Edexcel AS BiologyHow to use this book Thit book eontaines numbered great fastures that will help:you fine! yourway around yourAS Biok gy course and support your learning Introductory pages Fach top: has tro introductory pagestahelp you identity oer the main text is arranged to eoversilthat you need to lam The ft hand page gher a bret summary the topic, linking the content to three Rey areas of Hom Sciaroe Wotks:Whataw the theories! Hhatis the evdence? What ae the implications? ‘The right-hand page of the introduction consistsot atopic map that shows you horyallthe required content of the Elexcel specification that topic iscoverd in the chapters and hoy that content al inerinks Linke to other ‘opis are al shorn including rbere previous Knowledge is buition within the tope Main text The main part of the bookcowersallyou need to kam for yourcouse, The text & supported by many disgra msand photographs that will help you unde mand the cenezpte you net to lem. ey terms in the text se shown in bold type. These terms are defined in the interactive glessary that can be found on the ActiteBook CD-ROM using the ‘wach glowary'teatum, in et heex> The voice of the genome bmresicory pagepete nae tt ars ren ne Heke bata sia iota bacyedias line ee nmnoilepe priests araore page Baantone pages 2 the end ot each ople you Wil fi to pages exam questions fom pat paves Yon can 38 tase questions tates Ro Fy you Fae nda the opi asweliaste fly you poste foryouraras, HSW boxes How Seienes Wane ies bey festa of your corm. The many HSW bees ‘within the text will help you coverall the nem aspects of How Sckence Works ‘that you reed. These inclide how scientists imestigate Wear ard develop ‘theories, how to evaluate data ard the design of tudis to teat thelr vality are relebilty.ard hory ack nceatfects the ealyiort including informing, decisione that read to be takan by individuals and society, Practical boxes Your cours contains a numterot come practical tht you may be tested on. 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The heart and heslth “The hurran heart How your heart norls Beod pressim Jthersclemsic andiovarcule disease 1.3 Fone are haslth “The nurriert's you nesd ‘Omganic molecules in hing things Lipits Proteins HW Uncovering the stricture of proteins ‘Why a bata ead diet important? The energy budget ‘Weighs izues 1A The rick of developing eardiovascular disease What ie ko Epidemiotogical sudiesand CVD HW Lifesty factorsin C¥Ds canton riallink ‘The benefits and rete of tmatrmant Using the evidence Examame:Topte 1 practice questions 10 10 2 4 6 v7 18 2 24 2 26 28 30 Er] 4 34 36 40 az 46 48 50 52 54 54 56 58 52 ea 58 70 “Z oe aoe TOPIC? Gareandl teslth 2) Moles sees thas resale a Lie Nucleic acide HSWETHe stony of the double helt The double beard hewn & works Hory does DNA act asthe genetic code? Mutation Enaymes What dessan endymme do? 22 Thebaseyot genetic HSVr The worker Gregor Mendel Understanding hurnan genetic trate 2. Tretaport sttves membranes Membrarasincell Hory the membrane works Osrasis —a-specialews of difusion betive transport Diffusion and gareous exchares Diffusion and the hurvan epirtory system Traneport proteins inaction 24 Indepth studyot's genetic dseses (Gpstc fits Treating cystic fibrosis roy Gore the apy for cyte fibacis Genetics ening Emrone-Topk 2 practice questions M2 4 16 116 1 12 128 10Brel es) Ue ee us TOPIC 2 The voice onthe gens ne 2.1 Animal aol sdsrueus | mpreaturtisn loobing at one “The characteristic of euleyotic lle Protein trarepor in cals “The axeriaation ofcels Calldnein Miresis ‘Asemal poduction ard natural coring ‘Geomth 3.2. Semal repmduction andcell specialization “Why 22tual repred ution? Meiosis ‘Camatagenasis Fenilistion Embryo development ard cell differ tiation Using totipotent cate ‘What causes alld iferentiation? 2.3) Sern celleand beyond! Stemcolls and nhem ne find them ‘Who could benefit from stem cell srenpy? HW The ethics of using'stem celle 34. Expressingthe gem me How geres interact Irteractione between genes ard the environment “Vatiation ‘Genes and armimniment in hurran features ammo: Topic 2 plactice questions 132 Bt a4 BE 140 a4 146 188 1 164 186 156. 158, 760 16 168 170 we WE We 180 182 184 784 186 "80 2 Be TOPICA Biesive sity snd mature sources 4 Plant structure Pont osl.stricture Plant celLorganalles The struc of plant stam Transpo tissues in plots Trebeation of water The uptake of naterby plants The uptake of miners by plants 42 Plantes ratural msouraes Food for thought Fromcarstriction w clathing HW Biaplarties— into the future Peart pharmacies Modem drug deve pment 43 Spacer andevelition The backgound tobidbersy HW? Ne eclarshycgey and the thes domaine seoogyand adaption Natural seecticn ot gone lel fxoluton inaction HSW'The soy of the peppered nth Irerasing beaversty Endemim 44, Theimportan of biodiversity Biadberity Mescurirg bidive sity The natu eof extrction Concenving habitats Conmenving spaces HSW Maire choices the story of Guam Examzone: Topic 4 practice que thons Inder 198 200 200 204 208 208 210 2 2 216 26 2a 2m 222 224 228 228 2m 24 236 238 240 242 2a 246 246 20 254 256 258 262 264 266OS et es cues er Topic1 Lifestyle, health and risk ‘This topic dha with one of the mort erucil are of your life ~ your health. It Jools at how the way that people le - ther fectyle— might atfeet their heath, Tt focuses in particule on the effect of diet, level of exercise and habits such 25 emalting on the well being of the heart and simulatsey (suniovseeuls stem, What are the theories? ‘The eardiowzeuks cyster plays a vital im your body. This topie bole at how the diferem cements of the gstem. weds together and how your Hifstyle and enitic imberitunss right afteet it: heslth Tt ele at what happere when thing 0 wong with your cardiomscular system and how they might be prevented or cued. Dist i a crucial past of your well-being shadied in the topis, What impact dows diet Mave on your heath? What am the effaets of beings oveneiglt or sunderveiclu? The topic ako Jools at how food is wed in the body. You. vwill kar femething abou the bieckeminy ef food — how fhede euch oe carbolydmtes and far are built up and biolcen chown, and the differert wles ‘they ply in your body. What is the evidence? ‘All the infcemation we have abevt dist, Uwe: andl hesih comes from esientis Teseuch and you wil be boing at how thé is carsiad out. "You wil aso be comsidaring how to evaluate the resulls and conclusions from scientific studies, ironing those which prodice conflicting eviconce about the same pootiem, ‘Tiere willbe opportunities 19 cury out your own imestieaions, for example om ‘the lovele of vitamize in fond and the effects of diffirent subetances on the hent me. What are the implications? Science does not eis in a moral vatumm. In this pic you will tecin wexplore some ethical beues, for ample using animals in medial research and what is ‘nwolved in irectigating Farum hecith, inally there i the qusstion of how to use a this information in everyeay Li Wnt ae the zis of getting camlivaecular die? How de you seers em and ‘mabe decisions about your Mestyls bacedon them> How does the way people estimate rik affect ther Lieende chaioe > ‘The map opposite shows you all te Inowkige and slals you reed ta have by the endef the topie. The oclour inaach bert show: whieh elapter they are cevemea in and the numbers refer to the Eee specification.beeen ee as fo an plan nt riary sire: hare sqtin te iporenceotvater ig. afeatand citation nthe yg. siptantowttestuctsesot in warepor 2) el or mas tarepert (6) Hhond yess rate to tet lunctere 2) debe tebocdciotng pes | aes sad it rele in cxchorecite cdessoe (V0) 19} sdocnbe hecuda cvas and tetas the stucnre of thehesrt ‘eit friction) sactba hehe efecto feathine | plan theccuse of sents ttt en hentrtecanbe neesipaed last athwroscs (11) spdretaad efica ise) sete he-smfhess ofa sree data on evegy bunts descibebor sninaasid stucne Aigheais by condensation anddeto stobeate © ard sequence in 3 protein rxtore seddisureush betreen decry theccreagunncss of fess teao snus shustedard uestuated pis 8) rang babar (17 ol he poten ad its properties ‘cit tat este the srguihbaneonstucnne sctba-ts temonot “ieann Coontentor Redd Sls of mcrae dates, sxc and paps stink (16) xed sc trough comensatcn reactors rushed (3) aan stars usrg os (4 sdocbe the bats tat ‘redyce aed intarret dota cube thebenelteandricsof ingeseethevsk of CVD (12) ‘Hood chnletncbrels ‘nesimens fr C¥0 (12) Upegrotie aed feath aed cectibe theeickrce br cack. raienchip beta Hood chests 20 (14 ety rd cepa ny disnss how propte integretdstacn Pepe's perepnens usestient ic lures ard erty ofr ate ofen rowed stout rates to detemine dient fo iat exer seand heath sks (18) acta rks 20) stooling to reduce ‘hak other ies (191.1 Transport around the body e717 Thea hee es toxcune ro oftie tiny ly teh tna alata lege aes ple dtkaion onsupglyits rneportimedk. Transport systems ‘wrtin any ling oman, susanecs med toe moved fom one piace to another Celb mquir a supply of chernicak, such as chucose and oxjgen for celuhr respraton These rmst be tnsponed from arse te oan ints te oes, Respiaton supp emery forthe other reactions of life but it ako produces the toxic waste product carbon vile, This and other waste prechcts need in be removed from the cel and the body betore they damage them. Transport in simple organisms One of the main ways substances move im and out of ol by fasion. Ditfisiom i: the tree movement of parties ina liquid ora gasdown a concentration gradient trom an area where they am at a relatively high concentration to an area wher they are at a relatively bw comenration. For a uniceladhr oremism suchas am Aimocha, nutsients and cacygen can life directly into the cell from its extemal emizonmnem, and waste cubrtanses can difiies directly out, This werle well besruse the eurfane area of the Amos memtaare i contact with the outside is very latee relative to the volume of the ireide of ite cell Tha i, ite surface areate volume Patio is large. Because the organism just one eel. substances db not need to travel from cell cellirside it (ee fig. 11.1) “The surface area tovcumerate of an ergniem legely deter nes whether diffusion acne wil sller abstince: tormeve i and cutot ol oF ‘the als However, tt sn Teasy 10 caus the surface area to-Ylume ratio of cerns such ar ‘elephants poople and cak tees, Ws ky een fer an Anmeba because of ts rregder shane, Se seirnin? use medal te halp shew what happens in therealsiuaten.& smnple cube makes surface area to lume calalations 229 The biggerthe crgnim gate, the smaller the surfce ‘fea to olume rata baccmnes he distance fron ‘utes the crginirn to the sila gets lage, and ‘here Close curios fer substances toerter through So i te longer br ubstance: to difive in. athe w= tenf va aur 2 Tank Loon rtor wa tatme nto 26:1 artes waz cnt Seles Sant roa wavelriinte 2 eure 27a Bebe se.vebmvets se4ar= es F112 tee agar the cabeersprcantindalzst annie,Transport in large organisms In contmet to unicellar omganiare such = am Amoeba, lmger opsanéms are made up of biliors of eels, often organised into specialised tissues and oreans. Substanses need to travel Jong disemee: fromm the Outside to Teach the cytoplasm of all the cells. Nutter and cayeen woul eventually reach the inner eelb of the body by simple diffusion, Dut not fast enough to sustain the proceses of lie Complex organise have evolved specialived systems to get food and crygen inte their becker én humane, thew systems are the gut and the lungs) amd to remtve waste (the gut, lige, sin and lédnays}. They ako have an internal transport system which carries substances to every cell in the body, delivering cnycen and nutrient: and talire away waste quilly +5 tht cells cam carry out their reactions efficiently. In bree complex organémns such a Immans, chemical made in eel in one part of the body - eg a hormone such insulin or adkenaline ~-may have an effect on a different ‘ype of coll ekewhure in the body. Sa cubstmees made internally nied to be moved around the body as well In umare this transport system is the heart and cirubatory system and the blood which flaws throuch it. The ican examph of amass twanspert system, ~ substances are tareported in the flow of fad with a.meshaniem for moving it around the bedy. Allan complex organiurs have some form of mass trareport system. Subviances are delivered over shost distances from the mag: trareport system ta individual celk dap in the body by processes suchas diffusion, osmosis (he moverem of water alg a consentmtion gractent tuough a partly permeable membrane} and acti transport (in which energy is wedto move substaness paint a consentemion gmcion) Features of mass transport systems Pei: tarcport mule: an effective tmanepom system. Pest mass wansport systeis have certain features in common. They have: + asystem of vessels that carry substances ~ these are wuslly tubes, sometimes folowing a very specific route, sometimes widespread and branching, + away of making sure that substances are moved in the right dineetiom, g¢ mutants m and warte out + amamnt of moving material fast enough to supply the reeds of the organism ~ this may invelve mechanised method (eg the pumping of the her} oF ways of maintaining a concentration eratient yo that substance: move quildy dom one place to another (gg wing active tmnspor) + asuitabl tanepor matium, Bg. Te Human terportaystum pits ary allwihhesey diheiondetsrcs af Hood cally, Jn this unit you will be boling at how the human cardiovascular system fulfils its wnsport functors ~and what happere when it goes wrong, OD 1. Exphinwrty free anima’ cannot tale in ab the substance: they seed fron outzide the body ‘through their san 2 in humans oxygen enter the bodyand carbon diowide leaves i through the lungs The lags af nade of thousands oft iy'air sacs sumounded by bod vessel. How does the helpthe nragacer ‘to diffuse quickly into and out of the blood?ater cole Water in living organisms ‘War the medium in which al the reactoms tale place in living celle, Without if substmes: could not move around the body, Water is ome of the reactants in the provss of photyynthesis, on which all life depends, “Ard yater & a majer habitat - it supports mone lite ‘than any other part of the planet, Undertanding the ‘properties of water wil help you understand mary ley Syste in living organisms, inelaing transport systams, p14 Batwa Ena 70% your beds wate. Undine tts sucid hunwctl shom yeu hy inking planet tee hah ofuigear bay aera The chemistry of water ‘The importance of water 10 Diological systems is due tp the baie chemitry of its moleruks, The simp: chamival formula of water & H,O, whith tlk 15 that ‘60 atom of iydiozen aze joined to ome ator of engin te mals up each water molecule 22 fig, 1.1.8). if ut Tae Fie 11.5 Amodel of water rede Each water mokewl it lightly polaised. The meare it has a very slightly negative part = the cscygen atom. ~ and very slightly positive parts the hydrocen, aiome, This separation af charge is called a dipole. and the tiny charges are represented as 6+ am &- ‘One of the most important mus of this charge sepamtion is that water molbcules form hydrogen onde, The dighly negative omycen atom of one ‘water mocale will attact the slightly peritive Iochogen atorns of other water mplerules in a weak alectrostatic attraction calld a hydrogen bond. ‘This means that the molerubs of water Stblt together rom thn you might othersise expect, because althongh each individ! hydrogen bond is weal, there are a great many of them (a3 shown in fig. 11.6) Water hus mbtivey hich melting and bailing points compared with other substances that hare molorules cf a siilar ine ~ it tales more enexey to overcame fhe attmetire forces of al the hydimgen bons. le s te le we é at ay fg 1/16 Water locale ry byt ogen bende ich har sopeherWhy is water important? ‘The properties of water mule i very important in Dingle gstums. sor savatal mesore, 1 Water is an unurual and excellant sdvent, ‘Many other substances wil dissolve in it. The fact that the water mokcule hz a dipole mean: ‘et many ionic substan ces lle sodium chloride (eal), which are made up of postive and negative ons, wil dsolve in it The positive and negative dons wepamite and bercme oumvunded by water molecu: which Inep them in solution, Polar substmees (compounds with covalemt bonds ‘but with mall charges on different parts of he mol:cuk) will not wually dissolve in crganic ‘solvents such a ethanol, but they will désolve in water, However, waar can ako camy many non-polr substances ~ chemiba. that do rot form ions, They may form colloids, with solute particle: kuger than the solvent parties. Tho ‘sole parts are spread through the water but do not separate cut. Became the chemital reactors ‘within celb occur in water (in ayueous solution) ‘the ably of water to act a a volvent is vitally important for the processes af hi. Some subsimas: that do not dissolve in water ave important in the body. Insoluble particles form emulsions (tiny droplet of ons lqust ‘suspended in another quid) or suspensions (a solid micd with aliquid, m which the partie: ‘wil separate out if the minture is not ccmstaruly moved or stined). Blod isa suspension of cls and phtkt i plema Fan may te tampered, in the bbod as emulsbre of tiny fat dipplet: (os form ermbions in a simdar way ~ see fig. 11), “Adornatively they may be brolman down (ge in digestion) into smaller, soluble mpkcues 10 be tmmported around the body. Then they are built ‘back imo insolitle molecules wher these am sneeded, for example in the cell membrane or to form exergy storage molecules 2 Water has ona ofthe highert known surface Tansions, Suifae tension & a property of liquits, when they behave a if the curso: & coved ‘by a thin elztis clin. Water bas a high surface ‘tension because water molecules form hydrogen, ‘pends which tend to pull them down and together, ‘There is mo such attaction between the difert ie 117 Ii date ate tsan eget bard ha nil deplete fxr an emuion The brgh urd inthe al ofthe all ines lokernily wht Ute ts becureofalthe sry Bt eplets ern gestion ernatied inthe bench mokeuls: where water and air mest, So the water Jhyer hells together forming a thin sin of surface tension. Surface tension & of ereat importance in pl trareport tysteme, and ake affier: Be at the surface of poms, Inses and other water masses, 3. The water mleculeis amphoteric, This mears ‘hat itcan act both as an acid ft forme Ht iore and is a proton corer) and & a base (it forms OFF iors and bs a proton axcepton ‘This abilty of water molecules to both donate and rageive protore mins it an ideal medium for the biochemical reactions occurting in ces, It acts as aulfer, helping to prevent reactions in progres from changing the pH inside the cell Any excess Ht or OH om am mopped up. OED 1) Hove are hydrogen boris formed between water tnokecule and what affect dothay have on the properties of water? 2. Thema soltion,cytophsn 2 coll! and blood is a suspension. Explain how the properties cof salrtione,collode and s4zpencione adapt these biological atari: to camry out thairfunctions in the bey,aren role The role of blood In human the mass tansport system is the cardiovascular system. This i mack up of a tarier of vessel with a pump (the heart} to move bled through the vessels, The blood & the transport medhum and its passage through the vevsek & called the circulation, The syvtem delivers the materisk needed by the cell of the body, and camice away the waste prochints of their metabeliem. It so carries out other functors as well, such as: anying hormones (chernical messages} from oné part of the body to smother forming part of the defence system of the body + distributing heat Chapter L2 focuses on the human cardimascular system. Here you are going to tale ackeer lool at the transport madam - bled The components of blood ‘Your biked ica complex mixture carrying a-wide vasiaty of calls and substances 10 all areas of your borly (see fig. 11.8) Masia his srav-coloured qui the main ormpenent af the blood and const ergy of nate. Haaracontais a Hike rage felosolred substarces to be Tansported and sn fibrinogen, which & a slLbla substancovita far the cating ofthe blood Enythnocytes (edbiond als) “The cals ook le biconcave dsc. Thane re sppracrataly 5 milion par rar of Blood 5 min per rr in emer 5-6 min par mi blood tne). They| eaten beetrogbb in.3 med patent which exis aaygen and poe tam her car, The seen nave for red bled ease erytteceyter ord they are ferred in the red bontraant of thashortbon auch a thers, Mare eryhmcytes do net conten a mcr and hare 9 lnm lifeo fabout 120 dass, Taucorytes uhie Mood cal) wo ‘hee are much lerger than erytrecytes but cn sco squeams through thy Blood esd w they can charge ther shape there a round 4000-11 coopera? of Hood they all conan a nuda and hae cowiess groplarn, Thereare sever. ‘yes Host are formed nthe wh tebore tesrow ofthe long bores such as the humerusin the am and the farur thal, sthough one Ope called lyrphocytes, se forned nthe orngh glands and spleen Ther man finan & to defrd thebody spins nketen sie Handle we try Fanart of ergo all clad regakanyax yer whidh are found ‘the benemanoit Thereare about 150.000-400 000 platelets perrnn of blood They 1s irvcived tthe clotting ef he Hood ftg11.8 The nmin omnparen ef ood Cry te paris nda yheosyts hae wanepor tn,The main functions of blood ‘Your blood carries out a wide variety of functions. The plasma tuanspots digested food produces (é churose and amine acide) fiem/the small intestine to all the arts of the body where ty am needed either for immediaie use or storace ‘uansports dood meleruks from storage areas to the cel that need them ‘uansports excretory pmoducts (eg carbon dinxde and wea) ftom cell to the omans such as the Ire. or kidneys that exerete them fromm the body + tmnsports chemival messages (hommonss) trom. where they are mace 10 where they cause chance: in the beely helps to maintain a steady body temperature by caring heat amumd the system from deep-tenteal ongans (gg the gut) or very active tissues (ee les muss in someone rusmire) acts a a butter to pH changes, Ifa blood veved is taobens the fibrinogen in the prom wgsther withthe plwhts clots the Beod. The bt seals the blood vessel and so prevents excessive binod. lope, Ifthe brelven Meee vevsel ie om the euméane of the Slin the clot ako prevents the enuy of disease-causing bacteria or vinnes (pathogens) which could cause infertion, The elt drier to form a voab which protect the new slin crowing beneath it and falls off once the damuige ir fully healed, ‘The nae Bloed cells trarepet oxygen them the hme wall De cols. They am well adapted for transporting orygen The shape of the cells = a biconcave dise = meare tha thay have a large surface area to volume atin, so cucjeen can diffuse irto and out of them rapidly. Having ne nucleus leaves all the space imide the celb for the haermebbin mokeules that camy te onygen Infect, each red blood cell contains around 250 millon mulecules of haemoghbin and can cary 1 000 milion mokeubs of oxygen! Haare bin ako caries scone of the carbon dicwide produced in rispinion harlet the linge. The rect & tmamsportd in the phsma ‘The white bibod cells defend against disease int60) rain ways! + Some types mule antibodies which destmy pahogere or antitexine which meutalce the pobors (toxins) made by pathogens. moe the ‘body Iue enoumered a pathigen, thecs white cell can mals antitodies to this pathogen very quicldy iit iwrades aeain This is the basis of the bods immunity to dimases, + Some whtte blood als engulf and digest pathogens in a process Imown as phagocytosis, Substances move between the plsuma or md bed call: and the bedy cols by diffusion or active teanspert. ‘The tinkst blood vessel: have walls only one cell thick and substances pass eanily anroct these into otter cell. very call in the body is ebse 10 one of these small vessel, x= Rnowledse about the cll: ofthe blood andhaw Hood sreniperts substance: acund the body any appeared se scentts developed the refit took Miarezecpes have beceme ery powertl.so ‘deta ed Tages of the components ofthe blood snd the arallart blood vesede are nomravatale lead paque dyes m combination venh trays and nagneticrescrance in gh (MB seand) shewerdere det fed. ternal pictures ofthe heart end craulation shan ewe betera They lar dectorsand acantatsto- ‘ratkthe bicod asi ransportssubstancas acund the bod. oD 1 Why dees blood look red sthough plaer & yellow? 2 Exphin the mle of the blood tansport system in the defence against infiction. 3 Red Blood celk am unusual in not aving’3 nucle Explain hore this & an adaptation for theirrale in carrying onsen. and why they Nave hinted Wearen role ‘As you have seen, the erythnocytes are adapted for ‘rangporting oaygen ‘The bhodtrampert system also cami away the cazbon diowice qrodnoed during respitation by cele, Oxygen ‘The haemighobin mokeule parked in the ma bled cells tansport oxyeen. Bach aermpebtin melecuk can pink up four molecu of oxycen The conoentmation of cougfgenin thezed bod eels when the blood erters the Ings is lthely bw. Chogen movesinto the red blnd els from the ai in the hing: by difinion. Beaune the omgen & picked wp and Dound 1p the haere in, fhe fe ouyeen concertratin in the eyieplaem af {he red Mood cole sig: law, ThE maintains a step comcentaton gradient fom the ai ithe hares 10 the red Hood eels, +o more and mom oxpgen difases in and i Icaded onto the haxmgb bin, Inthe body tistmes the copigen level ame mbtively low, The concentration of oxyem in the cyioplem of the red bloed call & highor than in the cumcunding tesue, Asa result ctygen moves outinto the body cel by diftuinn down i concemtmtion gmctiene. The asmoelobin molec wes give up some of their orygen. When you are at mst or exercising gerily, only about 29, of the coygen carted by the huermgbbin rekwed into your celb (see fig.1.15}, Ther & anther 79). reserve in the transport system for when you am ery avtive Aediopermttesd hyper pman Se, ChRR ss Siveoteche” nating m0 nate utara eeeae prsanscune fe sei dgpoidaare Sige nme ? in emai fhecpinse ngs ‘Ac cxygerad Hood appt cochee eins ssa doen Paria prewute cases alage Setreanin estrone fi sieges ohoggny lowfat presae of son the condone Tne eupiong See Patel pesaseoronen e119 Oigian serointcncure fr huranhoaradtin. Transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ‘Waste carbon dose diffuser rom the mepicing coll cf the ted tistos: into the blood. along a conoemmation gralint, The action of the carbon didi with water & cmoil. Wlhun carton dice is deeolved in the Vlood it reacts slowly with the waier to foun cartorie 20id, H,CO,. The carbonic acid tapmatis te form the iom HY ani HCO, C0, +H,0 = H,co, = HCo-+ Ht About 584 of the earbon disside is carted in solution in the plea. A further 10-20), combines with hasmeeloin mmokeuks to form earbaminohasm globin, Most of the carbon dicsite & wareported in the cyioplaam of the med bhod eels as hycimgenearbonam tore. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase comols the rate of the reaction Tbetocen carbon dioxide and water to form earbonie acid. In te body terme: there is a high concentration of carbon dine in the blood so carbonic anlydree cataljes the formation of artemis aria, In the lug: the carton dine concentration & bw so cartomic anhydiase catalyses the reverse reaction and free curtom lautite diane: out-of the Heed md ino the lanes (fig. 11.16) ‘eikanabgc pasesines plums sade Hosdeele brafiniontaomberesonh pata ‘sof arbors aad onbedty te ern ence Cian wadaarientie Oeics Ficoesnextonnte ere HaFogaartorme rere pas cut af tre H edb clleby Hatiaaaics a ti Sinn oe Citveeprete ee Iebopn cat in pies Thsizoledthe anordchanere the pH Seat woebood tom nee figls10 The tarpart of arbendionde fom te Herve ote lanes dependant rencten often deade with rate,cormalled yanenye in the redblordllThe blood-dotting mecha ‘You have a limted amount of bod In teery, a rinor cut could endanger life at the torn Wood versele allow blood wo escape int, and most immediatly, your Mood vatume wall fall you bse too much bleed you wil diz Second, pathageze can get into your body through an open wound. Innormal cirunstances your body has a damage Lmiution system dn the cloting mechanism of de bod. Ths michariem tail: up damaged bloed vessels to minimise bod loss and prevent pathogens ertting in Blsma, bled cells and platdets few fom a cut vessel, Contact between the platelets and components of te thsus (ee collagen Sbmes in the in) camer the phtebts to teak open in ge numbers, They rekae sevenl substances, of which two are particulady imperunt 1 Serotonin camer the emmeth mince of the bod vessel w contact. The narrows the tlood vessels, scufting off the blood flow to the damaged are. 2 Thromboplastin & an enzyme which sets in ‘progets a cascade of event that lee to th formation of a ct (see fig. 11.19) + Thromboplastin catalyses the conversion of a large povtsin called pr othrembin found in the asia into another engyme ealkd thrombin, ‘This happens on a luge scale at the site of a wound. Calsium ion ned te be present in the ‘ood at the right coneermration for ts reaction to happen. + Thrombin acts on another plasma protein callad fibrinogen, converting it 10 a substance called fibrin, This fons a mesh of Hbres + lore phickts and bhod cell powiine fom the wound pit trapped in the Sbrin meth. THe forme diet, + Speci] proteins in the structure of the platelets contract, making the cht tighter and tougher, (Bema | taloaee ip .111 We enande afer: thet reulteins ile-sng dot Tes sole the Boca resale uncprotct the debate new atinuctraath In a cascade system such cbt formation, a relatively small event is amplified through a veriee of steps, However, sometimes the body's clotting mechanism, ib tigesred in the wrong place, and this can lead to ‘erlour probleme in the blecel versal. A clot nthe ‘vessels that supply your heart with bhbod ean cause 2 Iheart attack, a you will see in chapter 1.2 oD 1 Exphin the role of diffusion inthe tr nspon of both ovygenand cartes dioxde smund the bey. 2h the genetic condition haemophilia, part of the nonmalcaacade rackanism tor bho clotting & mizing, What problins doyou thinkthe ads to?aren role Blood circulation Circulation systems Many animal: have a simubatery system in which a hheart pumps blood amund the bedy. Insects have an open ciulatery system, with the bed ciculating in lmge open spams. However, moet larger animals ~ including the vertebrates — have a closed cireulaiony eystam with the blsed cemaineel within tubes. The ‘bod males a continuous joumey out 00 the most Gistant parts of the body and tack to the heart, Animals such = fish have a single circulation, The Iheart pumps deo:rygenatad blood to the eis, where the bibod tales in oycen and becomes onyeenated. The hed then tavek on mound the retof the bedy of the Tih, civing up oxygen to the body cells before mnumine ‘to the heart. Birds and mammal: need far more coygen than fick, Not omly do they have to mows around without the support of vider, but they abo maintain a coretont ‘bedy temperatune whish it weually higher than their sunpundings, This tle a lot of enerey, 20 their cells need plenty of caygen and food and produce a lot of waste pinducts that need to be removed quilt For this reacon birds and mammals possess the mest comple type of tarepert yystam, Imown = a double circulation because it mmoles two ciculatorysystems, ‘The systemic circulation cames oxygenated (oxygemrich} blood from the heart to the cilk of the body whew the oxygen is used, and carries the deoxygenated blood (bbod that has given up its cugen to the beds cule} tek to the heart ‘The pulm onary circulation cursies daowygenated ibod from the Test to the lings to be oryeenated, and carrie the cirggenated blood back to the heat (eee fig. 11.12). ‘These separate eixeubatory systems male sure that the comgenated ani decryeenated blood camot mix, 30 the thiues mecive x muah cuyeen ay poeeible. dnather big advantage i that the fully omjeenated bod cam be delivaed quidiy to the body tissue: at hich preure: ‘The blood going through the tiny blood. wessek in the Iungs ist relatively ow pressure so it does not damac= the yaneh and alleur ow emthangs to tale place. Ifthe, ooygenated blood at low prstum then went stright fino the big vessels that camy it around the body it ‘would move very chy. Rarauee irefume to the heart, the cxygenated blood can be pumped hard and sent around the body at high pressure, Ths means it reaches all the tiny capillary between the body cele quisly, supplving oxygen for an artive way of life a nats vemrerenmire Dihebart pdrernnrartsyionryng ——aftsie—— Bloat 6 te ares tohed parnorane lice wremewee ctsted teow have syserae creat Sraridthe body arterylewre Betewe sire marine ‘Sieh situ Betose Eleeeperomttbed ae lyase fig V1.1 & drut araltionsendatlood a igh presaue car ne Inte oferygan 0 he ace cle ofthe boty The blood vessels ‘The bod vessels that amale up the cineulatory system ‘can be thouelt of as the biological equivalent of a spall wansport system. The arteries and veins am We the wide ‘motonvay! camying leary tatic whit. ‘he murmw town vtreet: retemble the vast branthing, and spreading capillary network, In the cxpilary aetwouk substmees canted by the bod am exchanged, ‘with cele in the came way & good: am uphaced from factories or officaded to shops and homes. The ‘fructus of the disterem type: of bined yestel elccalp sefleet their fonctions in your body.‘We shall boltat the stmucnue and the function of the ‘types of blood essel separately. However, you should remember that the vecek do mot exist & separa structures ~ they are all interned within the whole cimeulatory system, Arteries fiers cay blood ug) trom the Inart trwards the cells of the body. The structure of an artery is shown in, fig.1.113, Almect all arteries camy engygenated bleed. ‘The only exceptions are: + the pulmonary antery, camying deoxygenated Dood from the heart to the Junge ‘during preerancy, the umbilical artery carries dlecoygenated bled from the fatus to the placenta ‘The artery ering the heart branch off i erery Gimctbn, and the diameter of the Iuman (the central space inside the blood vessel} gets small the further it & from the heart. The very sinalbst branches of ‘he arterial system, furthest from the heart, are the arteriole? he rudde ves of te areryvalansin hevehans andccth Toure arenes renest ‘he hear tavamateshane ing eae ath Ren te heanttons gare poprten ofrmede rue Smocth rag lene naertpeantte om! feleod arryurctetched by Ur atid non hae, fo.1192 estar ofan ateryeratlesit cope nth he aus ‘oh blonde the eet paige ‘Elood & pumped out from the heart in a regular hyum, about 70 times a minute. Each heartbeat ‘conde a Righ-pmscum curge ef blocd iio the arteries, ‘The major arteries close to the heart must withstand these prewsum surges, Their walk contain a lot of elsti fbres so they can stmtch to aocommodate the gfater volume of bed without being damaged (ee fg. 1H). Retucen surges the elattic sine: retumn to thelr original neth, squeezing the blood and 20 roving it aking in a continuous flaw. The pulse you can fool in an artery is the effect of the sume eae time the heart beats. The blood pressure in all arteries fe rally high, bur it fall: in ameriee sumther away from the heart (the periph eral artery) In the peripheral areties the rmsck sitnes in the verse] walls contract or relax to change the sim of the lumen, comuoling the blood fw. The smmalkr the Iumen, the harder it & for bled to low through the verse] This controls the amount af boed that flaws, fimo an organ. 30 regulating the activity of the organ, srreride asin Bun fo V1 Beeabveproprtre of trent wsusin athrenta tie Cogen gree general enength and leciitytbothartesesand wingake rols Nee Capillaries Aisterioks feed inta networls of eapillaiee. These am runute vettele that spread throwehout the tissw of the body. The capillary networks linls the arteries and the venules, Capsllzrit branch between cele — 10 cell ie far froma capillary, so substances can didfise between cel and the Hood quiddy. Also, because the diameter of each individual eapilary is small, the bibod travels relatively slowly through them, again civing mone eppermunty for ditfscien to occur (6g_1.1.15}, The smallest capillary & no wiler than a single red Tood cell onetermteral egorten donde oi a Y opti va (Gptebd ay 1115 Treva tanwacot apilwiesalow dion of ayn, caben donde and Rocrleaes, Te lei artnet ft fedltloodedletopnee trough, Capilluies have a very simp structure well suited to their foretion, Their walls are very thin, containing, no east fibres, smooth amcle or collagen. This helps them fit between individual cel and ako allows rapid diffusion of substanats between the Hood and the call. The wall coneét of just one yery thin ell Crogan and other molecules quicldy diffuse out of the ied in the eapillmies into the nearby body calls. and carbon diode znd other waste mokcules dittwe in, Blood entering the capillary network from the arteries ie cuygemated By the thre ot leaves, t eames ee coygen and more carbon dimcde Veins Veins cary blood tack towarce the Feat, Micet veins carry Geowgfeenatad blood. The exceptions are: + the polmonary vein ‘which cams oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart for circulation amined the bey + during prgnaney, the umbilbal vein ears oygenated blood fom the placenta into the fetus ‘Tiny venules kad from the capilary network, marzing ints larger andi larger vertch leading bask to the heart (09.1.1), Dentually only two veins camy the sefumning bod to the heart - the inferior vena cara, ram the lower parts of the body and the cuperi ar vena cava fiom the upper parts af the body. reboavelyttn ayer of ‘vorrhnneck ry Ferelache Ble rebovetybage bnven pA. hire denote te wither tha igh pam fe afl gear ved tisicralectedinthar smuctre‘Veins can DoH a luge volume of blood ~ in fact ‘more than half of the body's blood is in the veire at any cme tire, They act at a blocd meervoir. The Dibod pressure in the veins is teltively low ~ the presure surges from the heart are eliminated as the ‘hed passes tlnough the capillary beds, This blcod at low pressure must be returned to the heart to be cuygenited again and resireulted, There are tue rain ways in which thé is achieved: At drequemt intervals thioughout the venous system them me ont-way valves, Theze are ead samilunar valves because of their half-moon shape. They are éormed from infoldings of the nner wall of the vein. Bleed aan pac: through, toward the heat but if it stars to flow beclnwards ‘the valves clove, preventing this (see fig. 1.1.17} Heed movingin fe diecten ofthe heart bres ‘Beale open lloning be Elondae bow Brough ervierse tae shut ruse teed AbsceLoo to doa dae the yb, neue ‘hattloodcareet fan spay fomthe hes, p19.77 Wisin te wine nar ne that bined fone in rly ne drecter tirade te heart Pe concen ofargeniedee tnecugestiond Nar ouah the wine. +) Many of the larger veins are situated between the large musck Hoch of the body, particulany in the anne and legt. When the muccks commast dusing physical activity they squeeze these veins. Wath the valves Ineping blood travelling in ome direction, this squeezing Telps 10 return the blood to the heat So, the main types of tocd vessels ~ the arteries, veins, sand capillaries ~ have very different chamcteristis. ‘These affact the way the Mood ows trough the body, and the roles they play in the body. Some of these ferences am summurked in fig. 118, ay bge salt foes copies setdes vere ig L142 Geaphete darts curace we ofeach pe at Hood veselin your bey alee with the velciny dere of the Hood earlingin tem ox: 1 Infish,the Hood canct be supplied +o the kody ‘Yesuas at high pressure Why not —and wey does ‘the not matter? 2 Why e a double cieubtion deal fran acne nial vrbch maintains ns cura body temperture inde pendenthy of the envi men? 3 Whyare vale: important in veins but unnecessary: inaneres? A lookat the graph in fig 1.1 18. Explain carefully ‘wfiat the graph shows and the kinks baton the diferent lines on the graph,Aree eect Anundastanding of the rle of the blood and the bloed vesastas bean nowcnghy mpertantin the eter to onecomre cance, ‘Conca de the unccnimclled goith of abnor valk offen eautting na large mass of calls nce as 2 sumo “The famnation of ne Blood vessel? anyrhere 1 the body & known as angiogarasis. Cancer cals seem able to stimulate angigenesis tosupply blood to the faetgeringedls of tureur The ere cle reduce sinal acthator mokculeswhich set off seres of react which stirlate the surraunding heathy ‘epithelia cals toprodice 2 nem, rich netwerk of blocd yess tig. 11 19) Understanding ot the way cancer ells cr sugested ‘tne possible ne ways of treating the dewase — cutthg ff the Hod cupply to turneur cr beck the sctrtor molecules 90 angiogenesis wil not take plane ther Way the cancer cule Wil ot be abl taro fg. 11.70 baron of your body tue keh Modan ie s pecdthing. Citing 2fthe Hed auply tos tuners re approx te moving enor Blocking the blood vessels Inthe US a group ofscintists lad by Or dei Ruch has developed 5 zynem bazed en rancpartidas heny thy partes) ‘phic they hope wll teat a variety of cancers They Mentiied & peptide molecule which binds tobrest cancer tumours 1 mice Smal blood dots are found on the erdathel ium of the blood ‘vessels of turmours,but not inal Blood vessels Gr Ruosahis ‘team showed thatthe peptide molecule bind? to there bleed dats, usng a genet arin of mice that don't produce fonnogen 20 lack these Lead dots The peptide didn hd totumours ‘the mutant mice but dil the nermral nes The team then inked ‘the peptide tonenopartides. Once these partes have bound ‘tothe blood sesrel valle, mere doting ker pee and rere nancpartides bind. The clots that fom block the tumeur Beod ‘vere, etarrng the canos cals ofcayagn and nutrents At present ‘the partides block caly about ZO of the blocd vassal, which en” fencuith 10 top the turnaur growing, but the team are woken improving thi. They azo hope te produce rancpartidas that cory ‘anticancer drugs right ho the tumour sothat they dae a two: prong attack Much of he reach uses oda! mice which have bean brad to develep cancer fe below) Blocking the receptors Inthe UK,32000men are disgnoved with prostate cancereadh WO TWE Gancar often spreads to other tesues and orgare auch ac ‘the bones. Asa result THOO0 men die of prestate cancer each yes Serna prerhisng research by sziante ledby Or leah Filla at he Un ne sin oF Texas sugmets ange wa) of stoppnerthe tumcurs spreading. They recrled-on mie infected wih a dug-retant tain of prostate caer The drug they tied wre Clive: (eo ror as Cee slready used to west lauzernia Some of the nize ware given 3 mictum of trad Rioaldrug teatrent and Cle ‘Others are gyre no treatment The mice rere gyn amature ct ‘drugs because the hurran pat ents woud gen the tradition srestrnene ae wall Ewen ihe tuniur @ drug reretant fn these smi) the old treatent ht gre same benefit. Evidanoe rom ‘the treatment of other concur suggests corn natin of Clee ‘yet other drugs gy the best renults The results are shown table 14. ‘Clnec appears to blodk receptors in the ep halla cols ofthe blood ‘cpllanes hich noerially respond togrereh signals produced by ‘the crear cole With theze meaptes blacked the Heed veal? do not grey and branch and soon the tumaur calls stp graeme ‘and stato die Resarchers ae now tying to find the best ‘combinations of dugg and wl then start harman tls