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Ly Luan Gioi - Gioi Thieu Nhung Nguy Bien Thong Thuong - Morris S. Engel (1994,143tr) PDF
Ly Luan Gioi - Gioi Thieu Nhung Nguy Bien Thong Thuong - Morris S. Engel (1994,143tr) PDF
Morris S. Engel
Mc Lc .......................................................................................................................................................... i
Tc Gi .......................................................................................................................................................... iii
Phn I .................................................................................................................................................................1
Chng 1............................................................................................................................................................1
Bn Cht v Phm Vi ca Lo-gic ....................................................................................................................1
1. L Lun va l Mt Mn Khoa Hc v Mn Ngh Thut ...................................................................2
2. Lo-gic l Nghin Cu v Tranh Lun .................................................................................................3
3. Tranh Lun v Khng-Tranh-Lun.....................................................................................................4
4. Loi B S Dng Di ..........................................................................................................................6
5. Nhng B Phn Khuyt Thiu.............................................................................................................8
6. Lm Ni Bt nhng Thnh Phn Kh Nghi ......................................................................................11
7. nh Gi cc Tranh Lun: ng, Gi Tr v Hp L......................................................................14
8. Nhng Tranh Lun Suy Din v Quy Np ........................................................................................17
9. L Lun v Gio Dc ........................................................................................................................20
10. Tm Tt .............................................................................................................................................20
Chng 2..........................................................................................................................................................22
Phng Tin Truyn t ca Ngn Ng ......................................................................................................22
1. Ngn Ng v T Duy ........................................................................................................................22
2. Du Hiu v Biu Tng ..................................................................................................................25
3. T ng v Vt Cht ...........................................................................................................................26
4. S Hu Dng ca Ngn Ng ............................................................................................................29
5. S Ti Ngha v M H ....................................................................................................................30
6. Nhng Tranh Lun v T Ng ..........................................................................................................31
7. nh Ngha ........................................................................................................................................33
8. Ngh Thut Ni Chuyn Trc Tip ...................................................................................................37
9. Tm Tt .............................................................................................................................................39
Phn II..............................................................................................................................................................41
Chng 3..........................................................................................................................................................41
Nhng Ngy Bin do S Ti Ngha..............................................................................................................41
1. Li Ni Lp L .................................................................................................................................44
2. Cu Ni Nc i ............................................................................................................................49
3. Du Trng m ..................................................................................................................................53
4. Php Tu T .......................................................................................................................................57
5. S Phn Ha v Kt Cu ..................................................................................................................61
6. Tm Tt .............................................................................................................................................64
Chuong 4 ..........................................................................................................................................................65
Nhng Ngy Bin ca Gi nh ...................................................................................................................65
B Qua Nhng Yu T C Bn .................................................................................................................65
1. Khi Qut Ho ..................................................................................................................................65
2. Gm a C Nm.............................................................................................................................68
3. L Lun R i .................................................................................................................................70
i
Lng Trnh S Tht.................................................................................................................................. 72
4. Lp Li Vn ................................................................................................................................ 72
5. Ngn Ng Cng iu hay Thnh Kin........................................................................................... 76
6. Phc Tp Ha Vn ...................................................................................................................... 78
7. Bin H c Bit ............................................................................................................................. 81
Bp Mo S Tht ..................................................................................................................................... 83
8. Tng ng Gi To ....................................................................................................................... 83
9. Sai Nguyn Nhn .............................................................................................................................. 87
10. L Lun Rp Khun .......................................................................................................................... 91
11. Lun im Khng Ph Hp ............................................................................................................ 93
12. Tm Tt............................................................................................................................................. 95
Chng 5 ......................................................................................................................................................... 97
Ngy Bin Tnh Xc ng ........................................................................................................................... 97
1. Cng Kch C Nhn.......................................................................................................................... 97
Cn nguyn .............................................................................................................................................................98
Lng m .................................................................................................................................................................99
Suy din gin tip .................................................................................................................................................100
Xem ai ni .......................................................................................................................................................101
u c ngun nc.............................................................................................................................................102
2. Ku Gi m ng ........................................................................................................................ 104
3. Ku Gi Lng Thng .................................................................................................................... 107
4. Ku Gi Quyn Lc ........................................................................................................................ 109
Quyn lc ca ci duy nht...................................................................................................................................109
Quyn lc ca s ng .........................................................................................................................................110
Quyn lc ca s t c la chn........................................................................................................................112
Quyn lc ca truyn thng..................................................................................................................................113
5. nh Vo S Khng Bit................................................................................................................ 113
6. Ku Gi S S Hi ......................................................................................................................... 116
7. Tm Tt........................................................................................................................................... 118
Phn III ......................................................................................................................................................... 121
ii
Engel, Morris S. With Good Reason - An Introduction to Informal Fallacies. 5th
ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
Morris S. Engel. Vi L Lun Gii - Gii Thiu Nhng Ngy Bin Thng Thng.
x/b 5th. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
iii
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Phn I
Chng 1
1
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
2
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
V th, bc u tin tin ti thng hiu v tranh lun l hc phn bit tin v
kt lun. lm iu ny, hy tm nhng t ch dn, nh chng c nu ra, v lit k.
Trong nhng tranh lun m nhng t ch dn ch nh th b thiu, hy c gng tm kt lun
bng cch xem u l ch ca tranh lun: iu m tranh lun ang c gng thit lp.
s l kt lun ca n; phn c li l nhng nn tng h tr hoc l tin .
3
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
c. Chng c con co no vng ny. C ngy, chng ti chng nhn thy con
no.
4
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
th cng khng phi mt tranh lun. V th nhng cu hi khng phi l tranh lun, tng
t nh th i vi mt tuyn b, phn nn, tn thnh hoc xin li.
5
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
Khng phi tt c nhng g vit hay giao tip l tranh lun. C rt nhiu th n
gin khng phi l tranh lun, chng ta khng cn mong i nhng iu ny phi c
trnh by mt cch rt lo-gic.
4. Loi B S Dng Di
Tranh lun theo din t ph bin thng b vng vu bi nhng ln lp li, dng
di, v khng minh bch. nhn thy r hn nhng tranh lun nh th l g cn thit phi
lm sch nhng th mc rung khi n. Thnh thong iu ny cng dnh ti vic l i
nhng li gii thiu kh di dng ging nh v d di y ch dn c in v vic bn
hng ca Og Mandino Ngi Bn Hng V i Nht Th Gii
6
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Trong vic loi b nhng rm r khi cc tranh lun, chng ta s phi loi b mt
vi th th thn, bng by ca nguyn bn. y l mt s hy sinh, tuy nhin chng ta cn
phi lm t c s trong sng ca lo-gic.
7
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
V th, nhng cuc tranh lun siu hnh hc theo loi ny c th thiu hoc l mnh
ca nguyn l chung (trong lo-gic, c gi l tin ), hoc l s tham kho y
cho tnh hung ca cu hoi (tin ph), hoc l s suy din (kt lun). C mt vi v d
nh sau:
8
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Mc d trong nhng trng hp ngn nh vy, nhng b phn khuyt thiu thng
d dng lm t duy chuyn t ngt hot ng, n vn l mt li im, trong suy ngh ca
ngi tranh lun, khng xc nh chng r rng, do lm th mt ln na l thu ht s
ch v thch thc nhng phn i.
9
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
Din t li on tranh lun ny, chng ta pht hin ra rng n khng nh nhng
iu sau:
Chng ta phi phn tch nhng tranh lun cn thn quyt nh nhng gi
thuyt no chng n i, nhng nhn t no khuyt thiu: tin chnh, tin ph hoc kt
lun.
Tm kim nhng b phn khuyt thiu theo phng php tam on lun.
Nhng b phn khuyt thiu rt c th c tm thy d dng bng cch nhn bit
rng rt nhiu tranh lun ca chng ta u theo dng tam on lun c in ca Aristotle,
y l mt v d v n:
10
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Tt c n ng u phi cht
Socrates l n ng.
Nhng tranh lun nh th cha ba hoc duy nht ba b phn chnh hoc thut ng.
Trong v d trn, l Socrates, ci cht tt yu, v n ng. Ch ca kt lun ca mt
tranh lun nh th c goi l thut ng ph, khng nh lo-gic ca kt lun c gi l
thut ng chnh, v thut ng cn li, ci m xut hin trong mi tin ca tranh lun
nhng khng trong kt lun c gi l thut ng chuyn tip. (Ch rng t xc nhn
trong vn cnh ny c dng khc vi khi chng ta dng tho lun v ng php).
Tranh lun ch ra rng lm th no m t ch ng (Socrates) v t xc nhn mang tnh lo-
gic (phi cht) li lin kt vi nhau thng qua cch thc m mi t lin kt vi t trung
gian (n ng).
. [phn gia]
[ ph]..[ chnh]
11
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
quyt nh mt tranh lun c cha nhng thnh phn ng nghi hay khng,
chng ta cn hi nhng cu hi nh: t ng ca tranh lun ny c sng sa chng ta bit
chc chn nhng g bn thn anh ta hay c ta cam kt? C phi nhng s tht c trnh
by h tr hiu qu ca kt lun nh l mt h tr? Chng c thch ng khng? Chng
ta c chp nhn chng l ng khng? C th hn, nhng minh ho c thch hp khng?
Chng c ngha khng? V mc no? Nhng vn ng c xy dng hn l
n gin qung vo st rc ca nhng th pht ngn?
iu m ngi vit tht bi l khi s thc l Tng Thng v nhng ngi lnh o
ca th gii t do l lnh o ca chnh quyn, c mt iu khc bit thit yu gia Tng
Thng ca Hoa K v cc lnh o ca cc quc gia khc. Khi vn phng ca Tng Thng
c thnh lp, cuc cch mng ca ngi M l ni au u ca nh vua; h khng c
d nh thnh lp mt th ch qun ch vi chc v Tng Thng thay th vua. Khng
ging nh cc ch qun ch, Tng Thng c la chn bng b phiu ca qun chng
v b coi l ngi y t ca nhn dn. V th s khng c chuyn dng lm l nhm chc
ca Tng Thng rnh rang v hu h nh c t chc cho cc lnh o chnh quyn khc.
Bi bo sau cng c tnh nghi vn tng t, nhng v nhng l do khc:
12
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Chng ta chng cn phi l bc thy trong ngh thut lp lun cng bit rng s
ng n ca chng ta trong tranh lun . V th, chng ta khng nn chn ch trong vic
yu cu bng chng khi mt phn trnh by hay gii thch dng nh qu ba bi hoc
ng ng. V d, hy xem xt phn tranh lun ca ngi c u quyn bo v trong tnh
hung lm dng tr em trng McMartin c bo co di y:
Phi cu b tr li.
Khi c hi Buckey m bao nhiu nht vo con nga sau khi n ng, a
b tr li Chu khng m
13
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
vic khng khip , n s phi nh cc chi tit. l vic Bruno tin tng rng c ci g
khng khip nh vic x i mt con nga gy sc i vi a tr n ni m mi chi
tit ca v m tht, n su mt cch mnh m vo tm tr ca a b mi mi. Nhng iu
c th khng lun lun ng. C nhiu trng hp i vi ngi ta, c bit l tr con,
km nn nhng k c v cc s kin qu khng khip vi h c th ngh li. Cng c
th l trong nhng khong thi gian nht nh, a tr s nh cc s kin c bn nhng
khng c chi tit. N c th khng tham s vo tt c cc chi tit ca v x tht v
khng th hi tng li chng sau . V th cc kt lun ca Brunon khng c m
bo.
a) Tt c n ng u s cht.
14
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
b) Tt c mo u l ng vt.
Tt c ln u l ng vt.
V th tt c ln u l mo.
Trong mt s trng hp, kt lun ca nhng tranh lun c th ngu nhin ng,
nh trong trng hp sau:
c) Tt c mo u l ng vt.
Tt c h u l u l ng vt.
V th tt c h u l mo.
3. Chng ta c th c thc t sai (mt hay nhiu tin ca chng ta l sai), nhng
chng ta c th s dng chng thch ng (lp lun c gi tr). Trong trng hp ny, l
lun c gi tr nhng kt lun khng hp l.
4. Cui cng, c tnh hung m mt hoc nhiu tin ca chng ta l sai v chng
ta cng s dng chng khng ng cch (lp lun thiu gi tr). Trong trng hp nh th,
tranh lun va khng hp l v kt lun khng ng.
e) Ti thch kho hc ny
Tt c cc k thi chung kt u d.
15
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
ng Thiu Gi Tr Khng hp l
Sai Gi Tr Khng hp l
16
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Ni mt cch khc, khi chng ta khng bit tin l ng hay sai, chng ta xem
xt cch l lun; l lun c gi tr hay khng? Trong cc l lun c gi tr v nu tin
ng, th kt lun l hp l.
17
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
Hoc dng khng c g: Hy chc chn nh rng vi kem Colgate. Walt Frazier
s khng ngh ti vic nh rng vi loi no khc.
Chng ta hy xem xt nhng tranh lun hp dn thuc dng ba trong phn hai.
y, chng ta xem xt hai dng u tin: dng th nht c gi l suy din, dng th hai
l quy np. Tranh lun mang tnh suy din l tranh lun m trong kt lun c to ra
nht thit phi l kt qu tt yu ca cc tin . Mt khc, nhng tranh lun mang tnh
quy np l nhng tng m trong kt lun c to ra c th ch l mt kt qu tt
yu ca nhng tin .
a. Suy din.
Tt c nhng ht ny l t ci ti .
Do , tt c cc ht u ny u en.
b. Quy np.
Tt c cc ht u ny u t ci ti .
Tt c cc ht u ny u en.
Do , tt c cc ht u trong ti en.
Trong hai tranh lun ny, ch c trng hp th nht (tranh lun a) c kt lun chc
chn l kt qu tt yu ca nhng tin -- tt c nhng ht u trong ci ti l en, ti
khng th tm ra mu khc. Kt lun ca tranh lun (b) ch l kt qu mt mc c th
ca nhng tin -- c th c vi ht u trong ti khng phi l en, nhng ti khng
nh ly chng.
Mt s khc bit gia nhng tranh lun c tnh suy din v quy np, m n s c
quan st, l nhng tin ca tranh lun suy din cha tt c cc thng tin cn thit t
c kt lun nht thit v kt qu tt yu. Kt lun khng cp n ci g ngoi nhng
tin . Mt khc, trong kt lun ca tranh lun quy np, chng ta phi liu lnh da vo
thng tin c cha ng trong nhng tin . V th, kt lun ca chng ta c th khng
bao gi l chc chn, mc d kh nng n ng l cao.
l bi v nhng tranh lun mang tnh suy din chc chn thnh cng hoc tht
bi chng minh kt lun ca chng chng ta c th ni rng chng l hp l hay
khng hp l; mt khc, nhng tranh lun quy np c nhn xt l tt hay xu, mnh hay
yu.
18
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
c) Mt tri mc ln hng ngy k t khi thi gian c ghi nh. V th, mt tri s
mc vo sng mai.
Chng ta cm nhn chc chn rng ngy mai mt tri s mc, nhng pht biu mt
cch lo-gic th mi quan h gia kt lun (ngy mai) vi nhng tin (hm qua) ca n
ch l c th ch khng chc chn. (Nh nh lo-gic hc ni ting Bertrand Russell mt
ln nu ra trong tc phm Nhng Vn Ca Trit Hc, ngi n ng m cho g n
hng ngy c i anh ta th cui cng cng vn c n m thi). Trong nhng tranh lun
quy np, chng ta khng nh rng trong kt lun, s tht bn thn n khng c nu ra
trong nhng tin . V d, trong tranh lun (c) trn, nhng tin ch chc chn cho qu
kh, chng khng chc chn cho ci g s sy ra trong tng lai. Do , nhng tin
khng bc b kh nng kt lun l sai, t lc chng to ra kt lun m tnh ng n ca
kt lun c th da trn c s ca nhng tin hoc khng. Bn cht ca tranh lun quy
np l a chng ta ra ngoi nhng g c khng nh trong nhng tin v th
chng ta ch thy c nhng g m tin m ch cho nhng s kin khc. Lp lun suy
din th i lp nh th mt cch chn chn. y, chng ta khng c gng i ra ngoi
nhng tin nhng hiu su sc c th hn nhng g chng nu ra. Trong v d sau, mi
iu c cp trong kt lun ch c to ra mt cch chn chn t nhng thng tin
c chuyn ti trong nhng tin .
V d ny minh ho cho tnh cht chnh xc ca nhng suy din c th. Trong khi
nhng tranh lun quy np m rng ni dung ca nhng tin bng cch hy sinh tnh nht
thit, th nhng tranh lun suy din t c tnh nht thit bng cch hy sinh vic m rng
ni dung. Hu ht nhng tranh lun m ta bt gp hng ngy l loi quy np, v l
nhng g chng ta s ng u nhiu nht trong quyn sch ny.
V th, nhng tranh lun quy np c th cha ng mt lng thng tin ln,
nhng chng li t b vic chng minh nhng kt lun l chc chn ng.
Nhng tranh lun suy din thng hp l hoc khng hp l; nhng tranh lun
quy np li thng mnh hay yu.
19
Nature and Scope of Logic V Thng dch
9. L Lun v Gio Dc
Nh chng ta ni, nghin cu lo-gic gip chng ta gii thot khi nhng suy
ngh v hnh ng ng ngn. Mt trong nhng iu quan trng khc m chng dy ta l
chng minh mt th g mt cch chc chn. Nh chng ta thy, nghin cu lo-gic --
c bit l nghin cu tnh hp l -- dy chng ta rt nhiu th. V th, v d, chng ta c
th bit chc chn rng tt c ngi nh trn ph ng s 10 lc nhc chut cng ch nu
khi chng ta kim tra tt c v pht hin ra chut trong mi ngi nh. Ch bng nhng
iu kin ny, chng ta mi c th bit iu ny chc chn ng. y l mt suy ngh
nghim tc, t lc tt c xu hng ca chng ta l tin tng iu ngc li m chng ta c
th to ra nhng kt lun chc chn trn c s nhng bng chng c v l va hoc
nhng bng chng i din. Hy ni rng mt hoc nhiu hn nhng iu di y l
ng: chng ta n ph s 10 mi ngy th hai trong hai thng v lun lun hoc
thng xuyn nhn thy chut cng trn va h ; chng ta vo tm trong s mi
nh ph s 10 v nhn thy chut cng trong tt c tm ngi nh ; ai m chng ta
tuyt i tin tng, m bo vi chng ta rng tt c nhng ngi nh lc nhc chut;
chng ta va c mt bn kim tra ca chnh ph tuyn b l ph s 10 b tn ph bi mt
lng cc ln chut cng; v bn tin lc mi mt gi va truyn i s phi by ca vn
v trnh chiu nhng on phim chut cng nhung nhc c bin bo ca ph s 10. Mi
mt iu h tr ny chng t rng c th mi ngi nh trn ph u c chut, nhng khng
mt iu h tr no li loi b c kh nng mt s ngi nh khng c chut. V vy,
chng ta s c xu hng kt lun l chng ta bit rng mi ngi nh ph s 10 u lc
nhc chut. gi nhng xu hng c tnh cch kim tra l mt trong nhng li ch ca
nghin cu lo-gic. Nh chng ta c th ni, y cng l mt trong nhng li ch ln ca
gio dc lo-gic.
10. Tm Tt
Chng ny khm ph mt loi ca nhng quy tc lo-gic v mt vi b phn cu
thnh ca n l g. Nh chng ta thy, mc d n l nhng quy tc mang tnh l thuyt,
lo-gic cng l mt lnh vc thc hnh ca nghin cu, n a ra nhng li ch to ln trong
vic c x hng ngy.
20
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Trin khai nhng nghin cu v tranh lun chng ta nhn r hn mt tranh lun
c ba c tnh c bn nh gi n nh th no. iu u tin trong chng l tnh ng
n hoc sai lm ca nhng tin . Th hai l tnh gi tr hoc v gi tr vic lp lun t
nhng tin . V c tnh th ba l tnh hp l, iu m tn ti khi nhng tin l ng
v vic lp lun l c gi tr, hoc khng c c s khi thiu tnh ng n hoc lp lun c
gi tr
21
The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
Chng 2
Ngn ng l mt phng tin giao tip bng li ni, v th vic nghin cu l lun
(study of lo-gic) c lin quan ti chnh n vi nhng cu trc v chc nng ca ngn ng.
Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu cc phng tin truyn t ca ngn ng v tm
hiu ti sao mt s l lun thnh cng trong vic chuyn ti ngha n chng ta trong khi
mt s khc li khng.
1. Ngn Ng v T Duy
Francis Bacon, mt trit gia ht sc thng thn a ra s r rng trong quan st
v t duy, mt ln nhn xt ngi ta "tng tng rng nhng ngh ca h c s iu
khin ca ngn ng, nhng hay xy ra trng hp ngn ng sinh ra nhng quy tc ln trn
ngh ca h." Nhn xt ca Bacon hu dng trong vic nhc nh chng ta rng ngn ng
khng ch c th cn tr s truyn t t duy ca chng ta v ngay c chnh bn thn n.
Do cch thc t nhin, tng bc mt m chng ta thu c ngn ng, rt t khi chng ta
ngng quan st rng n l mt cng c v cng ging nh tt c cc cng c khc, gi tr
ca n ph thuc vo k nng ca ngi s dng.
22
The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
23
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Nhng Orwell tip tc bin lun, chng ta khng nn cam chu tnh th ca mnh.
im c bit l qu trnh mang tnh thun nghch. Ting Anh hin i, c bit l
vit ting Anh, y nhng thi quen xu m c lan truyn bi tnh m phng v
c th trnh c nu nh h c vn cn thit. Nu h thot khi nhng thi
quen ny, h c th suy ngh r rng hn, v vic suy ngh r rng l mt bc
quan trng trc tin i vi ci cch chnh tr: nh bt li ting Anh c hi
khng phi l ph phim v cng khng phi l mi quan tm ring bit ca
nhng tc gi chuyn nghip. (xem trn)
24
The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
25
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
3. T ng v Vt Cht
S tng phn gia du hiu v biu tng lm cho n r rng nh th, t tt c
nhng chc nng ca t ng nh cc biu tng, khng c s lin kt t nhin no c
thit lp gia chng v nhng vt cht chng biu hin. By gi ngi ta tin rng c mt
dng thch hp c k tha gia t ng v s vic chng miu t c ph bin mt cch
k l. Mt trong nhng cuc i thoi ca Plato, Cratylus, tm hiu cn k cu hi ny.
Mt pht ngn vin nhn xt, "ti ngh nhng bn miu t c tht ca nhng vn ny l
y, theo trit thuyt ca Socrates, rng c mt sc mnh no ln hn con ngi
t tn cho cc s vt, chng chc hn phi ng" (Cratylus 438).
Mark Twain vit thm tip theo cho cu chuyn kinh thnh ny, m ng ta
da vo s tn ngng rng mt tn gi c mt mi quan h c hu vi vt c gi tn.
Theo Twain, khi Adam khng th ngh ra tn gi cho mt trong nhng con vt, anh ta
khn khon yu cu Eve gip "Anh s t tn g cho con vt ny nh?", Eve tr li: "C
gi n l con nga." "Ti sao li gi l con nga?" Eve ni: ", n trong ging nh mt
con nga, phi khng?"
26
The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
Ngi ta c gng hiu chnh xu hng cho rng theo t nhin nhng tn gi
"thuc v" nhng vt chng miu t, ngi theo ch ngha duy l ngi Anh, Thomas
Hobbes cnh bo, trong mt cu cch ngn ni ting hin nay, "T ng l cng c tnh
ton ca ngi khn ngoan, h s dng nhng khng nhn thc; nhng chng (t ng)
cng l nhng ng tin ngu xun".1 Abraham Lincoln c gng to ra nhng im ging
nhau khi ng hi mt khn gi, "Nu ti gi ci ui con nga l mt ci chn, th con
nga s c bao nhiu chn tt c?" H tr li "5". Lincoln ni "Khng, vic gi ci ui
con nga l ci chn khng lm cho chng thnh mt ci chn."
27
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Theo lo-gic, trong tt c cch s dng ngn ng, chng ta cn ghi nh rng cch
dng mt t, d t ng l "tt" hay "xu", chnh n khng th bo m s tn ti nhng
nt c trng m n hm . Chng ta s c c hi tm hiu cn k hn v li ni tri v s
i lp ca chng khi chng ta nghin cu nhng li theo lo-gic trong Phn II.
Tuy nhin chng ta hay cho rng t ng c mt sc mnh c bit, tin rng
chng rt linh thing hoc c ma thut trong s dng thng thng.
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The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
4. S Hu Dng ca Ngn Ng
Mt gi tr c bn m ngn ng c th c s dng l cung cp thng tin v th
gii, th d: "Ci bn ny c lm bng g si" hay "Ti lm mt ng h ri". Mc ch
ch yu ca ngn ng l truyn ti thng tin c miu t, khng phc tp, khng m h.
Nhng c l chng ta cng s dng ngn ng biu l cm gic ca mnh hay gi ln
cm gic ca ngi khc. Chng ta ht ln "Tht l mt ngy p tri!", khng cho ngi
khc bit v thi tit nhng biu l nim vui ca ta v n. Hoc chng ta c th ni vi
ch nh : "Dng nh y hi lnh", khng nh mt li nhn xt bnh thng nhng
thuyt phc h bt my iu ha.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
5. S Ti Ngha v M H
S ti ngha v m h th tng t nh nhau, chng u l c tnh ca ngn ng
khng chnh xc. Tuy nhin, c mt s phn bit gia chng. Mt t hoc s miu t c
gi l ti ngha nu n c nhiu hn mt ngha. N m h nu ngha ca n khng r
rng. Ngn ng ti ngha gy kh khn cho chng ta vi mt s ngha, m vn
ngha no chnh xc th kh m xc nh c, trong khi m h chng ta c nhim v phi
tm ra bt c nhng ngha no m n c. Ni: " l mt quyn sch ti nht m ti tng
c" l mt li nhn xt ti ngha. "i, mt quyn sch" l cu m h.
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The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
Tuy th, nhng thi im khc, m h khng lin quan ti s khim khuyt v
mc r rng nhng ng hn l s bo mn t nhin ca ngn ng. Nhng t ng no
tr nn cn ci do vic lm dng, lm mt i tnh chnh xc m chng c. Nhng t thuc
v phm tr ny bao gm tt, th v, tuyt, tao nh v c a chung. Trong iu kin
mt vi t m h cha ng qu nhiu ngha, chng s mt i tnh chnh xc. V d: dn
ch, ch ngha cng sn, ngh thut, s tin trin, vn ha v thm ch ngay c t m h.
Trong nhng trng hp nh th nhng thut ng cn c nh ngha trc khi s dng.
Cui cng, v d mt t ng va ti ngha li va m h - l t ngh s.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
s kin khc cho l sai. Nhng tranh lun thc t ny sinh khi nhng quan im khc
nhau xc thc tn ti i vi nhng vn thc t.
Mt khc, tranh lun v t hay ngn ng xut hin khi mt kin tin rng mt
nhn xt no l ng trong khi mt kin khc cho rng nhn xt khc l sai. ng hn
l mt kin khc nhau trn cng mt nhn xt, c mt quan im khc trn cng mt vn
. Nh th trng hp nhng kin tranh lun bt ng bi khng kin no nhn thc
r tranh lun bn nhn xt nh nhau.
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The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
7. nh Ngha
Bt c ai a ra mt cuc tranh lun cho s cn nhc nghim tc l mt nhim v
pht biu gi thuyt v kt lun ca h mt cch r rng. Mt phng php to nn mt
cuc tranh lun r rng l a nhng nh ngha ca nhng thut ng mu cht. Mt nh
ngha l mt li nhn xt rng mt t hay mt cm t c ngha ging nh mt t hoc
cm t khc. N gm c 3 yu t: (1) s din t c nh ngha, m nhng nh lo-gic hc
gi l mt t hay ng ang c nh ngha; (2) s din t hn ch ni dung ca t hay
ng , gi l xc nh c im v (3) mt s khng nh hay s quy nh rng s din t
c nh ngha c cng ngha nh s din t hn ch ni dung ca t hay ng. Th d,
nu chng ta chp nhn ti liu gc ca Tn t in Webster, t c dui c th c trnh
by r rng nh: C dui c ngha l "mt c bp h tr cho vic co dui mt b phn ca
c th ( nh chn, tay)". S biu hin c nh ngha (mt t hay mt ng ang c
nh ngha) l t c dui, mt t khng quen thuc lm vi hu ht chng ta. S biu hin
hn ch ni dung ca t hay ng (nh ngha) l "mt c bp h tr cho vic co dui mt
b phn ca c th ( nh chn, tay)", mt mnh m cha nhng t ng rt quen thuc
vi chng ta.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
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The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
Mt nh ngha tng thut hon chnh phi tht chnh xc. Mt nh ngha l chnh
xc nu v ch nu s m t hn ch ni dung ca t ch p dng vo tt c nhng mc m
s m t nh ngha ca n c ng dng. Nu s m t hn ch ni dung ca t ca mt
nh ngha ch p dng vo mt vi iu khong c gi tn mt cch chnh xc bi s
m t nh ngha, sau chng ta ni rng nh ngha nh ngha b hn ch. Ga s, th d
mt ngi no nh ngha t gio dc l "s pht trin ca kh nng hiu mt cch r
rng". Ng nh ngha ca n bao trm phn m s m t nh ngha ni n mt cch
chnh xc. Nhng bi v n khng c p dng cho nhng trng hp chnh xc ca gio
dc - v d, s pht trin ca th hiu vn chng hay s am hiu lch s - nh ngha qu
hn ch. Mt khc, gi s mt ai nh ngha gio dc l "s iu chnh tng th ca c
nhn i vi mi trng ca h". nh ngha ny l qu khi qut. S m t hn ch ni
dung v t ca n p dng vo nhng hot ng v quy trnh m chng ta khng tnh ton
c nhng iu m ch ca gio dc, th d, s phn x ca ci chp mt.
Khi vit mt bi tiu lun c lun chng, thng thng chng ta cn dnh ra nhiu
hn mt cu nh ngha mi t then cht. N thng i hi mt on vn - i khi l
mt phn ca bai tiu lun- pht trin nh ngha. Ba on vn sau trch t Phm vi ca
tiu thuyt ca Cleanth Brooks v Robert Penn Warren ch l im bt u nhng c gng
ca h lm r rng hn nhng g h mun ni khi chng ta cho rng ct truyn ca mt
quyn sch tiu thuyt:
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
D chng ta miu t c hay khng nhng g Brooks v Warren ang thc hin
nh vic a ra mt nh ngha v t ct truyn vn chng hay gn lc khi nim ca c
truyn trong tiu thuyt, s tranh lun ca h l mt th d r rng v nhng g ngi ta
thng phi lm loi tr t bi din vn hay tc phm, t suy ngh nhng t ti ngha v
m h.
hiu nhng tranh lun v nhng tranh lun thc t, nhng kin phi
thng nht v c ngha miu t va biu l ca ngn ng v nhn xt c s
dng.
Mt bc quan trng trong vic xy dng mt l l r rng l a ra nhng nh
ngha ca t hay hnh minh ha ni bt. Nu mt nh ngha r rng c th hn ch c
nhng tranh lun v t.
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The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
nhng cu rp khun th ngn gn, hay hm hnh v c v hnh thc, chng lun ng lo
ngi, chng khch l s v t l bi vic lm m i nhng im chnh xc ca mt vn
.
Bin php phng suy ngh nhng cu so rng tt nht l phi nh rng, vi mi
cch ngn ph bin nh th, mt cch ngn khc c th c trch dn mt cch trc tip
gy mu thun vi n.
38
The Medium of Language T Yn Nhi dch
Bit ng, nhng cu so rng hay m t ti ngha ca mt nhm ring bit (nh
nhng chuyn mn khc nhau), din t nhng s vt, s vic theo mt cch phc tp
khng cn thit. N thng rt kh nm bt v v th cng him khi nm trong mt l lun
vn phong hay.
9. Tm Tt
Trong chng ny cp ti vn ngn ng to thnh mt cu ni gia chui l
lun, nh vic nghin cu l lun m l vn ca Chng 1, v s phn tch ca
nhng l lun c th, m ta s nghin cu Phn 2. Chng ta thy rng ngn ng c
tn dng trong bt c li pht biu no xc nh ngha ca pht biu . Ngn ng
c xem nh c lin quan mt thit vi t duy, thm ch nh l mt hnh dng ca t duy.
39
Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
Phn II
Chng 3
Phn II ny nghin cu nhng dng thng dng ca nhng l lun sai lm. L lun
sai lm (hay ngy bin) l mt l lun c khuyt im. Mc d khng hon thin mt cch
hp l, nhng kin sai lm thng xuyn thuyt phc chng ta bi v, trong s xem xt
trc tin, chng xut hin hp l trong hnh thi v ni dung.
"Ngy Bin" hay "Sai lm4 xut pht t ting Hy Lp l "phelos", c ngha l "la
di", c ngh ra thay th cho s tht bi v t ca chng ta.
Nhng Ngy Bin thng thng m chng ta tm thy trong nhng chng sau, l
nhng l lun khng hp l v ni dung, nh i nghch li vi hnh thi hoc cu trc ca
chng. Mt nh ngha kh c th lit k tt c cc dng ngy bin thng thng. Tuy
nhin, bng cch cho th d, chng ta c th tm thy trong cch s dng ngn ng xuyn
tc thc hin kho lo nhn thc ca chng ta v mt ti di s tho lun ("Bi thi
kh khn ca Gio s Hedley l khng cng bng i vi sinh vin"), trong s ti ngha --
khng ch tm hay c k hoch cn thn hay khng m lm m i s thu hiu ca chng
ta v nhng g c tranh ci r rng, v trong nhng l lun ni ln nhng s thch th
n khuyt im nhn tnh ca chng ta. Trong nhng s sai lm gn y, tranh lun c
gng "quyt nh", hc hi chng ta ng vi mt l lun ngoi cm gic ng tic hay
khip s, ngoi s mong mun ca chng ta l "thnh phn ca m ng" hay ngc li,
phn bit vi m ng -- thnh phn u t nht. Chng ta x l nhng sai lm thng
thng bng cch nhn bit v gn lc nhng pht biu ti ngha v m h ca chng,
bng cch to ra s r rng nhng gi nh ng ng ca chng, v bng cch trnh by
nhng xu hng ca chng. Tht ng tic rng nhng kha cnh m nhng l lun ny tr
nn v ch thng xuyn l nhng g ph thc chng vi cc thnh gi.
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
Aristotle. Aristotle chia nhng l lun b sai lm thnh hai nhm: mt s c ngun gc
ngn ng ca chng, m bao gm nhng sai lm v s ti ngha, v mt s c ngun gc
ngoi ngn ng, c xem nh tt c cc sai lm khc. Mc d c nhiu ngi c khuynh
hng theo s phn loi ca Aristotle, nhng s nghin cu mt vi s sai lm cng thay
i theo thi gian, v nhng sai lm mi c pht hin. Mt s tranh ci rng khng
c s phn loi nhng s sai lm thch hp no tn ti, t nhng hng i n sai st l rt
nhiu v phc tp.
Trong quyn sch ny, chng ta s ri khi h thng phn loi hai phn ca
Aristotle, chng ta hi lng rng, tht ra, tt c nhng sai lm c ngun gc trong mt
vi kha cnh ca ngn ng. V th, s t chc ca vic nghin cu nhng sai lm trong
Phn II l ba phn, tng ng vi ba cch thc m ngn ng c s dng trong mt l
lun sai lm c th tm thy nh ngun gc ca s sai lch. Trong Chng 3, ch l
nhng sai lm v ti ngha m n l ngha phc tp ca nhng t ng tn dng l
ngun gc ca sai lm. Trong Chng 4, trong nhng s sai lm ca gi nh, sai st xut
pht t cch thc m nhng l lun sai lm to thnh ng tng ng hay hp l nh
nhng l lun chnh xc hp dn chng ta "coi nh l" lp lun phi chnh xc bi n
bao hm ngn ng tng t nh th ca nhng l lun xc ng. Nhm cui cng, trong
Chng 5, gm c nhng sai lm ca s thch ng, m ngn ng hay l lun khng thch
hp c a ra lm vng chc mt s thch th d gy cm xc, ng hn l mt s
thch th hp l. V th, trong khi Aristotle pht hin nhng li trong l lun mt cch trc
tip n ngn ng ch trong trng hp nhng sai lm do s m h, chng ta s thy n
hu dng nhn mnh bn cht ngn ng ca li trong nhng sai lm ca gi nh v s
xc ng.
S phn chia ba phn chng ta pht hin trong quyn sch ny cng gip ta hiu
su xa hn bn cht ca s hp l hay s hp l mnh m. Hp l l s nghin cu l lun,
v do , a ra s tn thnh ca chng ta v mt l lun, chng ta nn lun chc chn
rng chng ta hiu ra ba iu sau y:
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
1. Li Ni Lp L 5
Vi phm ca li ni lp l l cho php mt t mu cht trong mt l lun thay
i ngha ca n trong qu trnh ca l lun. Theo ngha en, li ni lp l
(equivocation) xut pht t ting Latin. Mt t c s dng n ngha (univocally) n c
ngha ging nhau trong mi ng cnh c a ra, c s dng lp l (equivocally) nu
hai (2) ngha hay nhiu hn xy ra cng mt lc.
Xem xt v d ny:
5
The Fallacy of Equivocation
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Nguyn vn: "The financial page of the London Times says that money is more
plentiful in London today than it was yester. This must be a mistake, for there is no
more money in London today than there was yesterday."
www.kinhtehoc.com 45
Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
Nh vua ni: "Kh ng, ngi ph n ny cng thy anh ta. V th d nhin
khng c ai i chm hn nh ngi."
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
g. Thc hnh lm nn hon ho. Nhng bc s phi thc hnh th thut cha
bnh hng ngn nm. V th, bc s ca ti, ngi hc mt trong nhng
trng y danh ting, s thnh tho trong lnh vc ca c.
S phn tch nh th cng cho php chng ta thy ti sao l lun cha nhng sai
lm ca li ni lp l thng xut hin hp l. Bi v gi thuyt ngoi nhng iu m
chng to nn l khng ng ch trch khi nhn thy ring l, bt c s thay i no v
mt ngha t mt li pht biu ny n li pht biu khc c th thot khi s ch ca
chng ta. C hai gi thuyt trong l lun (e) trn u hp l. Khi chng c t vi
nhau thnh mt th trong l lun, l lun dng nh hp l ngoi tr vic c gi nhn ra
mt t mu cht b thay i ngha nh n xut pht t mt gi thuyt ny n gi thuyt
khc. Tht ra y l phng php hiu qu nht kim tra s hp l ca nhng l lun
nh th. Nu bn nghi ng rng mt t mu cht b thay i ngha ca n, n gin l
c li l lun, gi cho ngha ca t ng ng vc khng thay i v hnh thc. Trong
nhiu trng hp, phng php k thut ny s bc l mt gi thuyt hay kt lun khng
hp l.
h. C ba iu lut ca t nhin.
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
qun tr; hc gi cng khng hn mt ngi ti d; trit gia cng khng hn ngi
ngu xun. Tt c chng ta sinh ra u bnh ng.
k. Ti lng tng v nhng nhm phn i tp hp trc nh giam khi thc hin
mt bn n t hnh theo lnh. Tn st nhn, ngi phm mt ti cc k tn c,
chp nhn tt c hnh thc php lut thch ng v c cho mi c hi
bo cha cho bn thn mnh -- thng thng vi nhng thc c gi tr hp php
nht v ph tn ca ngi ng thu. Ngy nay cng nhng ngi bo h ny
u ng h vic kt thc s sng ca hng triu tr em v ti bi nn ph thai.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
2. Cu Ni Nc i6
Chng ta va lu s nhm ln c th ny sinh nh th no t s ti ngha ca mt
t hay ng n l. By gi chng ta mun tip tc v thy s nhm ln c th ny sinh nh
th no t s ti ngha ca cu trc cu v s tham kho nh trong trng hp ca ba sai
lm k tip: cu nc i, du trng m v c php. Chng ta hy bt u vi cu nc
i.
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
d. Tn hiu giao thng: Tr Em Qua ng Chm Li. (tn hiu bo nhng ngi
iu khin -t rng tr em ang qua ng chm, hay mt tn hiu ch th h
chm li cho tr em qua ng?)
e. tc 2,200 vng quay mt pht, ngi gip vic tt my pht in. (Ai
hay ci g " tc 2,200 vng quay mt pht"? Ngi gip vic hay my pht
in?)
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
3. Du Trng m 8
Nhng ngha khng c ni r trc c th ny sinh khng ch t cu trc cu
khng hon chnh, nh trong trng hp ca cu nc i, m cn nhm ln t s nhn
ging. Kt qu ca s sai lm trong du trng m khi mt nhn xt c pht biu vi mt
ging khng mong i; nhng t ng no trong nhn trng m sai; hay t ng no
(thm ch c cu v c on vn) t ra ngoi ng cnh v v th a ra mt s nhn ging
(hay mt ngha) chng khng ni ln c ngha vn c.
Sai st ca du trng m t ny sinh trong din vn, khi m thanh d truyn ti bng
ging ni v iu b, hn l trong ngn ng vit. i vi nguyn nhn ny, vin lc s
thn trng c ln li khai bng mt ging u u, theo cch ny trnh biu l cm xc
v vn h ang c. Trong vn phong, khi ni "khng th ht sc khen ngi quyn sch
ny" c th cng c ngha rng chng ta khng th ni y v nhng iu tt ca quyn
sch hoc l khng xng ng khen ngi. Tng t, ni rng chng ta hy vng mt
ai "t c mi iu h xng ng c c" c th bao hm hai ngha rt khc nhau.
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The Fallacy of Accent
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
TQ hiu nh: Trong ting vit, trng hp tng t cng c kh nhiu. "Ght" m
khi nhn ging mnh i i vi ci lm khc vi "ght" ca " ng ght" ni ging
bnh thng.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
s quan ghi ch vo "Thuyn trng hm nay khng ung ru", bng cch ny ng rng
nhng vic ny khng xy ra thng xuyn v n ng c ch trong nht k hng hi.
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
4. Php Tu T 9
Chc hn mi ngi u nh cuc chm trn th v gia Alice v mo Cheshire
trong Alice X S Thn Tin (Alice in Wonderland) ca Lewis Carroll.
Trong khi t gi, Alice thy con mo bt u ln mt mt cch chm chp, "bt
u", nh c y k vi chng ta, "vi on cui ca ci ui, v cui cng l mt ci tai,
gi nguyn v tr mt thi gian sau khi gic ng ca n tri qua". Alice c ch dn
gy ch trong s ngc nhin: "! Ti hay trng thy mt con mo khng c mt ci tai;
nhng mt ci tai khng c mt con mo! l iu k l nht ti tng thy trong c cuc
i ti!" (Chng 6)
9
Fallacy of Hypostatization
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
ngi da en, ngi Anglo-Saxon (da trng theo o tin lnh) vi nhng g m chng ta
gieo rc mm mng ca s cm th v phn bit. Chng ta ni v mt vt nh th no --
chng ta miu t n nh th no -- quyt nh chng ta xem n nh th no, nhng g
chng ta tin tng v n, v kt qu l chng ta phn ng v n nh th no. V y l bi
hc quan trng sai st ny dy cho chng ta. Thc t chng ta ang sng, n nhc nh
chng ta, c xy dng rng ri bi ngn ng v nhng g chng ta miu t n vi bn
thn mnh. T ngi lai, chng ta cn xem xt r rng, khng ch nhn ra mt s thc t
c lp hin ti ca th gii; n khng ch c ngha "mt ngi th hng s pha trn";
nhng g n mun v ni l "tht kinh tm!". V ging nhau l s tht ca tt c cc t
khc trong bn cht t nhin ny. Chng a vo th gii vi nhng phn ng xuyn tc
ca chng ta, sng to trong qu trnh s tn hi v au kh v hn. c bo v trong
nhng t ng, v trng nh tt c cc t ng khc trong vn t ca chng ta, chng nh
la chng ta lm cho chng ta suy ngh rng nhng vt cht c tn tt nhin tn ti, ng
hn l nhng ngha n thun trong phn ng ca chng ta.
a. T nhin to ra nhng ci tin trong mt chng loi bng cch loi tr nhng
vt th khng ph hp hay gy cn tr t vic lm nhim nhm gen ca s ph
hp. V th, n ch ng vi chng ta khi loi tr nhng ngi khng t tiu
chun ny.
Bt chp nhng g c ni, chng ta phi nh rng khng phi tt c cch s dng
php tu t u c hi v nguy him. Trong ng cnh ca thi ca hay vn chng phng
thc ngn ng ny khng ch l mt dng hnh tng d dm. y, t bn cht dng
nh cng c u i c bit. Th d, Shakespear thng xuyn s dng n, nh trong
Julius Caesar, on Antony ni v Brutus:
V v th trong hai cu th ny, Gio Hong Alexander vit (bn quyn 1730)
v c mun ni nh mt vn m ch cho Isaac Newton trong Tu Vin Westminster.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
Nhng mi lut s v mi nh kinh t hc gii bit rng "ti sn" khng phi l
mt vt cht m n thun l mt cng b bng ming m nhng quyn lc v
c quyn truyn thng ca mt s thnh vin trong x hi s c bo v quyt
lit khi s cng kch ca nhng ngi khc. T " ti sn" biu tng ha mt mi
e da ca hnh ng; n l mt thc th c c tnh nh ng t, nhng (l mt
danh t) t ng nh hng n t duy ca chng ta theo hng tn ti c
lp chng ta gi l vt cht. Nhng s vnh cu c c bi ti sn khng phi
l s vnh cu ca mt nguyn t; nhng ca mt s ha hn (mt iu ho huyn
nht). Thm ch sau khi chng ta tr nn c nhn thc v s ch dn sai
ca ch b p buc bi danh t "ti sn", chng ta c th vn ng mt cch
tiu cc vi im sai ca gi tr s dng lin tc ca n bi v mt mc ca n
nh x hi cn thit t c cng vic hon thnh theo thng l. Nhng
khi n tr nn hon ton kh khn m gi tr s dng khng cn nhc lin tc ca
t "ti sn" c ch dn n nhng kt qu hin nhin khng ng v phn tc
dng x hi, sau chng ta phi dng li v t hi chng ta mun xc nh li
quyn li ca ti sn nh th no. (Cy Ci Nn C V Tr? Hng Nhng Quyn
Li Hp Pht i Vi Nhng Thc Th T Nhin. Los Altos, CA: William
Kaufmann, 1974 trang 6-7)
Hardin khng cn thit ch trch thc tin hay qu trnh ca c php ng ta miu t.
ng ta ch thc y chng ta nhn ra n l g. "Ti sn" l mt vin tng, mt khi nim
chng ta pht minh hay ngh ra. N khng thay th mt s vt cht c th chng ta pht
hin ra rng n c mt tn ti c lp ca chng ta hay nhng mong mun ca chnh mnh.
Ch cn chng ta tm thy khi nim hu dng v c ch chng ta c th tip tc bao qut
n; nu khi nim bt u chng t khc, chng ta nh rng chnh chng ta pht huy
n thnh bn cht (nh ngha n), v v th khng c g ngn cn chng ta t vic loi tr
n (nh ngha li) nn chng ta quyt nh lm nh th.
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With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Sai lm trong php tu t ny sinh khi chng ta xem xt nhng t tru tng nh
th chng l nhng t c th. Thm ch chng ta thng xuyn quy cho chng
nhng c tnh ging nh con ngi.
Nhng g l ng trong tng th th khng nht thit phi ng trong nhng thnh
phn ca n. Nu khng cn nhc, chng ta c th phm sai lm trong phn ha, phn chia
nhng c tnh ca tng th v cng p dng chng vi mi thnh phn ca n.
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Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
nht trong nc, Smith - trung v gii nht v Davis - th mn gii nht, nhng khi t h
v nhng cu th ni ting khc vo mt i s khng hn cho chng ta mt i hay nht
trong nc.
Mc d hin nhin chng khng phi l nhng dng sai st kh hay khng d pht
hin, nhng chng ta c khuynh hng phm phi chng rt thng xuyn. Nhng nguyn
nhn thng hay c chp nhn trong mt nhm ln ca ngha chn lc v phn loi
ca nhng t mu cht no trong cc l lun. Bng mt t chn lc chng ta mun ni
mt t m gn cho mt s chn lc hay mt tng th; vi mt t phn loi chng ta mun
ni mt t ch p dng vi nhng c nhn hay thnh phn. T tt c l v d r rng nht
v mt t tim n ti ngha. Th d, khi chng ta ni " Tt c nhng nh t thin ng
gp 1000 la M", chng ta mun ni rng mi v mi ngi ng gp vo khong
ny (dng t tt c mt cch phn bit), hay chng ta mun ni tt c hp li vi nhau lm
nh th (by gi ta hiu t tt c chung)?
62
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Bi tiu lun ca Roger Rosenblatt (Tp Ch Time, ngy 17 thng 9, 1984) trong s
phn ng v tai nn hi c cac-bon thm khc Bhopal, n , cp i sinh mng
ca hn 2,500 ngi l mt trng hp ng ch .
www.kinhtehoc.com 63
Fallacies of Ambiguity T Yn Nhi dch
6. Tm Tt
Chng ny trnh by su s sai lm v ti ngha. Nhng s sai lm nh th
c ch ra nh nhng s sai lm ngn ng hc, trong chng xut pht t cch s dng
ngn ng c nhiu hn mt ngha. Chng ta thy rng cch tt nht lm sng t
nhng s sai lm nh th l gn lc ngn ng trong cu hi.
64
Fallacies of Presumption V Hng Long dch
Chuong 4
B Qua Nhng Yu T C Bn
12
Fallacies of Presumption
13
Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization
14
Fallacy of composition
65
Fallacies of Presumption V Hng Long dch
66
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
lm l tch quy tc ra, sau vic hiu mt cch ng n s cho thy rng trng hp c
th no s khng th p dng cc quy tc chung. Tr li cc v d trn chng ta c th ni
nh sau: (a) mi ngi c quyn i vi ti sn thuc s hu ca h, nu anh ta hoc c ta
khng b mt tr; (b) ci nga s tt cho sc kho ca mt ngi nu tnh trng sc kho
ca anh ta cho php; (c) chng ta phi gip ngi khc nhng khng phi trong
phng thi.
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Fallacies of Presumption V Hng Long dch
S khi qut ho khng ging vi sai lm do phn ha. Trong khi sai lm do phn
ha xem xt mi lin quan mang tnh vt cht gia ci tng th v ci thnh phn th s
khi qut ho li xem xt vn p dng sai nhng nguyn tc tru tng hoc nhng iu
c tng qut i vi nhng trng hp khng nm trong phm vi ca nhng iu c
khi qut .
2. Gm a C Nm15
Sai lm ca gm a c nm tri ngc hon ton vi s khi qut ho. Gm a
c nm l vic mt trng hp c bit c xem nh l c s cho vic a ra mt kt lun
chung mt cch tu tin. Xem xt hai v d sau y:
15
Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
68
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Trong khi s khi qut ho xy ra khi mt ngi p dng nhng iu khi qut
mt cch khng ng, th gm a c nm li l vic mt ngi vi vng tng
qut mt vn no mt cch sai lm khi ch da trn nhng s vic c th,
mang tnh ngoi l v khng c trng cho iu c khi qut.
www.kinhtehoc.com 69
gm a c nm li lin quan n nhng tnh tit v s vic c tng qut v
nhng tnh tit chng ta p dng vo.
3. L Lun R i16
Sai lm do l lun r i l lun im cho rng mt yu t no l hon ton v
duy nht trong khi thc t li c nhng ci khc tn ti. L lun r i c lin quan mt
thit vi s nhm ln trong cu trc hoc l ging nh trong lp lun ca Bertrand Russel
nm 1948 "Hoc l chng ta phi chin tranh vi nc Nga trc khi h c bom nguyn t
hoc l chng ta qu xung h thng tr". Trong mt s cuc tranh lun mt s ngi
ni "Th cht cn hn theo phi cnh t" trong khi mt s ngi khc li ni "Th theo
phi cnh t cn hn cht", c hai bn tranh lun b qua mt lun im th 3 khc "th
hi thin v cnh t cn hn tuyt chng".
L lun ch i cng ging nh mt quan chc ang cao ging rng "Hy cho ti
bit bo co ny l tt hay ti" m khng thy rng bo co cha ng c hai yu t .
iu ny cng ging nh nhng ngi c t tng chng li nhng g lin quan n nc
Nga mt cch mnh m trong thi k chin tranh lnh.
16
The Fallacy of Bifurcation
70
Trong lc bc tc mt ngi c th phn ng li vi mt li than phin nh sau:
"Vy anh cho rng mn sp ny qu ngui? Ti li cho rng anh thch mt ci g nng
th phi." Xt v kha cnh lo-gic, kiu tranh lun nh trn y chng ta vo hon cnh
kh khn l phi la chn mt trong hai trng hp trn; trong khi thc t li cho php
chng ta c nhng la chn khc na.
T do v an ton khng hon ton mu thun nhau. Tuy nhin lun im trn y
lm cho chng ta b qua nhng yu t khc c lin quan.
Bifurcation c ngun gc t ting La tinh, c ngha l "hai hng" (Bi theo ting
La tinh l mt tip u ng (tin t) c ngha l "hai", v furca c ngha l "on
r" hoc "nhnh")
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Lng Trnh S Tht17
Trong loi sai lm gi nh ny, nhng li mc phi khng ch l vic b qua mt
s yu t khc m cn l vic to ra cho chng ta cm gic rng lun im gii quyt
tt c cc vn lin quan nhng thc t li cha h gii quyt. Nhng lun im nh vy
nh la chng ta bng cch ni rng mt vn no c cp n nhng thc t
li hon ton khc.
4. Lp Li Vn 18
Sai lm do lp li vn xy ra khi thay v a ra li chng minh hay gii thch
cho mt kt lun th ngi ni li nhc li vn theo mt cch khc. Nhng lun im
nh vy lm cho chng ta tin rng mt iu c tha nhn nhng thc t th n ch
mi c din t li. Nu l mt lun im n gin th c rt t iu ni.
17
Evading the Facts
18
Fallacy of Begging the Question
72
Trong nhiu trng hp chng ta rt kh khn pht hin ra s gii thch lp li
ny. Hy xem xt v d sau:
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Kiu lp lun nh vy i lc cn c gi l "lp lun vng trn"19 ch ra rng
d chng ta c c gng th no th chng ta cng b quay tr li vn . (TQ hiu nh, ai
c th chng minh kinh thnh l li ni ca Cha?).
Mt v d khc
Ti sao?
Vy ci ng c mnh m nht l g?
V d:
Hy xem xt v d sau:
g. S tn nhn ca anh ta l do tnh nht nht trong chnh bn thn anh ta, v
mi ngi nht nht u tn nhn.
19
vicious circle
74
c th th cng c th xy ra trng hp ngc li mt vn c th no cha c
chng minh li c s dng chng minh cho mt ci c tng qut.
Xem v d sau:
Nhng c gng to chng minh cho mt quan im bng cch s dng nhng li
gii thch ging nh quan im t ra cng l sai lm.
Sai lm c th xy ra di dng:
A nh vy l bi v B; trong khi B cng ging nh A hoc B ph thuc vo
A hoc B thm ch khng ng tin bng A.
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A ng v B ng; nhng B ch ng nu A ng. Vn vn cha c
gii quyt l liu A c ng hay khng? l vic lp li vn .
Hy xem xt v d sau:
Sau y l mt s v d:
b. Khi mt ngi phn nh chng trnh bo him tht nghip khuyn khch
s li bing ca nhng k n bm trong cc khu nh chut dn n mt
ch phc li gi di nh th no th n lc chng ta phi nhn thc rng
nhng s trc li c hp php ho cn c xo b.
20
Fallacy of Question-Begging Epithets
76
d. Khng mt ngi M bit suy ngh no c th ng h bin php ny, mt m
mu xo quyt c ngm ngm t ra trong mt cn phng y khi thuc
ca nhng k lm ra lut.
Vic s dng s lng trnh vn theo kiu ngn ng cng iu trong cc lun
im trn y l khng th chp nhn c bi v n th hin thi ng hoc
khng ng v mt vn m khng a ra c cc bng chng chng minh rng
nhng thi nh th l cng bng. Bng cch gi ai "k la bp nhn tr cp x
hi" hoc "nhng cng nhn lao ng vt v" khng thc s cp mt cch ng mc
nhng con ngi ; hoc gi nhng bin php no l "m mu xo quyt" hoc "gy
cm phn" khng th lm cho vn tr nn c tnh cht nh vy.
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Nhn chng: nhng tha qu to, ti ang ni vi ngi v s tht. Hn ta chi
tr hai mt vi ti.
"S vic c th tip din m khng th kt thc", Hayakawa ch ra "tr khi ngi
cht vn bng s kho lo ca mnh c th tm thy c s tht n du ng sau li phn
quyt . i vi nhn chng th s tht chnh l anh ta b chi tr hai mt. Vic xt hi
lin tc phi kin tr l iu cn thit tm ra s tht lm c s cho phn quyt ca to"
(Ngn Ng Trong Suy Ngh v Hnh ng, xut bn ln th 4, New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1978, trang 37-38).
Vic lng trnh vn bng cch dng ngn ng cng iu l vic khng cp
vo vn mt cch ng mc m dn dt ngi c, ngi nghe i theo nhng quan
im thin kin i vi vn . Mt lp lun thuyt phc s lm cho ngi nghe, ngi
c tin rng s cp nh th l hp l, tuy nhin vic s dng ngn ng mang tnh thnh
kin li khng th c chp nhn trong tranh lun.
6. Phc Tp Ha Vn 21
Sai lm do phc tp ho vn (nhng cu hi phc hp) l dng nghi vn sai lm
do khng tp trung vo vn . Cng ging nh khng tp trung vo vn , sai lm do cu
hi phc hp lm cho ngi khc tin rng mt cu tr li nht nh cho mt cu tr li
trc c tr li theo mt cch nht nh, trong khi cu hi trc cha c t ra.
Sai lm ny c th c gi bng nhiu tn khc nhau: cu hi nh la, cu hi dn dt,
sai lm do cu hi sai, sai lm ca nhiu cu hi. (TQ hiu nh, nghnh lut thng s
dng loi ngy bin ny nht. V d, v lut s hi: "anh n cp nhiu khng?" Tr li
nhiu hay khng, th ngi b hi t th l "c n cp" ri. Vn cn phi c bn
tho trc l "anh c n cp khng?" V nu c, th "n cp nhiu khng?" mi hp tnh
hp l).
21
Fallacy of Complex Question
78
l con c cn sng th nc li khng trn. Cc thnh vin ca Hi ng suy ngh rt
lu, mt s ngi c li gii thch nhng khng thc s thuyt phc. Cui cng mt
thnh vin ca Hi ng quyt nh lm th nghim v vn ny. ng ny pht
hin ra rng khng c s khc nhau no ng k khi t mt con c sng hay mt con c
cht vo bt nc.
b. Anh vn cn nghin ru ?
e. Jane khng phi l mt ngi cp tin thiu suy ngh c phi khng?
www.kinhtehoc.com 79
g. C phi l iu hon ton ngu xun hoc hon ton khng thn thin mt
cch c khi chnh quyn ph v mi mi quan h vi Iran?
Bng cch hng s tp trung ca chng ta vo gii thch s vic (vn ), nhng
cu hi nh vy hng s ch ca chng ta ra khi nhng sai lm trong chnh bn
thn cu hi .
80
Nghin cu v cu hi phc hp s cho chng ta bit rng: khng nn tr li nhng
cu hi m nhng vn khc cu hi da trn cha c gii quyt. Quy tc ny
c tha nhn trong lut v cc hot ng ca quc hi, quy tc ny cho php chia tch
cc vn ra, nh vy c th tm hiu c r hn nhng s tht ca mt vn .
7. Bin H c Bit 22
Sai lm do s bin h c bit l p dng hai tiu chun khc nhau: mt p dng
cho bn thn ngi ni (bi v h c bit) v ci kia (tiu chun kht khe hn) cho nhng
ngi khc. Bertrand Russell c ln din t mt nt tnh cch ca con ngi nh sau:
22
Fallacy of Special Pleading
www.kinhtehoc.com 81
Vic hy sinh v t st c phi l hai s kin khc nhau hay khng? R rng l
khng, nhng qua vic s dng ngn ng li thuyt phc c ngi khc rng s khc
nhau trong cch m chng ta gn cho nhng s kin c th phn nh c s khc nhau
trong tnh cht ca s kin .
Tm s/ nhiu chuyn,
K hoch/ m mu,
Tr cng/ b th,
Mp/ bo,
Kn o/ du dim,
Hin/ kh,
Nht/ nhu m,
S v / n v.
82
Qu thc, nhiu khi chng ta ni nhng iu c th c xem l s bin h c
bit, khi chng ta p dng mt tiu chun vi ci ny nhng li p dng tiu chun khc
i vi ci khc.
Khi chng ta bin h c bit, chng ta c thi thin v chnh mnh v thin kin
i vi nhng i tng khc. Chng ta dng tiu chun kp bng cch dng nhng t
khc nhau ni v cng mt s vt. V d nh "Con trai ti l mt ngi o hoa, cn
con gi b ta ch l mt k lang ch".
Cng nh trong trng hp lng trnh vn theo kiu ngn ng cng iu,
chng ta c nh v hy vng ngi khc tin rng nhng ci m chng ra gn cho mt s
vt l miu t ng s vt . Tuy nhin trong thc t n li phn nh thin kin ca chng
ta.
Bp Mo S Tht 24
Trong phn cui ny, chng ta xem xt mt kiu sai lm na. Trong sai lm ny,
thay v b qua hay lng trnh s tht, ngi ni bp mo, xuyn tc n. Trong sai lm
do s tng ng gi to, mt s s vic nht nh c to ra c v ging nhau nhng
thc s li khng phi nh vy. Sai lm do sai nguyn nhn lm cho cc s vic dng
nh c mi quan h nhn qu nhng thc s li khng phi nh vy. Trong sai lm ca l
lun khp khun: mt s kin nht nh s gy ra mt chui phn ng khng trng i
nhng thc t li khng phi nh vy. Trong sai lm ca nhng lun im khng ph hp
li bp mo s vic bng cch chuyn s ch ca chng ta n nhng vn khng ph
hp vi ch ang c ni n sau lm cho chng ta chp nhn nhng nh gi sai
v nhng g ang c bn lun.
8. Tng ng Gi To25
Mt vi cch gii thch c ch i khi li nguy him khi bng cch tng ng. S
tng ng l cch pht huy quan im ca chng nh lm cho mt vn cha r rng,
cha c chng minh tng ng vi mt vn bit v cho rng hai vn ny c
23
Double standard
24
Distoring the Facts
25
Fallacy of False Analogy
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s ging nhau c bn. Sai lm do tng ng gi to xy ra khi s so snh gia cc s vt
khng hp l v kt qu ca vic bp mo s tht ang c ni n.
a. Dng sc mnh p buc l iu cn thit khi mun ngi khc tin vo tn gio
ca chng ta v cuc sng ci sau l iu tt cho h, iu cng nh vic ngn
cn ngi ang trong tnh trng thiu tnh to v nhn thc khi b ri t
vch trn cao.
84
nhng qu trng khng lm au nhng qu trng , nhng xy dng mt quc m
phi git hi cuc sng ca con ngi th l mt vic au lng.
Ngi mua thng hiu c mn hng trc khi h quyt nh mua n, nhng
liu cc sinh vin c hiu c cc mn hc trc khi h hc n hay khng.
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Trong l lun, php n d27 c xu hng gy nhm ln hn l lm sng t vn .
iu ny c bit ng trong s tng ng, v mt bn cht l s n d c thi phng
ra. Chng ta c th khm phc kh nng n d ca Bacon v cc khi nim c th, s rn
luyn, sc nng nhng khng c nhm ln n d vi ngha l lun. Xt kha
cnh l lun, lp lun ca Bacon, ging nh ca Hume v T Vn, khng thuyt phc c
chng ta bi v s tng ng gi to c s dng y.
Tuy nhin nhng khm ph c thc hin bng vic kim tra k lng cc s kin
tng ng, v nhiu v d nu ra trn cho thy c hin tng sai lm. Ngy nay chng ta
mm ci khi t tin chng ta ngh v vic truyn ging vo ngi ph n, vic sinh sn
ca con ngi cng tng t nh vic thu hoch vo cc v ma. Chng ta t hi lm sao
con ngi li c quan nim m tn rng khi mun tiu dit k th th phi to ra cc hnh
nh ca chng ri tiu hu n. Tuy nhin vic con ngi hin i b nhm ln bi s tng
ng vn xy ra hng ngy. Cch tt nht trnh c nhng nhm ln nh vy l hy
phn loi thnh nhng kha cnh ca cc yu t , sau xem xt ci no l ph hp vi
cc lun im, ci no khng ph hp.
Khi chng ta l gii bng s tng ng, ngha l chng ta so snh nhng ci l
m, kh hiu vi nhng ci khc c bit r.
27
metaphors
28
Modern Astronomy
86
Nu cc s vt c so snh khc nhau nhng c im c bn, quan trng, v
ch ging nhau nhng im khng c bn, khng quan trng th s khng c s
tng ng y. l s tng ng gi to hay so snh khng hon ho.
29
Fallacy of False Cause
30
Nhng sai lm ny trong ting La tinh l post hoc, ergo propter hoc c ngha l sau y, do , bi v.
www.kinhtehoc.com 87
Xut pht im cho vic nh gi ny khng ph hp. Mc d theo hc trng
Harvard c th mang li kh nng c thu nhp cao, nhng cng cn phi nh rng trng
ny ch thu ht v chp nhn nhng sinh vin xut sc hoc nhng sinh vin c iu kin
kh gi. Do nhng cu sinh vin trng Harvard c th c thu nhp cao khng phi v
trng m h hc v i khi khng phi v h c hc i hc hay khng, m v h l
con chu ca nhng ngi kh gi.
Cc s kin xy ra k tip nhau v mt thi gian hoc cch xa nhau cng khng th
to ra mi quan h nhn qu. Vic ngi tinh khn xut hin sau loi kh hnh ngi, c
ngun gc linh trng khng c ngha l t tin ca chng ta l loi kh hnh ngi .
Hoc s sp ca ch La M sau khi o C-c (Christianity) xut hin khng c
ngha l o C-c l nguyn nhn ca s sp .
Nhng dng sai lm m con ngi mc phi c xu hng thay i theo s tin b
ca khoa hc. Quan nim rng mi hot ng ca t nhin u mang mc ch dn dn tr
thnh vn ca qa kh. Chng ta thy k quc khi con ngi tng gii thch hin
tng thng cha y nc s b v khi nc trong b ng bng rng: khi nc ng
bng th th tch ca n b co li, to ra mt khi chn khng trong thng cha m iu ny
lm thin nhin "khng thch" (nn lm v ci thng ch nc ). By gi chng ta
bit nguyn nhn thc ca hin tng trn l khi nc b ng bng th tch s tng ln v
chnh iu lm thng cha b v.
Khi thi tit Cung Thin Lang; Bnh truyn nhim, hn hn s c mang n
loi ngi yu ui; Bu tri s y nh sng tai ho. (Aeneid X: 273-75)
88
Nhng Gassendi nh gi mt cch chnh xc rng chng c g hn ngoi s m
tn vo Chm sao Thin Lang vi ci nng ca thng Tm. nh hng ca chm sao ny
mnh nht i vi khu vc gn ngi sao ny nht. Nhng vo thng Tm Chm sao Thin
Lang gn khu vc nm di xch o hn l vng pha trn: vo ngy i h pha trn
xch o th khu vc pha di li vo ma ng. Do c dn pha di xch o ngh
rng Chm sao Thin Lang mang ci lnh n cho h, cn c dn pha trn xch o li
cho rng Chm sao ny mang n ci nng. (James Dickoff v Patricia James dch.
Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merril, 1964, trang 255)
31
self-fulfilling prophecy
32
circular cause
www.kinhtehoc.com 89
b chy, khng c gii thch r hn m ch ni vng vo. V d khc, t nc kia ngho
bi v b suy thoi, v t nc kia ang trong thi k suy thoi v dn ngho. V d
sau y c trch ra t tc phm kinh in ca Antoine de Saint, Hong T Nh (The
Little Prince):
"ng ang lm g y?" Hong t hi ngi nghin ru, ngi ang ngi lng
yn trc hng lot chai ru khng v nhng chai y ru.
"Qun rng ti l k nghin ru!" ng ni xong v ngi lng thing, khng mun
ni g thm .
Sai lm do sai nguyn nhn c th mang nhiu dng khc nhau, nhng dng ph
bin nht l tin mt cch sai lm rng v mt s kin xy ra trc mt s kin
khc, nn s kin xy ra trc l nguyn nhn ca s kin sau.
Tuy nhin nhiu s kin xy ra ngay trc khi mt s kin khc, mt trong s
c th l nguyn nhn. S hiu bit tt hn s gip chng ta c th xc nh c
nguyn nhn.
90
10. L Lun Rp Khun33
L lun rp khun34 l mt bin th th v ca sai lm do s tng ng gi to v
sai lm do sai nguyn nhn. C hai cch gi khc ch sai lm ny: tin l xu35 v u
nhn ca ci nm36. Lp lun ca n phn i li mt ngh hoc mt quan im trn c
s rng: iu s dn n mt tnh th chung tng t nh xut hoc quan im trn.
V d sau y l s phn i v vic To n cho php i hc Georgia yu cu cc gio s
cho bit h b phiu bu hi ng gio vin nh th no, l mt in hnh cho loi sai
lm ny:
Lp lun ny rt ph bin trong cuc chin tranh Vit Nam. Qu thc, him c mt
ngy no tri qua m khng c mt vi dng trn bo ch by t mi lo s rng nu Vit
Nam tht bi, sau s n Cam-pu-chia, ri Thi Lan, Burma, n v s lo lng
nh vy cng xy ra trong cuc xung t Falklands, nh trong on sau:
y, ngi vit tng tng rng chng ta ang sai lm v nu chng ta tin
thm mt bc na th s khng th dng li v s b trt xung su hn. Nhng chng ta
thng c th dng li c, v mi th khng phi ging nh ci vn trt v s khng
dn n hu qu xu c th nhn thy trc. Mi tnh th mi pht sinh cn c nh gi
33
Fallacy of Slippery Slope
34
Slippery Slope l mt ci dc trn. Fallacy of Slippery Slope c ngha rng, nh mt ngi ang b tut
dc, ln t u ny n u kia m khng th ngng li c. Trong l lun, Fallacy of Slippery Slope c
ngha rng, l lun nh mt ngi b tut dc, cho rng khi mt vn xy ra, nhng chui s kin khc s
ln lt xy ra. Ngy bin ny l tng hp ca hai ngy bin, ngy bin tng ng gi to v ngy bin sai
nguyn nhn. Ngy bin lin kt sai v nhn nh mt vn sai (tng ng gi to), ri cho s nhn nh
ca mnh ng v a ra nhng kin nhn qu. Nhng nu s nhn nh sai, th kin nhn qu a ra u
c ng. V d cho s nhn nh ng (khng vi phm tng ng gi to), th s nhn nh c phi
kin nhn qu hay khng, l 1 chuyn khc cn phi chng minh.
35
bad precedent
36
thin end of the wedge
www.kinhtehoc.com 91
li mt cch ph hp, chnh xc. Nu cc s vt thc s tng t nhau th chng s dn
n hu qu ging nhau. Do mi s vic phi c xem xt mt cch ring r nh
gi mc tng t, ging nhau ca chng.
c. Ti thc s e ngi rng, mt khi chng ta ht theo quy tc, iu tip theo l
chng ta cu nguyn theo quy tc, sau l ging o theo quy tc v cui cng
l gio hong quy tc.
Nhng lp lun nh th ch thuyt phc chng ta bng cch b qua s khc nhau c
bn gia cc trng hp c xem xt.
Khi nim l lun khp khun dng ch lp lun phn i mt quan im, tnh
th trn c s rng nu quan im, tnh th c p dng th s to ra mt
chui phn ng v cui cng s dn n nhng hu qu khng mong mun.
92
TQ hiu nh: L lun rp khun l cch chp nhn mt nh no khng cn
phn xt, v ng thi cng chp nhn lun nh hng nhn qu ca nh . L lun
rp khun ging nh l lun do-mi-n hay l lun giy chuyn, nh th thy trong thi
chin tranh Vit Nam Nu Vit Nam lt vo tay Cng Sn, ri n Min, ri Thi Lan, ri
M Lai, v.v V c th gii ln lt lt vo tay Cng Sn. Cha chc v bn ang nm
m !
www.kinhtehoc.com 93
khc, lm cho n tr nn l bch, bun ci v d dng b ph nhn. Nu lun im i lp
nhm bo v mt quan im cc oan hn quan im ban u, chc chn nhng lun im
y s tht bi. Mc d y l th thut ph bin trong tranh lun, nhng l mt iu di
tr.
Lp lun kiu ny nghe tht bun ci, nhng sai lm tng t li c th nguy
him cht ngi, nh Susan Stebbling lm trong phn tch ca c v vic cuc tranh
lun ngh vin Anh vi vn xut khu sng, c so snh vi vic xut khu ko gin
cho tr con:
d. Ngi PHILIP: Ngi khng ngh rng hng ho ca ngi l rt nguy him, c
hi khng ging nh nhng thanh s c la hay ko ngt sao?
Ngi PHILIP: Ngi khng ngh rng xut khu nhng hng ho ny l nguy him
hn vic xut khu nhng thanh ko sao?
94
Nh Stebling ch ra, cch tr li ca Ngi Charles chuyn hng khi vn
bng cch gy ci. "Ngi nghe c th vui lng ng rng c ai 'hu nh qun
ko Ging sinh' mc d anh ta cha bao gi nguy him vi mt khu sng. Nhng ko
khng c lm ra vi mc ch ny, trong khi v kh c lm ra ch vi mc ch
git ngi, st thng, ph hu. V chnh l nhng v kh c bn n" (Ngh V Mc
ch, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1939, trang 196).
12. Tm Tt
Chng ny trnh by ba loi gi thuyt sai lm, nhng lp lun cho nhng gi
thuyt cha c tm ra hoc chng minh c trnh by di chiu bi nhng lp lun
hp l.
www.kinhtehoc.com 95
d nh trong cm t sau: dng nhng t sau "nhng k bt lc, kiu cng. " ch nhng ngi
khng theo nh th.
Cu hi phc hp: l vic dng cu tr li nht nh cho mt cu hi trc m cha c a ra.
V d: John t b thi quen xu ca anh ta cha?
S bin h c bit: l vic p dng tiu chun kp (hai tiu chun khc nhau): tiu chun c bit
nh gi bn thn, v tiu chun cn li nh gi nhng ngi khc. Loi sai lm ny lng
trnh s tht bng cch c thi thin v i vi mt bn. V d nh: dng t hy sinh, cng hin
ch qun i phe mnh, cn dng nhng t nh cung tn, c c ch qun ch.
Loi sai lm cui cng l bp mo s tht, n gm c cc dng sau:
Tng ng gi to: l vic bp mo s tht bng cch so snh vn ang c bn lun tng
ng vi mt vn khc, nhng s thc li khng phi nh vy. V d nh so snh ca Bacon:
vic quc gia gy chin tranh tng th lc vi rn luyn sc kho ca c nhn l c s tng
ng.
Sai nguyn nhn: cho rng hai s kin c quan h nhn qu vi nhau nhng thc t th li khng
phi nh vy. V d nh ngi ai cp c th cng loi c qum v h ngh rng khi chng di c n
sng Nile lm cho dng nc ph sa trn vo ng rung.
L lun rp khun: nu mt quan im c chp nhn, mt tnh th c p dng.. S to ra mt
chui nhng hu qu khng mong mun. V d nh lp lun ca David Reuben chng li vic s
dng Flo.
Lun im khng ph hp: l vic bp mo vn bng cch thay th mt vn khc cho vn
c bn lun. V d nh lp lun sau: bi v vic bo tn t nhin khng bo m cho chng ta
mt vn a ng nn chng ta khng nn thc hin n nh mt phng sch tt nht hin c.
96
Fallacies of Relevance L Nga dch
Chng 5
S sai lm v tnh xc ng c c sc mnh thuyt phc t vic cho rng khi tnh
cm ln cao, hu ht iu g cng s c thng qua nh mt l l.
Su hnh thc sai lm c miu t trong chng ny, mc d khng qu chi tit,
cng th hin nhng iu thng gp phi khi mt i tng li dng vo nhng yu t
tnh cm t nhin ca chng ta nh tnh d xc ng i vi nh kin, s hm hnh kiu
cng, s tic nui, ni s hi v s thch th.
Hai hnh thc sai lm sau cng, mt loi khin nh vo s khng bit, cn loi kia
khin chng ta s hi.
97
Fallacies of Relevance L Nga dch
Cn nguyn43
Mt trong nhng s cng kch c nhn n gin nht l dng cn nguyn ca lun
44
im . l loi l l m trong ngi ta c gng chng t mt kt lun sai tri bng
cch ln n ngun gc hoc cn nguyn ca n. Nhng cng kch l sai lm bi v mt
s kin c nu ra khng c lin quan ti kh nng sng cn ca l lun. Tht l sai lm
khi tranh lun rng xu hng ca ngi M v vic dp b s lm dng vt cht l phi b
i s e ngi cn li v nghi ng v s khoi lc v s d tha n su vo nhiu ngi
M bi di sn ca o c ch ngha; hoc l do duy nht by gi chng ta tin vo Thin
Cha l chng ta c nui dy tr thnh nhng tn cng gio La M -- c th l
cch khin chng ta tr nn tin vo s tn ti ca Thin Cha ch khng phi l l
do khin chng ta tip tc phi tin nh vy.
a. xut vin tr hc bng c phn tch khai thc nhng sinh vin ngho,
v n c mt y ban gm nhng thnh vin trong Khoa v Ban qun tr a ra.
Khng sinh vin ngho no c hc bng nm trong y ban c.
98
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
Lng m 45
Mt bin dng khc ca sai lm cng kch c nhn l lng m. l loi sai lm m
trong ngoi vic hng s ch ti ngun gc ca tng, n cn cng kch li ngi
tn thnh kin cng vi s lng m hoc lm nhc. Nhng s cng kch ny c th rt
r rng hoc tinh vi n mc chng ta khng th nhn ra mc ch chng i tc gi hay s
biu hin ca s sai lm . Nhng chng ta c th lun lun nhn ra tnh lng m bi s
th hin mt thuc tnh c nhn ca i th nh l mt l do hp l nh thp tng
ca ngi .
45
Abuse ad hominem
www.kinhtehoc.com 99
Fallacies of Relevance L Nga dch
tht khng c g ng ngc nhin khi nhng l l chng li c nhn l qu ph bin trong
nhng cuc tranh ci gia nhng ngi ang mun c chc v.
Khi tnh cm ln cao, hoc ngc li, khi ngi ta n gin khng quan tm n
mt vn , nhng chin thut la gt k lng c v nh thuyt phc hn. Lm cho i
th nghi ng, nc ci, hoc mu thun l ngh tha nhn rng kin ca anh ta khng
c c s bi v anh ta khng th ng tin cy. Ni a mt cu lm mt uy tn i th,
chng hn c th ph hy l l ca ngi nu li a ct trnh khi vn v lm cho
i th tr nn kh kho. Nhng cn nhc ca Tng Thng v nhng din n chnh tr
khc thng cho thy thnh cng ca nhng chin thut ny em li. Tng t nh vy,
sau y l cu chuyn xy ra phng hp Quc Hi Anh: Mt thnh vin c tn l
Thomas Massey-Massey gii thiu mt o lut trong Quc Hi nhm thay i tn gi
Christmas thnh Christtide, vi l do l mas l mt thut ng Cng Gio La M m
ngi Anh, ch yu l ngi theo o Tin Lnh, khng nn dng. Mt thnh vin khc lp
tc phn i kin . ng ta ni rng, Christmas khng mun b i tn. ng ta hi
Thomas Massey-Massey: "ng c mun chng ti i tn ng thnh Thotide Tidey-
Tidey?". Gia ting ci sau , ngi ta khng nghe thy ni n d lut na.
S lng m thng d b nhm vi lun khng lin quan v chng cn phi tho
lun na, bi v c hai sai lm thng bc l c tnh ch trch (mc d lun khng lin
quan c v tch cc). phn bit hai loi ny l: s cng kch c tnh lng m s c gng
thuyt phc bng cch lng m i th (iu ngi X ni l v ngha v X v ngha), trong
khi lun khng lin quan c gng thuyt phc bng cch "lng m" chnh l l (s
ngu xun ca lun im X khng ng chng ta quan tm).
100
Ngi no khi s dng cch suy din gin tip cng c th ch ra rng, v d, l
l ca mt nh sn xut bo v cho vic bi b ch thu quan nn b bc b vi l do l
mt nh sn xut, c nhn anh ta s ng h vic bi b ch thu quan mt cch t nhin,
hoc t tng gi thu nh s khng c chp thun bi khng mt ngi thu nh no
ng h vic c. Hn l a ra nhng l do ti sao kt lun ca vn ng hay sai,
nhng l l nh vy ch a ra nhng l do vi hy vng rng c gi c th nhn nhn kt
lun nh anh ta.
Xem ai ni 48
Chng ta quan st ba trong s nhng chin thut c bn c dng ph hoi
uy tn ca mt ngi no . Nh chng ta thy, thnh thong iu c thc hin
bng sai lm cn nguyn, lng m trc tip, hoc suy din gin tip (ni bng gi). Ngoi
ra cn hai cch na c v phc tp hn.
48
Tu Quoque
49
To quoque (c c l " tu kwo-kway) theo ting Latin c ngha l "anh cng", c ngha l "nhn xem ai
ang ni"
www.kinhtehoc.com 101
Chng ta c mt xu hng t nhin l lun mun ngi khc "thc hin nhng
iu h thuyt gio". Nhng vic thc tp l khng xc ng i vi sc mnh ca l l.
Nhn thong qua, s p li sau y c v c l, nhng n khng h lo-gic vi bi cnh:
u c ngun nc 50
Loi sai lm cng kch c nhn cui cng m chng ta cp ti c tn gi l u
c ngun nc. Trong nhng l l nh vy chng ta c gng t i th vo v tr m anh
ta khng th i p c.
50
Poisoning the well
102
Loi sai lm ny c tn gi t John G. Cardinal Newman -- mt gio s ngi Anh
hi th k 19, ti mt trong nhng cuc tranh lun ca ng ta vi mc s, ng thi l nh
vit tiu thuyt Charles Kingsley. Trong cuc tranh ci , Kingsley ngh tha nhn
rng Newman -- vi t cch l mt thy tu La-m tin Cha khng t gi tr cao nht
vo s tht.
o. Nhng ngi khng ng tnh vi ti khi ti ni rng con ngi b mua chuc
cng chng t rng h ang b mua chuc.
www.kinhtehoc.com 103
2. Ku Gi m ng51
Sai lm v s ku gi m ng52 l kiu l l trong ngi ta ku gi tnh cm,
c bit l cm gic quyn lc m c th thng tr con ngi trong nhng m ng. Cn
c tn gi l quyn r nhiu ngi53, loi sai lm ny em li s chp nhn thiu suy
ngh ca con ngi i vi nhng kin c trnh by theo cch mnh m v khng t
nhin. S ku gi qun chng thng c ni n l ku gi nhng bn nng thp nht
ca chng ta, bao gm c nhng bn nng bo lon ca chng ta. Ngn ng ca nhng s
ku gi m ng c xu hng nh hng mnh m, tn dng nhiu li sai lm v ngn
ng chng ta nghin cu trc y trong cun sch ny. Thc s l phn ln cc v d
v ku gi qun chng lin kt vi cc loi sai lm khc, kt hp vo thnh mt l l da
ch yu vo mt phn ng tnh cm hn l mt phn ng c tnh thuyt phc. Bng cch
lm nh vy, nhng l l nh th lin quan n s sai lm thiu xc thc bi v chng
khng ni n vn ang c tranh lun m thay vo chn cch hng chng ta n
mt kt lun bng tnh cm hn l l tr.
51
Fallacy of Mob Appeal
52
Tn Latinh l argumentum ad popolum, c nghi en l "ku gi mi ngi". Ging nh ngha ca t
popular, thut ng populum c hm ngha nht nh ch s chp thun ca i a s m khng cn suy xt c
suy ngh.
53
appeal to the massses
104
Nhng thnh vin nghip on nh vy l loi ngi nh no ch? Pegler khng
bao gi dng nhng t trc tip, nhng nhng t nh trm bnh m, cp bc, nhng bn
tay d bn ca chng vo cc gia nh ngho kh v n trm bnh m, mc trm cp
cho thy rng Pegler so snh nhng thnh vin nghip on vi nhng con chut bn thu.
c. Chng ta khng quan tm ti vic trn chin ang ng v pha no. Nu chng
ta cho rng ch hai bn v l tt, nhng chng ta khng th c n cho n khi
cc quc gia khc gip chng ta. Chng ta tr li rng, thay v gi bn v vng
bi nc Anh lm nh vy, chng ta s khi phc ch hai bn v, v sau s
nc Anh gi ch hai bn v bi nc M lm nh th. Nu h thch thc
nh nhau v bo v bn v vng nh l mt th qu gi, chng ta s chin u
vi h n cng. Cui cng, chng ta l a s cc dn tc v ton th gii, c
ng h bi quyn li kinh t, quyn li lao ng v nhng ngi lao ng khp
mi ni, chng ta s p li yu cu ca h v bn v vng bng cch ni vi h:
Cc anh s khng n ln trn ca ngi lao ng vng hoa y gai ny, cc anh
cng s khng ng vo con ngi mt du thp c bng vng.
www.kinhtehoc.com 105
S ku gi qun chng l s sai lm bi nhng l l ny da trn nhng tnh cm b
khuy ng ca ngi nghe.
f. Khng ai trong phng ny ph nhn vic phi gio dc tr nghim tc. Nhng
hy nh rng y l trng ca chng ta v n thuc v con ci ca chng ta.
Nhng k thut c s dng bao gm: biu l t tng cao, lng yu nc, ni
bng gi, ma mai, lp li, ni di trng trn, v.v.
106
Mc d nhng s ku gi nh vy thng c v nh l chn thnh v din t tnh
cm su sc mt cch t pht, trong phn ln cc trng hp, chng l kt qu
ca mu mo cn thn nht.
3. Ku Gi Lng Thng54
Sai lm v s ku gi lng thng ging vi kiu sai lm ku gi qun chng m
trong l l c a ra thu ht mi ngi v pha mnh bng cch li dng tnh cm
ca h. N khc vi s ku gi qun chng ch n li dng mt loi tnh cm n l --
l s cm thng, c ngha l l l hng vo tnh cm thng hi ca chng ta.
y, vic Socrate dng cch ku gi lng thng xt l tht khn kho. Sau y
l mt v d thng thn c lut s v ti phm ni ting Clarence Darrow trnh by trc
ta.
54
Fallacy of Appeal to Pity
www.kinhtehoc.com 107
L l ca Darrow bin h cho s thng cm bng cch ku gi thin ch bm sinh
ca ban hi thm. iu rc ri vi nhng s ku gi nh vy l ch bt k chng ng
mi lng n th no th chng cng c th khng xc ng vi vn t ra v trong
trng hp nh vy chng khng c sc thuyt phc vi chng ta. Trong tt c cc loi sai
lm v s xc ng, chng ta cn bit r cu hi v trng im ca l lun. Bi vy s l
sai lm nu mt lut s bo cha khi a ra bng chng v s phn ng tic ca b co
nh l mt l do khin ta n cng nhn anh ta l v ti. Mt khc, s l khng l sai lm
khi mt lut s a ra bng chng nh vy lm l do s pht ti phm mt cch nhn
hu.
" No, B, ti sao b khng mua mt chic tivi?" Bn nghe thy iu . Nhng
c nhiu iu na m bn s khng nghe thy c. Bn c mong i mt a
tr by tui ni v nhng tnh cm c n su sc m cu ta cm thy khng?
a tr c th phn nn: " Bn tr bn xn lm v chng khng chi vi con na!
108
l phng tin c a chung ca cc lut s bo cha v cc nh qung
co. " Liu mt a tr ln tm tui c nn lo lng v cholesterol hay khng?"
4. Ku Gi Quyn Lc55
Chng ta ku gi chuyn gia56 khi chng ta c gng bin h cho mt kin bng
cch trch dn mt vi ngun v kin chuyn mn nhm coi n nh l l do bo v
kin . Nhng s ku gi chuyn gia thng l c cn c, bi chng ta bo ai dng
mt loi thuc no l v bc s k n cho chng ta. Nhng s ku gi chuyn gia c
th l sai lm khi chng ta vin n ngi khng c kh nng chuyn mn nh gi vn
ny. Ngy bin v s ku gi chuyn gia, do vy, l l l c gng khin i th chp
nhn mt kt lun bng cch li dng s min cng tha nhn nhng ngi ni ting,
nhng phong tc c tn trng do lu i hoc nhng nim tin c nh hng rng ln.
S sai lm, v c bn l ku gi tnh cm khim tn ca chng ta, cm gic ca chng ta
m ngi khc bit r hn chng ta.
55
Fallacy of Appeal to Authority
56
Nh trit hc ngi Anh John Lock gi loi ngy bin ny bng mt ci tn Latin -- argument ad
verecundiam, c ngha l " l l hng ti tnh cm khim tn ca chng ta." Verecundian mang hm xu
h v khim tn, nhn mnh ti vic chng ta thng xuyn c th b buc phi chp thun mt kt lun sai
tri bi v chng ta cm thy h thn khi bn ci mt quyn lc c gi nh.
57
The authority of the One
www.kinhtehoc.com 109
chuyn ng theo s vn ng 3 ln -- iu m ti khng th hiu c. Bi theo
cc nh trit hc, mt c th bnh thng cng ging nh Tri t ch c th vn
ng n gin. Do vy theo ti c v nh hc thuyt a tm ca Ptolemy ng
c chp nhn hn l ca Copernicus. (Clavius, 1581)
i mt vi nhng truyn thng cng nhc, tht chng c g ng ngc nhin khi
mt vi nh khoa hc v cc vin chp thun thut ng: "Quyn lc khng c ngha l g
c."
Quyn lc ca s ng58
Nc M hin thi c v c bit thin v kiu ngu bin ku gi quyn lc c
bit n nh l l l ca s bng lng59 hay s ku gi quyn lc ca s ng. S ku gi
s ng -- hnh thc sai lm ny c s dng rng ri trong qung co, ni m vic hng
triu ngi dng mt sn phm nht nh no c coi l l do mua n.
58
The Authority of the Many
59
Argument by Consensus
110
f. Nm ngoi hn 5 triu con mo chuyn ti Tender Vittles.
Tuy nhin trong tt c cc trng hp sai lm kiu ny, vic nhiu ngi ng
vi mt kt lun no u khng lm n tr nn ng n.
TQ hiu nh: qu v cn phn bit gia s lng v cht lng. Mt l lun c cht
lng l mt l lun ng; mt n c cht lng l mt n hay. Nhiu ngi ng
v thch mt l lun khng chng minh c mt l lun hay mt n ng. Lch s
chng minh iu ny rt nhiu. Mt thi, hn 1/2 dn s trn tri t (Trung Quc,
ng u, Vit Nam, Cuba, Bc Hn v.v...) tin rng l thuyt Karl Marx ng, nhng qua
thi gian th s vic r, l thuyt kinh t th trng hu dng hn!
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Quyn lc ca s t c la chn60
V chng ta nn chng li vic chp nhn li ku gi quyn lc ca mt chuyn gia
hoc ca mt nhm chuyn gia, chng ta cng phi c kh nng nhn ra nhng li ku gi
quyn lc ca s t c la chn. Thnh thong ci c gi l s hp dn ua i61 --
kiu ngu bin ku gi quyn lc ny li dng tnh cm ca chng ta rng chng ta l
nhng ngi qu tc c lng tm, rng chng ta khng thuc v s ng m thuc v s
t c la chn. Vic s dng nhng tnh cch tuyt vi qung co sn phm da vo
li ku gi s hp dn ua i, nh nhng li qung co di y:
p. Gii thiu The Date Walnut Double Decker. khng phi l loi bnh bn n
hng ngy. (Bi v c nhng loi khc m bn thch hn nhiu?)
60
The authority of the Selected Few
61
Snob appeal
112
h o, s mong mun ca chng ta c nhn thy mnh nh nhng i tng c bit
hoc theo cch no chng ta l tt hn cc "m ng", thng qua s tham gia vo tng
lp cao hn, hoc i hi mt s s hu hoc ph thuc ng thm mun no .
5. nh Vo S Khng Bit63
Li sai lm nh vo s khng bit l l l trong vic s dng s thiu kh nng
phn chng ca i phng lm mt bng chng cho s ng n ca kt lun .
Bng cch chuyn ngha v phi chng minh iu mnh ni l ng s tht ra khi l l
sang ngi nghe, l l tr thnh thiu xc ng.
62
The authority of tradition
63
Fallacy Of Appeal To Ignorance
www.kinhtehoc.com 113
Hai l l di y nhm c gng chuyn ngha v phi chng minh iu mnh ni
l ng s tht:
c. Nhng ngi cha bnh bng cch xoa bp hon ton tht bi khi c gng
thit lp mt c s khoa hc cho nhng khi nim ca h. Vn ny do vy c
th c gii quyt mt ln v cho tt c. Vic cha bnh bng phng php xoa
bp l khng c c s khoa hc.
Vic nhng ngi cha bnh bng phng php xoa bp n tn gi vn khng
chng t c rng nhng khi nim ca h c c s khoa hc l khng phi chng t
h thiu c s -- iu c th c thit lp.
d. Khng c bng chng cho vic khoa trng lm r r thng tin cho bo ch, do
vy ti chc chn rng b y khng th lm vic c.
114
tuyn n v ti s c bo m, v trch nhim chng minh thuc v bn nguyn t. Mc
d s tuyn b ny c v lin quan n sai lm nh vo s khng bit, thc s th khng
phi nh vy. Nguyn tc xc ng hp php trong trng hp ny l mt ngi c coi
l v ti cho n khi chng minh c ti.64 Chng ta khng ni rng bn b l v ti cho
n khi chng minh c ti, nhng ch c iu l h c coi l nh vy. R rng, khng
phi bt c ai m ti li ca h khng c chng minh u c coi l v ti; thc t cho
thy l sau mt vi ngi b chng minh l c ti. Nhng theo php lut h c coi l
v ti cho n khi iu ny c thc hin, bt k h thc s c ti hay khng. Thc tp
trong to n, bi vy, khng phi l ngai l i vi lut l ca chng ta.
64
presumed innocent until proved guilty
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Sai lm nh vo s khng bit l sai lm trong chng ta c gng trnh ph
nhn mt lun im ca i phng nh l bng chng ca vc cng nhn. (Anh
khng th chng t ti sai, th ti phi ng.)
6. Ku Gi S S Hi65
Kiu sai lm ku gi s s hi dng s e do tn hi a ra mt kt lun ca
mt ngi no . l loi l l m con ngi v cc quc gia phi dng n khi h
khng quan tm n vic a ra nhng l do xc ng cho quan im ca mnh. Cn c
bit n nh l ung a cu gy ln66, l l ny him khi gii quyt c mi bt ho.
65
Fallacy Of Appeal To Fear
66
V ting Latin cho t cy gy l baculum, l l ny c bit n trong ting Latin l argumentum ad
baculum
116
hp khc bng chng c th di hng trang hoc thm ch hng quyn. S gii thch di
y cho li ku gi ca ngi Athenian khin nhng ngi i din ca o Melo lin
kt vi h c ly t lch s Hi-lp l mt v d kinh in v s ku gi sc mnh.
www.kinhtehoc.com 117
Sn ca hi John Birch, hi ban hnh mt li tuyn b ng trc mt danh sch cc
nh qung co nh sau:
7. Tm Tt
Chng ny trnh by su kiu sai lm v s xc ng. Nhng sai lm c th
hin nh l nhng l l trong s ku gi tnh cm la chng ta tin rng nhng g c
ni n l xc ng i vi kt lun ang c nu ra khi mc ch chnh ca li ku gi l
tranh th s ng h i vi kt lun thng qua phn ng tnh cm hn l l-gc. S e
do c s dng p buc lng tin (ch khng phi cch c x). Do vy chng ta c
trng hp ngu bin v s ku gi ni s hi -- nu khng n gin ch l s e do.
S cng kch c nhn c cho thy nh l mt l l cng kch mt hay nhiu
ngi c lin quan n vn t ra hn l vi chnh vn . Mt v d c
a ra ni n l l phn bc mt cch cha tr bnh ung th bi v ngi biu
ni ting v s ng h ca b ta vi ch ngha Mc-xt. Chng ta thy rng s
ngu bin ny -- li dng s nghi ng v nh kin, c th c nhiu dng khc
nhau: ngu bin cn nguyn, ni m mt ngi bi nh ngun gc ca l l; sai
lm lm dng v suy din, ni m ngi ta dng n lng m ni bng gi; tu
quoque v ph hoi iu tt l hai cch sai lm m ngi ta gy nghi ng v tnh
kin nh v s tn nhim ca i th.
S ku gi qun chng c coi nh l kt qu ca cc k thut truyn b khc
nhau c s dng kt hp khuy ng tnh cm ca mi ngi v hng s
ch ra khi vn c thc. Bi iu vn ca Mark Antony c khai thc nh l
mt v d n tng nht.
118
S ku gi lng thng c miu t nh l mt c gng ginh c im ca mt
ngi no bng cch li dng lng thng cm ca h. Li qung co bt u
bng "C mt s iu m con ci bn s khng ni cho bn bit u!" c coi nh
l mt v d minh ho.
S ku gi quyn lc c xem nh l mt c gng nhm e do chng ta chp
nhn mt kt lun bi ai c gii thiu nh l mt chuyn gia xc nhn iu
, mc d ngi khng phi l chuyn gia v lnh vc ; bi v a s mi
ngi xc nhn vn ; hoc bi v n c cng nhn l tuyt diu; hoc bi
truyn thng. Khu hiu " Philadelphia hu ht mi ngi u c cun Bulletin"
cng l mt v d.
nh vo s khng bit c cho thy nh l mt l l c gng e da chng ta
phi tin vo mt iu rng ci g phi nh vy ch n gin bi v chng ta
khng th chng minh n khc c. V d, nu chng ta khng th chng minh
c rng v trng khoa r r thng tin cho bo gii th chng ta phi coi rng b
ta khng lm iu .
Cui cng, s ku gi ni s hi, cng c coi nh l sai lm. N ny sinh khi mt
kt lun t c s ng h khng phi bng cch thit lp kt lun thng qua s
suy lun lo-gc m bi do s s dng s e do sc mnh hoc mi thit hi. L l
"nu cc ng khng tuyn n m git ngi ny th mt trong s cc ng c th s
tr thnh nn nhn k tip ca b ta" c coi l mt v d cho s sai lm
ny.
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Writing with Clarity and Reason V Hng Long dch
Phn III
Chng 6
67
Writing with Clarity and Reason
121
With Good Reason -- An Introduction to Informal Fallacies
l (ng t, lin t)
Chng ta bit rng mi ngi u phi cht, v Socrates khng phi l mt ngoi
l. Socrates khng cn i vi chng ta; chng ta ch bit nhng li gii thch
ca Plato v li ni ca Socrates. Khng c g trn i ny l tn ti mi mi.
Chng ta cht i, mc d nhng suy ngh ca chng ta vn sng trong nhng
quyn sch, mc d tiu s ca chng ta vn c ghi chp nhng chng ta
khng th t ni cho chnh mnh. Ci cht ca chng ta c ngha l nhng ngi
khc ni h cho chng ta; khi mt i c th ca mnh cng c ngha l mt i
ting ni.
122
M u
Mt bi lun truyn thng c bt u bng cch gii thiu v ch . Bn cnh
n nu ra mt lun 68 m tc gi mun chng minh. on vn u tin ca mt bi
lun thng c gi l gii thiu. Hy xem mt sinh vin bt u mt bi lun ca
mnh v Socrates:
Thn bi
Mi on vn trong phn thn bi ca mt bi lun trnh by v pht trin cc lun
im ca tc gi vi s chi tit v cc v d (thng gi l cc bng chng) chng minh
kt lun a ra. Bn c th c c ci nhn tng quan v cu trc ca mt bi lun
bng cch xem xt bn on vn tip theo ca bi lun ny trong ngi vit trnh by
nhng pht hin ca mnh xoay quanh nguyn nhn dn n ci cht ca Socrates:
68
thesis
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thm on rng nhng iu ng ni ra l s tht, mi s suy lun khng phi bao
gi cng kh pht hin v nhng ngi buc ti ng la di. Bn cnh , ng
lin tc ni rng hot ng ca ng l bn phn hay ngha v tn gio c giao
cho ng bi cha tri. Theo s gii thch ca Plato ti phin to, Socrates nhng
iu m cha tri ban ra, khng mt ngi no c th phn xt. Khng mt ln,
ngay c sau khi ng b kt ti cht, Socrates ku gi lng thng xt ca cc v
bi thm hay c gng xu nnh h; ng thm ch cn i xa hn khi ni rng nu ng
c tha th ng li tip tc nhng hot ng khin ng b a ra xt x. Socrates
sau lc tr thnh mt con ngi vi ngha v tn gio khng th b lay chuyn
bi kin ca ngi Athen rng ng ph v cc quy tc iu chnh cuc
sng ca thnh ph ny.
Tuy nhin kh khn khng t ln Socrates nhiu bng bn thn nhng ngi
dn Athen. mc c nhn, mt ngi dn Athen c th cm thy xu h v b
mt khi Socrates t ra vn lm phi by nhng khim khuyt v mu thun
trong kh nng ca h suy ngh mt cch khn ngoan. Nhng vn ca ng
lm cho nhng ngi ni chuyn vi ng nhn thy mt cch kh chu v s ngu
dt ca h, cng nh tr nn ng ngn, thng l trc mt nhng ngi khc.
Hy ly v d v phn ng ca ng i vi cc quan to v vic h co buc ng
l nghch o v ngo mn i vi cha: "c th rng cha tri thng thi v khi
ng ni v ngi n ng ny, Socrates, ng ang s dng tn ca ti nh l mt
v d nh th ng ni: 'ngi n ng ny trong s cc bn, nhng con ngi,
l thng thi nht, ging nh Socrates, ng hiu c tr khn ca ng l v gi
tr".(23b). y nh nhng ph b nhng c s ca nhng gi nh ca ngi
dn Athen l Socrates ngh bn thn ng ta ng trn c cha tri; ngay lc
124
ng cho thy mnh l mt con ngi cc k sng o (o c gi). Thi
nh vy ch lm cc quan to cm thy ngu ngc, do h, ging nh Euthyphro
trong cuc i thoi ca Plato, ch i mt s trn thot khi nhng iu s nhc.
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Ngi ta thng cho rng con ngi thng khng mun nim tin ca h c
em ra tranh ci. Nh ngi nh c xy dng trn nn mng, h xy dng cuc
sng ca mnh trn c s nhng nim tin, v nu mng ca ngi nh b lung lay,
ngi nh c th b . Mc d mi ngi thch th vi mt s thay i, nhng h
li s nhng s thay i i hi s iu chnh li hon ton cuc sng v cch suy
ngh ca h. Vic ngh nhng iu nh th dng nh e do, thm ch lm
mt phm gi c nhn.
Phn kt
Phn kt ca mt bi lun ng vai tr l s tm tt li kt lun v nhng lun c
c trnh by trong phn m u v phn thn bi; s tng kt an cu cc lun im m
tc gi trnh by theo trnh t. V d, bi lun vn ca sinh vin ny ni li hai phn ca
thn bi m c ta trnh by lm sng t lun im v c ta mun trnh by, khi gii
thiu trong nh :
126
Phn kt lun hiu qu v cn trng ny tng kt nhng lun c chng minh
kt lun . Do c th ni rng phn kt khng ch n thun nhc li nhng im
chnh yu c nu ra; phn kt cn phi l mt n lc sau cng nhm thuyt
phc ngi c v lun , v da trn nhng lun c c trnh by trong phn thn
bi nhm gip ngi c hiu r c lp lun ca ngi vit. Gi y, bn xem xt
qua v cu trc ca mt bi lun, hn l bn c mt s tng v cu trc bi lun, bi
v cch m bn t chc tng ca mnh s gip bn nh hnh tng ca mnh. Nu bn
gii quyt nhim v vit lch ca mnh vi nhng hiu bit v thut vit lch, bn s lm
vic, v bn s thy lp lun ca bn s c xy dng mt cch d dng hn khi bn
khng c mt nim no v hnh thc bn mun s dng.
2. Xy Dng Mt Bi Lun
C cc sinh vin v nhng ngi vit chuyn nghip i khi khng c li s chn
ch, v nhng n lc yu cu vit ng chnh t, suy lun hp l, v bi lun c tnh thuyt
phc c th gy ra chn nn.
Tm kim ch
C th l nhim v vit mt bi lun yu cu bn s tp trung vo mt s ch
nht nh v iu m bn s vit, trong gio vin ca bn c th yu cu bn c mt s
quyn sch hoc ngh v mt vi tng c th bn thu nhn c lp hc. Khi bn bt
u xem xt nhng ch c th, hy lun nh rng mt bi lun l mt s lp lun c
chun b v vit cn thn. iu ny c ngha l trong bi lun bn s c thuyt phc ngi
c rng mt s quan im v ch nht nh l ng tin cy. Cho d l bn vit v vic
ct gim v kh ht nhn hay kiu dy dnh cho nhng ngi cao ln, bn s cn xc nh
ch c th t n mt ch c th tranh lun c. Chng u tin s bn v mt
s yu t c mt lp lun thuyt phc, tuy nhin nhng xut sau y c th gip bn
xc nh mt ch .
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phi l tng hp li nhng g bn c hoc ni trc . Mt tc gi s chn mt ch
s khng phi l nhng g c cp mt cch y trong cc cun bch khoa ton
th; thay vo ngi vit li ni v ci cht ca Socrates khi xem xt cun sch "Li Th
Ti" ca Plato v mt s v d v nhng nhn nh v cch con ngi phn ng i vi
nhng s ph bnh.
Tuy nhin bi vit ca bn phi tun theo mt s quy tc suy lun nu n mun t
c tnh thuyt phc. V d ngi vit trn c mt s kin v ch , v phn kt a
ra mt tuyn b c cn c v kt lun c nhc n: "nhng ngi Athen khng sn
sng n nhn nhng ngi nh Socrates, v dng nh bt c ngi no hoc cng ng
no xem nhng li ph bnh l mi e do cng s c ng x nh vy." Tuy nhin, ngi
vit quan tm n vic quan im ny da trn s gii thch c minh ho bng nhng v
d c th v d hiu. Tc gi cng s dng nhng on vit ca Plato l bng chng tin
cy cho lp lun ca mnh, do bng cch tm ra nhng bng chng nguyn thu
chng minh nhn nh v s khim khuyt ca con ngi, thay v php lut, dn n
bn kt ti i vi Socrates. Cui cng, v d v ngi nghin ru a ra cho ngi c
mt minh ho c th cng c cho nhn nh "con ngi khng mun chng kin s
khim khuyt v yu ui ca mnh." Bn c th thy, tc gi bt u vi mt "ci
bu" rng nhng tng l thuyt phc, nhng vic thuyt phc ngi c c v nh
ngoi tm vi ca h.
128
khng ng; mc d c th l ngi bc ca tc gi b git v ng khng c mt khu
sng, hu qu khng nht thit phi xut pht t thc t c a ra. S minh ho nh vy
c th a ra mt v d c kh nng thuyt phc cho mt lun im, nhng cn c m
u bng li ni khch quan hn. Hy xem s sa i sau:
C th ho ch ca bn
C th bn s dng nhng k nng nh ng no, vit t do, lp danh sch khi
bn bt u to tng cho mt bi lun. Nhng hot ng nh vy thng c gi l
trc lc vit (prewriting),c ngha l l mt phn trong cng vic ca bn trc khi
bn thc s bt tay vo vit bn tho u tin ca bi lun. Nu hin ti bn khng s dng
bt c mt chun mc no pht trin ch ca bn, hy xem xt qua nhng m t
ngn gn ca giai on trc lc vit. gip bn tp trung vo ch , nhng hot ng
trc lc vit s cung cp cho bn thng tin v nhng lun c v nhng v d bn s s
dng chng minh cho lp lun ca mnh.
Qu trnh ng no69
Bn c th bt u ng no v ch bng cch tho lun nhim v ca bn vi
gio vin v bn b; v d nh xut nhng tng, t ra cc cu hi, v quan st
nhng kha cnh ca vn cn c tho lun theo quan im ca bn. ng no bng
mt ci bt l vic ngi xung v vit trong khong thi gian nht nh, khong 20 pht,
v ch m bn ang suy ngh. Bn vit ra nhng g c th ngh; dng nhng cu hi, lit
k, phc ho s qua. Bn thm ch c th dng nhng cu ri rc mc d khng c ngha
vi ai khc ngoi bn. Khi kt thc, bn xem li ton b nhng g mnh vit ra tm
nhng tng, cc chng c c th h tr cho cc lun c ca bn, v c th l nhng
im trng tm bn c th s dng nh l kt lun.
69
brainstorming
www.kinhtehoc.com 129
Vit t do
Vit t do cng tng t nh ng no, tr vic n yu cu bn vit nhng cu dt
khot v hon thin. Mt ln na, bn nn vit tt c nhng g bn c th ngh v ch
tim nng, nhng bn cnh , bn nn vit tt c nhng g bn c th ngh ra khng
lm gin on qu trnh vit ny. Thng thng, nhng s kt hp ngu nhin c th gip
bn tm ra nhng lun c c th h tr cho lp lun ca mnh. (Mt bi lun c l thng
bt u bng mt "ci bu trc gic" v mt ch .)
t vn
Mt bi lun yu cu bn phi thuyt phc c ngi c v quan im ca bn.
Nhng cu hi sau y c th gip bn phn tch v tp trung vo ch , do nhng
lun chng ca bn v kt lun tr nn ng tin cy hn i vi ngi c:
Xy dng mt lun
Nhiu tc gi lm vic vi nhng chin lc c nu trn v t n
nhng li ni mang tnh tranh lun, nhng qu mp m bao gm trong phm vi mt bi
lun ngn. Mt k nng hu ch tp trung vo ch lin quan n mt li ni rt tng
qut v sa i nhiu ln tr thnh mt li pht biu c th:
130
Bn c th kt thc vi mt cu rt di m c v nh lan man khng dt v ch
ca bn. ng nn lo lng v vic vit nhng cu ng vo lc ny; thay vo , hy gii
quyt nhng ci cn mp m, nhng on cn chung chung tm ra gii hn cho ch
m bn vit.
Xem xt v mt tu t
Thng thng nhng ngi vit thng b mc kt trong nhng quy tc chi phi
mt bi lun truyn thng. H nghim tc to ra nhng lun , vit nhng bi lun vi
nhng s m u, thn bi, phn kt, nhng khng lm cho h hi lng khi trnh by
nhng hiu bit v ch ca h, ch m h c s chun b, v a n cho ngi
c. Nhiu sinh vin c cho rng ngi c ca h thc s l ngi thy v nh du bng
bt ; tuy nhin, thc t l kt qu lao ng ca cc bn s c c v nh gi bi
nhng gio vin, nhng ngi thy ca bn mun c mt bi lun m bn vit mt cch
thch th. Mc ch chnh ca cc bn khi vit mt bi lun l thu ht s tham gia ca c
ngi c v ngi vit. John R.Trimble a ra mt s im quan trng khi ngh v cc
c gi:
3. D on v nhng cu hi ca bn c v phn ng ca h.
5. Giao tip vi ngi c bng mt phong cch truyn cm, thn thin v rng
m thay v lm ra v ta y l ngi quan trng nht.
131
thng. Nhng ngi vit l sinh vin c ch bo vit theo phong cch trang trng hn l
phong cch bnh dn, s dng nhng lin t lo-gic (tuy nhin, do , bn cnh , mt
mc, bi v, ni tm li), v khng bao gi dng ngi th nht s t. Nhng quy tc ny
khng hn l nhng li khuyn tt. Mt khc, ngi vit c th cm nhn c t hn
nhng g h ang ni, v khng kim sot c tnh lo-gic ca mt bi lun. V d nh bi
lun trn y c vit ra p ng cc yu cu ca mt bi hc, tc gi ca n khng
a ra nhng t ao to ba ln gy n tng vi c gi. Thay vo , ngi vit
chn ngn ng ca ring mnh to ra mt ging iu phc tp nhm gii thch v thuyt
phc:
on vit trn cho thy ngi vit l mt ngi am hiu v ch Socrates, nhng
hy ch cch ngi vit dng ch, chng r rng l ngh ngi c tham gia, thm
d s gii thch ca mnh. Bn cnh , tc gi vin dn n Plato th hin nhng n
lc ca mnh trong vic kt hp vi nhng hc gi suy ngh v vit v Socrates. Cui cng,
tc gi khng s dng nhng t mang tnh "nhi nht"; mi ngn t u ph hp vi
nhng im trong bi lun. Khi tc gi dng cm t hiu c (cng nh t chng ta,
y l mt cm t trang trng, mt du hiu ca s tao nh) to ra mt s chuyn i
gia phn m u v phn thn bi ca bi lun v cho php ngi c on bit c tin
trnh phn tch.
c gi v s la chn ngn t
Trong bi lun ca mnh "S Trong Sng Ca Ting Anh, Gi B Vn c"
(Tun Bo Princeton Alumni, 26 thng 9, 1958), Willard Thorp a ra khi nim
"khng ting Anh" m t nhng ngi vit s dng th ngn ng lm kh hiu
nhng tng m h c gng din t. Vn l nhng la chn sai lm v t ng, s
dng nhng cch din t so mn hoc nhm chn, v vit nhng cu di dng v a
ngn. "Khng ting Anh" nu ra vn trong khi vit m bn c th sa cha; bn ch
cn b ra thi gian xem xt mt cch chnh xc iu bn mun ni ra, v vi i tng
c gi no bn mun giao tip. Nu bn ngh k lng v tng v c gi ca mnh,
th bn c th quen vi cu trc ba phn ca mt bi lun v dng n ni vi, ch khng
phi ni cho ngi c ca mnh.
Hy xem hai cu biu th vn "khng ting Anh" v sa cha chng sao cho
chng c th din t c chnh mt cch n gin v mch lc.
Socrates, mt con ngi c mi quan tm ln gi trong mnh nim tin mnh lit
bng cch cho php mnh c bn phn trc Cha. Mt s ngi thy rng
Socrates l mt ngi c nhn thc v tiu chun dy d v p dng
nhng hiu bit ca ng i vi mi ngi.
132
V mt tu t hc, ngi vit cn n gin ho cch dng ngn ng ngi c
hiu c iu g ang c ni n (v d nh "mt con ngi c mi quan tm ln"?).
V mt lo-gic, hai cu trn dng nh khng c mi lin h vi nhau, v cn c sa
cha li chng kt hp vi nhau din t ngh ca ngi vit. V mt ng php, ngi
vit cn ch trng c bit n du cu. Hy xem xt cc cu sau khi sa:
133
L do u tin l t l tht nghip mc cao (gia nhng ngi m gc phi)
th chng g khc ngoi s d bo l tng lai nc m s xu i thay v tin b.
Nhng ngi lao ng to ra ca ci ca nc m khng ch l nhng c nhn
c lp m cn l tr ct m sc kho ca ton b cng ng ca chng ta da
vo. Mt ngi vi mt cng vic t t s h tr b m gi ca anh ta v sc
mnh bo m n nh cho nhng ngi hng xm v thnh ph. Nhng ng
ph sch s v an ton, nhng ngi nh khang trang, chm sc y t y v
thm ch l ho bnh gia cc dn tc l tt c nhng mc tiu ch c th xut
pht t cng vic n nh. Nu khng c mt cng vic t t..c th lm c
ci g ngoi tr gy tn thng n s lnh m i vi nhng vt thng ca tht
nghip. Tng lai ca nc m s khng l g ngoi s nguy nan. Hin nay mt
th h ang ln ln, c qu nhiu gia nh m b m khng c vic lm. S cam
chu trc t l tht nghip cao trong nm 1980 s chng l ci g ngoi mt s
bo m rng chng ta s bc i trn nhng con ng b bn, i qua nhng
ngi tr tui au n, nhng ngi gi vi i mt u bun trong th k 21. T l
tht nghip cao s chng l g ngoi s u t r tin trong s suy tn lin tc.
134
Sa cha
Khi bn lm vic vi mt bi lun, bn s thy rng nhiu hot ng cn c tp
trung vo vic vit li nhng g m bn vit cch y mi lm pht. Sa cha l iu cn
thit trong qu trnh vit. Chng 2 ca cun sch ny gii thch rng ngn ng mang tnh
quy np, tnh nhn to v cn phi hc; v vic vit lch cng nh vy. Bn s thng
xuyn phi vit t nht ba bn nhp v bi lun nu bn mun c mt s tho mn v sn
phm cui cng. Bn nhp u tin c th tp hp nhng nh ca bn mt cch l m;
n c th khng mch lc, nhiu t vit sai hoc s dng sai, v phm vi ca n qu ln.
Nhng bn nhp u tin s gip bn c c nhng on vn bn bn c th lm vic;
hy c v tm xem nhng on no c ngha v nhng on no khng, hy ngh v cu
trc m bn s dng, sau vit bn nhp th hai. Bn nhp ny cn c mt ngi khc
c, c th l bn b Ngi c th gip bn tm ra nhng on vn c t chc khng
ng, v d khng ng, nhng ch vit sai v dng sai. Bn nhp th ba rt c th l mt
bn tho r rng v hp l; tuy nhin bn vn cn phi kim tra cn thn v cc li ng
php. La chn vit bn nhp bao nhiu ln l tu bn; hy lun nh, nu khng c s sa
i nhiu ln v lin tc th hu nh khng th c c mt vn bn c vit mt cch r
rng, thuyt phc.
135
Chng 7
Nhng Bi c Gi
Max Black, ed. The Importance of Language. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univer-sity
Press, 1969. Selected papers on the philosophy of language, edited by a noted American
analytic philosopher. (Bin tp vin Max Black, Tm Quan Trng Ca Ngn Ng. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Trng i Hc Cornell n bn, 1969. Nhng bi c chn lc da trn trit l ca
ngn ng, c bin son bi mt trit gia phn tch ni ting ngi M.)
Edward T. Hall. The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday Anchor Book, 1973.
An account by an American anthropologist and linguist of how we "talk" to each other
without the use of words. (Edward T.Hall. Ngn Ng Khng Li. New York: Doubleday
Anchor, 1973. Mt bn miu t ca mt nh ngn ng v nhn loi hc ngi M v vn
chng ta "ni chuyn" vi nhau nh th no nu khng s dng ngn t.)
C. L. Hamblin. Sai Lm. London: Menthuen, 1972. Mt s gii thch theo nin i,
bt u bng Aristole, v lch s ca nhng li ngy bin ph bin. Tc gi l gio s trit
hc ca trng i Hc New South Wales.
Wilson Bryan Key. Khai Thc Phng Tin Truyn Thng i Chng. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1976. Mt s gii thch v phng tin thng tin i chng kch
ng v li ko chng ta nh th no bng cch li dng s thch th, ni s hi ca chng
136
ta, v gi chng ta nn c thi quen mua nhng g n quyt nh mi chng ta. kin
ch o khai thc ch ny trong mt cun sch c xut bn sm hn c tn gi l S
Quyn R Tim Thc (1973) v gn y hn l Clam-Plate Orgy (1980).
Stanley Milgram. Nghe Theo Quyn Lc. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Da
trn nghin cu c thc hin ti Trng i Hc Yale, s din gii v mt cuc th
nghim ni ting khai thc ci g v t nhin ca s nghe theo quyn lc c th to ra
tnh hung m trong mt ngi c th ra lnh cho ngi khc lm iu hi, thm ch
tiu dit ngi th ba v ti, v nhng mnh lnh c thc hin mt cch v cm, d
quy phc v thng l.
George Orwell. "Chnh tr v Ngn ng Ting Anh", trong tuyn tp nhng bi tiu
lun ca George Orwell. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1953. Pht hin nhng sa st trong
tiu chun ca din vn v vn phong hin nhin trong vn ha ca chng ta n nh
hng nguy hi ca mt nn chnh tr b h thp. Ngi ta cho rng s thay i trong
nhng thi quen din thuyt ca chng ta l mt ngh thut chnh tr.
137