling noise that
contains both the original data signal and the
pseudorandom code
a second-generation cellular telephone system initially Global System for Mobile

developed to solve the fragmentation problems inherent in Communications (GSM)
first-generation cellular telephone system
basic parameters of GSM GMSK modulation (Gaussian

MSK)
50 MHz bandwidth
FDMA/TDMA accessing
59
eight 25-kHz channels w/in

each 200-kHz traffic channel
200 kHz traffic channel
992 full-duplex channels
supplementary integrated
services digital network
(ISDN) services
a satellite-based wireless personal communications Iridium

network designed to permit a wide range of mobile
telephone services, including voice, data, networking,
facsimile and paging
uses 66 satellites
the unique key to the Iridium system and the primary Satellite cross-links
differentiation between Iridium
relay information to the terrestrial gateways and the Feeder links

system control segment located at the earth stations
CHAPTER 21: Introduction to Data Communications and Networking
are systems of interrelated computers and computer Data communications network

equipment and can be as simple as a personal computer
connected to a printer or two personal computers
connected together through the public telephone network
one of the earliest means of communicating electrically 1753

coded information when a proposal submitted to a Scottish
magazine suggested running a communications line
between villages comprised of 26 parallel wires
Carl Friedrich gauss developed an unusual system based 1833

on a five by five matrix representing 25 letters
the first successful data communications system was 1832

invented.
the first practical data communications code. Morse code
Morse secured an American patent for the telegraph. 1840
the first telegraph line was established between 1844

Baltimore and Washington dc with the first message
conveyed over this system.
high speed printers were available 1860
60
Emile Baudot invented a telegraph multiplexer which 1874

allowed signals from up to six different telegraph machines
to be transmitted simultaneously over a single wire.
the telephone was invented by Alexander graham bell 1875
Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in sending radio telegraph 1899

messages
the first commercial radio stations carrying voice 1920

information were installed
he demonstrated a computing machine sometime in the Konrad Zuis

late 1930s
the first special purpose computer using 1940

electromechanical relays for performing logical operations
batch processing systems were replaced by on-line 1960s
processing systems with terminals connected directly to
the computer through serial or parallel communications
lines.
the year introduced microprocessor controlled 1970s

microcomputers.
personal computers became an essential item in the 1980s

home and workplace.
ATM components routers and switches to

connect carrier on global basis
backbone devices to connect all
the lans within a large
organization
switches and adapters which
link desktop computers to high
speed atm connection for
running multimedia applications
ATM speeds 1.4 Gbps
a digital telecommunications technology that can ISDN

simultaneously transmit voice and data over the same pair
of telephone wires
ISDN channels: B-channel (Bearer channel)

D channel
H channel
used to carry the digital information; build block of the B-channel

ISDN; 64 kbps
61
used to carry signaling and supervisory information to D channel

the network; kpbs (bri) or 64 kbps (pri)
provide for user information at higher bit rates; H channel

combination of several b channels
for business with larger data needs; American 23b + PRI

d(t1 = 1.544mbps); European 30b + d (e1= 2.048
mbps)
150 mbps; for future HDTV projects; h channels Broadband ISDN
CHAPTER 22: Fundamental Concepts of Data Communications
the first fixed-length character code developed for Baudot Code

machines rather than for people; named after Emile
Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing; a fixed-
length source code; all characters are represented in
binary and have the same number of symbols (bits)
the standard character set for source coding the United States of America
alphanumeric character set that humans understand but Standard Code for Information
computers do not; a seven-bit fixed length character set Exchange (ASCII)
an eight-bit fixed-length character developed in 1962 by Extended Binary-Coded Decimal

the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM); Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
used almost exclusively with IBM mainframe computers
and peripheral equipment
are those omnipresent black-and-white striped stickers Bar codes

that seem to appear on virtually every consumer item in
the United States and most of the rest of the world; a
series of vertical black bars separated by vertical white
bars
has spaces or gaps between characters; each character Discrete code

within the bar code is independent of every other
character
does not include spaces between characters Continuous code
stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a 2D code

conventional linear bar code
uses an alphanumeric code similar to the ASCII code; Code 39 (Code 3 of 9, 3 of 9

consists of 36 unique codes representing the 10 digits and Code)
26 uppercase letters
developed sometime in the early 1970s to identify the Universal Product Code (UPC)
products of the grocery industry; found on virtually every
grocery item from a candy bar to a can of beans
62
only one bit within a given data string is in error; affects Single bit error
only one character within a message
when two or more non-consecutive bits within a given data Multiple bit error
string are in error; can affect one or more characters
within a message
the first fixed length character code developed for Baudot code
machines rather than people
a French postal engineer who developed the Baudot code Thomas Murray
RTTY is the acronym for _____ Radio teletype
a fixed length source code Baudot code
the standard character set for source coding the ASCII

alphanumeric character set that humans understand
an eight bit fixed length character set developed in 1962 EBCDIC

by IBM
EBCDIC is the acronym for ___ Extended binary coded decimal

interchange code
when two or more consecutive bits within a given data Burst error
string re in error; can affect one or more characters within
a message
the process of monitoring data transmission and Error detection

determining when errors have occurred; not to prevent
errors from occurring but to prevent undetected errors from
occurring
duplicating each data unit for the purpose of detecting Redundancy

errors; an effective but rather costly means of detecting
errors, especially with long messages
adding bits for the sole purpose of detecting errors Redundancy checking
probably the simplest error-detection scheme Vertical redundancy checking

(VRC) (character parity, parity)
own error-detection bit Parity bit
the parity bit is always a 1; useful only when errors occur in Marking parity
a large number of bits
another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking Checksum

where each character has a numerical value assigned to it;
appended to the end of the message
a redundancy error detection scheme that use parity to Longitudinal Redundancy
63
determine if a transmission error has occurred with a Checking (LRC)

message and is therefore sometimes called message
parity
the bit sequence for the LRC Block check sequence (BCS) or
Frame check sequence (FCS)
probably the most reliable redundancy checking technique Cyclic redundancy checking
for error detection; a convolutional scheme; approximately (CRC)
99.999% of all transmission errors are detected
include enough redundant information with each Error-detecting codes

transmitted message to enable the receiver to determine
when an error has occurred
include sufficient extraneous information along with each Error-correcting codes

message to enable the receiver to determine when an error
has occurred and which bit is in error
two primary methods used for error-correction: retransmission

forward error correction
CHAPTER 23: Data-Link Protocols and

Data Communications Networks
the primary goal is to give users of a network the tools Network architecture
necessary for setting up the network and performing data
flow control
arrangements between people or processes Protocols
a set of rules implementing and governing an orderly Data-link protocol

exchange of data between layer two devices such as line
control units and front-end processors
all stations have equal access to the network, but when Peer-to-peer network
they have a message to transmit, they must contend with
the other stations on the network for access to the
transmission medium
determines which device is transmitting and which is Line discipline

receiving at any point in time
coordinates the rate at which data are transported over a Flow control
link and generally provides an acknowledgement
mechanism that ensures that data are received at the
destination
64
a solicitation sent from the primary to a secondary to Poll

determine if the secondary has data to transmit
how the primary designates a secondary as a destination or Selection

recipient of data
the transmitting station sends one message frame and then Stop-and-wait flow control
waits for an acknowledgement before sending the next
message frame
a source station can transmit several frames in succession Sliding window flow control
before receiving an acknowledgement
refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and Sliding window

destination stations with the capacity of holding several
frames of data
interpret a frame of data as a group of successive bits Character-oriented protocols

combined into predefined patterns of fixed length usually
eight bits
a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over a data Bit-oriented protocol

communications channel
are relatively simple, character-oriented generally used on Asynchronous data-link protocols

two-point networks using asynchronous data and
asynchronous modems
remote stations can have more than one PC or printer Synchronous data-link protocols
group of computers, printers, and other digital devices Cluster
a synchronous character-oriented data-link protocol Binary synchronous

developed by IBM; sometimes called bisync or communications (BSC)
bisynchronous communications
a synchronous bit-oriented protocol developed in the 1970s Synchronous data-link control

by the IBM for use in system network architecture (SLDC)
environment
an information field is not allowed; cannot be used to Supervisory frame

transfer numbered information
causes all previously set functions to be cleared by the Clear

secondary
causes the secondary to turn on or turn off Beacon test
causes the addressed secondary station to place itself into Monitor mode
the monitor mode
causes a secondary station to loop its transmission directly Wrap

to its receiver input
65
make a receiver transparent to all data located Transparency
a switched data communications network similar to the Public switched data network
public telephone network except it is designed for (PDN or PSDN)
transferring data only
involves dividing data messages into small bundles of Packet switching

information and transmitting them through communications
networks to their intended destinations using computer-
controlled switches
logically equivalent to a two-point dedicated private-line Permanent virtual circuit (PVC)

circuit except slower
users send small packets of data into the network Datagram (DG)
the integrating of a wide range of services into a single Integrated service digital network
multipurpose network; a network that proposes to (ISDN)
interconnect an unlimited number of independent users
through a common communication network
provides the most economical and effective means of Local area network (LAN)
handling local data communication needs
the time it takes a signal to travel from a source to a Propagation delay

destination
CHAPTER 24: Microwave Radio Communications and System Gain
described as electromagnetic waves with frequencies that Microwave

range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more
systems are those used to carry information for relatively Long-haul microwave systems
long distances
propagate signals through Earths atmosphere between Microwave radios

transmitters and receivers often located on top of towers
spaced about 15 miles to 30 miles apart
the composite signal that modulates the FM carrier Baseband
a preemphasis network precedes the FM deviator; provides Microwave transmitter

an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband
frequencies
a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in Microwave repeaters

tandem with the system
another name for local oscillator and is considerably lower Shift oscillator
in frequency than either the received or the transmitted
66
radio frequencies
the reduction in signal strength Radio fade
it suggests that there is more than one transmission path Diversity

or method of transmission available between a transmitter
and a receiver; used to increase the reliability of the
system by increasing its availability
simply modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with Frequency diversity

the same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals
to a given destination
the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas Space diversity

that are physically separated by an appreciable number of
wavelengths
a single RF carrier is propagated with two different Polarization diversity

electromagnetic polarizations
using more than one receiver for a single radio-frequency Receiver diversity
channel
it combines frequency, space, polarization and receiver Quad diversity

diversity into one system
somewhat specialized form of diversity that consists of a Hybrid diversity

standard frequency-diversity path where the two
transmitter/receiver pairs at one end of the path are
separated from each other and connected to different
antennas that are vertically separated as in space diversity
provide protection for a much larger section of the Protection switching arrangement
communications system that generally includes several
repeaters spanning a distance of 100 miles or more
two types of protection switching arrangement: hot standby

diversity
each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or Hot standby protection
spare channel
a single backup channel is made available to as many as Diversity protection

11 working channels
points in the system where baseband signals either Terminals

originate or terminate
points in a system where baseband signals may be Repeater stations

reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply repeated or
amplified
a balanced modulator that when used in conjunction with Transmit modulator (transmod)
67
a microwave generator, power amplifier, and bandpass

filter, up-converts the IF carrier to an RF carrier and
amplifies the RF to the desired output power
a unidirectional device often made from a ferrite material; Isolator

used in conjunction with a channel-combining network to
prevent the output of one transmitter from interfering with
the output of another transmitter
this occurs when three stations are placed in a Multihop interference

geographical straight line in the system
preventing the power that leaks out the back and sides of Ring around
a transmit antenna from interfering with the signal
entering the input of a nearby receive antenna
the line-of-sight path directly between the transmit and Free-space path
receive antennas
the portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off Ground-reflected wave
Earths surface and captured by the receive antenna
consists of the electric and magnetic fields associated with Surface wave
the currents induced in Earths surface
the portion of the transmit signal that is returned back to Sky wave
Earths surface by the ionized layers of Earths atmosphere
often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic Free-space path loss

wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum
with no absorption or reflection of energy from a nearby
objects
a phenomena where in no electromagnetic is actually lost Spreading loss

or dissipated it merely spreads out as it propagates away
from the source resulting in lower relative power densities
the reduction in receive signal level; reduction in signal Fading

strength at the input to a receiver; it applies to
propagation variables in the physical radio path that affect
changes in the path loss between transmit and receive
antennas
the difference between the nominal output power of a System gain

transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver
necessary to achieve satisfactory performance; must be
greater than or equal to the sum of all gains and losses
incurred by a signal as it propagates from a transmitter to
a receiver
essentially a fudge factor included in system gain Fade margin (link margin)
equations that considers the nonideal and less predictable
characteristics of radiowave propagation, such as
68
multipath propagation and terrain sensitivity; these

characteristics cause temporary, abnormal atmospheric
conditions
the minimum wideband carrier power at the input to a Receiver threshold (receiver
receiver that will provide a usable baseband output sensitivity)
simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output Noise factor

signal-to-noise ratio
indicates how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates Noise figure

as a waveform propagates from the input of a circuit
CHAPTER 25 : Satellite Communications
in astronomical terms, a celestial body that orbits around a Satellites

planet; in aerospace terms, a space vehicle launched by
humans and orbits Earth or another celestial body
a microwave repeater in the sky that consists of a diverse Communications satellite

combination of one or more of the following: receiver,
transmitter, amplifier, regenerator, filter, onboard
computer, multiplexer, demultiplexer, antenna, waveguide
and about nay other electronic communications circuit ever
developed
called a transponder Satellite radio repeater
consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a ground- Satellite system

based station to control the operation of the system and a
user network of earth stations that provides the interface
facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial
communications traffic
includes control mechanisms that support the payload Bus

operation
the actual user information conveyed through the system Payload
a continuously transmitted unmodulated carrier that an Beacon

earth station can lock on to and use to determine the
exact location of a satellite so the earth station can align
its antennas
accomplished the first transatlantic transmission Echo
meaning lightning Molniya
Keplers laws: the planets move in ellipses with

the sun at one focus
the line joinining the sun and a
planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time (laws of
69
areas)
the square of the time of
revolution of a planet divided by
the cube of its mean distance
from the sun gives a number that
is the same for all planets
(harmonic law)
closest approach to the earth Perigee
farthest point from earth Apogee
rotate around the Earth in an elliptical or circular pattern Orbital satellites (nonsynchronous)
the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as Prograde or posigrade orbit
Earths rotation (counterclockwise) and at an angular
greater than that of earth
the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction Retrograde orbit
of Earths rotation or in the same direction with an angular
velocity less than that of Earth
a system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting Low Earth Orbit

approximately 480 miles above Earths surface; the main
advantage is that the path loss between earth stations and
space vehicles is much lower than for satellites revolving in
medium- or high-altitude orbits
operate in the 1.2 GHz to 1.66 GHz frequency band and Medium Earth Orbit
orbit between 6000 miles and 12000 miles above the Earth
high-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating primarily in the Geosynchronous satellites

2 GHz to 18 GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22 300
miles above the Earths surface
the line joining the perigee and apogee the center of Earth Major Axis (line of apsides)
the line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway Minor axis
between the perigee and apogee
half the distance of the minor axis Semiminor axis
all satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a Geocenter

plane that passes through the center of gravity of Earth
are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly Inclined Orbits
above the equator or directly over the North and South
Poles
the angle between the Earths equatorial plane and the Angle of inclination
orbital plane of a satellite measured counterclockwise at
the point in the orbit where it crosses the equatorial plane
70
traveling from south to north
traveling from south to north Ascending node
the point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the Descending node
equatorial plane traveling from north to south
the line joining the ascending an descending nodes Line of nodes

through the center of Earth
when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the Equatorial orbit
equator, usually in a circular path
when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the Polar orbit
North and South poles in an orbit perpendicular to the
equatorial plane
causing elliptical orbits to rotate in a manner that causes Rotation of the line of apsides
the apogee and perigee to move around the Earth
satellites appear to remain in a fixed location above one Geosynchronous (stationary or

spot on earths surface geostationary)
the process of maneuvering a satellite within a Station keeping

preassigned window
the circumference of a geosynchronous orbit 264 790 km
the velocity of a geosynchronous satellite 6840 mph
sometimes referred to geosynchronous earth orbit Clarke orbit or Clarke belt
direction of maximum gain of an earth station antenna Boresight
azimuth and elevation angle are jointly referred to Look angles

__________
a point on the surface below the satellite Subsatellite point (SSP)
the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of Angle of elevation
an electromagnetic wave radiated from an earth station
antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and the
horizontal plane
the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction Azimuth

either the southern or northern most point of the horizon
defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth station Azimuth angle

antenna
determine the farthest satellite away that can be seen Line-of-sight limits
looking east or west of the earth stations longitude
uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to Spinner satellite
71
provide roll and yaw stabilization
the body remains fixed relative to Earths surface, while an Three-axis stabilizer satellites
internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization
the geographical representation of a satellite antennas Footprint (footprint map)

radiation pattern; the area on Earths surface that the
satellite can receive from or transmit to
the smallest beams; concentrate their power to very small Spot beams
geographical areas and, therefore, typically have
proportionately higher EIRPs than those targeting much
larger areas because a given output power can be more
concentrated
typically target up to 20% of the Earths surface and, Hemispherical downlink antennas
therefore, have EIRPs that are 3 dB or 50% lower than
those transmitted by spot beams that typically cover only
10% of the Earths surface
have a beamwidth of approximately 42% of Earths surface Earth coverage

which is the maximum view of any one geosynchronous
satellite
increasing the size of an antenna, the beamwidth of the Frequency reuse

antenna is also reduced thus, different beams of the same
frequency can be directed to different geographical areas
of Earth
consists of an input bandlimiting device (BPF), an input Satellite transponder

low-noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency translator, a low-
level power amplifier, and an output bandpass filter
used when it is necessary to communicate between Cross-links or intersatellite links

satellites (ISLs)
high power amplifiers used in earth station transmitters Nonlinear devices

and the traveling-wave tubes typically used in a satellite
transponders
the amount the output level is backed off from rated levels Back-off loss
equivalent to a loss
defined as an equivalent transmit power Effective isotropic radiated power

(EIRP)
a hypothetical value that can be calculated but cannot be Equivalent noise temperature
measured; often used rather than noise figure because it is
more accurate method of expressing the noise contributed
by a device or a receiver when evaluating its performance
the noise power normalized to a 1-Hz band width, or the Noise density
noise power present in a 1-Hz bandwidth
the average wideband carrier power-to-noise density ratio Carrier-to-noise density ratio
72
the combines power of the carrier and its associated Wideband carrier power
sidebands
the thermal noise present in a normalized 1-Hz bandwidth Noise density
CHAPTER 26: Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangements
sometimes called multiple destination because the Multiple accessing

transmission from each earth station are received by all
the other earth stations in the system
method of assigning adjacent channels different Frequency reuse

electromagnetic polarization
an Eskimo word meaning little brother Anik
a method required when three or more earth stations wish Multiple accessing
to communicate with each other
sometimes called to multiple accessing because the Multiple destination

transmissions from each earth station are received by all
the other earth stations in the system
when it is used, a given number of the available voice- Preassignment

band channels from each other station are assigned a
dedicated station
voice-channels are assigned on an as-needed basis; Demand assignment

provides more versatility and more efficient use of the
available frequency spectrum
each earth stations transmissions are assigned specific FDMA

uplink and downlink frequency bands within an allotted
satellite; transmissions are separated in the frequency
domain
each earth station transmits a short burst of information TDMA

during a specific time slot (epoch); transmissions are
separated in the time domain; the entire transponder
bandwidth and power are used for each transmission but
for only a prescribed interval of time
the entire satellite transponder bandwidth is used by all CDMA

stations on a continuous basis; signal separation is
73
accomplished with envelope encryption/decryption

techniques
an alternate channel allocation scheme Demand-assignment, multiple access

(DAMA)
an acronym for single-channel-per-carrier PCM multiple- SPADE

access demand-assignment equipment
a time-division-multiplexed transmission that is frequency- Common signaling channel (CSC)

division multiplexed into the spectrum below the QPSK-
encoded voice-band channels with a 160 KHz bandwidth
called when each stations can transmit only during their Store-and-forward system
specified time slot although the incoming voice-band
signals are continuous
a unique binary word Chip code
produced when a bipolar data-modulated signal is linearly Direct-sequence spread spectrum

multiplied by the spreading signal in a special balanced (DS-SS)
modulator
a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to continually Frequency hopping

change the frequency of the carrier
there can be more TCs assigned than there are SCs Channel compression
a phenomenon when speech energy is detected on a TC Competitive clipping

and there is no SC to assign it to
a form of analog channel compression that has been used Time-assignment speech
for suboceanic cables for many years interpolation (TASI)
can be defined as the art or science of plotting, Navigation

ascertaining, or directing the course of movements;
knowing where you are and being able to find your way
around
the most ancient and rudimentary method of navigation; is Wandering

simply continuing to travel about until you reach your
destination
direction and distance are determined from precisely timed Celestial navigation
sightings of celestial bodies including the stars and moon;
a primitive technique that dates back thousand of years
another rudimentary method of navigation; fixing a Piloting

position and direction with respect to familiar, significant
landmarks, such as railroad tracks, water towers, barns,
mountain peaks and bodies of water
a navigation technique that determines position by Dead reckoning
74
extrapolating a series of measured velocity increments

used quite successfully by Charles Lindbergh in 1927
during his historic 33 hour transatlantic journey and quite
unsuccessfully by Amelia Earhart in 1937 during her
attempt to make first around-the-world flight
the most accurate navigation technique; position is Radio or electronic navigation

determined by measuring the travel time of an
electromagnetic wave as it moves from a transmitter to a
receiver
consist of 24 operational satellites revolving around Earth Space segment

in six orbital planes approximately 60 apart with four
satellites in each plane; there are 21 working satellites and
three satellites reserved as spaces
this unique number is used to encrypt the signal from that Pseudorandom noise (PRN) code
satellite
a term generally associated with a table showing the Ephemeris

position of a heavenly body on a number of dates in a
regular sequence, in essence, an astronomical almanac
the Navstar control segment which includes all the fixed- Operational control system (OCS)
location ground-based monitor stations located throughout
the world a master control station (MCS), and uplink
transmitters
makes GPS even more accurate; works by canceling out Differential GPS
most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into
normal GPS measurements
-end-
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Introduction To Electronic Communications by Tomasi (Outline)

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Introduction To Electronic Communications by Tomasi (Outline)

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Electronics Systems and Technologies Engr. Jaime P.

CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications

the transmission, reception and processing of information between two or

he invented the first workable telegraph Samuel Finley Breese Morse

they were the first to successfully transfer human conversation over a

a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains and losses

another name for power loss attenuation

it provides a means of transporting signals between a transmitter and a transmission medium or

the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or

a circuit performing modulation in a transmitter modulator

a carrier that has been acted on by an information signal modulated wave or

it is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a channel

another name for information signal intelligence signal

the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another frequency translation

simply the number of times a periodic motion such as sine wave of

an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services International

signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution

signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies generally

signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by commercial

signal in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz range. It refers to electromagnetic Infrared

the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space.

speed of light 3 x 108 m/s

a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate

a measure of how much information can be propagated through a

simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is

noise that is generated outside the device or circuit external noise

another name for atmospheric noise Static electricity

frequency of atmospheric noise 30 MHz

continuously distributed throughout the galaxies Cosmic noise

another name for cosmic noise Black-body noise

simply noise that is produced by mankind Man-made noise

another name for man-made noise Industrial noise

electrical interference generated within a device or circuit internal noise

caused by random arrival of carriers at the output element of an

any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the input to

another names for thermal noise: white noise

integer multiples of the original signal Harmonics

another name for harmonic distortion Amplitude distortion

the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced

CHAPTER 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing

the only two levels possible in a digital signal binary signal

four-level signals quaternary digital signal

the voltage- or current-time variations that can be Electrical signals

a waveform which repeats at a uniform rate Periodic

a description of a signal with respect to time Time domain

a time-domain instrument Oscilloscope

an amplitude-versus-time representation of the signal Signal waveform

a description of a signal with respect to its frequency Frequency-domain

a frequency-domain instrument Spectrum analyzer

any periodic waveform that is not a sinusoid such as square

a French physicist and mathematician who used a

a mathematical tool that allows us to move back and forth

it describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time

a periodic voltage waveform in symmetric about vertical Even symmetry

a periodic voltage waveform that said to have point, or Odd symmetry

a periodic voltage waveform such that the waveform for the

a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained in the Frequency spectrum

range of frequencies contained in the spectrum