CHAPTER I MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION CHOICE OF MATERIALS 1-1, In designing equipment for the handling and manufacturing of chemicals it is necessary to consider many factors whose roots lie in the theories of chemistry, physics, and economics. The choice of materials used to construct ‘a piece of equipment are primarily dictated by considerations such as resistance ‘to chemical reaction, strength to resist loads and stresses, and relative costs of two or more materials equally acceptable. The chemistry involved in a process leads to evaluation of the chemical resistance of the containing equipment, and the temperature and pressure required or resulting from the reaction define ‘the limits wherein relative inertness of the material of construction must be achieved. It is necessary that equipment provide the proper environment— space, time, temperature, and pressure—to allow reactions to take place of their own accord. It must also provide the mechanism whereby energy may be supplied or removed as required to maintain equilibrium. With a knowledge ‘of chemistry, physical chemistry, thermodynamics, and the unit operations of chemical engineering it is possible to evaluate quantitatively the best environment and the necessary energy requirements for a reaction. To establish limits of space for a reaction, the material used to confine the chemicals involved must have sufficient strength and must remain inert, or nearly so, at the extremes of pressures and temperatures that may be encountered. A temperature limitation, for example, would be dictated by the highest temperature used in the equipment, and could be either the maximum temperature of the reaction or the temperature required to produce the necessary temperature gradient to insure adequate heat flow. The best theoretical adaptation of a material of construc is appreciated only after consideration of the chemistry and energy relations involved. 1-2. Chemical Factors. Considering first the chemistry involved, ac- count must be taken of the effect of the confined reactants on the confining metal and also the effect of the confining metal on the reactants. While it is essential that reactants do not corrode or otherwise injure the equipment, it is likewise often essential that no impurities be taken up by the reactants from the equip- ment. This latter is especially true when minute quantities of metals taken from the equipment might cause undesirable catalytic effects, Of the many materials of construction, metals are the most common. Wood, stoneware, plastics and other non-metallic substances are often found in chemical equipment. While the principal part of the equipment may be made of one type of material, it is 12 Process Equipment Design common to find some two or more metals present in a piece of metal equipment or to find a metal part in some non-metal equipment. Thus the action of several metals must usually be considered in connection with the resistance to corrosion and the development of impurities in the reactants, In most cases, the action of reactants on a material of construction is thought of as corrosion. It is often extremely difficult to evaluate corrosion even when all the impurities in the reactants and the metals are known. Labora- tory tests on the corrosion of metals in simple solution are usually not only inadequate but often directly misleading, mainly because it is exceedingly difficult to duplicate exact conditions which will be encountered in the equipment during operation. The direct solubility of metals in various fluids is not always a good index of corrosion or inertness, for there is always the question of the presence of dissimilar metals all of which cause corrosive action due to the formation of electrical couples. On the other hand it is possible to safeguard equipment by the judicious use of dissimilar metals which will develop a couple in such a way that the polarity of the principal metal will act to repress its solubility and thus climinate corrosion. An instance of this phenomenon may be cited in the case of aluminum equipment, which may be protected anodically by the use of other metals in contact. Other methods to avoid galvanic action are the use of gaskets or other structural forms that will electrically insulate two dissimilar metals. Paint is often desirable, not only to form a protective coat, but also to reduce the effective cathodic areas. Nickel, Monel, copper, brass, bronze and similar alloys may often present serious corrosion problems due to galvanic action when used with iron, low-alloy steels, aluminum, and zine. But nickel and its alloys usually may be used advantageously with copper and its alloys, or either with high-alloy steels, without causing galvanic corrosion, And iron and low-alloy steels may be used in combination with nickel and high nickel alloys when the area of the ferrous metal is large compared to that of the more noble metal. For a summary of fundamental causes of corrosion and their prevention see refer- ences 50 and 38, Aside from the actual chemical reactions of metals there are a number of cases, especially in high temperature, high pressure gas reactions, where the metals used must withstand penetration by gas molecules. Even at low tem- peratures or pressures gas embrittlement may hecome an important factor. Thus as complete a knowledge as possible of all the reactants on all parts of the construction material should be obtained. All metals exert a solution pressure when in contact with liquids, so it is theoretically impossible to prevent some action between liquids and metals; but in practice it is possible to reduce the reaction to an economical minimum, The design engineer is always faced with the problem of using the best material for the lowest net cost, [fan almost inert metal is very costly, whereas. a relatively inert metal is cheap, it may he possible to use the cheaper metal, provided the initial cost and replacement cost for the expected life of the equip-Materials of Construction 3 ment add up to less or no more than the cost of the superior metal. ‘There are many places, however, where very expensive or perhaps rare metals must be used in equipment. These expensive metals may be used alone (for example, nickel for an evaporator), or they may be used as lining material backed up by some less expensive metal that will provide the necessary strength. ‘Tantalum Iinings illustrate this principle. Sometimes an inert metal will not stand the load to be applied. For example, lead is often too soft and of too low tensile strength for many uses, but it can be used as a lining, Lead and other metals that do not alloy well with iron, copper, aluminum, etc., are often used by them- selves as linings rather than in alloys to give corrosive resistance. Recently considerable attention has been given to the use of inhibitors to prevent certain types of corrosion. Data on inhilitors are widely scattered and a rational basis for correlation of results of these phenomena has not been found. Undoubtedly much more use will be made of specific inhibitors in the future The ferrous metals are in very common use for many classes of equipment. They are relatively inert to many substances, are inexpensive and easily fabs cated. Proper alloying gives them resistance to many substances under various conditions of temperature and pressure. Non-ferrous metals are usually more expensive than ferrous alloys and thus are used only where ferrous metals would corrode too rapidly or where the products of corrosion would present undesirable ‘impurities in the reactants. A detailed description of the properties of the many materials of construction is beyond the scope of this text. The most comprehensive survey of the chemical and physical properties of both metallic and non-metallic materials of construc- tion is given in the journal of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, where tabulations of data are published each year. The 11th Materials of Construction Issue is dated September 1944. For other specific data and recommendations for use of materials consult the Chemical Engineers Handbook.*? 1-3. Physical Factors. The physical properties of materials of construc- tion that must be considered are the following = Strength is often the most important physical property to be taken into account in the choice of a material. It must be known whether the material is to withstand tensile or other stresses, and whether these stresses are uniform and continuous or whether they are alternating. Due allowance must be made for the possibility of heavy peak loads. And the stress must be known for the material at the operating temperature involved. Many non-metallic substances. such as wood, leather, and plastic materials, have strength and other physical properties that depend upon their exposure to water, cil, air and other en- vironments. ‘The expansion of materials due to applied stress or changes in temperature must be considered. This is especially true when several metals are in contact, each having different thermal expansion coefficients. Expansion, as temperatures