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Complexnumbersand
hyperbolic
functions
z " - 4 2 *5 : 0 . (3.1
)
Equation (3.1) has two solutions,zy a.nd22,such that
4+ J;$ -4 1 1 "
'
(3.3)
83
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
the first term is called a real term. The full solution is the sum of a real term
and an imaginary term and is called a complex number. A plot of the function
IQ): z2 -42 * 5 is shown in figure 3.1.It will be seenthat the plot does not
intersect the z-axis, correspondingto the fact that the equation /(z) :0 has no
purely real solutions.
The choice of the symbol z for the quadratic variable was not arbitrary; the
conventional representationof a complex number is z, where z is the sum of a
real part x and i times an imaginary part y, i.e.
z : x *i y ,
where i is usedto denote the squareroot of - 1. The real part x and the imaginary
part y arc usually denoted by Rez andlmz respectively.We note at this point
that some physical scientists,engineersin particular, use j instead of i. However,
for consistency,we will use i throughout this book.
In our particular example,lZ :2J-t - 2i, and hencethe two solutions of
(3.1) are
z rz : 2 t z j: z t i.
Thus , her ex : 2 and, y : *1 .
For compactnessa complex number is sometimeswritten in the form
z : (x,y),
The addition of two complex numbers, 21 and 22, in general gives another
complex number. The real componentsand the imaginary componentsare added
separatelyand in a like manner to the familiar addition of real numbers:
85
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
lrn z
4 +2 2
or in component notation
z 1 *2 2 : 2 2 +z t ,
z r *k z *4 ) : Q r l z z ) l z t .
86
3.2 MANIPULATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
lt l: \ , F r t . (3.4)
Hence the modulus of the complex number is the distanceof the corresponding
point irom the origin in the Argand diagram, as may be seenin figure 3.4.
The argument of the complex number z is denoted by arg z and is defined as
a,sz-*1l-'(i) (3.5)
It can be seen that argz is the angle that the line joining the origin to z on
the Argand diagram makes with the positive x-axis. The anticlockwise directton
is taken to be positive by convention. The angle arg z is shown in figure 3.4.
Account must be taken of the signs of x and y individually in determining in
which quadrant arg z lies. Thus, for example,if x and y are both negative then
arg z lies in the range -n < arg z < -n/2 rather than in the first quadrant
(0 < arg z <n/2), though both casesgive the same value for the ratio of y to x.
Ej: JY * 1-3Y:
'81.
Using (3.5),the argumentis givenby
ary z : tan-t (-)) .
The two angleswhosetangentsequal-1.5 are -0.9828rad and 2.1588rad. Sincex : 2 and
y : -3, z clearlylies in the fourth quadrant;thereforeatg z : -0.9828is the appropriate
answer.<
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
3.2.3 Muhiplication
From (3.7)
: l5- l4tl: .rFT elry :
lz1z2l
"m
We also find
1a1:J3aY:1V'
tzr:JerY+(4Y:",tm,
and hence
lzllz2l: : Jm : Etzzl.
<
"ryi"m
We now examine the effect on a complex number z of multiplying it by +1
and *i. These four multipliers have modulus unity and we can seeimmediately
from (3.10)that multiplying z by another complex number of unit modulus gives
a product with the same modulus as z. We can also see from (3.11) that if we
88
3.2 MANIPULATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
multiply z by a complex number then the argument of the product is the sum
of the argument of z and the argument of the multiplier. Hence multiplying
z by unity (which has argument zero) leaves z unchanged in both modulus
and argument, i.e. z is completely unaltered by the operation. Multiplying by
-1 (which has argument z) leads to rotation, through an angle z, of the line
joining the origin to z in the Argand diagram. Similarly,multiplication by i or -i
leads to correspondingrotations of n12 or -nf2 respectively.This geometrical
interpretation of multiplication is shown in figure 3.5.
of z = a
cogugateoJ
> Finrl the complexco4jugate + Zi + 3Ib.
a*2i+31b.
The following properties of the complex conjugate are easily proved and others
may be derived from them. If z : x * iy then
(z')' : z, (3.r2)
z * z ': 2 F . e z : 2 x , (3.1
3)
z - z :z l l m z : z l y , (3.14)
z /x2-y2\ ./ 2xy \
(3.r5)
r:\FT})+t\;rr7)
The derivation ofthis last relation relieson the resultsofthe following subsection.
3.2.5 Division
The division of two complex numbers zy &nd z2 bears some similarity to their
multiplication. Writing the quotient in component form we obtain
zt xr * iYr
(3.r6)
22 xz * iyz
In order to separate the real and imaginary components of the quotient, we
multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator. By definition, this process will leave the denominator as a real
quantity.Equation(3.16)gives
zt _ (\ + iyt)(x2 - iy) _ (xrxz + yty2)I i(x2y1- xflz)
W
":1"ra;rtYxr-t141
xlx2 + ytV l .x)V t - xtv2
'| + fi ']+ fi
Hence we have separatedthe quotient into real and imaginary components,as
required.
In the specialcasewhere zz: zi. so that xz : xr and y2 : -yr, the general
result reducesto (3.15).
9l
COMPLEXNUMBERSAND HYPERBOLICFT]NCTIONS
l zt I l ztl (3.r7)
lr l l z2l
/zr \ : (3.1
8)
arsl-l arg zt - arg 22
- \zz/
z2 23
ez:expz=1*z+r.+ (3.re)
t+
Strictly speakingit is the function expz that is defined by (3.19).The number e
is the value of exp(l), i.e. it is just a number. However, it may be shown that e'
and expz are equivalent when z is real and rational and mathematiciansthen
define their equivalencefor irrational and complex z. For the purposesof this
book we will not concern ourselvesfurther with this mathematical nicety but,
rather. assumethat (3.19)is valid for all z' We also note that, using (3.19)'by
multiplying together the appropriate serieswe may show that (seechapter 24)
ez te'z _ ez tl r z , ( 3.20)
lmz
where the last equality follows from the series expansions of the sine and costne
functions (seesubsection4.6.3).This last relationshipis called Euler's equation.lt
also follows from (3.23)that
e i n a : c o s n ? *i s i n n 0
Referring again to figure 3.7, we can identify r with lzl and 0 with arg z' The
simplicity of the representationof the modulus and argument is one of the main
reasonsfor using the polar representation.The angle 0 lies conventionallyin the
range-n <0 <n, but, sincerotation by 0 is the sameas rotation by 2nn*0'
where n is any integer,
teiq - feilq+2nrl.
93
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
rg2si(oiozl
Figure 3.8 The multiplication of two complex numbers. In this case rr and
12 are both greater than unity.
The algebra of the polar representation is diflerent from that of the real and
imaginary component representation,though, of course,the resultsare identical.
Someoperationsprove much easierin the polar representation,others much more
complicated.The best representationfor a particular problem must be determined
by the manipulation required.
Z1z2 : 71gi0tYrai9z
: Yr1'rsilqi0z). (3.2s)
The relations lzrzzl: lzllz2l and arg(42) : arg zr { arg z2 follow immediately'
An exampleof the multiplication of two complex numbers is shown in figure 3'8'
zt ttgiot rl ila.-a-
--'-!ei (at-42). (3.26\
;:;"^
The relations lq/zzl -- lzlllzzl and arg(z1f z) : arg zt - atg22 are again
94
3.4 DE MOIVRE'STHEOREM
Imz
where the identity eing: cosnl * isinno follows from the seriesdefinition of
ei"0 (see(3.21)).This result is calledile Moiure's theoremand is often used in the
manipulation of complex numbers. The theorem is valid for all n whether real,
imaginary or complex.
There are numerous applications of de Moivre's theorem but this section
examinesjust three: proofs of trigonometric identities; finding the nth roots of
unity; and solving polynomial equationswith complex roots.
95
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
Usingde Moivre'stheorem,
c os 30+ js in39: ( co s 0+ i s i n g ) 3
: (cos3 g - 3cos0sin2 -sin3 g;.
g) + i(3sin0cos20 (3.28)
i'e.
We can equatethe real and imaginarycoefficientsseparately,
cos39: cos3d - 3 cosgsin20
:4cos3d-3cosd (3.2e)
and
sin39: 3 sin0cos2
0 - sins0
:3sin0-4sin30. <
u * ;:2cosno, (3.30)
and
I _
eio+ e,io :2cos0, (3.32)
z
I
: ,i0 - t-io :2i si n9. (3.33)
z
96
3.4 DE MOIVRE'STHEOREM
Using(3.32),
| / l \'
cos3o :
F \' *r )
t= ( s*1,+l+ 1)
b\ z 2" ,/
r/. l\ 3/ l\
r \z-+ s\' * ;)
(3.32),we find " )*
Now using(3.30)and
cos30: fcos30+ lcos0.<
The equation z2 : I has the familiar solutions z : !1. However, now that
we have introduced the concept of complex numbers we can solve the general
equation zn : l. Recalling the fundamental theorem of algebra' we know that
the equation has n solutions.In order to proceedwe rewrite the equation as
zn : e2iko,
where k is any integer. Now taking the nth root of each side of the equation we
find
z : e2ikn/n'
Hence the three solutions arezr:3i : l, zz: s2in/3o4: sain/t'16''note that, as expected,
the next solution, for which & : 3, gives 24 : s6ia/3: | : zt so that there are only three
separate solutions. {
97
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
Not surprisingly,given that lz3l : lzl3 from (3.10),all the roots of unity have
unit modulus, i.e. they all lie on a circle in the Argand diagram of unit radius.
The three roots are shown in figure 3.10.
The cube roots of unity are often written 1, co and az.The propertiescoj:1
and 1 + a * a2 : 0 are easily proved.
+ 4)e - ll :0.
( 2 3- 2 ) ( 2 2
z3:2:2e2'kn,
z :21/3e2i k a/3
98
3.5 COMPLEX LOGARITHMS AND COMPLEX POWERS
To avoid the duplicationof solutions,we usethe fact that -T <arg z < z and find
- 1t/3
-
/ r A\
22 : 2 t / 3 e 2 n:i / 3z r / ' | - i + +i I '
-n<
,,, );
z t : 2 1 / 3 e 2 n i /-3 2 t / t t - ; - +t
I I ,
I
\- -/
The complexnumbers21,22 Lfld23,togetherwith zo:2i, z5 : -)i and z6: I are the
solutionsto the original polynomialequation.
--As
e"pectedfroi the fundamentaliheorem ofalgebra,we find thatthe total number
of.o.pir* .oots (six,in this case)is equalto the largestpower of z in the polynomial.<
which shows that the familiar rule for the logarithm of the product of two real
numbersalso holds for complexnumbers.
COMPLEXNI,]MBERSAND HYPERBOLICFIJNCTIONS
where lnr is the natural logarithm of the real positive quantity r and so is
written normally. Thus from (3.35)we seethat Lnz is itself multivalued.To avoid
this multivaluedbehaviourit is conventionalto defineanotherfunction lnz, the
principal ualueof Ln z, which is obtained from Ln z by restricting the argument
of z t o lie in t he r ange- n < 0 < n .
lf z and I are both complex numbers then the zth power of r is defined by
f : e'Lnt.
Lni :Ln
l e' Grz* z* 11
:i (nl 2' t2nn).
We can now simpliiy z to give
;-)i-.L i(n1)+2m\
' 'o'**t'
_
which, perhaps surprisingly,is a real quantity rather than a complex one. <
Complex powers and the logarithms of complex numbers are discussed further
in chapter 24.
100
3.6 APPLICATIONSTO DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
We could differentiate this function straightforwardly using the product rule (see subsec-
tion 2.1.2). However, an alternative method in this case is to use a complex exponential.
Let us consider the complex number
z: e1"(cos4x+jsin4x): etxe4ix- el314i\',
where we have used de Moivre's theorem to rewrite the trigonometric functions as a com-
plex exponential. This complex number has e3'cos4x as its real part. Now, differentiating
z with respect to x we obtain
dz (3.36)
:( J*4 i;stl +41':(3+4i )e3'(cos4x*i si n4x),
-ax
where we have again used de Moivre's theorem. Equating real parts we then find
d
(el' cos4x) : e3*(3cos4x - 4sin4x).
-4 X
By equating the imaginary parts of (3.36), we also obtain, as a bonus,
Let us consider the integrand as the real part of the complex number
eo'(cosbx * i sin Dx) : eaaeib\ - etu+iblx
'
where we use de Moivre's theorem to rewrite the trigonometric functions as a complex
exponential. Integrating we find
r ^(a+ib)Y
lp r o *i rt,dx:i +c
I -
a+tD
(a - iblga+'ot'
l a - i bl l a -l i bl
:+(aei b'_ i bei b,)+c, (3.37)
a2+bz'
where the constant of integration c is in general complex. Denoting this constant by
c : ct * ic2 and equating real parts in (3.37) we obtain
eo'
t: [,", :
.,' o sb xdx a2 +62@cosbx+bsi nbx)*cr'
which agrees with result (2.37) found using integration by parts. Equating imaginary parts
in (3.37) we obtain, as a bonus,
I pax
J: d' s t n b x d x : p j *@ s i n b x - b c o s b x ) *c 2 . <
I
101
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
3.7.1 Definitions
The two fundamental hyperbolic functions are coshx and sinh x, which, as their
namessuggest,are the hyperbolic equivalentsof cosx and sin x. They are defined
by the following relations:
Note that coshx is an even function and sinhx is an odd function. By analogy
with the trigonometric functions, the remaining hyperbolic functions are
, sinhx e '- e * (3.40)
t a n nr :
coshx e a +e - ^
,t2 (3.41)
secn.I-: --_--:-
cosnx e- f e-"
l2
cosechx:-: ..' (3.42)
srnnx e'- - e-'
1 e t *e - *
Cuin ' .I-: (3.43)
tanhx e\-e x
A11the hyperbolic functions above have beendefinedin terms ofthe real variable
x. However, this was simply so that they may be plotted (seefigures 3'11-3'13);
the definitions are equally valid for any complex number z.
t02
3.7 HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
\ cosechr
sinh -r
\a
\ -L
cosechr \
\4
coshx:cosix, (3.44)
i sinhx : sin ix, (3.45)
cosx:coshix, (3.46)
i sinx : sinhix. (3.47)
103
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
sech2x:1-tanh2x, (3.48)
cosech2x:coth2x-1, (3.4e)
sinh 2x : 2 sinh x coshx, (3.s0)
cosh2x : cosh2x * sinh2x. (3.51)
3.7 HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
e:Jta*a*,
and hence
y :tn(Jt + r] + r). <
cosh-lx : tn1..,6z
- t + x;.
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
tt:tanh-rx + x:tanhY
e' - e-!
+ (x * l ) e- y : ( l - x ) eY.
" eY+e- !
,.. 1 *x
+
.
e':\l
tt+"
1- ,
I -X V I -x
y:rn\/
. lT+'
'. ,
Y t -I
| /l-1-Y\
-'l '<
tanhrx:=l n(;
t \t-x/
106
3.7 HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
1x and coth-rx.
F ig u r e 3.16 Graphs of tanh
d
{c o s nx ) : s l n nx , (3.s2)
^
: cosh.x. r1 51)
f trtnn')
They may be deducedby consideringthe definitions (3.38),(3.39)as follows.
t07
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
c o s h x : ; ( e '+e - " ) ,
Clearly the integrals of the fundamental hyperbolic functions are also defined
by these relations.The derivativesof the remaining hyperbolic functions can be
derived by product differentiation and are presentedbelow only for complete-
ness.
ftAunnl: sech2x,
(3.54)
:
ft{r""t x) -sech
x tanhx, (3.55)
The inverse hyperbolic functions also have derivatives, which are given by the
following:
d t .-rX\ I
, lc osh '- l : I- '
(3.58)
4X \ A/
lx. - a.
d / ,-rx\ I
- - ls lnn '- , : (3.5e)
dx \ a,/
FTa'
d t ,-rX \ a
, lla nn--l : fot x2 < a2, (3.60)
4X \ A ,/ a 2- x 2 '
d r ,-r X \ -a
, tco tn'-l : for x2 > a2. (3.61)
4X \ O/ x '- 4 "
These may be derived from the logarithmic form of the inverse (see subsec-
tion 3.7.5).
108
3.8 EXERCISES
| (.6uTt+x\
r-l
x + ftTT \ /
I "tt+l
::. {
J x 2 +l
3.8 Exercises
3.1 T wo co m p le x n u m bers z andw are gi ven by z:3I4i andw :2- i . On an
Argand diagram, plot
(a\ z * w, (b) w - z, (c) wz, (d) z/w,
(e\ z' w * w' z, (f\ w2, 1g1ln z, (h) (l * z -t w)t/2.
3.2 By considering the real and imaginary parts of the product sias'o prove the
standard formulae for cos(d + d) and sin(0 * d).
3.3 By writing n/12: (n/3\ - (n/4) and consideringsi"/r2,evaluate cot(n/12).
3.4 Find the locus in the complex z-plane of points that satisfy the following equa-
tions.
/ I +,r\ p is realandt is a realparameter
lal z -r: p\T;J , wherec is complex,
that varies in the range -.4 < t <...
(b), : a + bt + ct2, in which t is a real parameter and a, b, and c are complex
numbers with b/c rcal.
Evaluate
(a) Re(exp2iz), (b) Im(cosh2z), (c) (-1 + \6i\1/2,
(e) exp(i3),(f) Im(2i+r), (g) ,', (h) lnt(\6 +,)31.
(d) | exp(,'/'z)1,
3.6 Find the equations in terms of x and y of the sets of points in the Argand
diagram that satisfy the following:
( a ) Re z2 :lm zz;
(b\ (lmz2)lzz : -i;
( c) a r e lz/( z- r ) l:n /2.
Show that the locus of all points z:x* ry in the complex plane that satisfy
is a circle of radius l21a/(l -,12)l centred on the point z : ial(l + )J)10 - L'z\|.
Sketch the circlesfor a few typical valuesofI, including A < l,1 > 1 and,l : 1.
3.8 The two sets of points z : a, z : b, z : c, and z : A, z : B, z : C arc
the corners of two similar triangles in the Argand diagram. Express in terms of
a ,b ,...,C
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND HYPERBOLICFUNCTIONS
For the real constanta find the loci of all points z : x I i! in the complexplane
that satisfy
( /.-;^\'l
( a) Re{ ln{ ": i* } } : c , c>0,
| \ z + t o/ )
,0, ,,"{,n1=) } : o, 0<k<n/2
| \ z + u/ )
Identify the two families of curves and verify that in case (b) all curves pass
through the two points +id.
3.10 The most general type of transformation between one Argand diagram, in the
z-plane, and another, in the Z-plane, that gives one and only one value of Z for
each value of z (and conversely) is known as the general bilinear transformation
and takes the form
aZ -l b
::
17af,'
(a) Confirm that the transformation from the Z-plane to the z-plane is also a
general bilinear transformation.
(b) Recalling that the equation of a circle can be written in the form
lz - z1 |
l-l: t,
^' ^+
show that the general bilinear transformation transforms circles into circles
(or straight lines). What is the condition that zt, zz and ,1must satisly if the
transformed circle is to be a straight line?
3. 1I Sketch the parts of the Argand diagram in which
( a ) Re z2 < 0 , zt/2 <2;
( b ) 0 < a tg z' < n /2 ;
( c) le xp z3 l a s l zl qr.
-0 -
What is the area of the region in which all three sets of conditions are satisfied?
3. 12 Denote the r4throots of unity by l, to,,,.?,, . .. , ai,-t.
(a) Prove that
n-1
ti r \-,,,'*n : o
"' 1-
(r) f[a;i: (-1)'*1.
r:0 r:0
Deduce that (a) zr * zz, (b) lzr - z2l and (c) 1ztl2+ lzzl2are all constant in time,
and hence describe the motion geometrically.
3. 15 Solve the equation
z7 _ 426+6zs -624 +623 -1222 *82*4:0,
(a) by examining the effect of setting z3 equal to 2, and then
(b) by factorising and using the binomial expansion of (z + a\a'
Plot the sevenroots of the equation on an Argand plot, exemplifying that complex
roots ofa polynomial equation always occur in conjugate pairs if the polynomial
has real coefficients.
3. 16 The polynomial /(z) is defined by
(t+x, ":2_+,,^ .
c,x.
S1 ( n ) :' 6 0 -"C z*uC t-... *(-l )" "C 2^, n-l <2m<n,
c o s h x - c o s h y : 2 s i n h ( +) r ''n ( ? )
\z/\
( b ) ln a t,llY:sln h 'x.
u' +tt2
dx'
+ ,!dx :0.
3.23 Determine the conditions under which the equation
ccoshx*bsi nhx:c, c>0,
has zero, one, or two real solutions for x. What is the solution if a2 : c2 + b2'!
Use the definitions and properties ofhyperbolic functions to do the following:
( a ) So lveco sh x : si nhx* 2sechx.
(b) Show that the real solution x of tanhx : cosech x can be written in the
form x : ln(u+ Ju\.Find an explicit value for u.
(c) Evaluate tanhx when x is the real solution ofcosh2x:2coshx.
3.25 Express sinha x in terms of hyperbolic cosines of multiples of x, and hence find
the real solutions of
2 cosh4x - 8 cosh 2x + 5 : 0.
3.26 In the theory of special relativity, the relationship between the position and time
coordinates of an event, as measured in two frames of referencethat have parallel
x-axes, can be expressedin terms of hyperbolic functions. If the coordinates are
x and t in one frame and x' and t'in the other, then the relationship take the
form
x':xcoshd-cl si nh{,
cr' : -x sinh d + ct cosh d.
Express x and ct in terms ofx', ct' and Q and show that
x2 - (ct)2 : 1x')2- (ct')2.
t12
3.9T{INTSAND ANSWERS
3.27 A closed barrel has as its curved surface the surface obtained by rotating about
the -x-axisthe part of the curve
y: al 2- cosh(x/a)l
lying in the range -b <,t < b, where b < acosh-r2. Show that the total surlace
area,A, of the barrel is given by
A : ral9a - 8a exp(-b / al -f aexp(-2b / a) - Zbl.
3.28 The principal value of the logarithmic function of a complex variable is defined
to have its argument in the range -n < arg z < n. By writing z : tanw in terms
oi exponentialsshow that
, l. /1+i z\
tan,z:=l nl _ l.
zr \t-rz/
Use this result to evaluate
/- \ ..\
tanrllJ::1 I
\'/
113
C] O M PLEXNT J M B E R S
A N D H Y P E R B O L I CF I ] N C T I O N S
3. 21 Sh o w th a t /5 : ( co shr/a)d-r,
curved surface area : na2[8 sinh(b/ a) sinh(2bI a)) - 2rab
fla t e n d s a r e a : 2 r il4 4cosh(b/a)+ coshr(b/d)].