Kanani et al.

Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9

http://www.aacijournal.com/content/7/S1/S9 ALLERGY, ASTHMA & CLINICAL
IMMUNOLOGY

REVIEW Open Access

Urticaria and angioedema

Amin Kanani1*, Robert Schellenberg1, Richard Warrington2

Abstract
Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the
skin). It is generally classified as acute, chronic or physical. Second-generation, non-sedating H1-receptor
antihistamines represent the mainstay of therapy for both acute and chronic urticaria. Angioedema can occur in
the absence of urticaria, with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor-induced angioedema and idiopathic
angioedema being the more common causes. Rarer causes are hereditary angioedema (HAE) or acquired
angioedema (AAE). Although the angioedema associated with these disorders is often self-limited, laryngeal
involvement can lead to fatal asphyxiation in some cases. The management of HAE and AAE involves both
prophylactic strategies to prevent attacks of angioedema (i.e., trigger avoidance, attenuated androgens, tranexamic
acid, and plasma-derived C1 inhibitor replacement therapy) as well as pharmacological interventions for the
treatment of acute attacks (i.e., C1 inhibitor replacement therapy, ecallantide and icatibant). In this article, the
authors review the causes, diagnosis and management of urticaria (with or without angioedema) as well as the
work-up and management of isolated angioedema, which vary considerably from that of angioedema that occurs
in the presence of urticaria.

Introduction Urticaria is generally classified as acute, chronic, or

Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder, occurring in 15-
25% of individuals at some point in life [1,2]. It is char-
acterized by recurrent, pruritic (itchy), pink-to-red ede-
matous (swollen) lesions that often have pale centers
(wheals) (see Figure 1). The lesions can range in size
from a few millimeters to several centimeters in dia-
meter, and are often transient, lasting for less than 48
hours [1-4]. Approximately 40% of patients with urti-
caria also experience angioedema (swelling that occurs
beneath the skin) [1].
Mast cells are the primary effector cells in urticaria
and in many cases of angioedema. These cells are widely
distributed in the skin, mucosa, and other areas of the
body, and have high-affinity immunoglobulin E (IgE)
receptors. Mast cell degranulation leads to the rapid
release of various inflammatory mediators, such as hista-
mine, leukotrienes and prostaglandins, which, in turn,
cause vasodilation and leakage of plasma in and below
the skin. There is also a more delayed (48 hour) secre-
tion of inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis fac-
tor, interleukin 4 and 5) that potentially leads to further
inflammatory responses and longer-lasting lesions [1].
1
Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
physical, depending on the duration of symptoms and
the presence or absence of inducing stimuli (see Fig-
ure 2). Acute urticaria refers to lesions that occur for
less than 6 weeks, and chronic urticaria to lesions that
occur for more than 6 weeks; it is usually assumed that
the lesions are present most days of the week [5]. Most
cases of urticaria are acute; approximately 30% go on to
become chronic. Physical urticaria represents a distinct
subgroup of chronic urticaria that is induced by external
physical stimuli, such as scratching (dermatographism, a
common form of physical urticaria), cold, heat, sunlight
and pressure.
Although acute urticaria can generally be easily mana-
ged and is associated with a good prognosis, chronic,
severe urticaria is often associated with significant mor-
bidity and a diminished quality of life [6]. Physical urti-
caria also tends to be more severe and long-lasting, and
is often difficult to treat [1,3].
The first part of this article will focus on the causes,
diagnosis and management of the most common types
of urticaria (with or without angioedema). As mentioned
earlier, angioedema commonly occurs with urticaria, and
evaluation and management are similar to those for urti-
caria. The latter section will review the work-up and
management of isolated angioedema, which varies

2011 Kanani et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
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A
B The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or
Figure 1 Urticaria (hives).
considerably from the diagnosis and treatment of
angioedema that occurs in the presence of urticaria.
Classification and etiology
Chronic urticaria
Chronic urticaria is more common in adults, and affects
women more frequently than men [1,4]. In general,
chronic urticaria is classified as either chronic autoim-
mune urticaria or chronic idiopathic urticaria (see Fig-
ure 2) [4,5]. In chronic autoimmune urticaria,
circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies
react to the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE recep-
tor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to
chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of his-
tamine and other inflammatory mediators which cause
urticaria and angioedema [2,5]. Chronic autoimmune
urticaria is also associated with antithyroid antibodies in
approximately 27% of cases, as well as other autoim-
mune conditions such as vitiligo (a chronic disorder that
causes depigmentation of patches of skin) and rheuma-
toid arthritis [1,2,5]. It has also been proposed that Heli-
cobacter pylori (H. pylori), which has an immunogenic
cell envelope, may play an indirect role in the etiology
Page 2 of 10
of chronic autoimmune urticaria by reducing immune
tolerance and inducing autoantibody formation. How-
ever, it is important to note that the limited number of
studies conducted in this area have yielded conflicting
results [7,8].
Patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria do not have
evidence of autoimmunity. In this form of urticaria,
there appears to be persistent activation of mast cells,
but the mechanism of mast cell triggering is unknown.
Although rare, chronic urticaria may also be a manifes-
tation of a systemic illness [1,3].
Acute urticaria
without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infec-
tions, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact
allergens, particularly latex hypersensitivity. Medications
known to commonly cause urticaria angioedema
include antibiotics (particularly penicillins, and sulfona-
mides), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID),
acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), opiates and narcotics. The
predominant foods that cause urticaria are milk, eggs,
peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish. In approximately
50% of patients with acute urticaria, the cause is
unknown (idiopathic urticaria) [1,2,9].
Physical urticaria
As mentioned earlier, physical urticaria is triggered by a
physical stimulus. The most common physical urticaria
is dermatographism (also known a skin writing), in
which lesions are created or written on the skin by
stroking or scratching the skin. Cholinergic urticaria is
also common and results from a rise in basal body tem-
perature that occurs following physical exertion or expo-
sure to heat. Other physical stimuli which can trigger
urticaria include exposure to cold (cold-induced urti-
caria), ultraviolet light (solar urticaria), water (aquagenic
urticaria) and exercise. The lesions produced by these
physical stimuli are typically localized to the stimulated
area and often resolve within 2 hours. However, some
patients may experience delayed-pressure urticaria
which, as the name implies, comes on slowly after pres-
sure has been applied (i.e., 30 minutes to 12 hours) and
can last several hours or even days. Examples of sites
typically affected include the waistline (after the wearing
of tight-fitting pants) and the area of the ankles or
calves that makes contact with the elastic band of socks
[1-3,5].
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of urticaria, with or without angioedema,
is based primarily on a thorough clinical history and
physical examination. Based on the history and physical
exam, diagnostic tests may also be considered to help
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Urticaria

> 48 hours* < 48 hours*

Urticarial
vasculitis
> 6 weeks* < 6 weeks*
Chronic urticaria Acute urticaria

Idiopathic

Other Physical Chronic autoimmune Chronic idiopathic Infection

urticaria urticaria
Food

Dermatographism Medication

Venom

Cholinergic Latex

Contact
Cold induced

Solar

Aquagenic

Exercise

Delayed-pressure

Figure 2 Classification of urticaria: overview. *The 48-hour cut-off refers to individual lesions, while the 6-week cut-off refers to the condition
as a whole.

confirm a diagnosis of acute, chronic or physical
urticaria.
History and physical examination
The history and physical examination should include
detailed information regarding: the frequency, timing,
duration and pattern of recurrence of lesions; the
shape, size, site and distribution of lesions; potential
triggers (e.g., food, medications, physical stimuli,
infections, insect stings); response to previous thera-
pies used; and a personal or family history of atopy
[1,3].
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Many conditions can easily be confused with urticaria,
particularly urticarial vasculitis and systemic mastocyto-
sis (see Table 1 for conditions that need to be consid-
ered in the differential diagnosis of urticaria). In
urticarial vasculitis, the lesions are usually painful rather
than pruritic, last longer than 48 hours, and leave
bruises or discoloration on the skin [1,10]. Systemic
mastocytosis (also called systemic mast cell disease) is a
rare condition that involves the internal organs, in addi-
tion to the skin. In this disorder, atypical mast cells col-
lect in various tissues that can affect the liver, spleen,
lymph nodes, bone marrow and other organs [1,9].
Diagnostic tests
Skin prick tests (SPTs) and serum-specific IgE tests may
help confirm a diagnosis of acute urticaria resulting
from allergic or IgE-mediated (type I) reactions to com-
mon food allergens, latex hypersensitivity, stinging insect
hypersensitivity and certain antibiotics These tests are
best performed by allergists with experience in inter-
preting test results in the appropriate clinical context.
Certain diagnostic tests and assessments can be help-
ful in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of chronic
urticaria, including: a complete blood count (CBC),
serum protein electrophoresis (SPE), the autologous
serum skin test (ASST), the basophil activation test,
thyroid autoantibodies, H. pylori, antinuclear antibodies
(ANA), and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). SPE
can be used to identify increases in IgG and, therefore,
may help confirm the diagnosis of chronic autoimmune
disease. The presence of thyroid autoantibodies is also
suggestive of chronic autoimmune urticaria. An elevated
ESR or ANA is often indicative of an underlying sys-
temic condition, such chronic infection or vasculitis [2].
The ASST is currently one of the most useful tests for
confirming a diagnosis of chronic autoimmune urticaria
(sensitivity: 6581%; specificity: 7178%) [11]. It involves
intradermal injection of the patients own serum (col-
lected while the patient is symptomatic) into uninvolved
skin. A positive wheal and flare reaction is considered
indicative of circulating autoantibodies to the high-affi-
nity IgE receptor on mast cells. However, it should be
noted that the ASST is not widely available and is often
poorly tolerated by younger children due to the discom-
fort associated with the intradermal injections [3]. Since
basophils are also involved in chronic urticaria, the
basophil activation test (the quantification of basophil
activation by flow cytometry) may be useful for screen-
ing for the autoimmune form of the disease. However,
further confirmatory studies are needed before this test
is widely accepted as a diagnostic tool [2].
Challenge testing, which reproduces exposure to a
suspected stimuli in a supervised clinical environment,
is often indicated to confirm a diagnosis of physical urti-
caria. Cold-induced urticaria can usually be confirmed
using the ice cube test (i.e., placing an ice cube in a
sealed plastic bag over the forearm for 5-10 min). Der-
matographism can be confirmed by lightly scratching

Table 1 Conditions to consider in the differential diagnosis of urticaria

Urticarial vasculitis Lesions are usually painful (rather than pruritic), last >48 hours, and leave discoloration on the skin
Systemic mastocytosis Rare condition that involves the internal organs (liver, spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow), in
addition to the skin
Atopic dermatitis Chronic, highly pruritic inflammatory skin disease
Clinical manifestations vary with age
Bullous pemphigoid Chronic, autoimmune, blistering skin disease
Erythema multiforme Acute, self-limited, skin condition
Considered to be a type IV hypersensitivity reaction to certain infections, medications, and other
various triggers
Familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome Rare, inherited inflammatory disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of rash, fever/chills, joint
pain, and other signs/symptoms of systemic inflammation triggered by exposure to cooling
temperatures
Onset usually occurs during infancy and early childhood and persists throughout the patients life
Fixed drug eruptions Lesions occur from exposure to a particular medication and occur at the same site upon re-
exposure to the offending medication
Lesions usually blister and leave residual pigmentation
Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus A non-scarring, photosensitive skin condition
May occur in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Sjgren syndrome
Pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of Benign skin condition that usually arises late in the third trimester of a first pregnancy
pregnancy
Muckle-Wells syndrome Rare genetic disease that causes hearing loss and recurrent hives
May lead to amyloidosis
Schnitzlers syndrome with monoclonal IgG Rare disease characterized by chronic, non-pruritic hives, periodic fever, bone and joint pain, swollen
kappa gammopathy lymph glands and an enlarged spleen and liver
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the skin, and aquagenic urticaria can be identified by
immersion of a body part into warm water or through
the application of warm compresses. Hot bath testing
can help identify cholinergic urticaria, and the applica-
tion of weight/pressure to the patients thigh is helpful
in the diagnosis of delayed-pressure urticaria [1,2].
Treatment
Strategies for the management of acute urticaria
include avoidance measures, antihistamines and corti-
costeroids. For urticaria, antihistamines are the main-
stay of therapy. Corticosteroids and various
immunomodulatory/ immunosuppressive therapies
may also be used for more severe cases, or for those
patients who experience a poor response to antihista-
mines (see Figure 3).
Avoidance
For some patients with acute urticaria, a specific trigger
can be identified (e.g., food, medication, latex, insect
venom), and avoidance of the offending agent can be an
effective management approach. Patients should be pro-
vided with clear, written instructions on appropriate
avoidance strategies [2,3].
Antihistamines
Second-generation, non-sedating, H1-receptor antihista-
mines (e.g., fexofenadine, desloratadine, loratadine,

Second-generation,
H1-receptor antihistamines

Updosing of antihistamine

First-generation (sedating), H1-receptor antihistamines

H2-receptor antihistamines, Leukotriene receptor antagonist

Oral corticosteroids

For chronic urticaria:

Immunosuppressive/
immunomodulatory agents
x Cyclosporine
x Sulfasalazine
x Dapsone
x IVIG
x Omalizumab

Figure 3 A simplified, stepwise algorithm for the treatment of urticaria. IVIG: intravenous immunoglobulin G
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
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cetirizine) are the mainstay of therapy for urticaria.
These agents have been shown to be significantly more
effective than placebo for the treatment of both acute
and chronic urticaria [4]. First-generation, sedating anti-
histamines may be used as adjunctive therapy in those
patients who have difficulty sleeping due to nocturnal
symptoms [1-3]. Table 2 provides a list of commonly
used second- and first-generation antihistamines and
their recommended dosing regimens. Since 15% of his-
tamine receptors in the skin are H2-type receptors, H2-
receptor antihistamines, such as cimetidine, ranitidine
and nizatidine, may also be helpful in some patients
with urticaria. However, these agents should not be
used as monotherapy as they have limited effects on
pruritus [2].
Antihistamine efficacy is often patient specific and,
therefore, more than one antihistamine should be tried
before assuming therapeutic failure with these agents.
Also, antihistamines are most effective if taken daily,
rather than on an as-needed basis. If symptoms are
controlled with standard antihistamine doses, it is rea-
sonable to continue treatment for several months,
occasionally stopping therapy for brief periods to
determine whether the urticaria has spontaneously
resolved. In patients who do not achieve adequate
symptom control at standard doses, it is common
practice to increase the antihistamine dose beyond the
usual recommended dose. In fact, current European
guidelines recommend up to four times the usual
recommended dose of antihistamine in patients who
symptoms persist with standard therapy [12]. For
example, doses of up to 40 mg of cetirizine, 20 mg of
desloratadine, and 480 mg of fexofenadine may be
used in adults. The efficacy of this approach, however,
still requires confirmation in randomized, double-blind
controlled trials [2,3].
Table 2 Antihistamines commonly used and indicated for the treatment of urticaria
Usual adult dose
Second-generation H1-receptor antihistamines (first-line therapy)
Cetirizine (Reactine) 10-40 mg daily
Desloratadine (Aerius) 5-20 mg daily
Fexofenadine (Allegra) 120-480 mg daily
Loratadine (Claritin) 10-40 mg daily
First-generation H1-receptor antihistamines (best used as adjunctive therapy for patients with nocturnal symptoms)
Hydroxyzine (Atarax) 25-50 mg, three to four times daily
Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) 25-50 mg, every -6 hours
Cyproheptadine (Periactin) 4-20 mg daily
Chlorpheniramine (Chor- 4 mg every 46 hours
Tripolon)
Clemastine (Tavist-1) 1.34 - 2.68 mg, two to three times
daily
Page 6 of 10
Corticosteroids
For some patients with severe urticaria who are inade-
quately responsive to antihistamines, a brief course of
oral corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone, up to 40 mg/day
for 7 days) is warranted. However, long-term corticos-
teroid therapy should be avoided given the well-known
side effects associated with prolonged use of corticoster-
oids and the increased likelihood of developing tolerance
to these agents [2,3].
Immunosuppressive and Immunomodulatory Therapies
Various immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory
therapies may provide some benefit for patients with
severe, chronic urticaria. Double-blind, randomized con-
trolled trials have found cyclosporine (35 mg/kg/day)
to be effective in patients with chronic urticaria who do
not adequately respond to antihistamines [13,14]. Dur-
ing treatment with cyclosporine, H1-receptor antihista-
mines should be continued, and blood pressure, renal
function and serum levels should be monitored regularly
given the significant side effects associated with this
form of therapy (e.g., hypertension, renal toxicity).
Case reports and other small clinical trials have also
found the following treatments to be effective for select
patients with severe, refractory, chronic urticaria: sulfa-
salazine; the antibacterial, dapsone; the anti-IgE mono-
clonal antibody, omalizumab; and intravenous
immunoglobulin G (IVIG) [4]. However, the efficacy of
these agents in the treatment of chronic urticaria needs
to be confirmed in large, randomized controlled trials.
Other therapies
Leukotriene receptor antagonists, such as montelukast
(Singulair) or zafirlukast (Accolate), have also been
shown to be effective in the treatment of poorly-con-
trolled chronic urticaria [15-17]. However, these agents
Usual pediatric dose
5-10 mL (1-2 teaspoons) daily (childrens formulation)
2.5-5 mL (0.5-1.0 teaspoon) daily (childrens formulation)
Not currently indicated for children under 12 years of age
5-10 mL (1-2 teaspoons) daily (childrens formulation)
Children < 6 years: 30 to 100 mg daily in divided doses
2.5-20 mL (0.5-4 teaspoons) every 4 to 6 hours (depending on age/
weight)
2-4 mg, two to three times daily (depending on age/weight)
1 mg every 46 hours
1.34 mg, once or twice daily
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
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should only be used as adjuncts to antihistamine therapy
as there is little evidence that they are useful as mono-
therapy. Injectable epinephrine should also be prescribed
to patients with a history of severe urticaria and angioe-
dema leading to anaphylaxis (see article on anaphylaxis
in this supplement) [1].
Angioedema (without Urticaria)
Introduction
Angioedema in the absence of urticaria is rare and
should alert the physician to alternative diagnoses, such
as hereditary or acquired angioedema, idiopathic angioe-
dema, or angioedema associated with angiotensin-con-
verting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Hereditary angioedema
(HAE) is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder
resulting from an inherited deficiency or dysfunction of
the C1 inhibitor (a plasma protease inhibitor that regu-
lates several proinflammatory pathways). Two main
types of HAE have been defined: type I and type II.
Type I HAE is characterized by low C1 inhibitor levels
and function (85% of cases) while type II is associated
with normal C1 inhibitor levels, but low function (15%
of cases). Acquired angioedema (AAE) is another rare
C1 inhibitor deficiency syndrome which is most com-
monly associated with B-cell lymphoproliferative dis-
eases (type 1 AAE). It may also be related to the
presence of an autoantibody directed against the C1
inhibitor molecule (type II AAE) [18].
Clinically, HAE and AAE are similar, and are charac-
terized by recurrent episodes of angioedema, without
urticaria or pruritus, which most often affect the skin or
mucosal tissues of the gastrointestinal and upper
respiratory tracts. Although generally benign conditions,
laryngeal involvement can rapidly lead to fatal asphyxia-
tion if left untreated. Age of onset and the presence of a
familial history are distinguishing features of these con-
ditions (see Table 3). HAE usually presents in late child-
hood or adolescence in otherwise healthy subjects, and a
familial history is present in approximately 75% of cases
(with the remaining 25% resulting from spontaneous
mutation of the C1 inhibitor gene). In contrast, AAE is
Table 3 Comparison of HAE and AAE
Age of onset Family history
C1q
HAE
Type 1 Normal
Early Yes*
Type 2 Normal
AAE Late No Low
*In approximately 25% of patients, no family history is identified; the disorder results from spontaneous mutation of the C1 inhibitor gene.
C1 inh: C1 inhibitor
Page 7 of 10
not associated with a family history, and usually devel-
ops in older patients (fourth decade of life) with an
underlying lymphoproliferative or autoimmune disease
[18,19].
Although the exact pathogenesis of attacks of HAE
and AAE remains unclear, excess production of the
potent vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin (which is regu-
lated by the C1 inhibitor), appears to play an important
role [20]. It is important to note that histamine and
other mast cell mediators that are typical of urticaria
and associated angioedema are not directly involved in
HAE and AAE, which explains patient lack of response
to antihistamines and corticosteroids, and distinguishes
these forms of isolated angioedema from that associated
with urticaria.
Isolated angioedema also occurs in approximately 0.1%
to 6% of individuals using ACE inhibitors. It tends to
occur more commonly in ACE-inhibitor users who are
female, smokers or of African-American descent. Like
HAE and AAE, ACE inhibitorinduced angioedema is
bradykinin-mediated. Most cases of angioedema occur
in the first week after starting ACE-inhibitor therapy.
However, up to one-third of cases occur months to
years after initiating the medication [21]. ACE inhibitor-
induced angioedema can be life-threatening when it
involves the upper airway and, therefore, ACE inhibitors
should be discontinued in all individuals with
angioedema.
In the majority of cases of isolated angioedema, the
cause is not identifiable (idiopathic angioedema). The
exact mechanisms of idiopathic angioedema are unclear;
however, based on patient response to medication, some
cases are believed to be mediated by IgE-independent
mechanisms that lead to mast cell activation [22,23]. In
most individuals, this condition does not lead to life-
threatening angioedema.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of HAE and AAE is based upon a sugges-
tive clinical history (i.e., episodic angioedema in the
absence of urticaria affecting the skin, gastrointestinal
Complement levels
C4 C1 inh level C1 inh function
Low Low Low
Low Normal/elevated Low
Low Normal or low Low
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
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and upper respiratory tracts) and the presence of
abnormalities in specific complement proteins. Comple-
ment studies that should be ordered for patients with
suspected HAE and AAE include: C4 (the natural sub-
strate for C1) level, C1q level, C1 inhibitor antigenic
level, and C1 inhibitor functional level [18]. These stu-
dies should be performed when the patient is not receiv-
ing treatment, since the use of therapeutic interventions
for AAE or HAE can alter laboratory results.
In most patients with AAE, C4, C1q, and C1 inhibitor
function levels are low (<50% of normal), and C1 inhibi-
tor antigenic levels are low or normal. In type I HAE,
C1 inhibitor antigenic and function levels are low (<50%
of normal); in type II HAE, C1 inhibitor functional
levels are low, but antigenic levels are normal or ele-
vated (see Table 3). Unlike AAE, C1q levels are normal
in HAE. ACE-inhibitor-induced angioedema should be
considered if complement studies are normal and the
patients is currently using ACE inhibitor therapy.
Patients with AAE should also be evaluated for an
underlying B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder at the
time of diagnosis [18].
Treatment
The treatment of idiopathic angioedema is similar to
that of urticaria. The condition responds well to prophy-
lactic antihistamines. In some individuals, corticosteroids
are required. Alcohol and NSAIDs can exacerbate this
condition and, therefore, avoidance is advised.
The management of HAE and AAE involves both pro-
phylactic strategies to prevent attacks of angioedema as
well as pharmacologic interventions for the treatment of
acute attacks (see Table 4). Given the risk of fatal
asphyxiation with laryngeal involvement, patient educa-
tion regarding the treatment of acute attacks is impera-
tive; patients should be instructed to proceed
immediately to the emergency department should laryn-
geal swelling develop. Since HAE and AAE are rare
Table 4 Overview of therapeutic interventions for HAE
and AAE
Prophylaxis Acute attacks
Trigger avoidance C1 inhibitor replacement therapy
Mild trauma Ecallantide (kallikrein inhibitor)
Anxiety/stress Icatibant (bradykinin receptor
H. pylori infection blocker)
ACE inhibitors
Estrogen-containing
medications
Attenuated androgens
Danazol
Stanozolol
Tranexamic acid
C1 inhibitor replacement
therapy
ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme
Page 8 of 10
disorders, some emergency department personnel are
not familiar with the treatment of these conditions.
Therefore, patients are encouraged to carry wallet cards
(templates available at: http://www.haecanada.com/m.
php?p=edownloads) that briefly explain the patients
diagnosis, outlines the indicated treatment for acute
attacks, and provide contact information for the super-
vising clinician [18]. In patients with AAE, treatment of
the underlying lymphoproliferative disorder is also
important.
Prophylactic treatment
Prophylactic therapy should be considered in patients
who experience more than one severe attack per month,
or if treatment for acute episodes is not sufficiently
effective or is not available. Therapeutic options include:
trigger avoidance, attenuated androgens, tranexamic
acid, and plasma-derived C1 inhibitor replacement ther-
apy [18,24].
Factors triggering acute attacks of AAE and HAE vary
but often include: mild trauma to the face (particularly
dental trauma), stress/anxiety, H. pylori infection, men-
struation, and the use of estrogen-containing medica-
tions (e.g., hormone replacement therapy and
contraceptives) and ACE inhibitors. Whenever possible,
these triggers should be avoided. Recognition and
prompt treatment of oral and dental infections, and
screening for and eradication of H. pylori infection may
be warranted in some cases [18].
Attenuated androgens, such as danazol and stanozo-
lol, increase C4 and C1 inhibitor levels and are effec-
tive for both the short- and long-term prophylaxis of
HAE and AAE. Although generally well-tolerated by
most patients, adverse effects with long-term androgen
administration may include virilization, abnormalities
in serum transaminases, menstrual irregularities, hair
growth, decreased libido, weight gain, vasomotor
symptoms, lipid abnormalities, and depression. There-
fore, the lowest effective dose should be utilized (maxi-
mum long-term recommended doses are 200 mg daily
for danazol and 2 mg daily for stanozolol), and the
patients CBC, liver enzymes and lipid profile should
be monitored regularly (e.g., every 6 months) while on
therapy. Contraindications to androgen therapy
include: pregnancy, lactation, cancer, hepatitis, and
childhood [18].
The antifibrinolytic agent, tranexamic acid, has also
been shown to be effective for the prophylactic treat-
ment of HAE and AAE. Evidence suggests that it may
be less effective than androgen therapy in patients with
HAE, but more effective in AAE [18]. Tranexamic acid
is well-tolerated and is generally preferred for long-term
prophylaxis in pregnant women, children, and patients
who do not tolerate androgens. The most common side
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
http://www.aacijournal.com/content/7/S1/S9
effect is dyspepsia, which can be reduced by taking the
drug with food [18].
Regular intravenous injections of plasma-derived C1
inhibitor replacement therapy are also effective for both
short- and long-term prophylaxis. These injections can
usually be administered at home by the patient or care-
giver. The current recommended dose is 20 units/kg;
patients with AAE may require higher doses. Since C1
inhibitor replacement therapy is a blood product, annual
recipient hemovigilance and vein-to-vein tracking are
essential [18].
Treatment of acute attacks
First-line therapies for the treatment of severe acute
attacks of HAE and AAE include: C1 inhibitor replace-
ment therapy, ecallantide and icatibant [18]. C1 inhibitor
replacement therapy is the most well-studied first-line
therapy; it is administered on-demand at the first sign
of an attack. However, some patients with AAE may
become non-responsive to this treatment over time; in
these patients the use of ecallantide and icatibant should
be considered [24].
Ecallantide is an inhibitor of plasma kallikrein (the
enzyme that releases bradykinin, the primary mediator of
angioedema). It has recently been approved by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States for
the treatment of acute angioedema attacks in patients
with HAE. The usual recommended dose is 30 mg sub-
cutaneously (adults). Although the side effects of ecallan-
tide are generally mild (i.e., injection-site reactions,
headache, nausea, fatigue, diarrhea), this therapy has
been associated with rare instances of allergic reactions
and anaphylaxis. Therefore, it should only be adminis-
tered by a clinician in a medical setting equipped to man-
age anaphylaxis and severe angioedema [18].
Icatibant is a bradykinin receptor blocker that has been
approved in the European Union for the treatment of
acute attacks of HAE. The usual recommended dose for
adults is 30 mg subcutaneously; pediatric experience with
this agent is still pending. The most common side effects
of icatibant are mild and transient injection site reactions.
Other, less common side effects include: nausea, gastro-
intestinal upset, asthenia, dizziness, and headache [18].
Conclusions
Urticaria is a common disorder that often presents with
angioedema. It is generally classified as acute (lesions
occurring for < 6 weeks), chronic (lesions occurring for
> 6 weeks) and physical (lesions result from a physical
stimulus). The disorder can usually be diagnosed on the
basis of clinical presentation and history, however, diag-
nostic tests may be helpful for confirming the diagnosis.
Second-generation, non-sedating H1-receptor antihista-
mines represent the mainstay of therapy for both acute
Page 9 of 10
and chronic urticaria; first-generation sedating antihista-
mines may be used as adjunctive therapy in patients
with nocturnal symptoms. For severe, refractory chronic
urticaria, short courses of oral corticosteroids and cer-
tain immunosuppressant and immunomodulatory thera-
pies may be beneficial.
Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria. The
more common causes are ACE inhibitor-induced angioe-
dema and idiopathic angioedema. Rare, but life-threaten-
ing causes are HAE or AAE. The work-up and
management of HAE and AAE varies considerably from
that of angioedema associated with urticaria. Although the
angioedema associated with these disorders is often self-
limited, laryngeal involvement can lead to fatal asphyxia-
tion. Patients with these disorders demonstrate character-
istic abnormalities in certain complement levels and,
therefore, diagnostic testing of patients with suspected
HAE or AAE should include assessment of C4, C1q and
CI inhibitor function and antigenic levels. HAE should be
considered in patients with an early age of onset and a
family history of the disorder; in patients with AAE, there
is no family history and age of onset is usually later. Ther-
apeutic options for the prophylaxis of HAE and AAE
include: trigger avoidance, attenuated androgens, tranexa-
mic acid, and plasma-derived C1 inhibitor replacement
therapy. First-line therapies for the treatment of acute
attacks include: C1 inhibitor replacement therapy, ecallan-
tide and icatibant.
Key take-home messages
Urticaria is a common disorder characterized by recur-
rent, pruritic (itchy) lesions with pale centers (wheals)
that usually subside within 48 hours; it is often asso-
ciated with angioedema.
Mast cells are the primary effector cells in urticaria.
Urticaria is classified as acute (lesions for < 6 weeks),
chronic (lesions > 6 weeks), or physical.
The diagnosis of urticaria, with or without angioedema,
is based primarily on a thorough clinical history; however,
diagnostic tests may be helpful in some instances.
Second-generation, non-sedating H1-receptor anti-
histamines are the mainstay of therapy for urticaria.
Oral corticosteroids and various immunomodulatory/
immunosuppressive therapies may also be used for
more severe, chronic cases.
Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria,
with ACE inhibitor-induced and idiopathic angioedema
being the most common causes.
ACE inhibitors should be discontinued in any indivi-
dual who presents with angioedema as this condition is
associated with life-threatening upper airway angioedema.
Idiopathic angioedema responds well to prophylactic
antihistamines, however, oral corticosteroids may be
required in some cases.
Kanani et al. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011, 7(Suppl 1):S9
http://www.aacijournal.com/content/7/S1/S9
HAE and AAE are rare disorders also characterized 8.
by angioedema in the absence of urticaria; they result
from a deficiency or dysfunction of the C1 inhibitor (a 9.
plasma protease inhibitor that regulates several proin-
flammatory pathways), and are associated with life
threatening upper airway swelling.
Diagnosis of HAE and AAE should include the 10.
assessment of C4, C1q, C1 inhibitor function and anti-
genic levels. 11.
The management of these disorders involves both
12.
prophylactic strategies to prevent attacks of angioedema
(trigger avoidance, attenuated androgens, tranexamic
acid, and plasma-derived C1 inhibitor replacement ther-
apy) as well as pharmacological interventions for the
treatment of acute attacks (C1 inhibitor replacement
therapy, ecallantide and icatibant).
13.
Acknowledgements
14.
This article has been published as part of Allergy, Asthma & Clinical
Immunology Volume 7 Supplement 1, 2011: Practical guide for allergy and
immunology in Canada. The full contents of the supplement are available
online at http://www.aacijournal.com/supplements/7/S1
15.
Author details
1 16.
Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. 2University of
17.
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
Competing interests
Dr. Amin Kanani has received consulting fees and honoraria for continuing
18.
education from Scherring, GlaxoSmithKline, King Pharma, Merck Frosst,
Novartis, CSL Behring and Talecris Biotherapeutics.
Dr. Robert Schellenberg is past president of the Canadian Society of Allergy
& Clinical Immunology, a member of the Medical Advisory Board of the
British Columbia Lung Association, the National Lung Health Steering
Committee and the Scientific Advisory Committee for Respiratory and
Allergy Therapy of Health Canada. He is also a member of the Data Safety
Monitoring Committee for Asthma Treatment. Dr. Schellenberg has received
consulting fees and honoraria for continuing education and participation in
advisory committees from GlaxoSmithKline, Merck Frosst, Novartis, Talecris,
Bayer Biologics, and CSL Behring.
Dr. Richard Warrington is the past president of the Canadian Society of
19.
Allergy & Clinical Immunology and Editor-in-Chief of Allergy, Asthma &
Clinical Immunology. He has received consulting fees and honoraria from
Nycomed, CSL Behring and Talecris.
20.
Published: 10 November 2011
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doi:10.1186/1710-1492-7-S1-S9
Cite this article as: Kanani et al.: Urticaria and angioedema. Allergy,
Asthma & Clinical Immunology 2011 7(Suppl 1):S9.