Trusses: Engineering structures that are composed only

of two-force members. e.g., bridges, roof supports

Actual trusses: Airy structures composed of slender
members (I-beams, channels, angles, bars etc) joined
together at their ends by welding, riveted connections or
large bolts and pins

A typical truss structure

Gusset plate
Ideal trusses:
Assumptions
Ideal truss members are connected only at their ends.
Ideal truss members are connected by frictionless pins (no
moments)
The truss structure is loaded only at the pins
Weights of the members are neglected

A typical truss structure

Frictionless pin
These assumptions allow us to idealize each truss
member as a two-force member (members loaded only
at their extremities by equal opposite and collinear
forces)
member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
 FEM analysis scheme
Step 1: Divide the truss into bar/truss elements connected to
each other through special points (nodes)

Step 2: Describe the behavior of each bar element (i.e. derive its
stiffness matrix and load vector in local AND global coordinate
system)

Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire truss by putting

together the behavior of each of the bar elements (by assembling
their stiffness matrices and load vectors)

Step 4: Apply appropriate boundary conditions and solve

 Stiffness matrix of bar element

E, A

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

L: Length of bar
A: Cross sectional area of bar
E: Elastic (Youngs) modulus of bar
u(x) :displacement of bar as a function of local coordinate x of bar
The strain in the bar at x du
(x)
dx
The stress in the bar (Hookes law)
(x) E (x)
 d 2x
Tension in the bar
T( x) EA x x
x u(x) 1 d1x d 2x
x d 1x L L

L
Assume that the displacement u(x) is varying linearly along the bar
x x
u(x) 1 d1x d 2x
L L
du d 2x d1x
Then, strain is constant along the bar: dx L
E
Stress is also constant along the bar: E d 2x d1x
L

Tension is constant along the bar: T EA
EA
L

d 2x d1x

k
The bar is acting like a spring with stiffness k EA
L
Recall the springs
E, A

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Two nodes: 1, 2
Nodal displacements: d 1x d 2x
Nodal forces: f1x f 2x
Spring constant: k EA
L
Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
f1x k - k d1x
f k d
f 2x - k k d 2x
Element force Element nodal
Element displacement f k d
vector
stiffness vector
matrix
What if we have 2 bars?
E1, A1
E2, A2

L2
L1

This is equivalent to the following system of springs

E 1A 1 E 2A 2
k1 k2
L1 L2
x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x

PROBLEM
Problem 1: Find the stresses in the two-bar assembly loaded as
shown below
E, 2A
E, A
1 P
2 3
L
L
Solution: This is equivalent to the following system of springs
2EA EA
k1 k2
L L
x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x

We will first compute the displacement at node 2 and then the

stresses within each element
 The global set of equations can be generated using the technique
developed in the lecture on springs
k1 k1 0 d1x F1x
k k k
1 1 2 k2 d 2 x F2 x
0 k2 k2 d3 x F3 x
here d1x d3 x 0 and F2 x P
Hence, the above set of equations may be explicitly written as
k1d 2 x F1x (1)
(k1 k2 )d 2 x P (2)
k2 d 2 x F3 x (3)
P PL
From equation (2) d 2 x
k1 k2 3EA
To calculate the stresses:
For element #1 first compute the element strain
d 2 x d1x d 2 x P
(1)

L L 3EA
and then the stress as
P
(1)
E (1)
(element in tension)
3A
Similarly, in element # 2
d3 x d 2 x d2 x P

(2)

L L 3EA
P
E
(2) (2)
(element in compression)
3A
 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Inter-element continuity of a two-bar structure

Bars in a truss have various orientations

member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
 d 2y , f 2y
x
d 2y , f2y 0 d 2x , f 2x
y y
d 2x , f 2x
d 1y , f1y
d 1y , f1y 0
d1x , f1x d 1x , f1x

x
At node 1: At node 2:
d1y d 2y

d1y d 2y
d 1x d 2x

d1x d 2x f 2y 0
f1y 0

f1y f 2y
f 2x
f1x
f1x f 2x
 In the global coordinate system, the vector of nodal
displacements and loads
d1x f1x
d f
1y 1y
d ; f
d f
2x 2x

d 2y

f 2y

Our objective is to obtain a relation of the form

f k d
41 4 4 41

Where k is the 4x4 element stiffness matrix in global coordinate

system
 Look at the local coordinates
x
y y d 2y , f2y 0
d 2x , f 2x

f1x k - kd1x

d 1y , f1y 0

f 2x
- k k
d 2x

d1x , f1x
EA
x k
L
Rewrite as f
k 0 - k 0 d1x

1x

f1y 0 0 0 0 d1y f k d

f 2x - k
0 k 0 d 2x
f 0
0 0 0 d
2y 2y
NOTES

1. Assume that there is no stiffness in the local ^y direction.

2. If you consider the displacement at a point along the local x

direction as a vector, then the components of that vector along the
global x and y directions are the global x and y displacements.

3. The expanded stiffness matrix in the local coordinates is

symmetric and singular.
NOTES
5. In local coordinates we have f k d
41 4 4 41

But or goal is to obtain the following relationship

f k d
41 4 4 41

Hence, need a relationship between d and d

and between f and f d1y

d1x d1x d1y

Need to understand
d d1x
how the components
1y d1y of a vector change
d d d1x
d 2y with coordinate
d 2x
d 2x transformation
d 2y d d 2y
2y d 2x

d 2x
 Transformation of a vector in two dimensions

y vx v y cos Angle q is
y x
vx measured positive
v y
in the counter
v v x sin clockwise direction
vy
from the +x axis)

v y sin x
v x cos

The vector v has components (vx, vy) in the global coordinate system
and (v^x, v^y) in the local coordinate system. From geometry
v x v x cos v y sin
v y v x sin v y cos
In matrix form

v x cos sin v x

y sin cos v y
v
Or Direction cosines
v x l m v x l cos q
v where
y
v m l y m sin q
Transformation matrix for a single vector in 2D
l m
*
T v T v
*
relates
m l
v x v x are components of the same
where v and v
v y v y vector in local and global
coordinates, respectively.
Relationship between d and d for the truss element
d1y
At node 1 d1x * d 1x
T d 1x
d1y
d1y d1y
d1x d 2y
At node 2 d 2x * d 2x
T d 2y
d 2y d 2y d 2x
Putting these together d Td d 2x

d1x l m 0 0 d1x

d1y m l 0 0 d1y T
T * 0
*
d 44
0 T
d 2x 0 0 l
m 2x
d 0 d
0 m l 2y

2y
T d
d
 Relationship between f and f for the truss element
f1y
At node 1 f1x * f1x
T
f1y f1y f1x
f1y

f 2y
At node 2 f 2x * f 2x f1x
T
f 2y f 2y f 2x
f 2y

Putting these together f T f f 2x

f1x l m 0 0 f1x

f1y m l 0 0 f1y T
T * 0
*
f 44
0 T
f 2x 0 0 l
m 2x
f 0 f
0 m l 2y

2y
T f
f
Important property of the transformation matrix T

The transformation matrix is orthogonal, i.e. its inverse is its

transpose

1
T
T
T

Use the property that l2+m2=1

 Putting all the pieces together

x f T f
y y d 2y , f 2y
d 2x , f 2x d T d
f k d
d1y , f1y

Tf k Td
d1x , f1x

x

f T k T d


1

The desired relationship is f k d k
41 4 4 41

k T k T is the element stiffness matrix in the

T
Where
44 44 44 44 global coordinate system
 l m 0 0 k 0 - k 0
m l 0
0 0 0 0 0
T k
0 0 l m - k 0 k 0

0 0 m l 0 0 0 0

l2 lm l2 lm
2
EA lm m 2
lm m
k T k T
T

L l 2 lm l2 lm

lm m 2
lm m
2
Computation of the direction cosines

2 (x2,y2)
x2 x1 L
l cos q
L
y y
m sin q 2 1
L 1
(x1,y1)

What happens if I reverse the node numbers?

x1 x2 1 (x1,y1)
l ' cos q l L
L
y1 y 2
m ' sin q m
L 2 (x ,y )
2 2
Question: Does the stiffness matrix change?
 Example Bar element for stiffness matrix evaluation
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning E 30 106 psi
A 2 in 2
L 60 in
q 30 3
l cos 30
2
1
m sin 30
3 3 3 3 2

4 4 4 4
3 1 3 1
k

30 106 2 4 4

4

4 lb
60 3 3 3 3 in

4 4 4 4
3 1 3 1

4 4 4 4
 Computation of element strains
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Recall that the element strain is

d 1x

d 2x d 1x 1 d 1y
1 0 1 0
L L d 2x
d
2y
1 0 1 0 d
1
L
1 0 1 0 T d
1
L
 l m 0 0
m l 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 d
L 0 0 l m

0 0 m l

l m l md
1
L
d 1x
d

l m l m 1y
1
L d
2x
d 2y
Computation of element stresses stress and tension

Recall that the element stress is

E
E
L

d 2x d 1x l
E
L
m l md

Recall that the element tension is

EA
T EA l m l m d
L
Steps in solving a problem

Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table

linking local and global nodes; also form the table of
direction cosines (l, m)
Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element in
global coordinate system with global numbering

Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the

global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table

Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions

Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the unknown

displacements
Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces
Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3

3 3 1

1 2 (x2,y2)
L
El 1 60 El 3

2 60 60 3 1 (x ,y )
1 1
El 2
Stiffness matrix of element 1 Stiffness matrix of element 2
d1x d1y d2x d2y d2x d2y d3x d3y
d1x d2x

d1y d2y
(1) ( 2)
k k
d2x d3x

d2y d3y

Stiffness matrix of element 3

There are 4 degrees of
d3x d3y d1x d1y
freedom (dof) per
d3x element (2 per node)

d3y
( 3)
k
d1x

d1y
 (1)
k
Global stiffness matrix
d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y
d1x
( 2)

d1y k

d2x
K d2y

d3x
( 3)
k
d3y
66

How do you incorporate boundary conditions?

 Example 2
The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
y E: Youngs modulus
3 A: Cross sectional area of each bar
El#2 P2
Solve for
P1 (1) d and d
2x 2y

El#1 (2) Stresses in each bar

2
45o
x
1 Solution

Step 1: Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3
Table of nodal coordinates
Node x y
1 0 0
2 Lcos45 Lsin45

3 0 2Lsin45

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT Length x2 x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L cos45 sin45
2 L -cos45 sin45
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
l2 lm l 2lm
2
EA lm m2 lm m

(1)
k
L l 2 lm l2 lm

lm m 2
lm m 2

d1x d1y d2x d2y

1 1 1 1 d1x
1 1 1 1
EA d1y

2L 1 1 1 1 d2x

1 1 1 1 d2y
 Stiffness matrix of element 2
d2x d2y d3x d3y
1 1 1 1 d2x
1 1 1 1
EA d2y

(2)
k
2L 1 1 1 1 d3x

1 1 1 1 d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0

EA 1 1 2 0 1 1
K
2L 1 1 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1

The final set of equations is Kd F

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions
0
0

d2 x
d
d 2 y
0

0

Hence reduced set of equations to solve for unknown

displacements at node 2

EA 2 0 d 2 x P1

2L
0

2 d 2 y P2
Step 5: Solve for unknown displacements

P1 L
d2 x EA


d
2 y P2 L

EA
Step 6: Obtain stresses in the elements 0

For element #1: d1x 0

d
E 1 1 1 1 1y

(1)

L 2 2 2 2 d2 x
d 2 y
E PP
(d 2 x d 2 y ) 1 2
2L A 2
For element #2: d2 x
d
E 1 1 1 1 2y
(2) 0
L 2 2 2 2 d3 x 0
d3 y
E P1 P2
(d 2 x d 2 y )
2L A 2
 Multi-point constraints

2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3-19 Plane truss with inclined boundary

conditions at node 3
 y
x
F1 x y
F 3
1y P El#2

P
F 2
F
2y El#1
F3 x El#3


F3 y
45o
x
1

Also, F 3x 0 in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?
 Using coordinate transformations

d 3x l m d3 x 1
m lm

d 3 y
l d3 y 2

1 1 1

d 3x 2 2 d
2
d 3x d 3 y

3x
1
d 3 y 1 d3 y 1
d d

2 2 2

3 y 3 x

d 3y 0 (Multi-point constraint)

d 3y
1
2
d3 y d3 x 0

d3 y d3 x 0 Eq (2)
 Similarly for the forces at node 3

F 3x
l m F3 x 1
m lm

F 3 y
n F3 y 2

1 1 1

F 3x 2 2 F
2
F3x F3 y

3x

1 F3 y

F 3 y

1

1
2
F3 y F3 x

2 2

F 3x 0
F 3x
1
2
F3 y F3 x 0

F3 y F3 x 0 Eq (3)
Therefore we need to solve the following equations simultaneously

Kd F Eq(1)
d3 y d3 x 0 Eq(2)

F3 y F3 x 0 Eq(3)

Incorporate boundary conditions and reduce Eq(1) to

1 1 0 d 2 x P

1260 105
1 1.5 0.5
3x
d 3x
F
0.5 d F
0 0.5 3y 3y
 Write these equations out explicitly

1260 105 ( d 2 x d 3 x ) P Eq(4)

1260 105 ( d 2 x 1.5d 3 x 0.5d 3 y ) F3 x Eq(5)
1260 105 (0.5d 3 x 0.5d 3 y ) F3 y Eq(6)

Add Eq (5) and (6)

1260 105 (d 2 x 2d3 x d3 y ) F3 x F3 y 0 using Eq(3)

1260 105 (d2 x 3d3 x ) 0 using Eq(2)

d 2 x 3d3 x Eq(7)
1260 105 (3d 3 x d 3 x ) P
Plug this into Eq(4)
2520 105 d 3 x 106
 d 3 x 0.003968m
d 2 x 3d 3 x 0.0119m

Compute the reaction forces

F1 x 0 0.5 0.5
F 0
1y
0.5 0.5 d
2x

F2 y 1260 10 0 0 d3 x
5
0
F
1 1.5 0.5 d
3y
3x


F3 y

0 0.5 0.5
500
500



0 kN
500


500
Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

In general, we will have a stiffness matrix of the form

k11 k12 k13

K k 21 k 22 k 23
k 31 k 32 k 33

And the finite element force-displacement relation

k11 k12 k13 d1 F1
k d F
21 k 22 k 23 2 2
k 31 k 32 k 33 d 3 F3