WIRELESS NETWORKING IN

THE DEVELOPING WORLD

Third Edition
 Wireless Networking in the Developing World
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ISBN-13: 978-1484039359

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 ABOUT THIS BOOK

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 I

Core Contributors
JaneBut ler
,who i sleade dit
o ro ft hi
sv ers
iono fthebo ok.Janeis
currentl
yPresi
dento fthepr i
vateFo undati
onc al
l
edne t
wo rktheworl
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rg
whi c
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esands upportstheg rowthofInter
netconnec t
ivit
ya r
ound
the wo r
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y b ys upporting wi r
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ss proj
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http:
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eles
su.
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g.J a
ne isa lso heado fi ndust
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alc oll
abo r
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dsanHo noursDe gr
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Eng i
neeri
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ter
ed Eng ineerand Fell
owo ft heI nsti
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ionof
Elect
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nicsandTe c
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Janec a
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butler
@ne t
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ee
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hankt
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pofc
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Erma nno Pi e t
rosemo li
. Er ma nno i sc urrentl
yar e
s ear
chera tt he
Tel
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o mmuni c a
tions/ICT f o r De vel
opme nt La bo ft he Internat
ional
Centref or$e oret
icalPhy si
csinTr ies
te,It
a l
y,andPr esi
de ntofFunda ci
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EscuelaLa t
ino americanadeRe des"EsLaRe d",ano n-pro 0torgani
zati
o n
tha
tpr omotesI CT i nLa t
inAme r
icathrought rai
ninga ndde vel
opme nt
proje
cts.EsLa Redwa sa war
de dt he2008J onathanB.P os
te lSer
viceAwa rd
byt he I nternetS oc i
ety.Er ma nno ha sbe en de ployi
ng wi rel
essda ta
communi ca
tion ne two rksf ocusing onl o wc ostt e
chno log
y,a nd ha s
par
ticipatedi nt hepl anninga ndbui l
dingo fwi r
eles
sda tanetworksi n
Argentina,Co lombia ,Ec ua
do r,Ital
y,Lesotho,Ma l
awi,Me xic
o,Mo r
occo,
Nicaragua,P eru,Tr inidad,U. S .
A.a ndVe nezuel
a.Heha spr es
entedi n
manyc onferencesa nd publ is
he ds eve
ralpa persrelat
edt owi re
les
sda ta
communi ca
tiona nd i sc oautho rand t e
c hnica
lr evie
we ro ft hebo o k
"Wi r
elessNe two rki
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ld"f re
elya vail
ablefrom
htt
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ds a Ma ster
's De greef r
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anford
Universit
ya ndwa sPr ofes
soro fTe l
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idaddel os
Andesi nVe nezuelafrom 1970t o2000.
Erma nnoc anber eacheda te r
ma nno@i c
tp.it

Ma rc
o Ze nnaro. Ma rc
or ece
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d hi s M.Sc
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eei n El e
ctr
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Enginee
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worksforDeve
lo
pment:Pot
enti
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sa ndOp e
n
Iss
ues
atKTH- RoyalInsti
tuteofTechnol
ogy
,Sto
ckholm,Sweden.
Hisrese
arc
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II

I
npa r
ti
cul
ar,hei
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worksandinWi rel
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Carl
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lin,
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meant hatyout hink-b uto nlythatyous peakwithyours
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Seba
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Unive
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tyofCo pe
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it
u.dk
Hewo r
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he mbedde d/per
vasiv
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ems,wirel
esst echnol
ogy,open
s
o ur
ce/f r
eesof
twareands ol
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deve
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gl
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htt
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Devel
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J
im Fo rs
ter
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Ciscoin1988whe nitwa sq uitesmallands pent20y earsthe r
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neer.Whi l
ea tCi sc
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estoimpr oveInt e
rnetaccessi
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lo pingc ountries
.No whei s
engaged in bo th f or-pro0t a nd no n-pro 0t e 1orts t o e xtend
communi ca
tionsinAf ri
caa ndI ndia.Hefo unde dne t
wo rktheworl
d.org,a
f
o undati
on de dica
ted t oi mproving co mmuni c a
ti
ons a nd Internet
,
especi
al
lyin Af r
icaa nd I ndia.Hei so ns e veralBo ardo fDi re
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,
i
nc l
udingRa ngeNe twork s/Ope nBTSa ndI nv eneoint heUS ,Es oko
Ne t
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ldii nIndi a.J i
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KlaasWi er
eng a.Klaaswo rksintheRe sear
cha ndAdv ancedDe velopment
group atCi sc
oS ys
temswhe r
e he f o
cuseso nI denti
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cur i
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it
yt opics,oft
eni nc olla
borati
onwi ththeRe se
a r
cha ndEduc at
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Communi t
y.Hei sc o-authoro ftheCi s
co Pres
sbo ok" Buil
ding the
Mo bil
eI nternet"
.Pr iort oj o
iningCi s
co hewo r
k e
da tS URFne t,the
Dut c
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on Ne t
work,whe rehec r
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WiFir oamings er
viceina cademiac a
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ede duro
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ot heCha irof
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Netwo r
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net
IV

Eri
cVy ncke.Since1997,Er i
cha swo r
kedasaDi st
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hedEng ineerat
Cisc
oi nt he0e l
do fsecuri
tyb ya ss
is
ti
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nce2005,Er i
cha salsobeenacti
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nota
blythec o-chairoftheBe l
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landha sawe l
l-known
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:htt
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BruceBa i
kie.Br uceisame mbe ro ft heBr oadbandf orGo odt e
ama t
Inveneoa sS eniorDi re
ctorBr oadba nd I niti
ati
ves.Hei sleverag
inghi s
exte
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nceinthee nergya ndt elec
o mindus tries
,and16y ear
sa t
SunMi crosys
temsa stele
comi ndustrye xperttoa dviseo nimpl ementi
ng
sol
arpo weredI CT4D pr ojec
ts.Hi sa reaso fe xpertis
ei nclude:wirel
ess
networking,e co-datacenters
,DC t elecom po we rs ys
tems ,and solar
powe r
.Br uceha spublis
hednume rouswhi tepapersa nda r
ti
c l
esong r
een
datac entero pe ra
ti
onsa nd s ol
arpo we ri nI CT4D.Hi se ducat
ional
backgroundi nc l
udesaB. S.i nMe c hani c
alEng ineeringf rom Mi chi
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Techno l
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si
tyanda dvanc eds t
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sit
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amI nternati
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PhysicsinTr i
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Co l
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ado-Bo ulder,San Fra
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Univ e
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gna nd pr oject
si n Ha iti
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Mi c
ronesia.Bruc ecanber e
ache datbr uc e@green-wi 0.org

LauraHo sma n.La urai sAssis

tantPr of
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calSci
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Ins
tit
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orHo sma nheldpo s
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it
ionsatt heUni v e
rsi
tyo fCali
fornia
,Be r
k e
leyandt he
Universi
tyo fS outhernCa li
fornia( USC).S hegradua t
edwi thaPhD i n
Poli
ti
calEc ono mya nd Publ i
cP olicyfrom US C.He rcurre
ntr es
earch
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turalfactors
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Herwo rkf ocuseso nt woma i
na re
as:Public-
PrivatePartner
shipsand
ICT-in-education,bo t
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Herblo g
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 V

Mi c
haelGi ng uld.Fo unde r
,Di rector-S tra
tegya nd Ope rati
ons,Rur al
Broad Ba nd Pv t. Lt d.Co -
Fo unde r, CEO, Ai rJal
di Re sea
rch a nd
Innovati
on.Mi cha e lwa sbo rna ndr aisedinKi bbut zKi ssu0m inI sra e
l.
Heha smo r
et ha n20y earso fe xperienc ewo r
kingi nI CT,c ommuni tya nd
rura
lde velopme ntpr ojectsi nI ndia ,I ndonesi
a,Ca mbo dia,Ne pal,a nd
Isr
ael
.
Mi c
haelwo rkedi nt heno n-pro0ta nd f or-pro 0ts ect
o rswi ths t
art-up
gras
sro
o t
so rganiz ations,a dvo cacyg ro ups,largei nternat
io nalNGOsa nd
comme rc
ialente r
pr iseswo rki
ngi nde velopingcount ri
es.
Mi c
haelwo rkeda nd l ive
di n Dha rams al
a betwee n 1998 a nd 2002 a nd
ret
urnedt oI ndi ai nt hebe gi
nni ngo f20 07t oj oin ar ur alconnectivit
y
i
niti
ati
vet hate ve ntua l
lyl edt ot he c rea
ti
o no fAi rJ
aldiRe se
archa nd
Innovat
ion,ano n- pro0to r ganizati
o n de di
catedt o R&D a nd c a
pa cit
y
buil
dingwo rki nt he0e ldo fWi rel
es sne t
wo r
ksi n2007,a ndo fRBB,a
for-
pro0two r
k ingo nt hede s
ign,de ployme nta ndma na g e
me nto fr ural
broadbandne two rk sinrura larea s
,in2009.Mi cha elholdsaB. Sc.inAg .
Economi csfromt heHe brew Uni ve r
s i
ty.
,Jerusalem,I sra el
,a n MA i n
De ve
lopme ntS tudi e sfromt heI nstituteo fSocialS tudi
es,t heHa gue ,the
Ne t
herl
ands ,a nd a n MA i n Publ icAdmi nist
rat i
onf romt heKe nne dy
Schoolo fGo ve rnme nt,Ha r vardUni ve r
sit
y,Ca mbr idge,US A.Mi chae lis
basedinDha r
a ms a l
a ,Hi mac halPr ade sh,India
.
Hec anber ea
c heda tMi chael@a irj
aldi.net

Emma nuelTogo.Emma nue

lisfrom Gha na,a ndearnedhi s0rs
tdegr
eei n
Comput erS ci
encea ndPhy s
icsf r
om Uni v
ersit
yo fGha nain1999.He
curr
e nt
lywo r
ksa stheHe ado ftheNe two r
kingUni to ftheUnive
rsi
tyo f
Gha na'
sCo mputingS yst
ems(UGCS )
.
Hei sa l
soaf oundingme mbe roft heGha naianAc ademi candResearch
Netwo rk'
s( GARNET)t ec
hnicalte a
m wo rking to buildthena t
ional
res
earcha ndeduc at
ionne t
wo rkinGha na.Emma nuel'
sc urr
entfo
cusi s
desi
g ni
ng and de ploy
ing ana 1ordable,large-s
cal
ec ampus-wi
de Wi Fi
netwo r
kinGha na.Emma nuelcanber eacheda tematogo@ug .
edu.
gh

$eOpe nTechnol
ogyInst
itut
e,(
whopro
videdacas
es t
udy)
,st
rengt
hens
i
ndi
vi
dual
sa nd co
mmuni t
iesthr
oug
h pol
icyre
sea
rch,appl
ie
dle a
rni
ng,
a
ndtec
hnolo
g i
cali
nnov
a t
ion.
VI

Support
$ee dito
ria
lteam wo ul
de spe
cia
ll
yl i
ket ore
c o
gnis
ethes upportofour
t
echnic
alill
ust
rator
,Pa o
loAt z
ori
,whoha sov e
rsever
almo nthswo r
ked
t
ir
eles
sl
yt oensurethebo o
khassomewo nde
rful
,aswellasa c
curat
e,ea
sy
t
or ea
di l
lus
tra
tions
.Heha sal
soensure
dt ha
twe 'v
eb e
ena bletopubli
sh
s
ucces
sful
lysev
e r
alver
sionsoft
heboo kinhighandlowr e
soluti
onformat
.

Paol
oAt zori
.Pao l
os tudiedAr chitectureinVe nic
ea ndRo meandMe dia
Artsi n Co logne.Af t
er wo rking a sa na rchi
tecti n Vienna,Pa o l
o
col
laborate
d wi tht heCo l
o g
ne Ac ademy o fMe diaAr ts(KHM) ;At
NABA,Mi l
an he wa s na medt he Di rec
toro ft he Ma s
ter Di g
ita
l
Environme ntDe si
g na ndAdv i
so ro fthePhD pr ogra
mo fthePl anet
ary
Co l
l
e gi
um,M-No de.Heha screatedma nytheatr
icalanda rt
is
ti
cpr oj
ects
,
int
roducingne wr epresenta
tionso fs pacecharact
eri
sedb ythedy namicsof
perv
a s
ivenessandi ntera
c t
ion.
Paol
o ha sa lsoc uratede xhibiti
o nsde di
cat
edt o di
g i
ta
la rts
,di rec
ted
educati
onalpr ogr
ams ,andpubl ishe da r
ticl
esande ss
aysondi gi
talcult
ure.
Heha sli
veda ndwo rkedinVe nice,Ro me ,Ne wY ork,Vienna,Co log
ne,
Brussel
s,Te lAviv.Since2005heha slivedwi t
hhi spartnerNi c
o l
ea nd
thei
rc hi
ldrenAl maa ndZe noi nTr ies
te,It
aly
.I n2011hef ounde dwith
NicoleLeghissatheAg e
ncy" Hy pha e.
htt
p://hyphae.or
g
htt
p://vi
me o.com/groups /
xtendedlab/ vi
deos
htt
p://www. xte
ndedlab .
com/
htt
p://www. khm.de/~Pa ol
o

Authors and editors of earlier versions of the book

RobFli
ckenger
.Ro bhaswr i
tt
e nandedite
ds e
ver
albooksaboutwi
re
les
s
net
worki
nga ndLinux,incl
udingWi r
el
essHacks(
OReil
l
y )andHow To
Acc
ele
rat
eY ourInt
ernet(ht
tp://
bwmo .
net
/).Heispro
udt obeahacker
,
amat
eurma dsci
enti
st
,andpr o
po ne
ntoffre
enetwor
kseve
rywhere
.

LauraM.Dr e
we ttisaCo- FounderofAdaptedCons
ult
ingInc.
,as oc
ial
ente
rpri
sethats peci
al
is
esina dapti
ngtechnol
ogyandbusines
ssol
uti
ons
forthedeve
lopingwo rl
d.SinceLaura0rs
tliv
edinMalii
nt he1990sand
wrotehert hesi
so ng i
rls
e duca
ti
on progr
ams,shehasstri
vedto 0nd
sust
aina
blesolutio
nsf o
rde velo
pme nt
.LauraholdsaBa c
helor
sofAr t
s
 VII

wi
thDi s
ti
nct
ioninForei
gnA1a i
rsandFrenc
hf r
omtheUni
ver
si
tyof
Vi
rgi
niaand aMa st
er
sCe r
ti
0cat
ein Pro
jec
tMa na
geme
ntfr
om the
Ge
orgeWa s
hing
tonUnive
rsi
tySc
hoolofBus
ine
ss.

Alber
toEscuder
o-Pas
cualandLo ui
seBer
thil
sona
rethefounder
so fIT
+46, a Swedishc ons
ult
ancyc ompa
ny wi t
hf oc
us o
ni nf
ormati
on
te
chnolog
yi n dev
elo
pingr e
gio
ns.Mo r
ei nf
orma
ti
oncan bef ound a
t
http:
//
www.it
46.s
e/

IanHo ward.AfterWyingaroundt hewo rl

df orseve
ny ea
rsasapa ra
trooper
i
nt heCa na di
an mi li
tary
,I an Ho wardde ci
dedt ot r
adehi sg unf ora
comput er
.Af t
er0ni shing a degreei ne nv
ironmentalsci
e ncesa tt he
Univ e
rsit
yo fWa te
rloohewr ot
ei napr o pos
al,"Wirel
esstechno l
ogyha s
theo pportunit
yt obr idget hedigita
ldivide.Po o
rna t
ions,whodono t
havet heinfras
tructur
ef orinte
rconnecti
vityaswedo ,willno wbea blet o
crea
teawi rel
essinfra
struc
ture.
"Asar eward,Ge ekco
rpssenthimt oMa l
i
astheGe ekcor
psMa liProgram Ma nage
r,whe reheledat eame quipping
radi
os tat
ionswi thwireles
sinter
co nnect
ionsandde si
gnedc ontentsharing
syst
ems .

Ky
leJ
ohns
ton,ht
tp:
//
www.
sc
hoo
lne
t.
na/

Toma sKr ags pendshi sda yswo rki

ngwi t
hwi re
.l
ess.
dk,ar egis
teredno n-
pro0t ,ba s
edi n Co penha gen,whi ch hef ounded with hi sfri
end and
col
lea gue Seba st
ian Bt tr
ichi ne a
rly 2002.wi re
.l
ess.
dk s peci
ali
sesi n
communi tywi reles
sne twor k
ings ol
utions,andha sas peci
alf oc
uso nl o
w-
costwi rel
essne tworksfort hede vel
opingwo r
ld.To masisalsoa na s
soci
ate
oft he Ta cti
c a
lTe chnology Co ll
ective http:/
/www.tact
icalte
ch.org,a n
Ams terdam- basedno n-pr o0t t
os t
rengthens ocia
ltechnol
o gymo vements
andne twork sinde ve l
opinga ndt ra
nsiti
o nc ountr
ies
,a swe llaspromo te
civ
ils ocie
ty
se 1ecti
v e
,c onsci
o usandc reat
iveus eofnewt echnologies
.
Cur rently mo s
to f hi se ne rg
yg oesi nt
ot he Wi rel
e ss Ro a
dshow
(htt
p: //www.the wir
eless
roadsho w.or
g),apr oj
ectthatsupportsc i
vilsoci
ety
partnersi nt hede v e
lopingwo rldin pl anning,buil
dinga nd sust
aini
ng
conne ctiv
it
ys o l
utionsba se
do nlic
ense-exempts pect
rum,o pe ntechnology
ando penk no wledge.
VIII

GinaKupf e
rmannisg raduateengi
neerinene
rgymanag
ementandho l
ds
ade gr
eeine ng
inee
r i
nga ndbus i
ness
.Besi
desherpr
ofe
ssi
onas0nancia
l
contr
oll
ershehaswo rkedf orvar
ioussel
f-
orga
nis
edcommunityproj
ect
s
andno n-
pro0torgani
sations
.Since2005sheismemberoftheexe
cuti
ve
boardofthedevel
opme nta s
soc
iat
ionforfr
eenet
work
s,t
helega
lenti
tyof
frei
funk.net

Adam Me sse
r.Or i
ginal
lyt r
ai
nedasa ni nse
ctscie
ntist
,Ada m Me sse
r
me t
amorphose
di nt
oat elecommuni
cat
ionspr o
fes
sio
na lafterac hance
conver
sat
ionin1995l edhimt os
tar
toneo fAfri
ca'
s0rstISPs.Pi
o nee
ring
wire
les
sdataserv
icesinTa nza
nia
,Me s
serwo r
kedfor11y e ar
sine as
tern
ands o
uthernAfri
cai nvoiceanddatacommuni ca
ti
onsf orstar
tupsa nd
multi
nati
onalcel
l
ularcarr
ie
r s
.Henowr e
si
de si
nAmma n,Jordan.

Juer
g e
n Ne uma nn ( htt
p:/
/www.ergomedia.
de)s t
arte
d wo rk
ing wi th
inf
orma t
iont e
chno l
o g
yi n1984a nds i
ncethenha sbeenl o
o ki
ngf orways
to deployI CT i n us ef
ulwa ysf o
ro r
ganiz
a ti
ons and s oci
ety.Asa
consul
tantfo rICT s trat
egyand implementati
o n,hewo r
k e
df o rma j
or
Germa nandi nter
na t
ionalcompanie
sa ndma nyno n-pro0tpr ojec
ts.In
2002 he c o-founded www. fr
ei
funk.net
,f ors prea
ding kno wl
e dgea nd
soci
alne t
wo rki
nga boutf r
eeand o pen net
wo rks.Freif
unk isg l
oball
y
rega
rdedaso neo fthemo stsucc
essf
ulcommuni ty -
proj
ectsinthis0eld.

Frdri
c Re neti sa c o-f
o unde rof Te chni
c a
lS ol
uti
ons atAda pted
Co nsul
ting,Inc.Frdrichasbe eninvolve
di nICTf o
rmo rethan10yea r
s
andha swo rkedwi t
hc omput e
rssincehisc hi
ldhood.Hebe g a
nhi sICT
caree
ri nthee arl
y1990swi t
habul le
tinboa r
ds ys
tem( BBS)ona nanalog
mo dem a nd ha ss incec o nti
nuedt oc r
eates yst
ems thate nhance
communi cat
ion.Mo str ec
ent l
y,Fr dr
ics pentmo rethan ay eara t
IESC/ Geek c
orpsMa lia saco nsult
ant.Inthisc a
pa c
it
y,hedes i
gne
dma ny
innovati
ves ol
utionsfo rFM r adiobroadcas
ting,schoolcomputerl
absa nd
l
ightings y
stemsfo rruralcommuni t
ie
s .
 IX

Contents

ABOUT THIS BOOK V

Core Contributors VI
Support XI
Authors and editors of earlier versions of the book XI

INTRODUCTION XXI
The country of Aipotu XXI
Purpose of this book XXII
Fitting wireless into your existing network XXIV
How this book is organized XXIV

PHYSICS 26
1. RADIO PHYSICS 1
What is a wave? 1
Electromagnetic forces 3
Symbols of the international system of units 4
Phase 6
Polarization 7
The electromagnetic spectrum 8
Bandwidth 10
Frequencies and channels 10
Behaviour of radio waves 11
The Huygens Principle 12
Absorption 13
Re2ection 14
Diffraction 15
Interference 17
Line of sight 19
Understanding the Fresnel zone 20
Power 23
Physics in the real world 25

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 26
Modulation 32
Multiplexing and duplexing 33
Conclusions 35
X

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION 36

Examples of relevant types of regulation 36

4. RADIO SPECTRUM 40
What is the electromagnetic spectrum? 40
How is the spectrum adjudicated? 44
Political issues 46
Explosion in spectrum demand 46
Spectrum scarcity or spectrum hoarding? 49
IEE 802.22 50
Developing countries advantage 51

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 54

Cables 56
Waveguides 58
Connectors and adapters 60
Antenna term glossary 63
Types of antennas 72
Re2ector theory 80
Ampli;ers 81
Practical antenna designs 82
Antenna measurements 82

NETWORKING 84
6. NETWORKING 85
Introduction 86
Cooperative communications 89
The OSI model 89
The TCP/IP model 91
The Internet Protocols 93
Internet Protocol Suite 112
Physical hardware 114
Putting it all together 120
Designing the physical network 121

7. WIFI FAMILY 126

IEEE 802: What is it, and why should I care? 126
The 802.11 standard 128
Deployment planning for 802.11 wireless networks 129
 XI

The 802.22 Standard 131

Summary 133

8. MESH NETWORKING 134

Introduction 134
Bandwidth impact of multi-hop relaying routes 137
Summary 137
Routing protocols for mesh networks 138
Devices and ;rmware for embedded devices 140
Frequently observed problems 143

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 146

Introduction 146
Protecting the wireless network 148
Physical security for wireless networks 150
Authentication and access control 152
Summary 157
802.1X 161
Inter-organisational roaming 163
End to end encryption 165
Tor & Anonymizers 173

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT 176

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 177
Estimating capacity 177
Calculating the link budget 179
Link planning software 189
Avoiding noise 194
Repeaters 197
Deployment planning for IPv6 199

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 201

Wired wireless 201
Choosing wireless components 203
Commercial vs. DIY solutions 205
Professional lightning protection 209
Access Point Con;guration 212
Con;gure the client 221
Hints - working outdoors 222
Troubleshooting 222
XII

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION 223

Introduction 223
Preparations 223
Bandwidth requirements 224
Frequencies and data rates 224
Access Points choice and placement 225
SSID and Network Architecture 227
Post Installation 227

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 228

What is needed for a long distance link? 230
Antenna alignment 232

14. OFF-GRID POWER 238

Solar Power 238
Photovoltaic system components 239
The solar panel 244
The battery 250
Temperature effects 257
The charge regulator 258
Converters 260
Equipment or load 262
Orientation of the panels 266
How to size your photovoltaic system 267
Data to collect 269
Electrical characteristics of system components 270
Procedure of calculation 272
Cables 276
Cost of a solar installation 277

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

279
15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 280
Introduction 280
Building your team 280
Proper troubleshooting techniques 283
Common network problems 286
Trouble tracking and reporting 293
 XIII

16. NETWORK MONITORING 295

Introduction 295
Network monitoring example 296
Detecting network outages 298
Monitoring your network 300
Types of monitoring tools 307
Network detection 308
Spot check tools 308
Protocol analysers 313
Trending tools 315
Throughput testing 323
Realtime tools and intrusion detection 326
Other useful tools 329
What is normal? 331
Establishing a baseline 331
Monitoring RAM and CPU usage 337
Summary 339

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 340

Introduction 340
Create a mission statement 342
Evaluate the demand for potential offerings 343
Establish appropriate incentives 345
Research the regulatory environment for wireless 346
Analyse the competition 347
Determine initial and recurring costs and pricing 347
Categories of Costs 349
Secure the ;nancing 351
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the internal situation 354
Putting it all together 355
Conclusion 358

GLOSSARY 359
Glossary 360

APPENDICES 392
APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 393
Guidelines for building some simple types of antennas 393
XIV

Collinear omni 393

Cantenna 403
Cantenna as dish feed 410
NEC2 411

APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS 412

APPENDIX C: PATH LOSS 414

APPENDIX D: CABLE SIZES 415

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING 416

Finding the Worst Month 420
Final Calculations 422

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES 424

CASE STUDIES 432

Case Studies - Introduction 433
Equipment enclosures 433
Antenna masts 434
Involve the local community 434
Now read on 435

Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 437

Introduction 437
Background 437
Action Plan 438
Pico del Aguila Site Survey 439
Antennas 441
El Bal Site Survey 444
Mrida, Venezuela, 17 April 2006. 448
Can we do better? 448
Acknowledgments 450

Case Study: Pisces Project 452

Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 457

Introduction 457
Wi; setup and installation 458
Connecting to the UG campus wireless network 459
 XV

Pictures of our project and installation 460

Challenges we faced 464
Next steps 465

Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 466

Introduction 466
Airjaldis Garhwal Network: 466
The Airjaldi Garhwal Network Vital Statistics 467
Realities, needs 468
Summary 479

Case Study: Open Technology Institute 480

Red Hook initiative Wi; & Tidepools 480
History of the network 480
Social software and growth of the network 485
Expansion after superstorm Sandy 489
Sustainability & future goals 494
Cost of the network 494
Lessons learned 494
Related articles & websites 495
XVI

INTRODUCTION
$i sbo
oka i
mst oempowerpeopl
etobuil
dDI Yne t
wo r
ksus i
ngwi r
el
ess
te
chnol
ogie
s.Ithasbee
nc ompil
edbyabunc ho fnet
wo r
kingg ee
ksthat
havebee
nbus ydesi
gni
ng,depl
oyi
ngandoperat
ingwirel
essnetworksfor
qui
tesometime,al
lofthema c
ti
vel
ypar
ti
cipa
ti
ngi nexpandingthereac
h
oftheI
nter
netal
lovert
hewo rl
d.

Webe l
ievethatpeo pl
ec anhaveas igni0cants
takeinbuil
dingthei
rown
co
mmuni c
ati
onsi nfras
truct
ureanda l
soi nWue
ncethewi dercommunit
y
ar
oundt hemt oma k esurenetwor
k sbecomea 1or
dableanda v
ail
abl
e.We
hopetono tonlyc onvi
nc eyouthatthisisposs
ibl
e,butal
soshowho wwe
havedoneit,andt og i
vey outheinformationandtool
sy ouneedtost
art
anetworkprojec
ti ny o
url o
calcommuni t
y.

Bypr ovi
dingpe opleiny o
url ocalc ommuni tywi t
hc heaperande asi
er
accesstoinforma t
ion,theywi l
ldire
ctlybene0tfrom wha ttheInter
nethas
too 1er.$et imea nde 1or
ts av
e dbyha vi
nga c
cesstot heg lo
balnetwork
ofinforma t
iont ra
nslat
esintov a
lueo nal ocalscal
e.Likewi s
e,thenetwork
become sa llthemo rev al
ua bl
ea smo repe o
plea r
ec onnect
edt oi t
.
Co mmuni tiesconne c
tedtot heI nte
rneta thighs peedha veav oi
ceina
globalma rketpla
ce,whe retransact
ionsha ppena roundt hewo rl
da tthe
speedo flight.P e
oplea l
lo verthewo rlda r
e0ndi ngt ha tInte
rnetacces
s
give
st hem av oicetodi s
cusstheirproble
ms ,po l
it
ics,andwha te
verels
eis
impo rt
anti ntheirliv
es,inawa yt hatthet e
lephonea ndt elev
isi
onsimply
canno tcompe te.Wha tha suntilrecentl
ys oundedl ikes ci
ence0c t
ionis
now be c
omi ng a r ea
lit
y,a nd thatr eal
ityi sbeing bui lto n wir
eles
s
netwo rks
.

The country of Aip otu

No wl etsforamo mentlo
oka ta0c t
iona
lcount
ryc a
ll
ed'Aipot
u',inthe
deve
lo pingwo rl
d.Ai po
tuha sbeenconnect
edtot heInt
ernetmerel
yb y
expensiveVS ATlinksforalongti
me .
Abr andne wo pti
calsubmari
netele
communicat
ionsconnec
tionhas0nal
ly
arr
iveda ttheshoreofAipot
u.
$ec ha l
le
ng eforAipotuisno wtor ol
loutac omplet
eco mmunicat
ion
inf
rastruct
ureforawho lecountr
yfroms c
rat
ch.
 XVII

$eme tho do fc hoic

et odayi sli
k e
ly at hr
e etierstr
ategy.Firsta nd
foremostAi potushouldtrytorollouto pt
ica
l0br eli
neswhe r
everpo ssi
ble
.
Fibreli
ne so 1erthecapabi
lit
ytot r
anspo r
ta" s
eao fbandwidth".$ec os
t
ofo pti
cal0br eisv e
ryl o
w,c onsi
deri
ngt hec apaci
ty.Byupg radingt he
optica
lt ranscei
versthec a
paci
tyo fao pti
cal0brel i
nec a
nbeupg raded
withoutl aying newc abl
e.IfAi potuc a
na 1o rdt oe s
tabli
sh a 0br e
connecti
o nt oe veryhousehol
dt hereisnor easonno ttog of o
ri t.$i s
wo uld ma keo urt hreetiermo delo bsol
etea nd wec oulds top he re
.
Ho wever,the r
eareprobablyar
easinAi potuthatcannota1ord0br elines.

$es econdt i
ert hatt hepe opleo fAipotuc anus eino rdert oconnect
remotev il
lage
so rs mallc it
iesarehig hspeedpo i
nt -t
o-po i
ntl i
nksbetwee
n
highpo ints
.Iti spo ssi
blet oe sta
blishhighspeedl i
nks( 40Mbps )of30
kmo rmo rebetwee ntowe r
so f30me tr
eheightonWa tterra
in.
Ifmo unt a
int ops,hi ghbui ldingso rhilltopsa rea vai
lable
,e venlonger
l
inksa repossi
ble.$ene two rktechno l
ogyexpertso fAipo t
udo n'thaveto
wo r
ryt oomuc ha bo utt hewi rele
sstechnol
og ytha ttheya r
emo unti
ngon
topo ft he
irtowe rs-t hec ostliesmo st
lyinbui ldingt heto wers
,proper
l
ightningpr ot
ection,po we rsupplies,powerba c
k- upa ndt heftprot
ecti
on,
rat
hert haninthea ct
ua lwi r
elessequipmenta ndant ennas.
Liket hetechnologyo fo pti
calt r
anscei
vers
,wi r
elesst r
anscei
v e
rsals
ok eep
advanc i
ng,butawi r
elesslinkwi l
la l
waysbeo r
de rsofma gnit
udeslower
thanthec apaci
tyo fo ptical0bre.

$et hir
dc hal
leng
eforAi pot
ui st
os ol
vetheproble
mo fthelastmile
(s)
:
Distr
ibuti
nga cces
stoa lltheindiv
idualhouse
ho l
ds,oNces,product
ion
fa
cili
tie
sa nds oon.No ttoolonga g
ot heme t
ho dofchoic
ewa stor un
copperwi resbutno wt her
ei sabe tt
erchoic
e.$i sthi
rdt i
ero four
netwo r
kmo de
liscl
ear
lythedo mai
no fwir
ele
ssnetworki
ngtechnol
ogy.

Purpose of this book

$e o v er
allg oalo ft his booki st o he l
py ou bui
lda 1o
rdabl
e
communi cat
iontechnologyiny ourlocalc ommunitybyma k
ingbes
tuse
ofwha teverres
ourcesar
ea va
il
able.
Usingi nexpensi
veoff-
the-s
helfequipme nt,youcanbuil
dhighspee
dda t
a
net
wo r
k sthatconnectremotea r
eastogether,prov
idebr
oadbandnet
wo r
k
acc
e s
si na re
aswhe reevendi a
lupdo esno te x
ist
,andulti
matel
yconnec
t
youa ndy ourneighbourstotheglobalInternet
.
XVIII

Byus i
nglo c
alsour
cesfo
rma t
eri
alsandfabri
ca t
ingpart
syourse
lf
,y ouc a
n
buil
dr el
iabl
enetworkli
nkswithv e
ryli
ttl
ebudg e
t.Andb yworkingwi t
h
yourlocalcommuni t
y,youca
nbui l
dat ele
communi c
ati
onsinf
rastr
ucture
thatbene0tsev
eryonewhopa r
ti
cipat
esinit.$i sbookisnotag uideto
con0guri
ngwi r
eles
sforyourla
ptopo rchoosingc ons
umerg r
adeg earfor
yourho mene twork.$ee mphasi
si son bui l
dinginfr
ast
ruct
urel inks
int
endedt obeus edasthebackboneforwi dea reawir
ele
ssnetworksa s
wellassol
v i
ngthelas
tmilepr
oblem.

Wi t
ht hos
ego a
lsinmi nd,inf
ormati
o nispre
sent
edfro
m ma nypointsof
vie
w,i ncl
uding te
chnical
,s oc
ial
,a nd 0nanci
alfac
tors
.$ee xtensi
ve
col
lec
tiono fcasestudie
si ncl
uded pre
sentvari
ousgroups
att
empt sat
buil
dingthes
ene t
wo rks
,theresour
cesthatwerecommit
tedtothem,a nd
theulti
materes
ult
so fthes
ea t
tempt
s.

I
ti sa l
soimpo r
tanttono tethata l
loftheres
ources
,techniq
uesa nddesi
gn
me thodologi
esde s
cribedint hisbooka r
ev al
idina nypa r
toft hewo r
ld.
$e rearema nyruralpa r
tsallo ve
rtheg l
obethatrema i
nunc onnec
tedto
t
heI nt
ernetforrea
so nsofcost,geogr
aphy,pol
iti
csands oon.
De ployi
ngwi r
el
essne twork
ingc ano f
tenleadtot heseproblemsbe i
ng
s
o l
v edt her
ebye xtending conne c
tiv
it
yt ot hosewho a sy etha v
eno t
achievedi t
.$e r
ea re many c ommuni ty bas
ed ne t
wo r
king proj
ects
eme rgi
nge ve
rywhe r
e.S owhe theryouliv
eintheUni te
dKi ngdom,Ke nya,
Chi l
eo rIndi
ao rany whereelse,t
hisbookcanbeaus e
fulpracti
calg
uide.

Si
ncethe0rstspa
rkg apexper
imentsatt heturno ftheXI Xcentur
y,
wir
el
esshasbee
nar a
pidl
yevol
vingareao fcommuni c
ati
onste
chnolog
y.
Whileweprovi
despeci
0cexamplesofhowt obui l
dwo rk
inghighspeed
dat
alinks
,thetechni
quesdesc
ri
be dint hisbooka renotint
endedt o
re
pla
ceexis
ti
ngwiredinfr
ast
ruc
ture(sucha stel
ephonesyst
emso r0bre
opt
icbac
kbone)
.

Rat
her
,thes
etechniq
uesar
einte
nde
dt oaugme
ntex
isti
ngsys
tems,a
nd
pr
ovi
deconnec
ti
v i
tyinar
easwhe
rerunni
ng0br
eorotherphy
sic
alca
ble
woul
dbeimprac
tica
l.

Wehopeyou0
nd t
hisbo
ok us
efulf
ors
olv
ing y
ourc
ommuni
cat
ion
c
hal
l
enge
s.
 XIX

Fitting wireless into your existing network

Ifyouareanetworkadminis
tra
tor
,yo umaywo nderhow wir
el
es
smig ht
0tintoyourexi
st
ingnetworkinfr
ast
ruct
ure.Wirel
esscanse
rvei
nma ny
capa
cit
ie
s,from as i
mplee x
tensi
on( l
ikeas ever
alk i
lo
metr
eEthernet
cabl
e)toadist
ri
buti
onpo i
nt(li
kealargehub).Herejus
tafewexamples
ofhowy ourne
tworkcanbene0tfr
om wirel
esst
echnol
ogy.

Fi
gur
eI1:S
omewi
re
le
ssne
two
rki
nge
xamp
les
.

How this book is organized

$i
sbo
okha
s4ma
ins
ect
ionsc
all
ed-

Physi
cs
Networki
ng
Pl
anningandDe
plo
yme nt
Maintena
nce
,Moni
tor
ingandS
ust
ai
nabi
li
ty

Attheend y
ouwi
ll0ndaGl
oss
arya
swe
lla
sAppe
ndi
cesa
nd Ca
se
St
udie
s.
XX

Withint he4ma ins e

ctionsther
ea r
ec ha pt
erswritt
enbyk eye x
per
tswith
the
oretic
a la
ndpr acti
calhandsone xper i
enceofthetopi
cs.
$e rea r
eabr oadrangeo ftopi
csint hec hapt
erswhichha v
ebe ense
lec
ted
asbeingk eytoe nabl
ingy outos t
arta ndg ro
war ea
lwirel
essdepl
oyment
i
ny ouro wnc ommuni ty.Anotherres
o urceyouma y0ndus efuli
shere-
htt
p://wtkit
.or
g/gro
ups /
wt k
it/
wiki/
820c b/download_pag
e.html

Iti
st hes e
to fpresent
ati
onmateri
al
susedb ythe
sesamekeyexpert
sto
del
ive
rwi re
les
sne tworki
ngtr
ai
ningcla
sse
saroundthewor
ld.
Inadditionallo fthekeyexper
tswhoha vewrit
tenthi
sbookregul
arl
y
che
cko urFacebookpa g
e.Soasyouplany o
urdeploy
mentple
asedoa s
k
ques
ti
o nsono urpa ge-wedoanswerquic
kly
.
htt
ps:
//www. f
acebook.c
om/gr
oups/
wirel
es
su
PHYSICS
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 1

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Wi re
les
sc ommuni ca
tionsma keus eo fe le
ctro ma gneti
cwa vestos e
nd
sig
na l
sa cr
ossl ong di stances. From a us er
s pe rspecti
ve, wirel
ess
connecti
ons a re not pa rti
cular
ly di1e re
nt f rom a ny o ther ne t
wo rk
connecti
on:y ourwe bbr ows er
,e mail
,a ndo the rapplicati
onsa l
lwo r
ka s
you wo ulde xpect
.Butr adio wavesha ves omeune xpected propert
ies
compa r
edt oEt hernetc able.Fore xa
mpl e,i t
sv e r
ye asyt os e
et hepa th
thata n Ethernetc ablet ak e
s:l oc
atet he pl ug stic
k i
ng o uto fy our
comput er
,foll
owt hec abletot heo t
here nd,a ndy ouv
ef oundi t
! Youc an
als
obec on0dentthatrunni ngma nyEthe rnetc ablesalongsideeacho ther
wo n
tc ause problems,s incet he cablese 1e c t
ivel
yk eept heirs ig
na l
s
contai
nedwi thinthewi reitsel
f.
Butho w doy ouk now whe ret hewa vese ma na ti
ngf romy ourwi rel
ess
deviceareg oi
ng?Wha tha ppenswhe nt he sewa vesbo unceo 1o bject
si n
theroomo ro t
herbuildingsi nano utdo orlink ?Ho wc anse v
eralwirel
ess
cardsbeus e
di nthes a
mea reawithoutint e
rferingwi the acho t
her?
Ino rdert o buil
ds tablehi gh-speed wirelessl inks,iti si mportantt o
unde r
st
andho wradiowa vesbe haveinther ealwo rl
d.

What is a wave?
Wea rea llf ami l
iarwi thv ibrationso ro scil
l
ati
onsi nv ari
ousf orms:a
pendulum,at reeswa yi
ngi nt hewi nd,t hestri
ngo fag uitar-the s
earea l
l
exampl esofo s
cill
ations
.
Wha tt heyha v
ei nc ommo nist hatsome t
hing,someme dium o robjec
t,is
swingingi nape riodicma nne r
,wi thac erta
innumbe rofc ycl
espe runitof
ti
me .$i sk indo fwa v
ei ssome timesc all
edame chanic
alwa v e
,s i
nceitis
de0ne db ythemo t
iono fa no bj
e ctoritspr opaga
tingme dium.
Whe ns ucho s
c i
ll
ationst ravel(t hatis,whe nt hes wingi
ngdo esno tstay
boundt oo nepl ace)the nwes pe ako fwa vespro paga
tingi ns pace
.Fo r
exampl e,as i
ng ersingingc r
e at
espe ri
o dico sc
il
la
tionsinhi so rhe rvoc a
l
cords.$e s
eo sci
lla
tionspe ri
odica l
lycompr essandde compr esstheair
,a nd
thi
spe ri
odicc hang eo fa irpr essurethe nl ea
vest hesingersmo ut
ha nd
tra
v e
ls,atthes pe edo fso und.
As t
onepl ung i
ngi ntoal a
k ec ausesadi st
urbanc e
,whi cht hent ra
v el
s
acr
o s
st hela kea sawa ve.
2 PHYSICS

Awav
ehasace
rta
ins
pee
d,fr
eque
ncy
,andwav
ele
ngt
h.
$es
earec
onne
ctedb
yas i
mplere
lat
ion:

S
pee
d=Fr
equ
enc
y*Wa
vel
eng
th

$ewa velength( someti

me sreferr
edt oa slamb da,)i sthedistance
measuredfrom apo i
nto nonewa vet otheequiv
alentpartofthenext( or
,
inamo r
et echnicalway,tothene xtpointthatisinthes amepha s
e),for
exa
mpl efr
o mt het opofo nepeaktot henext.
$ef requencyi sthenumbe ro fwho lewa v
esthatpassa0x e
dpo i
nti na
per
iodo fti
me .S peedisme a
suredinme tres
/s
econd,fre
que ncyismeasured
incy c
lesp ers econd (orHe rt
z,r epre
sente
db yt hes ymbo lHz ),a nd
wavel
engthi sme asure
di nme t
res.Forex a
mple,ifawa veo nwa t
ertravel
s
atoneme trepe rsecond,andito sci
ll
ate
s0v eti
me spersecond,thene ach
wavewillbet wentyc e
ntimetr
eslong:

1me
tr
e/
se
con
d=5c yc
le
s/
sec
ond*
W
W =1/5me t
re
s
W =0.
2me t
re
s=20cm

Wave
sa ls
ohaveapropert
ycall
eda mpl
it
ude.$isisthedist
ancefr
om
t
hecentreofthewavetotheextr
emeofo neofitspeak
s,andc a
nbe
t
houghtofasthehe
ight
ofawa terwav
e.Fre
quency,wave
leng
th,and
a
mplitudear
eshowninFigur
eRP1.

Fi
gur
eRP1:Wav
ele
ngt
h,a
mpli
tud
e,a
ndfr
equ
ency
.Fo
rthi
swave
,th
e
fr
eque
ncyi
s2c
ycl
esp
ers
ec
ond,o
r2Hz,whil
eth
espe
edis1m/
s.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 3

Wavesi
nwa t
erareeas
ytovis
ual
ize
.
Si
mplydropas t
oneint
othelakeandyouca
ns eethewave
sastheymo v
e
a
cros
sthewateroverti
me.Inthecaseofe
lect
romagnet
icwave
s,thepart
t
hatmightbeharde
sttounder
st
andis:Whatisi
tthati
sosc
il
lat
ing?

I
no rde
rt o under
st
and t
hat,you nee
dto underst
and e
lec
tro
ma gne
ti
c
f
orce
s.

Electromagnetic forces
Electroma gne t
icf o r
ce sa ret he f orcesbe t
we ene l
ec tr
icalc hargesa nd
currents.Ourmo s
tdi recta cce sst ot hosei swhe no urha ndt ouchesado o r
handl ea fterwa lki
ng o ns ynt he ticc arpe t
,o rbr ushingup a ga
insta n
elec
tricalfenc e
.
Amo r
epo we r
fule xampl eo fe lec tr
o ma gneti
cf o rcesist helightningwes e e
duringt hunde rstorms .
$ee le
c t
ricalforceisthef o rcebe twe ene l
ectri
c alcha rg
e s.
$ema gneticforceist hef orcebe twe ene lect
ricalc urre
nt s.
Electronsa repa rt
iclest hatc a rryane g at
ivee l
ec t
ricalc harge.$e rea re
otherc ha r
gedpa rti
clesto o ,buti ti sthee lectronst ha ta r
er esponsiblefo r
mo sto fwha twene edt ok no wa bo utho wr adiobe hav es.
Letusl o oka twha ti sha ppe ni ngi napi ec
eo fs trai
g htv ert
icalwi re,in
which wepus ht hee l
ectr onsf rom o nee nd t ot heo thera nd ba ck,
peri
o dicall
y.Ato nemo me nt,t het o po fthewi reisne ga t
ivelycharged-a ll
thene gativee l
ec t
ronsa reg athe redt here.$i sc rea t
esa ne lectr
ic0eldf rom
thepo si
tivelycha rgede ndt ot hene gat
ivelyc harg edo nea l
o ngthewi r
e .
$ene x tmo me nt,thee lectro nsha v eallbe endr ivent ot heo therside,a nd
thee le
c tri
c0e l
dpo intst heo t he rwa y
.Ast hisha ppe nsa gaina nda g ain,
thee le
c tri
c0e l
dv ectors( repr ese ntedb ya r
ro wsf r
o m pl ust omi nus)a re
l
e av
ingt hewi re,s ot ospe a k,a nda rer adiat
e do uti ntot hes pacea round
thewi re.
Wha tweha vej ustde scribe di sk nowna sadi po l
e( be ca
us eo fthet wo
di1erentlyc harge dpo les
,pl usa ndmi nus ,tha tar ecrea t
edi nt hes tr
aight
vert
icalwi re),ormo rec ommo nl yad ipol
ea ntenna .
$i si st hes i
mpl estf ormo fa no mnidirectiona lant enna .$emo ving
ele
ctric0 eldi sc ommo nlyr eferre dt oa sa ne l
ectro mag neti
cwa vebe caus e
ther
ei sa ls
oa na ss
o c
iatedma g ne tic0e l
d.Amo vinge l
e ctri
c0e ld,suc ha sa
wa v
e ,alwa ysco me stog e
the rwi thama gne t
ic0e l
d-y o uwi llnot0ndo ne
witho utt heo the r
. Whyi st hist hec ase?
Ane lectric0e l
di sc ausedb ye le ctricall
yc hargedo bjects.
4 PHYSICS

Amovi
nge
lec
tri
c0eldi
sproduce
db ymo
vingel
ect
ri
cal
l
ycha
rge
dobj
ect
s,
s
ucha
swehavej
ustdes
cri
bedabov
einadipo
leant
enna
.

Wher
eve
rele
ctr
ic
alchar
gesa
remov
ing
,theyi
nduceamagne
ti
c0e
ld.
Mat
hemat
ic
all
y,t
hisisf
ormul
at
edi
nMa xwel
l
'seq
uati
ons
:
ht
tps
:/
/en.
wik
ipe
dia
.or
g/wi
ki
/El
ect
roma
gne
ti
c_0e
ld#Ma
the
mat
ic
al_de
scr
ipt
ion

Si
ncethe el
ect
ri
cala
ndma g
neti
cc o
mpo ne
ntsa
retie
dt oge
the
rinthis
way
,wes peakofane
lect
romagnet
ic0eld.
I
npr a
cti
calwir
el
es
snetworki
ng,wef oc
usinthee
lec
tri
calc
omponentbut
t
herebeal
waysama g
neti
ccompo nentaswel
l.

Le
tusc
omeba
ckt
other
el
at
ion:

S
pee
d=Fr
equ
enc
y*Wa
vel
eng
th

I
nthec
aseo
fel
ect
roma
gne
ti
cwa
ves
,thes
pee
disc
,thes
pee
dofl
ig
ht.

c=300,
000k
m/s=300,
000,
000m/
s=3*
108m/
s

c=f*

El
ect
romagnet
icwav
esdi1erf r
om me c
hani
calwav
esintha
tthe
yrequi
re
no medi
um in whicht o propag
ate
.Elec
tromag
net
ic wa
veswil
leven
pr
opagat
ethro
ughperf
ectvacuum.
$el i
ghtfromthestar
si sag o
ode xa
mple:itr
eac
hesusthr
oughthe
va
cuum ofspa
ce.

Symbols of the international system of units

I
nphy s
ics
,maths
,ande ngi
neer
ing,weof
tenexpr
essnumber
sb ypowe
rs
ofte
n.
Wewi l
lmeetthe
seter
msa g
ain,andthes
ymbolsusedtor
epre
sentt
hem,
e
.g.gi
gahe
rtz(
GHz )
,cent
imetr
es(cm),mi
cr
ose
conds(s
),a
ndsoo n.

$e sesymbolsa r
epa r
to ftheint
ernat
ionalsys
temo fme as
ure
mentS
I
(ht
tp:
//www.bipm.or
g/uti
ls
/common/pdf
/si
_broc
hure_8_e
n.pdf)
,the
yar
e
notabbre
via
tionsands ho
uldnotbec ha
nged.
$ec asei
ssigni0c
antands ho
uldnotbealte
red.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 5

S
Isy
mbo
ls

a
tto 1018 1/
1000000000000000000 a
f
emt
o 1015 1/
1000000000000000 f
pi
co 1012 1/
1000000000000 p
na
no 109 1/
1000000000 n
mi
cr
o 106 1/
1000000
mi
l
li 103 1/
1000 m
c
ent
i 102 1/
100 c
k
il
o 10 3 1000 k
me
ga 10 6 1000000 M
g
iga 10 9 1000000000 G
t
era 10 12 1000000000000 T
pe
ta 10 15 1000000000000000 P
e
xa 10 18 1000000000000000000 E

Knowingthespe
edofli
ght
,weca
ncal
cul
at
ethewave
leng
thforagi
ven
fr
eque
ncy.Letusta
ketheexa
mpl
eoft
hefre
quenc
yof802.11bwi
re
les
s
net
worki
ng,whic
his:

f=2.
4GHz=2,
400,
000,
000c
ycl
es/s
ec
ond

wa
vel
eng
t )=c/f=3*
h( 108
/2.
4*10
9
=1.
25*
10-1 m=12.
5cm

Fre
q uencyandt he r
efo
rewa ve
lengt
hde terminemo stofa ne l
ect
romagneti
c
wavesbehaviour.Itgove
rnsthedime nsi
o nso ftheantennasthatwebui l
d
aswe l
la sthee 1ec
to ft heinter
acti
o nswi tho bje
ctst hatareint he
propagati
onpa th,incl
udingthebiolo
g i
cale1e ct
sinliv
ingbe i
ngs.
Wirelessstandardso fco ur
sea r
edi st
inguishedb ymo rethanj us
tt he
fr
eque ncytheya rewo r
kingat-f orexampl e,802.11b,802.11g,802.11n
and802. 16c ana llworka t2.4GHz- ,y ettheya r
ev erydi1ere
ntf ro
m
onea nother
.
6 PHYSICS

$ec hapterc alle

d Te l
eco
mmu nicati
onsBa sicswilldiscussmo dul a
tion
tec
hniques
,me diaacces
stechniques,ando t
he rre
leva
ntf ea
tureso fwi r
el
ess
communi c
a ti
ons s t
andards. Ho we ver
, t he ba sic c apa bili
ties o f
el
ectr
oma gneticwa ve
st ope net
rat
eo bject
s,tog ol ongdi s
tanc es,a nds o
for
th-t hesea redeter
mi nedb yphy s
icsalone.$ee lect
roma g neticwa ve
"doesnotk nowo rcare"wha tmo dulat
iono rs t
andardo rtechni q uey ou
puto ntopo fi t.So,whiledi1erents t
andardsma yi mpleme nta dvanced
tec
hniquest ode alwithNLOS( No nLi neo fS i
ght),mul t
ipa tha nds o
for
th-t heys til
lcannotma keawa vegot hroughawa ll
,ift hatwa l
lis
absor
bingther espect
ivefreq
uency.$e r
efor
e,a nunderst
andi
ngo ftheba s
ic
i
deasoffre
q uencyandwa vel
engthhelpsalotinpr a
cti
calwirel
esswo rk.

Phase
Lateri nt hisc hapter,we wi l
lt al
ka boutc onceptsl i
kei nter
fer
ence,
mul ti
patha ndFr esnelzones
.I no r
dertounde rs
tandt hese,wewi l
lneedto
kno wa boutt hep haseofawa ve,orrather,ph
a s
ed i
>erencesbet
we enwaves.
Loo katt hes i
newa v eshowninFi gRP1-no wima gineweha vetwosuch
wa vesmo ving.$e sec anbeine x
act
lyt hesamepo s
iti
o n:Whe retheone
hasi t
spe ak,t heothe ronea l
soha sape ak.$e n,wewo uldsay,the
ya r
e
inpha se,o r,theirpha sedi1erenceisz er
o.Buto newa vecoulda l
sobe
displ
a c
e dfromt heo t
her,f
o rexamplei tcouldha vei tspeakwhe r
ethe
otherwa vei sa tzero.Inthi
sc ase,weha veapha s
edi 1e r
ence
.$i sphas
e
di1erencec anbee xpress
edinfracti
onso fthewa vel
eng t
h,e .
g./ /
4,orin
deg r
ees,e .
g.90de grees-wi tho nef ullcycl
eo ft hewa vebe i
ng360
deg r
ees.Apha sedi1e r
enceof360de greesisthesamea sthatof0de gre
es:
nopha sedi 1erence.

Fi
gur
eRP2:Ph
aseDi
>er
enc
ebe
twe
enTwoWa
ves
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 7

Polarization
Anotheri mport
ant q ual
ityo fe lec
troma gnet
ic wa v e
si sp ol
a r
iza
tion.
Pol
ariz
atio
nde s
cri
besthedi r
ectionofthee le
c t
ri
c al0el
dv ec
tor.
Ifyoui magi
neav er
ti
c a
ll
ya l
igneddipolea ntenna( thestr
aig
htpi eceo f
wir
e),elec
tro
nscano nlymo veupa nddo wn,no tsideways(becausethere
i
snor oo mtomo ve)andt huse l
ect
ri
cal0eldso nlye verpoi
ntupo rdown,
ver
ti
call
y.$e0e ldl ea
v i
ngt hewi r
ea ndt ra
v el
linga sawa vehasas tr
ict
l
inear(andinthi
sc as
e,verti
cal)pola
riz
a t
ion.Ifweputt heantennaWa ton
t
heg round,wewo uld0ndho r
izont
allinea
rpo lariza
ti
o n.

Li
ne arpol
ari
zat
ionisjustonespeci
alca
se,andisnev
erquit
esope r
fec
t:i
n
general
,wewi llal
way shavesomec ompo ne
nto fthe0eldpo i
nti
ngin
ot
he rdir
ecti
onstoo.Ifwec ombinetwoe qualdi
pol
esfedwiththesame
si
gnal,wec angenera
teac ir
cula
rlypola
riz
edwa ve
,inwhicht heel
ectr
ic
0eldvecto
rk e
epsro
tatingper
pendicul
ar
lytothewave'st
raj
ect
ory.
8 PHYSICS

$emo stg eneralc a

sei sel
lipticalpo lar
iz
atio n,inwhi c
ht hee l
ectri
c0e l
d
vectorma ximum v a
luei sno tt hes amei nt hev erti
ca land ho riz
ontal
direction.Aso nec a
ni mag i
ne ,po l
ari
zati
o n be co
me si mpo rtantwhe n
ali
g ninga ntennas.Ify ouig no repo lar
iza
tion,y o umi ghtha vev erylit
tle
signale vent ho ughy ouha vet hebe stantenna s.Wec a
llt hi
spo l
ari
zati
on
mi sma tch.
Muc hi nt hes amewa y,polarizati
onma ya lsobeus edinas ma rtwa y
,to
kee pt wo wi r
elesslinksi nde pende nta nd wi tho
uti nter
ference,e ve
n
tho ught heymi ghtus ethes a mee ndpo int s(ore vens hareac ommo n
reWe c
to r)a nd t heref
o r
et he s a
met r
aje
ctor y:ifo ne l i
nk i spo lar
ize
d
verticall
ya ndt heo therho r
izo ntall
y,theywi llno t"s
ee"e acho ther.$i sis
ac onv enientwa yt o doubl eda t
ar at
eso vero nel i
nkus ing as i
ngle
freque ncy.
$ea ntenna sus edint hisk indo fa ppl
icati
o nmus tbec ar
efull
ybui l
tin
orde rt or ejectthe" unwa nted"po lariz
ati
o n,i .
e.a na ntenname a
ntf or
verticalpo lari
zati
on mus t no tr ecei
veo rt rans
mi ta ny ho ri
zontal
l
y
po l
a r
izeds i
gna l
,a nd v i
cev ersa.Wes ayt heymus tha veahi gh" c
ross
po l
a r
ization"r eje
cti
on.

The electromagnetic spectrum

Electr
oma gneticwa vess pa nawi derang eo ffrequenci
es( and,a ccordingly
,
wa ve
lengths)
. $i sr ang eo ff r
equencieso rwa vele
ng thsi sc all
e dt he
ele
ctr
oma gnet
ics pectr
um.$e pa rto ft he s pect
rum mo stf amiliart o
huma nsi spr obablyl ight ,t hev i
siblepo rti
ono fthee lectroma g
ne ti
c
spectr
um.Li g htlie sro ug hlybe tweent hef requencie
so f7. 5*1014 Hza nd
3.8*1014 Hz ,c o rrespo ndi ng t o wa vel
e ng t
hs from c irca 400 nm
(viol
et/
blue)t o80 0nm ( re d).
Wea rea ls
or egularlye xpo sedt oo therr egionso fthee lectromagne ti
c
spectr
um,i nc l
udi ngAl terna ti
ngCur rent( AC)o rgride l
e c
trici
tya t50/ 60
Hz ,AM a ndFM r adio,Ul travi
ole
t( atfreq uenci
eshig hert hant hos eof
visi
bleli
ght )
,Inf r
a red( atf requencie
slo wert hantho s
eo fv i
sibleli
ght )
,
X- Rayradiati
o n,a ndma nyo ther
s.
Ra di
oi sthet erm us edf o rt hepo r
tio
no fthee l
ect
roma gnetics pect
rum i n
whi c
h wa vesc a n bet rans mi tt
edb ya pplyinga l
ter
natingc urre
ntt oa n
antenna.$i sist ruef ort her angefrom 30k Hzto300GHz ,buti nt he
mo rena r
rows enseo ft het erm,theuppe rf requencylimitwo uldb ea bout
1GHz ,abo vewhi chwet alko fmi c
rowa vesa ndmi ll
imetricwa v e
s.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 9

Whe ntalki
nga boutr adi
o ,ma nype oplet hinko fFM r adio,whichus esa
fre
q uencya r
ound100MHz .Inbe tweenr adi oa ndinfraredwe0ndt he
regi
o no fmicrowaves-wi thfrequenc i
esfroma bo ut1GHzt o300GHz ,
andwa vel
engt
hsf r
o m 30c mt o1mm.
$emo stpopularus eofmi crowave smi g
htbet hemi cr
owa veo ven,which
inf actworksine x act
lythes amer egi
o na st hewi rel
esss t
andardswea r
e
dealingwith.$e s
er egionsliewi t
hi ntheba ndst hatarebe ingke ptopen
forg enera
lunl ic
ens edus e.$i sr egi
oni sc al
ledt heI SMb and ,which
sta
ndsf orIndustr
ial,Scie
nt i
0c,andMe dical.
Mo sto t
herpartso fthee l
ectr
o mag neti
cs pectrum a reti
ght l
yc ontrol
ledby
l
icens i
nglegi
sla
tion,wi thlicensev al
uesbe ingahug eeco nomicf actor
.In
ma nyc ountri
esther ighttous epo rt
ionso ft hes pect
rum ha v
eb e e
ns ol
d
toc o mmunicat
ionsc ompa niesfo rmi l
lionso fdo ll
ars
.Inmo s
tc ountri
es,
theI SM bandsha vebe enr es
ervedf orunl i
cens edus eandt heref
oredono t
havet obepa i
df orwhe nus ed.

Fi
gur
eRP4:ee
le
ct
roma
gne
ti
csp
ect
rum.
$ef requenc
iesmo stint
erest
ingtousa r
e2.400-2. 495GHz ,whichis
usedbythe802.11ba nd802.11gs t
andards(co
rre
spondingtowave
lengt
hs
ofabout12.5cm) ,and5.150-5.850GHz( c
orre
spondingt
owa ve
lengt
hs
ofabout5t o6c m),usedb y802.11a.$e802. 11ns t
andar
dc a
nwo rkin
eit
herofthes
eba nds
.
SeetheCha pterc a
lle
d Wi FiFami l
yf orano ver
viewo fsta
ndar
dsa nd
fre
quenci
es.I
na ddit
ionyo ucan0ndo utmo r
eabouttheRadioport
ionof
theel
ect
roma g
neticspect
rum intheCha pterca
ll
edRa di
oS p
ect
rum.
10 PHYSICS

Bandwidth
At e
rmy o uwi llme eto ft
eni nr a diophy si
csi sb and wid th.Ba ndwidthis
simplyame as
ur eo ffrequencyr ang e.Ifar a
ng eo f2.40GHzt o2.48GHz
isus edb yade vice,thent heba ndwi dthwo ul dbe0. 08GHz( ormo re
commo nlys t
ateda s80MHz ).
Itise a
syt os eet hattheba ndwi dthwede 0nehe rei sc l
o selyrelat
edt othe
amo unto fdatay ouc antransmi twi thinit-t hemo rer oo mi nf r
equency
space,t hemo reda t
ay ouc an 0ti na ta g iven mo me nt.$et e
rm
bandwi dthi so ftenus edfors ome thingwes ho uldr athe rc al
lda tarat
e,as
in myI nter
ne tc onne ct
ionha s1Mbpso fba ndwi dth,me aningi tcan
transmitda taa t1me gabitpe rseco nd.Ho wmuc he xa ctl
yy ouc a
n0ti nto
aphy si
cals igna lwi l
lde pend o nt hemo dula t
ion,e nco dinga nd o t
her
techniques.F ore x
a mple,802. 11gus esthes ameba ndwi dt ha s802.11b,
ho weverit0t smo redataintot ho sesamef requenc yr ang estransmitt
ingup
to5t ime smo rebi tspe rsecond.
Ano there xampl eweha veme ntione d:y o
uma ydo ubl ey o urda tarat
eb y
addingas econdl inka tpe r
pendi cularpo l
ari
zationt oa ne xisti
ng
radiolink.He re ,frequencyandba ndwi dt
hha veno tc hang ed,ho weverthe
datar a
tei sdoubl ed.

Frequencies and channels

Letuslookabi tclo s
erathowthe2.4GHzba ndisus
edin802.11b.$e
spec
trum isdivide
di ntoevenl
ys i
zedpiecesdist
ri
bute
do ve
rt hebanda s
i
ndividualchannel
s .Notethatchanne
lsa r
e22MHzwi de,buta r
eo nl
y
sepa
ratedby5MHz .
$i sme ansthata djac
entchannel
so v
e r
lap
,a ndc anint
erf
erewithea c
h
othe
r.$i sisrepre
sentedvi
sual
lyinFigureRP5.

Fi
gur
eRP5:Channel
sandcent
ref
re
que
nci
esf
or802.11b
.
No
tet
hatc
hannel
s1,6,and11dono
tover
lap
.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 11

Behaviour of radio waves

$erea
reafe
ws impl
erule
softhumbtha
tcanpr
ovee
xtr
eme
lyus
eful
whe
nmaki
ng0rs
tpla
nsfo
rawir
el
e s
sne
twor
k:

t
hel
ong
erth
ewave
le
ngt
h,th
efur
the
ritgo
es;
t
hel
ong
erth
ewave
le
ngt
h,th
ebet
te
rittr
avel
sth
roug
handa r
oundt
hing
s;
t
hes
hor
te
rthewa
vel
eng
th,t
hemor
edataitc
antra
nspo
rt.

Allo
fthe
serul
es
,si
mpl
i0e
dast
heyma
ybe
,ar
era
the
rea
syt
ounde
rst
and
byexa
mple
.

Longerwavestra
velf
urt
her
Wa v
eswi t
hl ongerwave
lengthstendtotra
velfur
the
rt ha
nwa ve
swi t
h
shor
terwav e
lengt
hs.Asa ne xample,AM radi
ostat
ionshaveamuc h
gre
ate
rranget hanFM sta
tions,whichus
eaf re
que
ncy100t i
me shig
her.
Lowerfreq
ue ncytr
ans
mitter
st endtorea
chmuc hgre
aterdis
tance
sthan
hig
hf r
equencytra
nsmit
ter
satt hesamepo
wer.

Longe
rwave
spassar
oundobst
acl
es
Awa v
eonwa t
erwhichis5me t
reslongwillnotbea1ec
tedb
ya5mm
pi
eceofwoodWoati
ngonthewater
.Ifinst
eadthepie
ceofwoodwe
re50
metr
esbi
g(e
.g.ashi
p),i
twoul
dmo di
fythebehavi
oroft
hewav
e.

$edi stanceawa vec ant ravelde pe ndso nther el

ati
o nshipbe tweent he
wa veleng t
ho fthe wa v
ea nd t he s i
zeo fo bst
acl
esi ni ts pa tho f
pro pag at
ion.Itisharde rtovisuali
zewa v e
smo vingthroug hsoli
do bje
cts
,
butt hisi sthec a
sewi the lect
roma g neticwa ves
.Lo ngerwa vel
ength( and
therefo relo werfreq
ue ncy )wa vest endt ope netr
ateo bjectsbe tt
ert han
sho rt
e rwa veleng
th(andt he r
eforehi ghe rfr
equency)wa ves.
Fo re xampl e,FM r adio( 88-108MHz )c antravelthroughbui lding sand
othe ro bstacle
seasi
ly
,whi leshorterwa ves(s
ucha sGS M pho neso perat
ing
at900MHzo r1800MHz )ha veaha r
dertimepe netr
atingbui l
ding s
.
$i se 1ec tispa r
tl
yduet ot hedi 1e r
encei npo werle ve
lsus edf orFM
radioa ndGS M,buti salsopartlyduet othesho r
terwa vel
e ngt
ho fGS M
signals.Atmuc hhig herf r
equencies ,visi
blelightdo esno tg ot hrougha
wa llo reve n1mm o fwo o d-a swea llknow,from pr a
cticale x
perience.
Butme talwi l
lst
opa nyk indo fe l
ectro ma g
neticwa v
e.
12 PHYSICS

Shorterwavescancarrymo redat
a
$ef a
ste
rthewa v
es wingsorbeat
s,t
hemo reinf
ormati
onitcancar
ry-ever
y
beatorc yc
lecoul
df orexamplebeus e
dt otra
nspor
tadi gi
ta
lbi
t,a'0'ora
'
1',a'yes'ora'
no '
.
Sot heda t
arat
es cale
swi t
hba ndwidth,andc a
nbef ur
there
nhancedby
advancedmo dulat
iona ndme diaaccesstec
hnique
ss uchasOFDM,a nd
MI MO ( Multi
pleInput,Mul t
ipl
eOut put)
.

The H uygens Pri nc iple

$ereisanothe
rpr i
nci
plethatcanbea ppl
ie
dt oa l
lki
ndso fwave
s,and
whi
chisextr
emelyusef
ulforunder
sta
ndingradiowavepropaga
ti
on.
$ispri
ncipl
eisk nownast heHu y
gensPri
ncip
le,nameda f
te
rChris
tia
an
Huyg
ens,Dutchma the
ma t
icia
n,physi
ci
standastro
nomer,1629-1695.

Imaginey oua r
et aki
ngal it
tles t
icka nddi ppingitv er
tical
lyintoas t
il
l
l
ak e
'ssurfa
c e
,causingt hewa t
e rtos winga ndda nce.Wa veswi l
lleavethe
centr
eo fthesti
c k-thepl acewhe rey oudi pin-i ncirc
les.No w,whe rev
er
wa t
erpa r
ticl
esa r
es winginga ndda ncing,theywi l
lc a
uset heirneighbor
part
icl
est odot hes ame :fro
me v
erypo i
nto fdis
turbance,ane wc i
rcul
ar
wa v
ewi llstar
t.$i sis,ins impl efo rm,theHuy genspr i
nciple.Int he
wo r
dso fwikipedia
.org:
eHu ygens
'pr i
ncipl
ei same th o
do fa naly
sisappl
iedtop robl
emso fwa ve
propag
ationi nt hef arCe ldl i
mi t
.I trecog
nizesthate achp o
into fa n
advanci
ngwa vefrontisinf ac
tth ecentreofafreshdis
turbanceandt hesourc
e
ofane wt raino fwa v
es;a ndt hatth ea d
vancingwa veasawh ol
ema yb e
re
gardeda sthes umo fa llthes ec
ond arywa vesari
si
ngf romp oi
ntsint he
me d
iuma lrea
dyt r
avers
ed
.

$i sv i
e wo fwa v
epr o
pa g
ati
onhe lpsbett
erunde rs
tandav ari
etyo fwa v
e
pheno me na,suc
ha sdi1ract
ion.$i sprincipl
eho l
dst r
ueforradiowa ve
s
aswe lla swa ve
so nwa te
r,fors ounda swe l
laslig
ht ,butforlightthe
wav e
leng t
hi sfartoos ho
rtfo rhuma nbe ingstoa ctual
lyseethee 1ects
di
re c
tly
.
$i spr inci
plewi l
lhelpust ounde r
st
anddi 1r
act
iona swe l
la sFresnel
zones,a ndthefactthatsometime swes e
emt obeablet otr
ansmitaround
corners,withnol i
neofs i
ght.
Letusno wl ookintowha tha ppenstoe lectr
omag net
icwavesa sthey
tr
avel.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 13

Absorption
Whe ne lec
tromagneti
cwa vesg othro
ugh'some t
hing'(s
omema te
ria
l)
,
theyg e
ne ra
llygetweakenedorda mpened.
Ho w muc ht heyloseinpo werwi l
ldependo nthe i
rfre
quencyando f
coursethema te
ri
al.
Clearwi ndowg l
as
sisob vi
ouslytra
nspar
entforl
ight,whil
etheg l
as
sused
insung l
asses0lte
rsoutq ui
teas har
eoftheli
ghtinte
nsit
yandmo s
tofthe
ultr
avioletradi
ati
on.
Of t
en,a na bsor
ptio
nc oeNcientisusedtodes
cri
beama te
ri
al
simpacton
radi
ation.

Fo
rmi
cr
owa
ves
,thet
woma
ina
bso
rbe
ntma
ter
ia
lsa
re:

Metal
.Ele
ctr
onsc anmo vefr
eel
yinme t
al
s,anda
rere
adil
ya bl
etoswi
ng
andthusa
bsorbtheenergyofapas
si
ngwa v
e.
Water
.Microwav
e scausewatermole
cul
estojos
tl
earound,thust
aki
ng
awaysomeofthewa v
esene
rgy
.

Forthepurpos
eofpract
ic
a lwirel
es
snetwor
king
,wemaywe llconsi
der
meta
landwa t
erper
fec
tabs
o rbe
rs:wewil
lnotbeabl
etog
ot hr
oughthem
(a
lt
houghthinlay
ersofwa terwilll
etsomepo we
rpas
s).$e ya r
et o
micr
owavewhatabri
ckwallistoli
ght
.

Whentalki
nga boutwat
er,weha v
etor e
me mbertha
titc
omesindi
1er
ent
f
orms
:rain,f
oga ndmi s
t,lowcl
oudsands ofor
th,al
lwil
lbei
nthewayof
r
adi
ol i
nks.$e yhaveas t
ronginWuence,andinma nyci
rc
umsta
ncesa
c
hangeinweathercanbringaradi
olinkdo wn.

Whent al
king aboutme ta
l,keepin mind t
hatitmay be f
ound in
unex
pect
edpl a
ces:itmaybehiddeni
nwa ll
s(f
orexa
mple
,asme t
algr
ids
inconcr
ete
)o rbeat hincoa
to nmo de
rnt y
pesofgl
ass(t
int
edglas
s,
col
ore
dg l
as
s).
Howeverthinthel aye
ro fmetal
,itmightbee no
ughtosigni
0ca
ntly
abs
orbaradiowav e
.

$e r
ea r
eo thermate
rial
st ha
thav
eamo r
ecompl
exe1ec
to nradi
o
abs
orpt
ion.Fortr
eesandwo o
d,t
heamo
untofa
bso
rpt
iondepe
ndson
howmuc hwatert
heyconta
in.
14 PHYSICS

Olddeaddrywo odismo r
eorlesstr
anspar
ent
,wetfre
shwo odwil
labsor
b
alot
.Plast
icsandsimil
armater
ial
sg ene
ral
lydonotabsorbalotofradi
o
ene
rgy,butthi
svar
iesdepe
ndingo nthefre
quenc
yandt y
peo fmat
eri
al.
Las
tl
y,letustalkaboutours
elv
es:huma ns(a
swe l
lasotherani
mals)ar
e
l
arge
lyma deoutofwa t
er
.

Asfara sra
dione
tworki
ngisconcer
ne d,wema ywe llbedesc
ribe
da sbi
g
bagsofwa t
er
,wit
hthesamestro
ngabs orpt
ion.
Orienti
nga noNceacce
sspointins uchawa ythati tssi
gnalmustpass
thr
oug hmanypeopl
eisakeymi s
takewhe nbuildingo Ncenetworks
.
$es ameg oesforhots
pots
,c af
ei nstal
l
atio
ns ,librar
ie
s,and outdoo
r
ins
tall
ati
ons
.

Re'ection
J
ustli
kevisi
bl
el i
ght,ra
diowa v
esarereWecte
dwhe nthe
yc omeincont
act
wi
thma te
ria
lst
ha taresui
tedfort
hat:f
o rradi
owa ve
s,t
hema i
nsour
cesof
r
eWect
ionareme t
alandwa ters
urf
aces
.
$er ul
esforreWect
iona r
eq ui
tes
imple:thea ngl
eatwhic
hawa vehit
sa
s
urfa
ceisthesa
mea ng l
eatwhichitget
sde Wect
ed.

Notet
hati
ntheeyesofara
diowa
ve,ade
nsegri
dofbarsa
ctsj
ustt
he
s
ameasas ol
idsur
fac
e,asl
ongasthedi
st
anc
ebe t
wee
n bar
sissmal
l
co
mpare
dtothewav
ele
ngt
h.

At2.
4GHz
,ao
nec
m me
talg
ridwi
lla
ctmuc
hthes
amea
same
talpl
at
e.

Alt
ho ughther ul
esofreWect
iona r
eq uit
esimple,t
hingsc
anbec
omev e
ry
complicat
edwhe ny o
ui maginea noNc einteri
orwithmanymanysmal
l
metalo b
ject
so fva
ri
ousc o
mpl i
cate
ds hapes
.
$es a meg oe
sf o
rurbans i
tuat
ions:l
o o
ka roundyouincit
yenv
iro
nment
andtryt ospotal
loftheme ta
lobject
s.

$i sexpl
ainswhymu l
ti
pat
he >e
ct
s( i
.e.sig
nalre
achi
ngt hei
rtar
getal
ong
di1er
entpa t
hs,andthere
for
ea tdi1er
e ntti
mes)pla
ys uchanimpo r
tant
rolei
nwi r
ele
ssnetwork
ing.
Wa te
rsurf
a c
es,withwavesandripple
sc hangi
nga l
lthetime,e1e
cti
vely
ma keforav er
yc ompli
cat
edr e
We c
ti
o no bj
ectwhichi smo r
eo rless
impossi
bl
et ocal
cula
teandpredi
ctprecise
ly
.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 15

Fi
gur
eRP6:ReEe
ct
ionofra
diowa v
es.
ea ng
leofi
nci
dencei
salwa
yse
qualto
t
heang
leo
freE
ect
io
n.Ame t
a lp
arabo
licsu
rfa
ceuse
sthi
se>ec
ttoco
nce
ntr
ate
r
adi
owa v
essp
readoutove
ri ti
nac o
mmo ndir
ect
io
n.

Wes houl
da ls
oa ddt hatpo l
ar i
zat
ionha sa nimpact:waveso
fdi1er
ent
pol
ari
zat
ioningeneralwi l
lber eWec
teddi1erent
ly
.
Weus ereWe
cti
ont oo uradv a
nt ag
eina ntennabuil
ding:e.
g.weputhuge
par
abola
sbehindo urr adi
ot r
a nsmit
ter
/rec
e i
vertocoll
ectandbundl
ethe
ra
diosi
gnalint
oas inglepoint,thefoca
lpo int
.

Diffraction
Di1racti
oni sthea ppare
ntbe ndi ngo fwa veswhe nhi tti
nga no bje
ct.
Itisthee1ec tof wavesgoinga roundc orne rs
.Ima gineawa v eonwa ter
tra
veli
ngi nas trai
ghtwa vefront ,justli
k eawa vetha twes eeroll
ingonto
ano cea
nbe ach.
No w weputas o l
idba r
ri
er,s a
yawo odens o l
idf e
nc e,initswa ytoblo c
k
it
.Wec utana rr
o ws l
itopeningi ntot hatwa ll
,li
k eas ma l
ldo o
r.
Fromt hisope ning,ac i
rcularwa v
ewi l
lstart,andi twi l
lo fcoursere
a c
h
point
st hatareno tinadi rectlinebe hindt hiso pening,buta l
soo ne i
ther
si
deo fit.Ify oulooka tthiswa vefr
ont-a ndi tmi ghtj ustaswe llbean
ele
ctr
o magneticwa ve-a sabe am( astrai
g htline),itwo uldbeha rdto
expla
inho wi tcanr ea
chpo intstha tshouldbehi ddenb yaba r
rier
.
Whe nmo del
leda sawa vefr
o nt,thephe no me nonma kessense.
16 PHYSICS

Fi
gur
eRP7:Di
>ra
cti
ont
hro
ughana
rro
wsl
it
.

$eHuy ge nsPri
ncipl
eprovi
deso nemo delforunders
tandi
ngthi
sbehav
ior
.
Imagi
ne t hatata ny gi
veninstant,every poi
nto n a wave
fro
ntcan be
cons
ideredt hes
tar
ti
ngpo i
ntforas phe
ric
alwavel
et
.
$i si dea wa slat
e rext
endedb y Fre
snel,and whe the
ri tadeq
uate
ly
desc
ribesthepheno menonissti
llama tte
ro fdebat
e.Butforourpur
poses
,
theHuy gensmo deldesc
ri
besthee 1ectquit
ewe ll
.

Fi
gur
eRP8:eHu
yge
nsPr
inc
ipl
e.

$rough mea
nsofthee1ec
tofdi1r
act
ion,wav
eswi
ll
benda
round
c
orner
sorspr
eadt
hro
ughanope
ningi
naba r
ri
er
.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 17

$ewa ve
lengt
hso fvis
ibl
elightarefartoosmal
lforhuma nstoo bs
erve
thi
se1ectdir
ect
ly.
Microwave
s,with awa v
ele
ng t
ho fsever
alcenti
me t
ers,willshowt he
e1ec
tso fdi1r
acti
on whe nwa veshitwall
s,mounta
in pea
k s
,ando ther
obst
acl
es.Itseemsa siftheo bstr
ucti
onc a
use
sthewa vet ochangei t
s
dir
ect
ionandg oaroundc or
ners.

Fi
gur
eRP9:Di
>ra
cti
ono
veramo
unt
aint
op.

No t
ethatdi1ra
cti
onc omesa tthec os
to fpowe
r:thee ner
gyo ft
he
di1r
act
edwaveissi
gni0c
antlyle
ssthanthatoft
hewavef
rontthatc
aus
ed
it
.Butinsomev er
yspeci0cappl
icat
ions
,youcantak
ea dvant
ageoft
he
di1r
act
ione
1e c
ttocir
cumv e
ntobsta
cle
s.

Interference
Interf
erenceisoneo fthemo stmis
unde r
st
oo dt e
rmsa ndphe nonemai n
wirele
ssne t
wo r
king.
Interf
erenceofte
ng e
tsthebl a
mewhe nwea r
et ool az
yt o0ndt hereal
problem,o rwhenar e
gulatorwant
stos hutdowns omeonee l
se'
snet
wo rk
forbusinessrea
sons.So,whya l
lthemisunderst
andings?
Itismo stl
ybecausedi1ere
ntpe opl
eme andi1erentthingsthoughtheyare
usingthes amewo r
d.
A phy s
icis
ta nd a t el
ecommunicat
ions engineer willus ethe wo rd
"Inter
ference"inv er
y di 1er
ent ways. $e phy s
icis
ts
'v i
ew willbe
concerned wi t
ht he " behavi
our of waves".$e t e
lec
o mmunicat
ions
eng i
neerwillt
alkabout .
..anynois
ethatgetsinthewa y.
18 PHYSICS

Bothv i
ewsa r
erel
eva
ntinwi re
les
s,anditi
simport
anttobea bl
etoknow
them bot
ha ndknowt hedi1er
ence.Le
tusstar
twit
hthephy s
ici
st
s'v
iew:
Whe nwo r
kingwithwa ve
s,oneplusonedoesnotnec
ess
ari
lyequalt
wo.I
t
canalsore
sulti
nzero.

Fi
gur
eRP10:Co
nst
ruc
ti
vea
ndd
est
ruc
ti
vei
nte
rf
er
enc
e.

$i sise a
sytounderstandwhe nyoudr awt wosinewa vesanda ddupt he
amplit
ude s
.Whe nt hepha s
edi 1ere
ncei szer
o ,pe a
khi t
spe ak,andy ou
willhavema xi
mum re s
ul t
s(1+1=2) .
$i siscall
edcons
tr
u c
tiveinte
rfer
ence.
Whe nt hepha s
edi1e r
e nceis180de g
rees,or/ 2,pe a
khi tsvall
ey,and
you wi l
lha vec omple teannihilat
ion( (1+( -)1 = 0) -d est
ruc
ti
ve
inte
rfe
rence
.
Youc ana c
tual
lytr
ythiswi thwa vesonwa terandt wolit
tlesti
ckstocreat
e
cir
cularwaves-youwi llseethatwhe r
et wowa vescross
,therewillbearea
s
ofhi g
he rwavepeaksa ndo thersthatr e
ma i
na lmo stWata ndc al
m.I n
orderf orwho l
etrainso fwa ve
st oa dd up o rc ance
le acho therout
perfe
ctly
,theyhavetoha vethee xactsamewa velengthanda0x edpha s
e
rel
ati
on.

Youc anseeob v
iousexample
sofinte
rfe
renc
eina ct
ionwhenyoul o
oka t
thewa ythatante
nnasarearr
ange
dinwha tarecal
ledbea
mfo
rmingarra
y s
,
i
no rdertog iv
ema xi
mum c o
nstr
ucti
veinter
fer
enceinthedi r
ect
ions
wherey ouwantt hesi
gnal
,anddestr
ucti
veint
erf
erenc
e(nosi
gnal)where
youwa ntnosignal.
Technica
ll
y,thisisachi
evedbyac ombinat
ionofphy s
ic
aldi
me nsi
oni
ng
andc ont
rolofpha s
eshi
fts
.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 19

Simpl i0e d,ima ginet haty ouha vet hreea nt ennas-a ndy o udo n'twa nt
antenna3t opi ckups i
gna lf r
o ma nt enna1a nd2.Y o uwo uldthe npl ace
antenna3a tapo si
tionwhe ret hes igna lsf ro ma nt enna s1a nd2c ancel
eacho the rout.
No wl e tusha veal ooka tt hewa yt hewo rdi nterferenc eist ypic
a l
lyus ed:
inawi de rsense,f oranydi st
urba nc et hro ug ho t
he rRFs ources,anyno ise
thatmi g htg etino urwa y,e .g.f rom ne ig hbo ri
ngc ha nnelso rco mpe ti
ng
prov i
de rs.S o ,whe n wi relessne two rke rst alka bo uti nterfere
nc et he y
typicallyt alka bo uta l
lt hes ek i
ndso fdi stur ba nceb yo therne t
wo r
k s
,a nd
anyo t he rsourc esofmi crowa ve,whe theri tha se xactlyt hes amef requenc y
anda0x e dpha ser el
a ti
o no rno t.I nte r
fe renc eo ft hisk i
ndi so neo fthe
ma ins o ur ce
so fdi Nc ultyi nbui ldingwi re l
e sslink s,e speciall
yi nur ba n
env i
ronme ntso rc loseds pa ces( suc ha sac onf er
enc es pace)whe rema ny
netwo rk sma yc ompe tef orus eo ft hes pec trum.
But ,int erfer
enceo fthi sk indi sa lsoo ft
e no ve rr
ated:f o rexampl e,ima gine
youha dt obui l
dapo i
ntt opo intl i
nkt ha tha st oc rossac rowde dinne rcity
area,be fo rereachingi tst arg e
to nt heo the rs ideo ft hec i
ty.S uchahi ghly
direct
io na lbeam wi l
lc rosst he" electrics mo g"o ftheur banc entr
ewi tho ut
anypr o blem. Yo uma yima g inethisl ikeag ree na ndar e dl i
ghtbe amc rossi
ng
eacho t heri na90de g reesa ngle:whi lebo thbe amswi llo v
erlapinac ertain
area,theo newi llno tha vea nyi mpa cto nt heo therata ll.
Ge nerally,ma naging s pectrum a nd c oexistenc eha sbe comeama ini ssue
especi
a llyinde nsei ndo ore nv i
ronme ntsa ndur bana reas.

Line of sight
$e term li
neofsi
ght,of
tenabbre
via
teda sLOS,isq
uit
ee as
yt o
under
st
andwhent
alk
ingabo
utvis
ibl
elig
ht:i
fwecanse
eapoi
ntBf r
om
poi
ntAwhe r
ewear
e,wehavel
ineofsi
ght.S
impl
ydra
wali
nefro
m At o
B,andifno
thi
ngi
sinthewa
y,wehaveli
neofsi
ght
.

$i ngsg etabitmo recomplicat

edwhe nwea redeal
ingwithmicro
waves
.
Reme mbe rthatmo stpropa
g a
tio
nc har
a ct
eri
st
ic
so fel
ect
romagne
ti
cwa v
es
sca
lewi ththei
rwa vel
ength.
$i sisa l
sothec a
seforthewideningofwa ve
sastheytr
avel
.
Lightha sawa vele
ngtho fabout0.5mi cr
ome t
res
,mi c
rowav
esasusedin
wirel
essne t
wo r
kinghaveawa vel
engtho fafewcenti
metre
s.
Conseq uentl
y,thei
rbe a
msa real otwider-theyneedmo respa
ce,soto
speak
.
20 PHYSICS

No tethatv i
s i
blelig
htbe amswi denj ustthes a
me ,a ndify ouletthem
trav
ellonge no ugh,youc a
ns e
ether e
sultsdespi
tetheirshortwavel
engt
h.
Whe npo intingawe l
lfocussedlas
eratt hemo on,itsbe a
m wi l
lwidento
we l
lover100me tr
esinradiusb ythetimei treac
he sthesurfa
ce.Youcan
seethise1ectf oryours
el
fus i
ngani nexpensi
velas
erpo i
nterandapa i
rof
binocula
rso nac l
earnight.Ratherthanpo i
ntinga tthemo o
n,po i
ntata
dist
antmo untaino runo ccupi
eds t
ructure(sucha sawa tertower
).$e
radi
uso fy ourbe am wil
linc r
easeasthedi s
tanceincreas
es.$i sisdueto
thedi1ract
ion.

$el ineo fs ightt hatwene edi no rdert o havea no pti

ma lwi rele
ss
conne cti
onfrom At oBi smo retha nj ustat hinli
ne-i tsshapei smo re
l
iket hatofac igar,ane ll
ipsoi
d.I t
swi dt hc a
nbede sc
ribe
db yt hec oncept
ofF resnelzones-s eenex tsecti
onf o
ra ne xpla
nati
on.Y ouwi l
la l
so0nd
thea bbrevi
at
io nNLOS ,for" nonl ineo fsi
ght",whichismo st
lyus edt o
descri
bea nda dv er
tisetechnologiestha ta l
l
owf ordea
lingwi t
hwa vesthat
rea
c ht herec
e i
v erthroughmul ti
plet raj
e ct
ori
e s(mult
ipath)ordi 1ract
ion.
Itdo esno tindi ca
tet hatt hes i
nglee lectr
oma gneti
cbe amg o
e s"around
corners"(ot
he rthant hroug hdi1raction)o r"througho bs
tacl
es"a nybe tt
er
thant hatofo thert e
chnolo gi
es.Fore xampl e,youmi ghtc a
llWhi t
eS pace
tec
hno logyNLOS ,asitslowe rfre
q uencies(longerwavele
ng t
hs)a l
lowi tto
perme ateobj
e ctsandut il
izedi 1ra
c ti
onmuc hb ett
erthanc ompa ra
ble2. 4
GHzo r5GHzt ransmiss
io ns
.

Understanding t h e F r e s n e l zone
$ee xactt heo ryo fFr e
snel( pro nounced Fra
y-nel
l
)z onesi sq uit
e
compl i
c at
ed.Ho wever,thec oncepti squiteeasytounder s
tand:wek now
fromt heHuy ge nspr i
nc i
plethata te a
chpo intofawa v
efrontnewc i
rcular
wa vess t
art,wek no wt hatmi cro wavebe amswi dena st heyl ea
vet he
antenna ,wek no wt ha twa ve
so fo nefr e
quencycanint er
ferewi t
he a
ch
other.Fresnelzo net heorysimplyl oo ksatal i
nefrom At oB,a ndthe na t
thes pacea r
oundt ha tli
net hatco ntri
butestowha tisar
rivingatpo intB.
Somewa v
estrave ldir
e c
tlyfrom At oB,whi leothe
rstr
avelonpa thso1a xis
andr ea
c hther eceive
rb yreWecti
on.
Co nsequentl
y,t heirpa thisl onger,introduci
ngapha ses hi
ftbet we
ent he
dir
e c
tandi ndirectbe am.
Whe ne verthepha ses hif
ti so neha lfwa vel
engt
h,youg etde st
ruc t
iv
e
inter
ference:thes i
gnalscancel.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 21

Taki
ngthisappr
oachyou0ndt ha
twhenthereWe
c t
edpa t
hi sl
essthanhal
f
awa v
ele
ngthlongert
hant hedir
ectpat
h,thereWect
ionswi l
laddt othe
re
cei
vedsignal
.Co nv
erse
ly
,whe nthereWect
edpa t
hl engthe xc
eedsthe
di
rec
tpa thb ymo rethano ne hal
fwa v
ele
ngt
h,i tsc ontr
ibut
ion wil
l
dec
reas
etherece
ive
dpo wer
.

Fi
gur
eRP11:eFr
es
nelz
oneispa
rti
al
lyb
loc
kedonthi
sli
nk,a
lt
hou
ght
he
v
is
uall
ineofs
ig
htapp
ear
scle
ar.

No tet hatt herea rema nypo ssi

bleFresnelzone s,butwea rec hieWy
conc e
rnedwi t
ht he0r s
tz one,becausethecontributionsfromt hesec ond
zonea rene gati
ve.$ec ontri
butionsfromt het hir
dz onea r
epo siti
ve
again,butt hereisnopr actic
alwa ytotakeadvanta geoftho sewit
houtt he
pena l
tyinc urr
edi ng oingt hro
ug hthesecondFresne lZone.
Ifthe0r stFresnelzo neispa rt
ia
llyblockedbyano bstr
uctio
n,e .g
.at r
e eor
abui l
ding ,thesigna larri
v i
nga tthefarendwo ul dbedi mi nis
hed.Whe n
buildi
ngwi rel
esslink s
,wet her
eforeneedt obes ur ethatthe0r s
tzonei s
keptf r
eeo fobstructions.I npracti
ce,itisnotst r
ictl
yne cessa
rythatt he
who leo fthisz onei sc l
ear,inwi r
eles
sne t
wo r
kingwea imt oclea
ra bout
60pe rcento fther adiuso fthe0rstFres
nelzone.

He
rei
sonef
ormul
afo
rca
lcul
at
ingt
her
adi
uso
fthe0r
stFr
esne
lzo
ne:

r =17.31 (
(d 1d 2)
( f d )
)

.
..
wher
eristheradi
usofthez
o nei
nme t
res
,d1andd2aredi
st
ance
sfrom
t
heobst
acl
etotheli
nkendpointsi
nme t
res
,disthet
ota
lli
nkdis
tanc
ein
met
res
,andfisthef
req
uencyi
nMHz .
22 PHYSICS

$e0r s
tFre
snelz
oner
adi
usc
ana
ls
obec
alc
ula
ted di
re
ctl
yfr
omt
he
wa
vel
engt
has:

wi
tha
llt
h

r= (

ev
ari
abl
e
d 1d 2

si
d
nme
tr
es
)

Itisa pparentt hatthema x

imum v a
lueo fthe0rstFres
nelzoneha ppens
exactl
yi nt hemi ddleo fthetra j
ect
orya nditsval
uec a
nbef ounds et
ti
ng
d1=d2=d/2i nt hepr ec
edingf or
mul as
.No tethatt
hef o
rmulaegiveyouthe
radiuso fthez one,notthehe i
g htaboveg r
ound.
Toc alcula
tet hehe i
ghtabo v
eg round,yo une e
dtosubtra
cttheresul
tfrom
alinedr awndi rect
lybetwe e
nt hetopso fthetwotowers.
Fore xampl e,let
scalc
ulatethes i
zeo ft
he0r stFres
nelzoneinthemi ddle
ofa2k ml i
nk ,tr
ansmitti
nga t2.437GHz( 802.11bchannel6):

r=17.31 [
(10001000)
(24372000)
]

r=17.31 (
1000000
4874000
)

r=7.
84me
tre
s

Assumi
ngbo thofourtowerswe r
et en met
rest
al
l,the0rs
tFres
nelzo
ne
wouldpas
sjust2.
16metr
esabov
eg roundlev
eli
nthemiddl
eofthel
ink
.
Buthowta l
lcoul
dast
ruct
ureatthatpoi
ntbetobloc
knomo ret
han60%o f
the0rs
tzone?

r=0.
6*7.
84met
re
s
r=4.
70me
tre
s

Subtr
acti
ngther es
ultfr
om 10me t
res
,wec anseethatast
ructure5.
3
metre
st al
latthecentr
eo ftheli
nkwo ul
dblockupto40% o fthe0rst
Fre
snelzone.
$i sisnormal
lyaccept
abl
e,buttoimpr o
vethesi
tua
tio
nwewo uldnee
d
topositi
onourantenna
shigherup,orchang
ethedir
ect
iono
ft helinkt
o
avoi
dt heobs
tacl
e.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 23

Power
Anye l
ect
romagneti
cwa vecar
ri
esenergy-wecanfeelt
hatwhenwee nj
oy
(ors
u1erf r
om)thewa rmthofthesun.
$ea mo untofenergydivi
dedb yt
het i
meduringwhic
hweme as
ureitis
cal
le
d po wer
.$epo werP isme asure
di nW ( wat
ts
)a nd i
so fk e
y
import
ancef o
rawi rel
essli
nkst owo rk
:youne e
dac e
rtai
n mini
mum
powerino r
derfo
rar ece
ive
rtoma kesenseo
fthesi
gnal
.

Wewil
lcomebacktodet
ail
softr
ans
miss
ionpowe
r,los
ses
,g a
insa
nd
r
adi
ose
nsi
ti
vi
tyi
nthec
hapt
ercal
l
edAnt
enna
s/
Tra
nsmi
ss
io
nLines.

Herewewillbri
eWydis
cusshowt hepowerPi sde0ne
dandme a
sure
d.
$ee le
ctr
ic0e l
disme asure
di nV/ m( pot
entia
ldi1er
encepermetr
e),t
he
po
we rc
ontaine
dwi t
hinitispro
po r
ti
onaltothesquar
eoftheel
ect
ri
c0el
d:

P~E2

Pract
ica
ll
y,weme asur
et hepowerinwattsb yme anso
fs o
mef ormo f
rece
iver
,e.g.ana nte
nnaa nd avolt
metre
,po we rmetr
e,o s
ci
ll
osc
ope,
spect
rum ana
lys
erorevenaradi
ocardandlaptop
.
Lookingatthesig
nal
spowerdir
ect
lymeanslookingatt
hesquareofthe
sig
nalinvolt
sanddivi
dingbytheel
ect
ri
calr
e s
is
tance.

Ca
lcul
at
ingwi
thdB

Byfart
hemo s
timpor
tantt
echniq
uewhe ncal
culat
ingpoweri
scal
cul
at
ing
wit
hdecibe
ls(dB)
.$e rei
snone w physi
cshiddeninthis-iti
sjusta
co
nveni
entmethodwhi
chma kesca
lcul
at
ionsalotsimpl
er
.

$ede c
ibe
lisadime
nsi
onle
ssunit
,thatis,itde0ne
sar
el
at
ions
hip
be
twe
entwomea
sur
eme
ntsofpowe
r.I
tisde0nedby:

d
B=10*Lo
g(P1/P0)

wher
eP1 and P0 can bewhate
vertwoval
uesy o
uwa nttocompar
e.
Typi
cal
l
y,i
no urca
se,t
hiswil
lbesomeamo
unto fpowe
r.
Whya r
edeci
belss
ohandytouse?Manyphenomenainnat
ureha
ppe
nt o
be
haveinawa ywecal
lexpo
nenti
al
.
24 PHYSICS

Fore
xample
,thehuma
nears
ensesaso
undtobet
wic
easl
ouda
sano
the
r
onei
fitha
stenti
mest
hephy
sic
alsi
gnalpo
wer
.

Anothe
re xa
mple,q ui
teclos
et oo ur0el
do finter
est
,isa
bsor
pti
on.
Suppos
eawa lli
sinthepathofo urwire
les
sli
nk,andeachme
treo
fwa l
l
t
akesawayhal
foftheavai
la
blesi
gnal.$er e
sul
twouldbe:

0me
tr
es=1(f
ulls
ig
nal
)
1me
tr
e=1/2
2me
tr
es=1/
4
3me
tr
es=1/
8
4me
tr
es=1/
16
nme
tr
es=1/
2n=2-n

$i
sise
xpo
nent
ia
lbe
hav
iour
.

Butoncewehav
euse dthet
ric
ko fappl
yi
ngthelog
ari
thm (
log
),t
hing
s
bec
omeal o
teas
ie
r:inst
eadofta
kingavaluet
othen-thpower
,wejus
t
mult
ipl
ybyn.I
nst
eado fmul
ti
ply
ingval
ues
,wejus
tadd.

He
rea
res
omec
ommo
nlyus
edv
alue
stha
tar
eimpo
rta
ntt
ore
membe
r:

+3dB=d
oublepower
-
3dB=hal
fthepower
+10dB=o
rderofmagni
tude(
10t
ime
spo
wer
)
-10dB=o
net e
nthpower

Inaddi
ti
ont
odimens
ionl
essdB,t
her
ear
eanumberofde0ni
ti
onstha
tar
e
bas
edonacer
tai
nbas
ev a
lueP0.$emostr
el
eva
ntonesf
orusare
:

d
Bm r
el
at
ivetoP0=1mW
d
Bir
el
ati
vetoanid
eali
so
tro
pica
nte
nna

An i
sot
ropicant
ennaisahy
pot
het
ic
ala
nte
nnat
hate
venl
ydi
st
ri
but
es
po
werinalldi
rec
ti
ons
.

Iti
sa ppr
oxi
ma t
edb yadipol
e,butaper
fec
tis
otr
opi
cante
nnacanno
tbe
bui
ltinr e
ali
ty
.$ei s
otr
opicmodeli
susef
ulforde
scr
ibi
ngtherel
at
iv
e
powergai
no farea
lworldante
nna.
 1. RADIO PHYSICS 25

Anot
hercommo
n( al
thoug
hl e
ssco
nve
nie
nt)co
nve
nti
onforexpr
ess
ing
poweri
sin mi
ll
iwa
tts.Herearee
qui
val
entpo
werle
vel
sexpr
ess
edi n
mil
li
wat
tsa
nddBm:

1mW = 0d
Bm
2mW = 3d
Bm
100mW =20dBm
1W =30dBm

Formo r
edeta
ilsondBr e
fert ot
hedBmathlec
tur
eoftheWir
eles
s
Traini
ngk i
t:
http:/
/wtki
t.
org/s
andbox/
groups/
wtki
t/
wik
i/8
20cb/
att
achme
nts
/ebda
c/02
-dB_Ma th-
v1.12_wit
h-not
es.pdf

Physics in the real world

Don
t wo rryi ft he c onceptsin t hisc hapte
rs eem c hall
eng
ing.
Understa
nding ho w ra dio wa ve
s propagat
ea nd int
e r
act witht he
envi
ronme ntisac omplex0e ldo fs
tudyinitse
lf
.
Mo s
tpe ople0ndi tdiNc ulttounde rs
tandphe nomenont hattheycan
t
eve
ns eewitht hei
ro wne yes.
Byno wy o us houldunde r
sta
ndt hatradiowa v
e sdon
ttravelonl
yina
st
rai
ght,predi
c ta
blepath.
Toma kereli
ablec ommuni catio
nne tworks
,y ouwi l
lneedt obea bl
et o
cal
cul
a t
eho wmuc hpowe risneededtocrossagivendis
tance,andpre
dict
howt hewa ve
swi llt
rav
e lalongthewa y.
26 PHYSICS

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

$epur po s
eo fanyt e
le communi cationssyste
mi st otransferi nf
orma ti
on
fromt hes e
nde rtot her eceiverb yame a
nso fac ommuni cationc h
a nnel
.
$ei nfor
ma tioni sc arri
edb yas i
g nal,whichi sc er
tainphy si
calq uantit
y
tha tchang eswi tht i
me .$es ignalc anbeav o l
ta
g epr oportionalt othe
ampl itudeo fthev o i
ce,l i
k einas impl etel
epho ne,as equenc eo fpulsesof
l
ig htina no pt i
cal0br e,o rar adio-e l
ectr
icwa vei r
radiat
edb ya nant e
nna .
Fo ra nalogs i
gnals,t he s
ev aria
tionsa redirectlypr oportionalt os ome
phy s
icalv a
riablelik es ound,l ight,t emperature,wi nd s peed,e tc.$e
info r
ma ti
o nc analsobet ransmi tte
db ydigit
albi nar
ys ignals
,t hatwi l
lhave
onl yt wov al
ue s,adi gitalonea ndadi gi
talzer
o .Anya nalogs ignalcanbe
co nvertedint oadi gitals i
gna lb ya ppropri
atel
ys a
mp li
nga ndt henc oding
it.$es ampl ingfreq uenc ymus tbea tleas
ttwic ethema xi
mum f requency
pre se
nti nt hes ignali no rde rtoc arrya l
lt hei nforma ti
o nc ontained
the re
in.Ra ndo ms ignalsa ret heo ne sthata r
eunpr edict
ablea ndc anbe
de scri
bedo nlyb ys ta
t i
sti
c alme ans.No i
seisat ypicalr ando ms ignal,
de scri
bedb yi tsme anpo wera ndf re
q uencydistri
bution.As i
gnalc anbe
cha racte
rise
db yitsbe ha viouro vert imeo rb yi tsfrequencyc ompo nents,
whi chc onst
ituteit ss pectrum.S o mee xa
mpl eso fs i
gnalsa r
es ho wni n
Fig ureTB1.

Fi
gur
eTB1:Ex
amp
leso
fsi
gna
ls

Anyperiodi
cs i
gnalisco
mpo s
edofma nysi
nusoida
lcomponents
,allofthem
multi
ple
so fthefundament
alfr
equency
,whic
hi sthei
nvers
eo ft
heperiodo f
t
hes i
gnal
.S oas i
gnalca
nbec har
acte
ri
sedei
therbyagrapho fi
tsamplit
ude
overt
ime,call
edawa vef
orm,oragraphofoftheampli
tudesofit
sfre
q uenc
y
components
,c a
lle
das pe
ctr
um.
Fig
ureTB2:Wa vef
orms,Sp
ectr
uma ndClte
rs
 2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 27

FigureTB2s howsho wt hesames i

g nalca nbes ee
nf romt wodi 1er
ent
perspect
ives.$ewa vef
ormc anbedi spl
aye dbya ninstr
ume ntc al
l
eda n
oscil
losc
ope ,whi l
et hes pect
rum can bedi spl
ayedb ywha ti sc a
ll
eda
Spec t
rum Ana l
yzer
.$e s pect
rum di s
tr
ibutio
nr el
aysv e
ryi mport
ant
inf
o rmati
o naboutt hesignalanda l
lowsf ortheintui
tiv
eunde rsta
ndingof
thec oncepto f0lteri
ngo felec
tri
calsignals.Inthee xamples hown,the
sig
na lisforme db yt hesuperposi
ti
ono fthreesinusoi
dalcompo nentsof
fre
q uencyf1, f
2a ndf 3.Ifwepa ssthiss i
g nalt
hroughade vi
c ethatwil
l
remo vef2 a
n df3,theo ut
pu ti
s apuresinuso i
dala
t fr
equencyf1.

Wec a
llt hisope r
ation Low Pa ss0l teringbe c ausei tr emove sthe
highe rfrequenc i
es.Conv ersely
,wec ana pplyt hes igna lt oa High
Pa s
sFi l
ter,a de vicet ha twi llr emo vef 1 and f
2 leav ing only a
sinusoidals ignala tt he f 3 fr
eq uency . Ot her c
o mb in a
tions ar
e
pos si
ble,g ivi
ngr is
et oav a r
ietyof0l te rs
.Nophy sicalde v
icec an
transmi ta l
lthei n0ni t
ef requenc i
e soft her adio- e
lectrics pectrum,
soe v
er yde vi
cewi lla l
wa yspe rforms omee xtentof0l teri
ngt ot he
signalt ha tg oest hroug hi t
.$ e ba ndwi dth ofa s ignali st he
di1e rencebe tweent hehi ghesta nd t hel owe s tfreque nc yt hati t
cont ai
nsa ndi sexpressedi nHz( numbe rofc yclespe rsec ond).
Whi l
et r
avel
li
ngt hrought hec ommuni ca
tionc ha nne l
,thes ignalissubject
toi nte
rfer
encecause
db yo thersignalsandi salsoa1e ctedb yt hee l
ectri
cal
noisealwayspre s
entina nye l
e c
tri
calo ro pticalcompo nent.I ntr
a-channel
interf
erenceo rig
inat
e sint hes amec hanne la so urs ignal.Co -channel
interf
erenceisduet ot heimpe r
fect
iono ft he0l ter
st hatwi llletins i
gnal
s
froma djacentchannels.
Co nsequently
,ther e
c e
iveds ignalwi l
la l
wa ysbeadi stor
tedr epli
cao fthe
28 PHYSICS

tra
nsmitt
e dsig
nal
,fr
om whichtheorig
inali
nformat
ionmus tbere
tri
eve
d
bya ppropri
atemeanstoc ombatthee 1ec
to fint
e r
fer
enceand nois
e.
Further
mo re,t
herece
ive
ds i
gnalwil
lbes ubj
ecttoatt
enuat
ionandd e
lay
thatinc
reasewit
hthedis
tanc
ebe t
weenthetr
ansmit
terandtherec
eiv
er.

Fi
gur
eTB3:At
te
nua
tio
nan
dde
lay

Althoughitisrel
at
ivel
ysimpletorest
oretheamplitudeofsi
gnalbyme ans
ofa ne lect
ri
cala mpli
Cer,thec omponentso fthea mpli0erwilladd
addit
ionalnois
etot hesi
gnal
,soa tverylongdis
tanceswheretherec
eiv
e d
si
gnalisf e
eble
,thea mpli
0erwillproduceas i
gnals ogar
bledwithnoise
t
ha tt
hei nfo
rmationori
ginal
l
ytransmitte
dwi l
lnolo nge
rber e
tri
eva
ble.

Onewa yt oa ddre
s st
hisprobl
emc o
nsist
sinc onvert
ingthec ontinuous
quantitycarryi
ngt heinf
ormati
oni nt
oas equenceo fver
ys impl es y
mb ol
s
whichc anbee as
iertorecog
niseevenatg r
eatdist
ance.Fori nstance,the
Wago fas hi
pi saco nv
enie
ntwa ytodist
ingui
shthena t
ional
ityo ft heship
eve
na tdist
ancesatwhichthelet
ter
so nthehullcannotberead.
$i st echnique hasbe ene xt
endedt oc ar
ryg eneral
is
ed me ssagesb y
as
signingdi 1er
entpo s
iti
ono fWagstoev e
rylett
ero fthealpha bet,ina n
ear
lyf ormo flongdista
ncet e
lec
ommuni cat
ionsb yme anso fd i
g i
talor
nume r
icsignals
.
$el imi t
ati
o nofthismethodisobvious
;tobea bletodist
inguisha mong,
 2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 29

say
,26s ymbo lsc orr
e spondingt oeac hlett
e r
so fthealphabe t
,o nemus tbe
quitecloset ot hec ommuni cat
ingshi p.
Ont heo the rha nd,i fwec o deeachl ett
ero fthea l
phabetinas equenceo f
onlyt wos y mb o l
s,the s
es ymb ol
sc an bedi st
inguis
he da tmuc hl onger
dis
tanc e,fore x amplet hedo tandda sheso ftheteleg
raphs ystem.
$e pr ocesso ft ra nsfor
mi ng a c ontinuous a nalogs i
gna li nt
oa
dis
c onti
nuo usdi g i
talo nei scall
edAna logtoDi gi
talCo nv e
rsion( ADC) ,
andc onv erselywemus thav eaDi gitaltoAna logCo nverter(DAC)a tt he
rec
e i
v i
nge ndt or etri
e vetheo ri
ginalinforma t
ion.
$i si st her eason whymo stmo dernt elec
ommuni cat
io ns ys
temsus e
digit
albi narys i
g nal
st oc o
nv eyallsortso finformati
o ninamo rer obust
way.$er ec eivermus to nl
ydi st
inguishbe tweent wopo ssibl
es ymbo l
s,o r
ino therwo rdsbe t
we e ntwopo ssi
blev alueso fther ecei
v e
db i
t( binary
digit
).Fo ri ns tance,t heCD ha sr eplac
edt hev inylrecor
d,a nda nal
o g
ue
tel
evisi
oni sb eingr epla c
edb ydigitaltel
evisi
on.Di git
alsignalscanus eless
bandwi dth,a se x
empl i
0edb yt he digit
ald ivi
dend c urrentl
y be i
ng
harnessedi nma nyc ount ri
eswhi chc onsi
stsinba ndwidtht hathasbe come
avail
ablet ha nk st ot het ransi
ti
onf roma na l
ogt odi gi
talt r
ansmissio
ni n
TVbr oadc asting.
Althoug hi nt hepr o ces
so fconv ert
ing from a na nal
o gt o a di gi
t a
l
inf
o r
ma tions ystemt herei sa l
wayss omel osso fi nfor
ma tion,wec an
engineert hes y s
tems oa stoma kethislossne gl
igi
ble.

Fi
gur
eTB4:Und
ers
amp
ledI
mag
e

Forex
ample,i
nadigi
talc
amer
awec ancho
oset
henumbero
fbit
suse
dt o
re
cor
dtheimage
.
$eg re
ate
rthenumberofbi
ts(pr
opo
rti
ona
ltothea
mountofmeg
api
xel
s)
,
30 PHYSICS

t
hebe t
tertherender
ing,butmo r
eme morywil
lbeuseda ndlongerti
met o
t
rans
mitthei magewillbeneeded.
S
omo stmo der
nc ommuni c
ationsyst
emsdealwit
hdi g
italsi
gnal
s,al
though
t
heo r
igi
nalvari
ablethatwewa nttotra
nsmitmig
htbea nalo
g,li
kethevoic
e.
I
tc a
nbes hownt hatanyana l
ogs i
gna
lcanber eco
nst
r uc
tedfrom dis
cre
te
s
amplesifthesamplingrat
eisa tle
asttwi
ceashig
ha sthehighe
stfre
quency
c
ontentofthesignal
.

Fi
gur
eTB5:d
ete
ct
io
nofano
is
ysi
gna
l

$e
nea
chs
ampl
eisc
ode
dina
sma
nybi
tsa
sne
ces
sar
ytoa
chi
evet
hede
si
re
d
 2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 31

a
mountofprec
is
ion.
$esebit
scannowbee Ncient
lys
tor
edo rtr
ansmit
ted,s
incef
ortherec
ove
ry
o
ftheinfor
mati
ono neneedst
odist
ingui
shamo ngonlytwost
ates
,andnot
a
mongthein0nit
enuance
so fa
nanal
o gsi
gnal
.

$i sisshowni nFigureTB5,whe retheo ri

ginalda t
ac onsis
tso fthe010
1110s e
q uence
.$e0' sarerepres
enteda szerov olt
sa ndt he1' sas1V.
Ast hesi
gna lmovestowardsther e
ceiv
er,itsampl it
udewi lldimi nis
h.$i s
e1ectiscalled"att
enuati
on"a ndi sshowni nt he0g ure.Likewi se,ther
e
willals
obeade l
aya sthes ignalmo v e
sf ro
mt het ra
nsmi ttert othe
rece
iver
,thev ari
abi
lit
yi nthede la
yo ft her e
ceiveds i
gnalisc alledjitt
er.
Attenua
tion,no i
seo rji
tt
er( ortheircombi nat
io n)ifseveree no ugh,can
causea de tect
ione rr
or.An a mpli0erc an be us edt oo v
erc ome the
att
enuati
on,b utthee l
ect
rica
lno is
ea l
wa yspresenti nthes yst
em wi l
ladd
t
ot hereceivedsi
gnal.

$eno isyreceive
ds i
gnali sthere
foreq ui
tedi 1e
rentfromt heo r
igi
nal
s
ignal,buti n a di g
itals yst
em wec a
ns t
il
lr ec
o ve
rt hei nf
ormati
on
contai
ne db ys ampl i
ng t he recei
veds ignala tthe co r
recttime and
comparing thev aluea tt hes ampling t i
mewi t
h as uitabl
et hre
shol
d
volt
age.Inthise x
a mplet heno isereceivedsignalhasape ako f1.8V,so
wemi g htchooseet hres
ho l
dv olt
ageo f1.1V.I ft herecei
veds i
gnalis
abovethethreshold,thede te
ctorwillo utputadi g
ita
l1,o ther
wise,i
twill
outputa0.I nt hi
sc a
sewec ans eetha tbecauseofthee 1ectofthenoise
t
he0f thbitwase r
r oneouslyde t
ecte
da saz er
o.

Trans
mi ssi
o nerro r
sc ana l
soo ccurifthesampli
ngsig
nalpe ri
odi sdi1er
ent
fro
mt hato ft heo rigi
nalda t
a( di1ere
ncei ntheclockr at
es),ori fthe
rece
ive
rc lockisno ts tabl
ee noug h(ji
tte
r).
Anyphy s
icalsys t
em wi llha vea nuppe rlimitinthefreq
ue nci
est hatwil
l
tra
nsmitf ait
hfully( theba ndwi dtho fthesyste
m),higherfrequencieswil
l
beblock e
d,s ot hea bruptr iseandf al
lo ft
hev ol
ta
gewi l
lbes mo ot
he dout
asthesigna lg
oe sthro ught hec hannel.
$e ref
or e
,wemus tma kes uretha teachoftheelementsofthes ys
tem has
enoughba ndwidt ht oha ndl ethes ig
na l
.Ont heo t
herha nd,t heg r
eat
er
thebandwi dtho fther ece
iv ersystem,theg r
eat
ertheamo unto ftheno i
se
thatwilla1ectther ec ei
veds ignal.
32 PHYSICS

Modulation
$er obust
nes
so fthedigi
ta
lsignalisal
soexempl
i0e
db ythefactthati
t
waschose
nf o
rthe0r stt
ri
alsofradiotra
nsmis
si
on.Ma r
conishowedthe
f
easi
bil
it
yoflongdista
ncetr
ansmissi
on,butpr
ett
ysoonreal
is
edthatther
e
wasaneedtosharethemedium amongdi1ere
ntuser
s.

$iswa sachie
vedb yassi
gningdi 1e
rentcarr
ierfr
equenc
ieswhich wer
e
modul
atedbye a
c huser

sme ssag
e.Mo dul
ati
onisas che
met omo dif
ythe
ampli
tud
e,fr
equencyo
rp ha
seo fthecar
rie
raccor
dingwiththeinf
ormati
on
onewantstotransmi
t.$eo ri
ginali
nfor
ma t
ionisre
tri
eve
da tdes
ti
nati
on
bythecorr
espo
ndingdemo dulat
ionoftherece
ivedsi
gnal
.

Fi
gur
eTB6:S
inu
soi
dalCa
rri
erS
igna
l

FigureTB 6s howsac arrie

rs ig
na lwi th AmplitudeA,pha se ,a nd
fre
q ue
ncyf o whichistherecipro
c a
lo fthe peri
odT .
$ec omb inat
iono fdi1erentmo dulatio
ns c
heme shasr es
ult
edi na
pletho
rao fmo dula
tiontechniquesde pendingo nwhi c
ha s
pectonewa nts
too pti
mi s
e :robust
nessagainstno i
se,a mounto finfor
ma t
iontra
nsmitted
pers econd ( capa
cit
yo ft hel ink in bi t
s/se
cond)o rs p
ect
raleMciency
(numbe ro fbits
/sperHe rt
z).
Fori nstanc e
,BPS K- Binary Pha seS hi
ft Keying-i sa v e
ryr obust
mo dula
tiont echniquebutt ransmit
so nlyo nebitpersymbo l
,whil
e256
 2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 33

QAM - Qua t
ernaryAmpl i
tudeMo dul ati
on-wi l
lc a
rry8bi tspersymbol,
thus mul tipl
ying b yaf actoro fe i
ghtt he amo unto fi nfor
mati
on
tra
nsmi tted pers econd,butt oc orrect
lydi s
ti
nguisha mo ngstthe256
symbo lstransmitte
d,t her e
c e
ive
ds i
g nalmus tbev e
rys t
ronga scompar
ed
witht heno is
e( averyhig hS /
N- Si
g nal/
No is
erati
o-isr e
quired)
.
$eul t
imateme as
ureo fq ual
it
yindi git
altra
nsmissionist heBER -Bit
ErrorRa te-whi chc o
rrespondstothef racti
ono ferr
oneouslydecodedbit
s.
Typicalv a
lueso fBERr a
ng ebetween10 a
-3
nd10 .
-
9

$emo dulat
iona lsoa l
lowsust oc hoosewhi chrang eoff re
quencywe
wantt ous ef orag iv
e ntransmiss
ion.Al lfr
equencie
sa r
eno tc r
eat
edequal
andt hec hoiceo fthec a
rrierfr
equenc yisdeter
minedb ylegal,commerci
al
andt echnicalconstra
ints.

Multiplexing and duplexing

I
ng ener
al,thesha
ri
ng o
facha
nne
lamo
ng di
1er
entus
ersi
sca
ll
ed
mul
ti
ple
xing.
$isi
ssho wninFi
gur
eTB7.

Assi
gningdi
1erentcar
ri
erfrequenci
estodi1e
rentuse
rsiscal
le
dFDMA
-Fre
quencyDivi
sio
nMul ti
pleAccess
-.
An a l
ter
nat
iv
et echni
quec onsi
stsina s
si
gni
ng di1er
enttimesl
ot
sto
di1er
entuser
s,in whatisk nown asTDMA - Ti
meDi vi
si
on Mul
ti
ple
Acces
s-,ore v
en di1er
entc ode
si n CDMA - CodeDi vi
si
on Mul
ti
ple
34 PHYSICS

Acces
s-whe r
et hedi 1er
entus er
sarer e
c og
nise
da tt herece
iverb ythe
part
ic
ularmathema ti
calc
o dea s
sig
nedtot hem.SeeFigureTB8.
Byusingtwoo rmo r
eante nnassi
multaneousl
y,onecant a
keadvantageof
thedi1ere
nta mo untoff adingintr
oducedi nthedi 1er
entpathst othe
rec
eiv
eresta
bli
shingadi 1er e
nceamo ngus e
rsinwha tisknowna sSDMA
-SpaceDi vi
si
onMul ti
pleAc cess
-,atechniquee mploye
di ntheMI MO
-Multi
pleInput,
Mul ti
pleOut put-sys
temst hatha veg a
inedpo pul
ari
ty
rec
entl
y.

Fi
gur
eTB8:Me
diu
mSh
ari
ngt
ec
hni
que
s

Mostcommuni
cat
ions
yste
mst ra
nsmi
tinf
ormati
oninbo
thdi
rec
ti
ons,f
or
i
nst
ancefromtheBas
eS tat
iontothesubsc
ri
berinwhati
sc a
ll
edthe
do
wn l
ink
,andf
romthesubsc
ribe
rtot
hebasest
ati
onint
heup
li
nk.
 2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS 35

To accompl
is
hthi
s,the channelmustbe shar
ed be
twee
nthe t
wo
dir
ect
ionsgi
vi
ngr
is
eres
pec
ti
v e
lytoFDD -Fr
equenc
yDivi
si
onDupl
exi
ng-
andTDD - Ti
meDivi
si
onDupl e
xing
-.

Conclusions
$ec ommunic
ati
onsys
tem mus
tover
comethenois
eandi
nte
rfe
renc
eto
de
li
verasui
ta
bler
epl
i
cao ft
hesi
gna
ltother
ece
ive
r.

$ecapa
cit
yofthec
ommuni
cat
ioncha
nneli
nbits
/s
eco
ndispr
opo
rti
ona
l
t
otheba
ndwidt
hinHzandt
othelo
g a
ri
thm o
ftheS/
Nr a
ti
o.

Mo dula
tio
nisusedt
oada
ptt hesi
gnalt
othechannela
ndt oal
lo
ws e
vera
l
s
ignalstosha
rethes
amechannel
.Highe
rordermodula
ti
ons c
hemesal
lo
w
f
orahi ghert
rans
mis
si
onr
a t
e,butreq
uir
ehigherS/
Nr a
tio
.

$e c ha
nnelcan be s
hare
db ys e
vera
lus er
st hatoccupy di1ere
nt
fr
eque
nci
es,di
1er
entt
imeslo
ts,di1e
rentcodesorbytaki
nga dv
a nt
ageof
di
1ere
ntpropa
gat
ionc
hara
cte
rist
ic
sinwha tisca
ll
edspat
ia
lmul t
iple
xing.

Fo
r mo r
ei nf
ormat
ionand sl
idescove
ring thi
st opi
c pl
eas
evi
si
t
ht
tp:
//
wtki
t.
org
/gr
oups
/wt
kit
/wi
ki
/820c
b/do
wnload_pag
e.ht
ml
36 PHYSICS

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION

$e rea r
eanumbe rofa r
easwhe renationa la ndi nterna t
iona llawsa nd
regulat
ionsc aninWue nceyoura bil
itytosetupwi reles
sne two r
k s.
Sincet heserulesvaryf r
omc ountrytoc ount ryi tisimpo ss
iblet og iv
ea n
overviewo fwhi chregulat
ionsma yapplyiny o urregion.
Itisa l
sowo r
thno tingthatt her
ema ybeahug edi 1erencei nwhi chlaws
exis
t,a ndho wt heya rereg
ul at
edi npr a
cti
ce .I no therwo r
dst he r
ema ybe
count r
ieswhe reusingthe2.4GHz/5GHzs pectr
um f o routdo orwi r
eles
s
i
st echnicall
yill
egal,butwhe ree ver
yonedo e si tanywa y.
Asar uleo fthumb ,ifotherpe oplearebuildi ngs i
mi larne two rkstowha t
youi ntend,c ontactthema nd0ndo utwha tl egalissuest heyma yhave
runi nto.Ifsuchne t
wo r
ksa reverywi del
yde pl oye
di ny ourc ount r
y,then
youpr obablydo n'
tne edt owo rrytoomuc h.Ont heo therha nd,itis
alwaysa dvi
sabletos e
ekl oc a
la dvic
e,f r
o m ha rdwa rev endo rs,wi r
eles
s
expertso ro t
herswhoha vec omebe foreyo u,b e
forec ommi t
tingt imea nd
resourcestobui l
dingawi r
elessnetwork.Wha tevery oudo ,iti simpo rt
ant
yout akel o
c a
llawsa ndr e
gula t
ionsintocons ide r
ati
o n.

Examples of relevant types of regulation

Eachcountrymayhavedi1e
rentrule
s,andeachscenar
iomayco meac
ross
di1er
enttypesofr
egul
ati
ons
.$ea r
easwherere
gulat
ionsmayberel
evant
incl
udelicens
esforusi
ngspeci
0cr adiofr
equenci
es,rul
esreg
ardi
ngthe
rig
htt oinsta
llto
wersforantennas,thema xi
mum po weral
lowedand
tel
ecomlicens
ingrul
esli
mit
ingy ourabil
it
yt opro
v i
deInte
rnetac
ces
st o
other
s.

$et y
peso
fle
galis
sue
sthatmay(orma
yno
t)bewo
rthc
ons
ide
ri
ngwhe
n
pl
anni
ngawir
el
essnet
workinc
lude
:

Spectrum Licens
ing
ISP/Tele
communi cationsLi
cens
es
Towe rpermitsfo
ra ntenna
s
Transmiss
ionpo wera ndante
nnagai
nli
mit
s
Certi0ca
ti
o no fequipment
ISPTe rmso fUse
 3. LICENSING AND REGULATION 37

Spec t
rum Li censi
ng
Mo stc ount ri
esc onsiderRFs pe c
trum a sa nex c
lusi
vepropert
yo fthestate
.
$eRFs pe c
trum i sana tionalresour ce,muc hl i
kewa t
er,land,g a
sa nd
mine rals
.Unl ikethe se,ho wever,RFi sr eusable.$epur poseo fspect
rum
ma na geme nti st omi ti
gater adios pec t
r um po ll
utio
na ndma ximiz
et he
bene 0to fus ableradios pectrum.
$e0r sts entenceo ft heI nternat
ionalTe l
ecommuni cat
ionsUni on( I
TU)
constitutionf ullyreco gnisesthes overeignr ighto feac
hS tat
et oregulat
e
it
s t elecommuni cation. E1e cti
ve s pectrum ma nagement r equire
s
regulationa tna ti
ona l
,r egionalandg l
o ba lle
v el
s.
Licensing i sa no rderly wa yt o ma na gewho ,whe n,whe rea nd ho w
spectrum r esourcei sus ed.$eunl ice nsed wirel
essspect
rum wa ss e
t
aroundt he2. 4GHzba nd.
InJ une2003,t heITU ma dea vai
lablet he5GHzba ndforli
cens e
-exempt
tec
hno logyde ployme nt.$e900MHzba nd,unl ice
nsedint heUni t
ed
States,ispr esentl
yus edi n We stern Eur opea nd in manyde vel
oping
count ri
esf orGS M pho nes.Ea chc ount ryha sthes ove
rei
g nr i
ghtt o
regulatei tste l
ecommuni cati
ona ndt oi nterprettheinter
nationalRadio
Reg ulati
o ns. Go v
ernme nts de 0ne t he r ulesa nd conditi
ons o ft he
fre
q uencyus e.
(From:Wi kip
e di
a" Spectrum Ma nageme nt" )

$et echno l
o gi
e sde scr
ibedi nthisbo ok( mo st
ly)us eal i
cense-exe
mpt
sli
ceo ft hes pectrum r efe
rre
dt oa st heI SM ( Industrial
,S ci
enti0ca nd
Me dicalr adioba nds).Ra di
of r
equenciesint heI SM ba ndsha vebee nused
forc ommuni c
ation pur poses
,a lt
houg hs uch de vi
c esma ye xperi
ence
inter
ferenc efrom no n-communi cat
ions ources.
$eI SM ba ndsa rede 0ne db ytheITU- R( I
TU' sRa dioc
ommuni ca
tion
Sector)a t2. 4a nd 5 GHz .Individua lc o
untr i
es'us eo ftheba nds
designatedi nt heses ect
ionsma ydi1erduet ov a
riat
ionsi nna t
iona lr
adio
regulati
o ns.Be caus ecommuni ca
tionde vicesus i
ngt heI SM bandsmus t
toler
atea nyi nterf
erencef r
omI SMe quipme nt,unlicensedo per
ationsa r
e
typical
lype r
mi tt
edt ous ethesebands,s i
nc eunlicense
do pera
tiont ypi
call
y
needst obet o l
eranto finter
fer
encefromo therdevicesa nyway.
Int heUS ,theFCC ( FederalCo mmuni c at
ionsCo mmi s
si
on)0r stma de
unlicenseds pr e
a ds pect
rum a vai
la
bleint heI SM ba ndsi nr ule
sa dopted
on Ma y 9,1985.Ma ny otherc ountriesl at
era do pt
edt hese FCC
regulati
o ns,ena bli
ngus eo fthiste
chno lo
g yinma nyc ountrie
s.
(From:Wi ki
pedia" ISM Ba nd")
38 PHYSICS

ISP/Tel
ecommuni c
ati
onsLic
enses
Inso mecountr
iesanI S
Pl i
censewoul
dbereq
uir
edbeforedepl
oyi
ngany
networkinfr
ast
ructur
ef o
rsha r
ingnet
work
soverpubl
icspaces
.Inot
her
countri
est
hiswo ul
do nl
yber equi
re
dtoruncommerc
ialnet
wo r
ks.

Towerper
mi t
sforant
ennas
Whe n de
ployi
nglong-ra
ngeoutdoornet
wo r
ks,i
tisoft
enne ce
ssa
ryto
buil
dat owerfo
rthea nt
enna
.Ma nycountr
ie
shavere
gula
ti
onsrega
rdi
ng
thebui
ldi
ngo fsuc
ha nte
nna-
towersi
ftheyar
emo r
ethan5o r10me t
res
abovet
her o
oforground.

Transmi ssi
onP o werlimi t
s
Whe ns ett
ingt ransmissionpo werlimits
,r e
g ulator
ya ge
ncie
sg e
neral
lyus e
theEq uival
entI sotr
o pical
lyRa di
a t
edP owe r(EI RP),asthi
sisthepo wer
actuall
yr adiat
e db ythea ntennae le
me nt.Powe rlimitsca
nbei mpo s
edo n
outputpo wero fde v
ice saswell
.
Asa ne xample ,theFCC e nforcesc ert
ainr ule
sr ega
rdi
ng thepo wer
radiat
e d b y t he a nte
nna e l
eme nt, de pending o n whe thert he
i
mpl e
me nta
tioni spo int-
to-multi
po int(
Pt Mp)o rpo i
nt-
to-po
int(PtP).It
als
oe nforcesce r
tai
nr ule
sr egar
dingt hema ximum po wertra
nsmitt
edb y
ther adio.
Whe na no mni dir
ectionala ntenna is us ed,t he FCC a utomatical
ly
considersthel inkaPt MPl ink.Int hesetupo fa2. 4GHzPt MPl i
nk ,the
FCC l imitst heEI RP t o 4 Wa t
tsa nd t hepo werlimitsetfort he
i
nt entionalradiatoris1Wa tt.

$ingsaremo recomplica
tedinthe5Ghzba nd.$eUnlic
ens
edNati
onal
I
nformati
onI nfra
struct
ure(U- NII)ra
dio band i
spar
to fthe r
adi
o
f
req
ue nc
ys pec
trum usedb yIEEE-802.
11adevic
esandb
yma nywir
el
es
s
I
SPs.Itopera
tesoverthre
eranges
:

U-NIILo w( U-NI I
-1):5.15-5.
25GHz .Re g
ula
ti
o nsrequir
eus e
ofanint
egrat
edantenna.Powerlimitedto50mW.
U-NIIMi d( U-NI I
-2):5.25-5.
35GHz .Re g
ula
ti
o nsall
owf o
ra
use
r-i
nst
al
labl
eantenna,subj
ecttoDy namicFre
quencySel
e ct
ion(DFS ,or
ra
daravoi
dance)
.Powe rli
mite
dt o250mW.
U-NIIWo r l
dwide:5.47-5.725GHz .Bot
ho ut
doo randi ndoor
use
,subj
ecttoDy nami cFrequencyS el
ect
ion(DFS ,orradaravoidance)
.
Powerl
imit
edto250mW.
 3. LICENSING AND REGULATION 39

$isspec
trum wasaddedbyt heFCC i n2003to"ali
gnthef r
equenc
y
ba
ndsusedb yU- NIIde
vicesintheUnite
dS t
ate
swithba ndsi
no ther
pa
rtso
fthewo rl
d".
$eFCC c urr
entl
yha sa
ni nte
rimlimit
ati
onono pe
rat
ionso ncha
nnels
whi
chover
lapthe5600-5650MHzba nd.

U-NIIUppe r(
U- NII-
3):5.725to5.825GHz .
Someti
mesref
erre
dtoasU- NII/I SM duetoo ve
rla
pwiththeI
SM ba
nd.
Regul
ati
onsal
l
owf orauser-
ins
tall
ableant
enna.Powerl
imit
edto1W.
Wirel
es
sISPsgener
al
lyuse5.725-
5.825GHz .
(Fr
om:Wi k
ipe
dia"U-NII")

ForPtPint he5GHzba ndthemaximum EIRPall

owedisco
nside
rabl
e
hig
her
,s i
nceahi g
hg ai
na nte
nnaproduc
esav e
rynarr
ow beama nd
the
ref
oretheinte
rfe
renc
ecause
dt oo
therus
ersisc
onsi
der
abl
yles
sthanin
PtMPttopol
o g
y.

Certi0cat
iono fequi pme nt
Go vernment sma yr equireaf ormalc erti
0c a
ti
ont hata g ive
nr adio
equipme ntc ompl ywi ths pec
i0ctechni
cals t
andardsandloca
lregula
tio
ns.
$i siso ft
enr eferr
edt oa shomologa
tio
n,a ndt heproce
ssmustbedo neb y
aninde pende ntlabo rat
o ryauthor
isedbytheg o ve
rnmentofthecountry
.
Certi0ede quipme nti sallowedtoo pera
tewi thoutanindiv
idualli
cens
e.It
iswo rthno tingt ha tcerti0c
atio
nma yo nlya ppl
yt otheorig
inalfac
tory
sta
tef orradioe quipme nt .
Fore xa
mpl e,c hang i
ngt hea ntennao n awi re
les
sa c
ces
spo intint he
UnitedS tatesinvalidatestheFCC Ce r
ti
0c at
ion.

I
SPTe rmso fUse
ManyI SP'sincl
udeinthe
ir" Termso fUs e
"ac la
usetha
tprohibit
susers
f
roms hari
nga nint
erne
tconne c
ti
o nwitho t
heruse
rs.
$e r
ema yalsobecommercialgradeconnecti
onsthatdonotha vethes
e
l
imit
ations
.
I
tisimpo rt
anttonotetha
tt hisisNOTal e
galis
sue
,butaclauseofthe
co
ntra
c twiththeISP
,andt hereperc
ussi
o nsforbr
eac
hingthe
sei susua
ll
y
adis
connectionoft
heInte
rne tconnec
tion.
40 PHYSICS

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

What is the electromagnetic spectrum?

$e rei sno tas i
mpl ede 0niti
ono fthes pectrum.Fr omt het echnical
vi
ewpo intthes pect
rum iss i
mpl yther ang eofe lectr
oma gneticwa vesthat
canbeus edt ot r
ansmiti nf
orma t
ion,butf r
o mt hepr acti
calv ie
wpo i
ntt he
economi ca ndpo l
iti
calaspects
,a swe llast hetechno l
o gyactua l
lyus edt o
conveyt heinfo rmati
onb yme anso fthesewa ve
s,pl aypivotalr o
les .
Asa ne xampl e,whe nMa rco
nii n19020r stspanne dtheAt l
a nticwi thhis
wire
lesstelegraphme s
s a
g e
,heus e dthewho les pect
rum a va i
l
a blea tthe
t
imet os endaf ewbi t
s/so v
era nare aoftho usa
ndso fsquarek il
o me t
r e
s.
Wi t
ht hes parkt ra
nsmi tt
erus e
df ort hi
sa chiev
eme ntthatoc cupie da l
lthe
f
requenc ie
st hatthee xi
stingrecei
verswe rea bl
et ounde rsta
nd,no bo dye ls
e
couldus er adi
of o
rc ommuni cat
ionso nar adi
uso fso me3500k mf ro m
t
het rans mitti
ngs tati
oni n England.S o,i fothe ruserswa ntedt os end
me s
sagesi nt he s ame a rea,t hey wo uld ne edt oc oo rdina t
et hei
r
t
ransmi ssi
onsi ndi 1er
e nttimes l
o ts
i no r
dertos har
et heme di um.$i s
t
e c
hniq ueisc all
ed TDMA ,TimeDi vis
ionMul tipl
eAc cess.

Usersl o
cateda tdi st
ancesmuc hg r
eaterthan3500k mf r
o m Ma rco
ni
s
tra
nsmi t
tercouldus ethes pectr
um a gain,sincet hepo we ro ft her a
di o
wavesde c
reas
esa swemo vef ar
thera wa yfromt het ransmitter
.Re usingt he
spectr
um indi1e rentgeographicala r
easisc al
led SDMA ,S paceDi vis
io n
Mul ti
pleAccess.Ma r
coniwa slatera bletobui ldat ra
nsmi tt
ert hatcoul d
res
tric
te mis
sio
nst ojustar angeo ffrequencies
,a ndar e
ce i
vert hatcoul d
be tunedt o a pa rti
cula
rf req uencyr ange.No w,ma ny use rscoul d
tra
nsmi tsi
mult aneousl
yi nt hes amea rea(space)a nda tt hes amet i
me .
FDMA ,F r
eque ncyDi vis
io n Mul tipleAc cesswa sbo r
ne .Ra diot he n
becameapr a
cticalme ansofc ommuni cat
ions,andt heo nl yo net hatwa s
avai
labletor each as hipi nt heo pens ea
s.$ec oordinationo fthe
fre
que nci
esall
o catedt o di
1e re
ntus e r
swa sdo neb yna t
ionala gencies
crea
tedt othise 1e c
t,buts incer adiowa vesa reno ts t
oppe db yna t
ional
borders,internat i
onala greeme nts we re ne eded. $e i nte r
na t
ional
organiza
ti
ont ha tha d beenc reatedt or egulat
et he transmi s
siono f
tel
egramsa mongdi 1er
entc ountrieswa sc ommi ssi
one dtoa ll
oc a
tet heus e
ofthee l
ectr
oma g neti
cspect
rum.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 41

Nowaday
s,ITU,Int
ernat
iona
lTel
ecommunic
ati
onsUni
on,ist
heoldes
t
Inter
nati
onalOr ganizati
on,tas
k e
d wi
thissui
ngr
ecommenda
ti
ons
abo
utwhi c
hf r
eque
ncie
st ouseforwhichser
vice
stoit
s193 nati
on
members
.

$eus eo ft hespectrum f ormili

tar
ya pplica
tionsraisedane wiss
ue;
ja
mmi ng
,t he i
ntentio nalinterf
ere
ncei ntro
duc edb yt hee nemy to
impede c ommuni c a
tion.To a voi
dj ammi ng,a ne w t e
chnique was
devel
o pedinwhi cht hei nformati
ont obetransmittedwa scombinedwit
h
aspe c
ialma themat i
calc o de;onl
yr ecei
ver
swi tht hek nowledg
eo fthat
part
icularco deco ul
di nt er
prettheinformation.$ec odedsignalwas
tr
ansmi tt
eda tlowpo werbutus i
ngav erywi deinterv
alo ffr
equenci
esto
ma kejammi ngmo redi Nc ult.

$i st ec hni quewa slatera daptedt oc i

vili
ana pplica
tionsi nwha tisc al
led
CDMA ,Co deDi vis
ionMul tipleAc cess,o neo ft heWa vo urso fspread
spectrum c ommuni cat
ion,e xtensivel
yus edi n mo dernc o mmuni cat
ions
sys
tems .I ns umma ry,thes pectrum c anbes ha reda mo ngma nyus e
rsb y
ass
igni ngdi 1e rentt i
mes lots
,di 1erentfrequ e
nc yinterva l
s,di 1erentr e
g i
ons
ofspace ,o rdi 1e re
ntc od e
s.Ac o mbi nat
iono fthe s
eme tho dsi susedi nt he
l
a t
estc e ll
ulars y st
ems .Be si
desi s
sueso fs overeigntya ndi tsde fenc e,very
str
onge c ono mi ca nd po lit
ica
li nterest
spl a
yade t
e r
mi na ntr olei nt he
ma nag eme nto ft hes pectrum,whi cha l
sone edst obec o nstantlyupda ted
totak ea dvant ageo fthea dvance sinthec ommuni cati
o nst echno l
og y
.
Telecommuni cations e ngineersk eep 0ndi ng mo ree Nc ient wa yst o
tra
ns mi ti nfo r
ma t
ionus i
ngt ime ,frequencya nds pac edi versit
yb yme ans
ofe vera dvanc ingmo dulat
iona nd c odingt echnique s.$eg oa list o
i
nc reaset he spectrum e Nciency,de 0ne da st hea mo unto fbi tspe r
sec
o nd( bit/s)t hatc anbet r
ansmi tt
edi ne achHzo fba ndwi dt hpe rsquare
kil
o me treo fa rea.F ore xa
mpl e ,the0r sta ttempt st o pr o vi
demo bil
e
tel
epho ne s erv i
ces we re do ne b y us ing a po we rful t ransmi t
ter
,
conveni e ntlylo cat
e dt ogivec o
v eragetoawho lec i
ty.
$i st rans mi t
te r( cal
led a Ba s
eS ta
tioni nt hisc ont ext),di vi
de dt he
all
ocate df req uenc yba ndi ntos ay,30c hanne ls
.S oo nl y30c onversat
ions
couldbehe l
ds imultaneous l
yint hewho lec i
ty.
Asac ons eque nc e
,t hes ervi
cewa sv e
rye xpe nsiveando nlyt hee xtremely
wea l
thyc oulda 1ordi t.$i ssitua t
ionpr evailedf orma nyy ears
,unt ilthe
advanc esi ne lec t
ronict echnologya ll
owe dt hei mpleme nt ati
o no fas cheme
totak ea dv anta geo fSpac eDiv ersi
ty
.
42 PHYSICS

Inste ado fusingas i

nglepo werfultransmitt
ert ocoverthewho leci
ty,the
areat obes er
v i
cedwa sdiv i
dedintoma ny cel
ls
,eacho neser
vedb yalo w
po we rtransmitte
r.No wce l
lsthatares uNcientl
ya par
tc anuti
li
zethes a
me
cha nne l
swi thouti nterf
erence,i n wha tisk nown a s f
req
uencyr euse
.
Wi tht hec e
ll
ulars cheme,the0r s
t10c hannelsaretous efr
equencyba nd
1,t hes eco
nd 10 c hannelsf r
equenc yba nd 2 a nd ther emaini
ng10
cha nne l
sf re
quenc yba nd3 .$i siss howni nFi gur
eRS1,i nwhi cht he
colo ursc orr
espondt odi1e r
entf re
q uencyba nds.No ti
cethatthec ol
ours
repe ato nlyatdistancesfare nought oa voidinterf
ere
nc e.I
fwedi vi
det he
cit
yi ns ay,50c e
lls,wec anno wha ve10X50=500s imult
aneoususersin
the s a
me c i
tyi nsteado f30.$e ref
ore,b ya dding cel
lso fs malle
r
dime nsi
o ns(speci0edb yl owert ra
ns missi
onpo wer
)wec anincreas
et he
numbe ro fa vai
lablec hannelsunt i
lwer each alimi timposedb yt he
interference.

Fi
gur
eRS1:Ce
ll
ul
ars
har
ingo
fsp
ect
rum

$isexampleshowsthatac l
eve
ruseo fex
ist
ingre
sourcescandramat
ica
ll
y
i
ncre
aseitsusef
ulnes
s.Althought hema i
n useoft hes pec
trum isfor
co
mmuni ca
tio
npur pos
e s
,thereareals
oo t
heruses
,l i
keco ok
ingfoodin
micr
owaveovens
,me di
calappli
cat
ions
,gara
gedooro pener
sands oon.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 43

Sos omef reque nc yba ndsa rea lloca t

edf o rt he sepur po s
esi n wha ti s
kno wna st heI S M( Indus trial,S c
ie nti0ca ndMe di cal)ba nds .
$i ss pectrum us ag ei sno r
ma l
lyf ors ho rtdi stanc ea pplic atio
ns.
Abr e akthro ug ho cc urredi n1985whe nt heFCC ( Fe de ralCo mmi ssiono f
Co mmuni cations ),t hea ge nc yt ha to verse est hes pectrum i nt heU. S.
,
all
owe dt heus eo ft hiss pe ctrum f o rc ommuni ca ti
o nsa ppl ica
ti
o nsa swe ll
,
providedt ha tt het rans mi ssio npo werwa sk e ptt oav erylo wl evelt o
mini mizei nt erfere nc e.
Peopl ec o uldf reely us et he se Unl icens ed ba ndswi thoutpr evious l
y
applying f o ra pe rmi t,pr o v i
de dt hatt hee q ui pme ntus e
d ha d be en
cer
ti0e db ya na utho rizedl abo rato r
yt ha te ns ur edc o mplianc e wi th
int
e rfe
renc emi t i
g ationme a sure s.
Severalma nuf ac ture rsbe ga nt ak inga dv ant a
g eo ft hiso ppo rt
uni tyb y
o1ering e q uipme nt t ha tc o uld be us edt oc o mmuni c
ate be twe en
comput erswi tho utt hene e df orc ables,a nds o mewi relessdatane two rks
coverings igni 0c antg eog raphi ca reaswe rebui l
twi tht he m,butt het urni ng
pointha ppe ne da ftert he 1997 a ppr ova lo ft he I EEE ( Instituteo f
Electri
ca la ndEl ectro nicsEng inee rs)802. 1 1S ta nda rd,t heba siso fwha tis
kno wna sWi Fi .
$e e x i
stenc eo fa s tanda r dt ha tg uara nteedt he i nt er
ope rabili
tyo f
equipme ntpr oduc edb ydi 1e re
ntma nuf ac t
ur ersf uelleda ni mpr e
ssive
growt ho ft hema rke t
,whi c hi nt urndr ovet hec o mpe t
itiont hatf ostereda
drama ticde cr
e asei nt hec osto fthede vi
ce s.
Inpa rticular,t hepo rtiono ft heI S M ba ndbe twe en2400a nd2483MHz
isno wada ysa v ailablei nmo sto fthewo rl
dwi t
ho utt hene edf orpr eviously
applyingf oral ice nsea ndi swi delyus edb yl a
pt o ps,t ablets,sma rtpho nes
ande venpho tog raphi cc a me ra s.
Itisi mpo rtantt os tresst her o leo ft heunl ic enseds pe c
trum i nt he
enormo uss uc ces so fWi Fihi g hs pe edI nterne ta cc ess.
Ma nya ir
po rt
s,ho t elsa ndc a fesa llo vert hewo rl
do 1erf reeWi FiI nternet
accesso nt he irpr emi ses,a ndl o wc ostwi re les
sc ommuni t
yne two rk sha ve
beenbui l
tbo thi nr ur ala reaa ndi nc i
tiesc ov e
ringc o nsider a
bleg eo gra
phi c
are
a s,thank stot hea vailabilityo ffr eespe ctrum.
Mo bi l
epho neo pe ra t
o rs,whoha v et opa yde arlyf o rfreq uencyl i
c ensest o
uset hes pec tr
um,we req ui teho stiletot hi sa ppa rent lyunf a i
rcompe tit
ion.
Butwhe nt heys tart edo 1e rings ma rtpho ne s,whi c hma kev e
ryi ntensive
useo ft heI nt erne t,t heypr e ttys o onr e
a l
izedt ha to ff-l
oa dingthet raNct o
Wi Fiwa si nt he irbe sti nt erest,be caus ei tr e l
ie vedt het raNci nt he i
r
dis
tribut i
o nne two rk( kno wna stheb a c
k haul ).
44 PHYSICS

S
ono wtheyencour
agethei
rcust
o merstouseWi Fiwhere
veri
tisa v
ail
able
a
ndus et
hemo reexpens
ivece
ll
ularserv
iceonlywheno utofrangeofa ny
WiFiAcc
essPoi
nt.
$isisaremark
ableexampleoftheusefulne
ssoftheunli
cens
eds pec
trum
e
ventotradi
ti
onaltel
ecommunicati
onso per
ator
swhoo f
tenhavelobbied
a
gai
nstit
.

How is the spectrum adjudicated?

Currentlythema i
nme thodst og ai
na cc
esstoag i
vens pect
rum ba nda re
auct
ionsa ndt hesocall
ed beautycontes
t.
$ea uctionme thodiss t
raightf
orward;interes
tedpa rti
esbidf orag i
ve n
spec
trum c hunk ;whoeverc ommi tsthehighe rsum g etstherightt ous e
thefr
e quencies.
Intheo rythisme t
hodguar a
nt e
esthattheadjudi c
a t
ionwi l
lbet r
ansparent,
inpracticethisha soft
enbe enc i
rcumv e
nteda ndt hereha v
ebe eninsta
nc es
ofpo we rf
ulc omme r
cia
li ntere
ststhatacquiref requencie
so nlytoa vo id
thei
rus eb yt hec ompetit
ion,wi t
ht heresulto fhighlyv a
luabl
es pectr
um
notbe i
ngus e d.
Alsot herei st het e
mpt ati
ono nt hepa rto fg overnmentst o uset his
me t
hoda same anstog e
ne r
a t
er eve
nuesa ndno tne ce
ssari
lyint hebe st
publi
ci nter
est.
Asane xampl e,intheyear2000t herewe r
ea uctionsinse v
eralcountri
eso f
Europet oa djudica
tespec t
rum f ormo bil
epho nes,whi chr e
sult
edi na
tot
alinc omeo f100bi l
lion( 100000000000)e urostot heg overnme nt
co1ers
.

$e beautyc o
ntestme t
hodi sfort hei nter
ested part
iestos ubmit
propos
alsabouthowt heyintendtouset hespectr
um.
Ac ommi t
teeofthes pectrum reg
ula
tinga ge
nc ythende cide
swhicho fthe
propos
alsbett
erservesthepubl i
cgoal
s .
$i sme t
hodr el
ie
so nt heo bjec
ti
vit
y,technicalpro0cie
ncya ndhonestyof
theme mbersofthede cidingcommi t
tee,whichi sno tal
wa y
sguara
nteed.
Inma nyc ountr
iesthe r
ea rerule
sfors pect
rum a djudi
catio
nt ha
tca l
lfor
therel
inquis
hingo fspe ct
rum bandst hathavebe ena cquir
edbuta renot
bei
ngus ed;howevert heirenforc
ementi softenlackingduet othes t
rong
economicinter
est
sa 1e c
ted.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 45

Fi
gur
eRS2:As
pec
ialv
ehi
cl
efo
rsp
ect
rum mo
nit
ori
ngi
nMo
nte
vid
eo,Ur
ugu
ay.
Fi
gur
eRS 2 s ho
wsa pho t
ogra
ph o
fa spe
ctr
um moni
tor
ing v
ehi
clein
Monte
video
,Urugua
ya ndFig
ureRS3tha
tofthes
amekindofequi
pment
be
ingusedinJ
aka
rta
,Indone
si
a.

Fi
gur
eRS3:e
spe
ct
rum Po
li
ce
atwo
rki
nJa
kar
ta
46 PHYSICS

No tet hattheo pens pectrum us edint heunl i

cense
dba ndsc annotprevent
inte
r f
erencei ss
ue s
,e specia
llyinv erycro wdeda r
eas
,butne ve r
thel
essithas
provedaf antasti
cs uccessfo rshortdistancea ppli
cationsi nc it
ie
sa nda l
so
forlongdi stancea pplic
ationsi nruralareas.
Itist heref
o r
ea dv is
ablet oi nvest
igat
ene wf o
rmso fs pect
rum a ll
ocati
on,
taki
ngi ntoc onsiderati
ont hene edso fma nys ta
ke holdersa ndstrik
inga
balancea mo ngt hem.
A dy na mics pectrum a l
locationme c
ha nisms e e
mst obet hebe stchoice
givent headv ancesint echno lo
g ythatma k
et hisviableno wa days.
Asa ne x
ampl e,thec urrentme thodo fs pect
r um all
oc a
tio nissimila
rt othe
rai
lwa ys ys
tem,t her a i
lroadsc anbei dl eac onsi
derablea mo unto ftime,
whe reasthedy nami cs pectrum allocat
io ni sa ki
nt ot hefreeways yst
em
thatca nbeus eda tallt
ime sb ydi1erentus ers.

Political issues
$ei mpo rt
anceo fthes pec
trum a sac ommuni ca
tionsenablercannotbe
ove
rsta
ted.Te l
evi
sio
na ndr a
diobr o a
dcast
ingha veas tr
ongi nWuencein
sha
pingpubl i
cpe rc
e pti
ono fa nyi s
sue,andha vebe enuse dovertl
yfor
pol
it
icalpropaganda( Ithasbe ens aidthatt heelect
iono fKe nnedyas
pre
si
dento ftheU. S.wasduema inl
yt ohistel
evi
si
o ncampa ig
n).
Duringt hec ol
d wa r,eVo iceo fAme r
ica,Mo s
cow Rad ioand Radio
HavanaCu bawe reverye 1e
ctiv
ewa ystoswa yag l
obalaudi
e nce.

Mo rerece
ntex a
mpl e
sincl
udet heinWuenceofCNN a ndAlJ az
eer
ai nthe
publicinte
rpret
ati
ono ft heAr abS pri
ng.S pect
rum us e
df ortwowa y
communi cat
ionsha sa l
so beens ub j
ectt og over
nme nti nt
erv
entions
,
especi
al
lyinc a
seso fpolit
ica
lunr e s
t.On t heo therhand,e conomic
inte
rest
salsoplayav i
talr
o l
einbr oadcast
ing
;t heconsumers o
cie
tyr e
lie
s
heavil
yo nr a
dioa ndtele
v i
si
ont oc reat
ea r
ti
0c i
alneedso rtov eerthe
consumert owa r
ds a par t
ic
ular brand.We c anc oncl
ude thatt he
elec
tromagnet
icspectr
um isana turalres
ourc
ewho s
eus ef
ulnes
sisheavil
y
conditi
onedbyt e
chnologi
cal
,ec o
no micandpo li
ti
calfa
ctors
.

Explosion in spectrum demand

Asthenumberoft a
blet
sandsma r
tphonesgrows,te
lec
omo per
ato
rsar
e
t
ryi
ngtog etacc
e s
stone wfre
q ue
ncybands,butthetradi
ti
ona
lwa yo
f
adj
udi
cat
ingthespect
rum i
sfa
cingadea
de nd.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 47

Keepi n mi nd thatthe s
pectr
um i susedf orr adioa nd tel
e v
isi
on
broadcas
ts
,f orsat
ell
i
tecommunicat
ions,forai
rpl
anet r
aNcc ontrol
,for
geol
o c
ali
sat
ion( Gl
obalPos
ti
oningSy s
tems-
GPS )
,a swe llasformi l
it
ary,
poli
cea nd othergover
nmenta
lpurpo se
s.Tra
dit
ionall
y,t hedema ndfor
additi
onalspect
rum hasbee
nme tthankstotheadv ancesofe l
ectr
onic
s
thathavepe r
mi t
tedtheuseofhigherfreq
uenci
esa ta na 1or
dablecost
.
Higherfrequenci
esarewel
lsui
tedforhighspeedtransmissi
ons,butthey
haveal i
mitedrangeandar
ehighl
ya tt
enuat
edbywa ll
sa ndo t
herobsta
cle
s
aswe l
lasbyra i
n.

$i si se x
e mpli0edb yc omparing t he c overa
geo fa n AM r adio
broadcas
tings t
a t
iont ot hatofanFM o ne :theg r
eat
estra ngeo ftheAM
st
ationisduet oi tsuseo flowe rfreque nci
es.Ont heo the rhand,FM
st
ationscanma keus eo fhigherba ndwidt hsanda sco nse
q uencecano 1er
gre
a t
eraudioq ua l
itya ttheexpenseo famo relimit
edr ange.
Currentce l
lula
ro pe rat
orsuseev enhi gherf r
equencie
s,us ua l
l
ya bove800
MHz .Acc o
r di
ngly,t heTV br o a
dc as
ti
ngf requenci
esa rec ovet
edb yt he
cel
lulartel
epho nepr o vi
ders
,becaus ebyus i
ngl owerfreque nci
estheywi l
l
needl es
sba ses t
at i
ons,wi t
hhug es aving sinde pl
oyme nt,o perat
ionand
maintenancec ost
s .$i siswhyt hesef r
eq uenciesar
eco mmo nlyref
err
edt o
asbe a
chf r
o ntpr operty
.

Techni
q uesformo r
ee Ncientspectr
um us ageb yme anso fadvanc
ed
mo dul
atio
na ndc odingmethodshavehadt heg r
eat
esti
mpa cti
na l
lowi
ng
mo rebits
/spe rHzo fbandwidtha v
ail
abil
ity
.$i s,int ur
n,wa smade
possi
bl
eb ytheg r
eats t
ri
desine l
ect
roni
c s(fa
bri
cat
iono fe
veradvanc
ed
int
egrat
edc i
rcuit
s)thatnow ma keiteconomical
lyfeas
ibletoimple
ment
therequir
edsophisti
cat
edmo dula
tio
na ndc odi
ngtechni
q ues
.

Accordingtothec al
culationsper
forme din1948b yClaudeS hanno n-the
fat
hero fmo der
nt el
ec ommuni ca
tions,atypic
altelephonelineco uldcar
ry
upt o30k bi
t/s
.Butt hiswa sonlyac hi
evedint he90' swhe nint e
grat
ed
cir
cui
tsi mpleme nti
ng t her eq
uiredt echni
queswe rea c
tuall
y bui l
t.In
part
icular
,thetransi
tiont odigi
talter
restr
ia
ltel
evisi
o nbroadcas
ting,which
ismo reeNc i
entins pectrum usa
g ecompa re
dwi tha nal
o g
uet r
ans mis
sio
n,
hasfreedsomes pectrum i nthesoc al
led WhiteS pace
s,thefrequencie
s
thatha dtobel e
ftf al
lowi n betwee nanalo
guet el
evi
si
o nc hannelsto
preve
nti nt
erfe
rence.
48 PHYSICS

c
lo
see
nou
ght
hatt
rans
mis
si
onsf
romo
necanr
eachtheot
her
.Wh
ites
pac
esa
re
k e
ptf
al
lowtomi
nimi
zei
nte
rfe
renc
e.

Int radi
ti
o nala nal
o gueTVbr o a
dc ast
ing,adj
acentchannelscanno tbeus ed
atthes amet ime,be causet hesignalfromo nec hannelwill s
pil
love rto
thet woa djacentc hanne l
sa ndwo uldcauseinter
fer
ence.$i sissimil
a rto
thec entr
alr eservati
o nus edinf reewa y
stos epara
tethet wodi rect
ionso f
traNci no rdert opr ev e
ntc oll
isi
o ns.Soa Whi t
eS pacemus tbel e
ft
betwe ent woc ontiguousa nalogueTV c hanne l
stopr eventinterfe
rence.
Di gi
talTV br o a
dc ast
ingi smuc hmo r
ee Ncientins pec
trum ut il
iz
at i
on,
and s eve
ra ldi git
a lTV c hannelsc an be a ccommo dat
edi nt hes ame
frequency ba nd f orme rl
yus e db ya s i
ngl
ea nal
oguec ha nnelwi thout
spil
lover
i ntoa djac
entc hannels.S o,in place
swhe reAna lo
g TV i s
replacedb yDi g i
talTVa di g
ita
ldi vi
dendisbe i
ngha rv
ested.
Inc oncl
us i
o n,t hec o ncepto fwhi tespacesc an be appliedt ot hree
di1erentfreq uencyc hunk s
:

$es pect
rum thatha sbeena ssi
gnedtoTVbr o
a dca
stingbuti tis
notc urre
ntl
ybe i
ngus ed.$i sappli
espart
icul
arlytode v e
loping
countrie
s,in whi c
ht her
eha sbeen noe c
onomi ci ncentiv
ef or
broadcast
ertous eeveryavaila
bleTVc hannel
.
$es pect
rum thatmus tbel eftfr
eeinbetweentwoa na l
og o
usTV
channelstopreventinterf
erence.
$es pectr
um t hatha sbe e
nr e
cla
imeda sac onsequenceo ft he
tr
ansiti
ont o di gi
talt er
restr
ialTV,whi c
hi smo res pect
rum
eNc i
ent.$i sc urr
entlya ppli
est odeve
lopedco unt
ries,butwi l
l
soona ppl
yt ode ve
lopingc ountr
iesaswel
l.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 49

Int hel ast20y ea

rstherehasbe enat r
eme ndousgrowthi nthedemand
formo respectr
um formo bi
lecommuni cat
ions e
rvi
ces
,i nwhic
hda ta
ser
vic esa r
ec o
nsumingmuc hmo reba
ndwi dththanvoiceandthegrowing
useo fv ideoispre
senti
nga nadditi
onalchall
enge.
No ts urpris
ingl
y,t
elecomo per
atorsever
ywhe r
ea r
etryingtogetapo r
ti
o n
oft hese WhiteS pace
sa ll
ocatedt ot hem t of ul0l
ltheir nee
ds.
Broadc aster
s,o ntheo t
herha nd,a rev er
yr el
uctantt oconcede any
spectrum a tal
ltowha tar
eno wt hei
rdirec
tc ompeti
tors.

Spectrum scarcity or spectrum hoarding?

Altho ug ht he a vailables pectrum i sc ur r
ent l
yt ot
a l
lya djudicatedi n
deve l
o pedc ount r
ies,ma nyi ndepe nde nts tudiesha vef oundt hatthea ctual
simul taneo usus ageo ft hes pectrum i sat inyf rac
tiono fthet o ta
l.$i sis
cause db yt hewa ys pectrum wa so ri
g i
nallya djudicateda nda lsobe cause
oftens pe ctrum i sus edint ermi tt
e nt l
y;f orins t
ances omeTV br oadcasting
stat
io nsdono tt r
ansmi t24ho ursada y.
Asac onse quence ,ar adica l
lyne w wa yt ous et hes pe ctrum ha sbe en
sugg ested;i nsteado fl ea si
ng s pe c t
rum t o ag iveno rganizatio
ni na n
exclusive ba si
s ,t he ne w dy na mi cs pec t
rum ma na geme nt pa radigm
propo sest ous ewha tev
e rs pec t
rum i sav ai
lablei n ac er
ta i
n pl a
cea ta
certaint i
mea nd s witcht oa no the rf r
eque ncywhe ne veri nterf
erencei s
detec t
e di nag ive
nba nd.
An a nalogyc an bema det oe xpl aint hisc oncept:t hec ur rentwa yt o
all
o catet hes pec t
rum i ssimi lartoar ailr
oads y s
tem;t her ail
ro adsarene ver
used100% o ft het i
me ,amo ree Nc ientus eo fthes a
mea mo unto fterrain
canbedo newi thahi ghwa yinwhi c
hma nydi 1erentus ersc ans haret he
samepa t
ha ccordingt ot he i
rc urrentne e
ds.
Of c ourset oi mpl e
me nt dy na mi cs pectrum a ccessr eq ui
res ne w
techno log i
esa nd ne wl egislat
ion;ma nyv estedinter es
tsa re0g htingi t
all
eg i
ngt hepo ssi
bi l
it
yo fi nterfe
r enc e.$ek eyi s
suei sho wt ode termi ne
whe napa rti
cularc hunko fs pectr um i sre al
lybe ingus edi napa r
ticular
placea ndho wt omo v eq uicklyt oane wf reque ncyba ndwhe na nex i
sting
userwi thhi gherpr iorit
yi sde tecte d.$et echno logyt oa c compl i
sht his
featha sa l
readybe ingde mo nstr
a teda ndi mpl eme ntedi nt hene wI EEE
802. 22s tandardr ecentl
ya ppr oved,a swe llasi no the rsc urrentl
ybe ing
cons i
de red.
50 PHYSICS

IEE 802.22
Stimul atedb yt hei mpr essi
v es uccesso fWi Fi(duemo stl
yt ot heus eo f
unlic ense d,o pens pe ctrum) ,t heI EEEc reatedawo r
k i
ngg roupt oa ddr es
s
ther equi reme ntso faWi relessRe gio nalAr eaNe two r
k .$ec ha lleng ewa s
tode ve l
o pat echno l
o gys uitablefo rlongdi stancet r
ans mi ssi
o nt ha tc ould
be de plo yedi n di 1e rent c ount r
ie s( wi thq ui te di 1e rent s pe ctrum
all
o catio ns),s ot he yf o cus edo nt hes pe ctrum c ur rentlya l
lo catedt oTV
bro adc astingwhi chs pa nsa ppr oxi
ma te
lyf ro m 50t o800MHz .No whe r
e
isthi ss pe ctr
um be ingus e di ni tsent ir
etya llthet ime ,s ot he rea re Whi t
e
Spa ces ,f all
owr eg ionst ha tc ould be r
e- f
arme da nd putt o us ef or
bidire cti
o na lc ommuni cations .I nr urala re a
sa llo vert hewo rld,but
spec iall
yi n de velo ping c ount riest herea rel argepo rtionso fs pe ctrum
curre ntlyunde rut ili
sed.I ti se xpe ct
e dt ha tI EEE 802. 22 wi l
le nable
dyna mi cs pectrum a ccessi n as imi larwa yt oI EEE 802. 11 ( Wi Fi)
,
all
o wi nga ccesst oo pens pec trum.Ofc ourseno ta llthes pec trum c anbe
l
ibe rateda to nce,ag r
a dua lpr o c
essisr equireda st hema nyt echni ca l
,l egal
,
econo mi ca ndpo liticalhur dl esares o l
ved,butt he r
ei snodo ubtt ha tthis
isthet re nda ndt ha tIEE802. 22pa vest hewa yt ot hef utureo fs pe ctrum
all
o catio n.I no rde rt oa ssesst hea vailabili
tyo fag ivenf r
eq ue nc yc ha nne l
atag ivent i
met wome tho dsa r
ebe ingc ons i
dere d:c ha nne ls ensinga nda
data baseo fpr imar yus e rsinag iveng eo gra
phi clo c at
iona tag ive nt ime .
Cha nne ls ensingme anst ha tpr iortoa na tt
e mptt ous eac hanne l,theba s
e
stationswi lllist
ent ot hec ha nne l
;ifi tisbe i
ngus e ditwi lltrya no t
he ro ne ,
repe atingt hepr o cedur eunt ilaf reec ha nne lisf o und.$i spr o c
e dur eis
repe ateda tr egulari nter valst oa ccountf o rt hepo ssibil
ityo fs tations
comi nga li
vea ta nyt ime .$i sme tho ds ho ulds uNc e,ne verthe l
e ssc urrent
spec trum ho lde r
sha ves uc ce ssf
ull
yl obbi e
dt her egulato rstoe nfo rcet he
impl e me nt at
iono ft hes eco ndme t
ho d,whi chi smuc hmo rec ompl icated
andi mpo s
esa dditio nalc o mpl exitya ndc os
tsi nt hec o nsume re quipme nt .
$es eco nd me tho dc o ns i
stsi nt hebui l
di ngo fada taba seo fa llt he
existing i ncumb ent t r ansmi ssions t
ations, wi tht he ir po s
itio na nd
respe ctivec ove r
agea reai no rde rtoe stablis
ha n o 1l i
mi tz onei nag iven
cha nne l.
Ane ws tatio
nwi shi ngt ot ra nsmitmus t0r stde termi nei t
se xactpo s
ition
(soi tmus tha v
e a GPS r ecei
vero ro the rme anst o de ter mi nei t
s
geo graphi clocation)a ndt he ni nterroga t
et heda tabaset oa scertaint hati t
s
prese ntl oc a
tioni sno ti nt hef orbidde nz one o ft hec hanne li ti s
attempt ingt ous e.
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 51

Toi nter ro
ga tet heda tabase
,i tmus tha veI nterneta cces
sb ys o meo ther
me ans( ADS L- Asymme tr
icalDi gi
talS ubscriberLo o p,Ca ble,S at
e l
li
te,or
Ce l
lular),be sidest he802. 22 r a
dio( whi c
hc anno tbeus ed unt i
lt he
channe li sc on0r meda sus able )
,s ot hisa ddsac onsiderablea dditi
onal
burde nt ot hes ta
tion ha r
dwa r
ewhi cht r
a nsl
atesi ntoa ddi t
ionalc ost
,
besidet heco sto fbuildinga ndma i
ntainingt heda taba s
e.
Int heUSt heFCC ( Fe dera
lCo mmuni cationsCo mmi ss
ion,t hes pec
trum
regulat
o rya genc y)ha sbe enpr omo ti
ngt hebui l
dingo ft heda tabas
eo f
regist
ered us ersa ndha vea ut horised 10di 1e r
entpr i
vatee nterpris
est o
build,o peratea ndma intai
ns uc hr eposit
ories.
Furthermo r
e ,0e ldtri
a l
so fthes tandarda rebe enc onduc t
ed.I nt heUK,
OFCOM ( thes pect
rum r e
g ulator)i sa l
soc onductingI EE802. 22t r
ial
s
andc onc e
ntratingo nt heda ta baseme t
ho dha vi
ngr uledo utt hes pect
rum
sensingme thodf orinterf
e r
enc emi ti
gation.Al thoug hIEEE802. 22i sthe
forma l
lya ppr oveds t
a ndardt ha tha sreceivedt hemo stpubl i
city,thereare
severalc ompe tingc andidatest hata r
ebe inge xplor
e dtol everaget heTV
Whi t
eS pac
e stopr ovidet wo -wa yco mmuni cationservices
,a mo ngt hem:

I
EEE802.
11a
f
$i samendme nttakesadvanta
geo ftheenormouss ucces
sofIEEE802. 11
byadapti
ngt hesamet ec
hno l
ogyt owo r
kint hefr
eq uencybandsa l
lo
cat
ed
toTVt ransmiss
ion,thusreli
evi
ngt hespec
trum cr
o wdingo fthe2.4GHz
band and o1eri
ngg reate
rr angeduet otheus eo flo
we rtransmis
si
on
fr
equenci
es.It
sdetail
sa r
estil
lbeingdiscus
sedb ythec or
res
po ndingIEEE
802.11wo r
kinggroup.

I
EEE802.
16h
$i sa mendme nto fthe 802.
16 st
andard wasrati
0edi n 2010 and
desc
ribestheme cha
nis
mf o
ri mpl
ementi
ngt heprot
ocolinuncoor
dina
ted
opera
tion, li
censedorl i
censee x
empt a ppl
ic
ati
ons. Al
though mo s
t
depl
oy mentshavebeeninthe5GHzba nd,itcanals
obea ppl
iedtothe
TV ba ndf r
equenci
esandcanpro0tfr
omt hes i
gni
0cantdeplo
ymentsof
Wi MAX( Wi rel
essMic
rowaveAcc
ess
)syst
emsi nmanyc o
untri
es
.

Developing countries advantage

Itisnotewor
thythatindeve
lopingcountr
ie
st hespe
ctr
um al
lo
cat
edto
broa
dcasttel
evi
si
oni sonl
ypa rt
ial
l
yus ed.$i spres
ent
sama gni
0ce
nt
opport
unityt
ointr
oducewir
el
essdatanetwor
kingse
rvi
cesint
hecha
nnel
s
52 PHYSICS

thatar
eno tc urr
entlyall
ocat
ed,a ndt os t
a r
tre a
pingthebe ne0tsof802.22
in amo rebe ni
gne nviro
nme nt ,whe ret hes pect
rum s ens i
nga nd agil
e
fre
quencyc hangingr e
quir
edt os har
et hec r
owde dspe ctr
um i nde vel
oped
countr
iescanbedi spense
dwi t h.$eus ef
ulnessoft helo werf r
equencie
s
fortwo-wayda t
ac ommuni cat
io nsha sbe enpr ove
db ythet hes ucces
sf
ul
deploy
me nto fCDMA ( Co de Di vi
s i
on Mo dulat
ion Ac ce
ss)c ell
ul
ar
sys
temsint he450MHzba nd,r i
ghtint hemi ddleo ft heTV a ll
ocat
ed
fre
quencie
s,i nruralar
easli
ket heAr gentinia
nPa tagonian,c urr
entlyser
ved
by Coopera t
ivaTe l
efoni
cadeCa la
fate-COTECAL .COTECAL o 1er
voiceandda t
as er
vice
st ocusto me r
sa tdistancesupt o50k mf romt he
BaseStat
ion,i nthebe a
uti
fulare ashowni nt he0g urebe l
ow:

Fi
gur
eRS5:Re
gio
nse
rve
dwithv
oic
eandda
tase
rvi
ce
sbyCOTECAL,i
n
Cal
af
atea
ndElChal
te
n,Arg
ent
ina
.

S
othereisano pportunit
yf o
rsta
k e
holder
stolobbyfortheintroduct
io n
o
fTV Ba ndDe vic
eba s
eds o
lut
ionsatane ar
lyst
age
,whi l
ethei ss
ueso f
t
hedigi
taltransi
ti
ona r
ebe ingconsi
dered.$iswi l
lhe l
pe nsuret hat
c
omme r
ciali
nter
estsofaf e
wdono tpr
e v
ailov
erthei
nter
estsofsocie
tya t
l
ar
ge.Act
ivis
ts
/lo
bby i
stsshoul
dempha s
izethenee
dfortra
nsparencyint he
 4. RADIO SPECTRUM 53

fre
quencya ll
ocati
onpr ocessandf o racc
o unt
abil
it
yo fthea dmini
stra t
ion
ofspectr
um int hei
rc ountryorr eg
ion.
Alsoiti simpo rt
antt hatt hosewhowi sht ode ployne t
wo rksga i
na n
unders
tandingo ft her ea
ls pect
rum us a
geb ys pectrum ho l
dersine ach
regi
ono ftheircountry
.$emo nitori
ngo fthespectrum requir
esexpe nsi
ve
ins
trumentswi th as teeple a
rningc urv
et ous et he m,butr ece
nt lya n
a1ordabl
ea nde as
yt ousede vi
ceha sbecomea vai
la
blet hatpermit
sa na l
ysi
s
oft he frequency band be t
ween 240 MHz a nd 960 MHz ,whi ch
encompa s
sesthehig he
rpa r
to ftheTVba nd.De ta
ilso ft
hisopenha rdware
base
dRFEx plore
rS pec
trum Ana l
yzerfort
heuppe rTVba nda r
eat:
ht
tp:
//www.
see
eds
tudi
o.c
om/
depot
/rf
-ex
plor
er-
mode
l-ws
ub1g
-p-
922.
html
Fi
gureRS6showstheRFEx pl
orerf
ort
he2.
4GHzbandbei
ngusedto
te
stanant
ennabui
ltbypar
ti
c i
pant
soft
he2012I
CTPWire
les
str
ai
ning
work
shopi
nTrie
ste
,It
al
y.

Fig
ureRS6:Pa
rti
ci
pant
sfr
om Al
bani
a,Nepal
,Mal
awiandIt
alyt
est
inga
n
ant
ennawi
thth
eRFEx pl
or
erSpe
ct
rum Ana
lyz
eri
nTri
es
te,Fe
brua
ry2012.

$islowc o
stinst
rumentpavesthewa yforawideinv
olve
mento
fpe o
ple
intheme as
uremento ftherealspectr
um usag
eo nthei
rownc o
untry
whichhope
full
ycanl e
adtoabe t
terspect
rum mana
gement
.
Foraddi
ti
onalinf
ormatio
ns ee
:
htt
p:/
/www.a
pc.or
g/en/f
aq/c
it
ize
ns-guide-
air
wave
s
54 PHYSICS

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

$et rans mi
tte
rt hatg ener
ate
st heRF po we rto dr i
vet hea nt
ennai s
usual
lyl oca
teda ts ome dis
tancef r
om t he antenna t erminals
.$e
connectinglinkbe t
we e
nt hetwoi st
heRFt ransmiss
io
nl ine.Itspurpos
ei s
tocarryRFpo we rfr
o mo neplacetoanother
,andt odot hisase Nci
ent l
y
aspo s
sible.Fromt her ec
eiv
erside,t
hea nte
nnai sresponsibl
ef orpicking
upa nyr adiosignal
si ntheairandpa s
singthemt ot her ece
iverwitht he
minimum a mounto fdist
orti
ona ndma xi
mum e Nc i
ency,sot hattheradio
hasitsbe stchancet odecodethes i
gnal
.Fo rthesereas
o ns,theRFc able
hasav er yimportantroleinradiosys
tems:itmus tma i
nt ai
nt heinteg
rity
ofthesig nal
sinbo thdirec
ti
ons.

Fi
gur
eATL1:Ra
dio
,tr
ans
mis
si
onl
inea
nda
nte
nna
$es i
mplestt
ransmis
sio
nl ineoneca nenvi
sagei
sthebi
0larortwinl e
ad,
consi
sti
ngo ftwoc onductorssepar
atedbyadi el
ect
ri
co rins
ulat
o r
.$e
diel
ect
ricca
nbea i
rorapl ast
icl
iketheoneusedforWa
ttrans
missi
onl i
nes
usedinTVa nte
nnas.Abi 0lart
ransmis
sio
nl i
neopenatoneendwi llnot
radi
atebecaus
et hecurr
enti neachwi r
eha st
hesamev a
luebuto pposi
te
dire
cti
on,sothatthe0eldsc r
eat
edonag i
venpoi
ntatsomedist
ancefrom
theli
nec a
ncel.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 55

Ifwebendt heopenendsofthetra
ns mi
ss
ionli
nei noppo
sitedi
rec
ti
ons,
thecur
rentswil
lnowgener
ateel
ect
ri
c0e l
dstha
ta r
einphas
ea ndre
inf
orc
e
eachot
he randwil
lthe
ref
orera
diat
ea ndpropa
gateatadis
tance
.Weno w
haveanantennaatt
heendo ft
hetransmi
ssi
online
.

$el e ngtho fthebe ntpo rt

iono ft hetransmissionl inewi l
ldet
erminet he
ant
ennaf ea
ture.I fthislengt
hc orrespondst oaq uartero fawa v
elengt
hwe
wil
lha veaha l
fwa vedi pol
eantennawi thag aino f2.15dBi .
$ef unctioningo ft hebi0la
rt ransmissi
onl inej ustde s
cri
bediss tr
ongly
a1e
c t
edb ya nyme t
a linitsproximity,soabe tt
ers olutionistocon0nethe
el
ectr
ical0e l
dsb yme ansofa ne xt
ernalco nductort ha tshi
eldst
hei nte
rnal
one.$i sco nst
itute
sac oaxi
alcable.Alter
na t
ivel
y,aho ll
ow meta
ll
icpipeo f
t
hepr o perdime nsionswillal
soe 1ectiv
elycarryRFe ne rgyinwhatisk nown
asawa ve
guide.
56 PHYSICS

Cables
Forf reque ncieshighert han HF t hec oa xi
alc abl
es( orc oa
xf orshort,
deri
vedf romt hewo rds ofc ommo na xis)a r
eus eda l
moste xcl
usi
ve l
y.
Co a
xc a blesha veac orec onducto rwi res urr
o undedb yano n-conductiv
e
ma t
erialca l
ledd i
ele
ctric,orsi
mpl yi nsulati
o n.
$edi electri
ci sthens urroundedb ya ne ncompa ss
ings hiel
dingwhi chi s
oft
en ma de o f braide d wires
.$e di ele
ctri
c pr e
v entsa ne l
ect
rical
connectionb e t
weent hec orea nd t hes hiel
ding.Fi nall
y,thec oa
xi s
prote
c t
edb ya nout erc asi
ng whi chi sg eneral
ly ma def r
o m a PVC
ma t
erial
.
$ei nne rc onductorc arr
iestheRFs ignal,a ndt heo utershiel
dpr events
theRFs ignalf ro
mr a
di ati
ngtot hea t
mo sphere,anda lsopreventsoutsi
de
sig
nalsf ro m i nt
erf
e r
ingwi t
ht hes i
gna lc arri
edb yt hec ore.Ano t
he r
inte
rest
ingf actisthathi g
hf requenc ye lectr
icalsig
nalt r
avel
so nlyalong
theout erla y
e rofac o nductor
,thei nsidema ter
ialdoesno tc ontri
buteto
thec onduc t
ion,he ncet hel arg
e rt hec entr
a lconduc t
o r
,thebe t
terthe
sig
nalwi l
lWo w.$i sisc a
ll
edt he s
k i
ne 1ect.

Fi
gur
eATL4:Co
axi
alc
abl
ewi
thj
ack
et,s
hie
ld,d
iel
ec
tr
ic
,andc
orec
ond
uct
or
.

Eventho ught hec oa

xia
lc onst
ructi
oni sg o
o dattrans
po r
tingthes i
gnal
,
ther
eisa lwaysresi
sta
ncetot hee l
ect
ricalWow:asthesignaltra
velsal
ong,
itwil
lfadea way.
$i sfadingi sk nown asa tte
nua t
ion,a nd fo
rt ra
nsmissionli
ne sitis
me a
sur
edi ndecibel
sperme tr
e( dB/
m) .
$er a
teo fattenuat
ionisaf uncti
ono fthesignalfr
eq uenc
ya nd the
physi
calc onst
ructi
ono fthec a
bleits
e l
f.Asthesig
nalfrequencyincre
ases
,
sodoesitsa t
tenuati
on.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 57

Obvi
ous
ly
,weneedt
omi nimis
ethec
abl
eatt
enua
ti
onasmucha
spo
ssi
ble
byk
eepi
ngthec
abl
ever
ys hor
tandus
inghi
ghqual
it
yca
ble
s.

He
rear
esomepo i
ntst
oco
nsi
derwhe
ncho
osi
ngac
abl
efo
rus
ewi
th
mi
cr
owa
vedev
ice
s:

1. $es ho rte rthebe tter !

$e0r str ulewhe ny oui nst
al
lapi eceo f
cabl ei st ot rytok ee pi ta ss ho rta spo s s
ible.$epo werl ossisno t
l
ine ar,s odo ubli
ngt hec ablel eng thme anst ha tyo uarego i
ngt ol ose
muc hmo ret ha nt wicet hepo we r
.I nt hes amewa y,reduci
ngt hec able
l
e ng thb yha lfg ivesy oumo ret hant wic et hepo weratt hea ntenna .
$ebe sts olutioni st opl acet het rans mi tte
ra scloseaspossibletot he
ant enna ,e venwhe nt hisme a
nspl acingi to nat owe r.
2. $ec heape rt hewo rse !
$es e c
o ndg o l
de nr uleisthatanymo ne y
yo ui nv esti nbuy i
ngag oo dq ua li
tyc ablei saba rgai
n.Che a
pc ables
canbeus e
da tlo wf req ue ncies,s ucha sVHF .Mi crowavesre quiret he
hig hestq ualityca blesav ailable.
3.Av oidRG- 58.I ti si nte nde df o rt hinEt he r
ne tnetworking,CB o r
VHFr adi o,no tf ormi cr owa ve.
4.Av oidRG- 213o rRG- 8.$e ya reinte nde df orCBa ndHFr adio.I n
thisc a see veni ft hedi ame terisl arget hea t
t enuationissigni0cantdue
tot hec he api nsulatorus ed.
5.Whe nev erpo ssible,us et hebe str atedLMRc ableo requivalenty o u
can0nd.LMRi sabr ando fc oaxc ablea v
a i
lableinv ari
ousdi ame ters
tha two rk swe l
la tmi cro wa vef reque ncies.$emo stcommo nlyus e d
areLMR- 400a ndLMR- 600.He liaxc a bl
e sa rea l
sov er
yg ood,but
expe ns ivea nddi Nc ulttous e.
6.Whe nev erpo ssible,us ec ablest hata repr e-crimpe dandt e s
tedi na
pro pe rla b.I nstalli
ngc o nne ctorst oc ablei sat ric
k ybusiness,andi s
diNc ultt odopr o perlye v enwi tht hes pe ci0ct ools.Nevers t
epo vera
cabl e,be ndi tt oomuc h,o rt ryt ounpl ugac onne ct
orb ypul li
ngt he
cabl edi r ectly.Al lo ft hes ebe ha viour sma yc hang etheme c hanical
cha racteristico ft hec abl ea ndt herefo r
ei tsi mpe dance,shortthei nne r
co nduc t
o rtot hes hiel
d,o re venbr eakt hel ine .
7.$o s epr o blemsa redi Nc ultt ot racka ndr ecogniseandc anl e
adt o
unpr edictablebe haviouro nt her adiol i
nk .
8.Fo rv erys ho rtdi st
anc es,at hinc a
bl eo fg oo dq uali
tyma ybea dequa te
sinc eitwi l
lno tintroduc et oomuc ha t
tenua tion.
58 PHYSICS

Waveguides
Above2GHz ,thewa vele
ng thiss hortenoug htoa ll
owpr actica
l,eNc i
ent
ener
gyt ransfe
rb ydi 1erentme ans.A wa veguidei sac onduc t
ingt ube
thr
oughwhi chenergyistransmittedint hef or
mo felectroma gnet
icwa ves
.
$et ub ea c
tsasabo unda rythatc on0ne sthewa vesint hee nclos
edspa ce
.
$eF a r
adayc age phe nome non pr eventse l
e c
troma gneti
ce 1ectsfrom
bei
nge videntoutsidetheg uide.$ee l
ectr
o magne t
ic0 el
dsa repropagated
thr
ought hewa ve
g ui
deb yme a nso fr eWecti
onsa gainsti t
si nnerwa l
ls
,
whicha rec onsi
dered perfectco nductors.$ei nte
nsityo ft he0e l
dsi s
gre
ates
ta tthecenteralongt heXdi mension,andmus tdi mini s
htoz eroat
theendwa l
lsbecausethee xis
tenceo fany0e l
dpa r
al
leltot hewa ll
sa tthe
sur
facewo uldcauseani n0nitecur re
nttoWo wi nape rfectco nducto
r.
$eX,Y a nd Z a xi
so far ectangularwa veguidec an bes e
eni nt he
fol
lo
wi ng0g ure
:

Fi
gur
eATL5:eX,Y
,andZa
xiso
far
ec
tang
ula
rwa
veg
uid
e.
$e r
ea reani n0ni t
enumbe rofwa ysinwhi cht heele
ctri
ca ndma gne
t i
c
0eldscana rra
ng ethems el
vesinawa veg
uidef orfre
quencie
sabo vethelow
cuto1.Ea c
ho ft hese0eldcon0g ura
tionsiscall
edamo de.$emo desma y
be s e
paratedi ntot wo generalg roups.One g roup,de s
ignated TM
(Transv
e r
seMa gne t
ic
),ha sthema gneti
c0e lde nti
rel
yt r
ansver
set ot he
dir
e ct
iono fpropa gat
ion,butha sac ompo nento ftheelec
tri
c0e ldint he
dir
e ct
iono fpr o pagati
on.$eo t
he rtype,de sig
nated TE ( Transve
rse
Electr
ic)hast hee le
ctri
c0e l
de ntir
el
yt ra
nsv e
rse,buthasac ompo nento f
ma gnet
ic0e l
di nt hedirec
tiono fpr
opa ga
tion.
$emo deo fpropa ga
tionisidenti
0edb ytheg rouplett
ersfol
lowedb ytwo
subscri
ptnume r
a l
s.Fore x
ample ,TE10,TM 11,e t
c.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 59

$enumbe ro fpo s
siblemo de sincreaseswi tht hef r
eq uencyforag ive
n
siz
eo fg uide ,andt herei so nlyo nepo ssi
blemo de,c all
edt hed ominant
mo de
,f ort hel owe s
tf requenc ytha tc anb et ransmitted.Inar ec
tangular
guide,thec ri
ticaldime nsioni sX.$i sdime nsionmus tbemo rethan0. 5
a tthel owe s
tf re
quenc yt obet r a
ns mitted.Inpr actice,theYdi me nsio
n
isusuallya bo ut0.5Xt oa voidthepo s
sibil
ityo fope r
a t
ioni no t
hert han
thedo mi nantmo de.Cr oss-secti
ona lshape so therthant her ect
anglec an
beus ed,t hemo s
ti mpo rtantbe i
ngt hec ircula
rpi pe .Muc ht hes ame
consi
de rati
o nsa pplyasi nt her ec
tang ularcase.Wa velengthdi mensionsfor
rect
ang ulara ndc ir
cularg uidesa r
eg iveni nt hef ol
lo
wi ngt able
,whe reXi s
thewi dtho far ect
ang ula
rg uidea ndri sther adiuso fac ircul
arguide.All
0guresa pplyt ot hedo mina ntmo de.

Type of guide Rectangular Circular

Cutoff wavelength 2X 3.41r
Longest wavelength transmitted 1.6X 3.2r
with little attenuation
Shortest wavelength before next 1.1X 2.8r
mode becomes possible

Energyma ybeintroducedi nt
oo re xt
ract
edf rom awa veguideb yme ans
ofe it
he rthee l
ectri
co rma gneti
c0e ld.$ee nergyt rans
fertypical
ly
happenst hro
ughac oaxialli
ne.Twopo ss
ibleme t hodsfo rcoupli
ngt oa
coaxi
all i
neareusingthei nnerconductoroft heco axia
lline,orthrougha
l
o op.Apr obewhi chissimplyas hortexte
ns io
no ft heinne rconductorof
thecoax i
alli
necanbeo rient
edsot hatiti
spa r
al
lelt othee le
ctr
icli
ne sof
for
ce.A l oopcanbea r
rangedsot hatite nclos
ess omeo fthema g net
ic
l
ineso fforc
e.$epo inta twhichma xi
mum c ouplingiso btai
nedde pends
upont hemo deo fpr opagat
ioni nt heg ui
deo rcavity
.Co upl
ing is
ma x
imum whe ntheco upli
ngde vi
ceisinthemo stintense0e l
d.

Ifawaveguidei slef
to penato neend,itwillra
di a
teenergy(t
hatis
,itca
n
beusedasa na ntennar at
herthanatransmissi
onl i
ne).
$i sradia
ti
o nc an bee nhanc e
db yWa r
ing thewa veguidetofo r
m a
pyr
amidalho rna ntenna.
T
her
ea ree x
a mpl e
so fpract
ic
a lwaveguidea nt
e nnasforWi Fishown i
n
AppendixAc alledAnt ennaCo nst
ruct
ion.
60 PHYSICS

Connectors and adapters

Conne
c t
orsa l
low acabl
et o bec onnect
edt oanothercabl
eo rtoa
co
mpone nti ntheRF chain.$e r
ea reawi dev a
ri
e tyof0tti
ngsand
co
nnecto
r sdes
igne
dtogowi thva
rio
uss i
zesandty
peso fco
axia
lli
nes
.
Wewillde s
cri
besomeo
ft hemo s
tpopularones
.

BNCc o
nnect
orswe rede v
elopedinthelate40 s.BNC s ta
ndsfo rBa yonet
Ne i
llConcel
ma n,na me dafte
rtheme nwhoi nvente
di t
:PaulNe illand
Ca r
l Co nce
lma n. $e BNC pr oduc
tl i
ne i s a mi niatureq uick
connect
/dis
conne c
tc onnect
o r
.Itfea
ture
st woba yone
tl ugsont hefema l
e
connect
or,and ma ti
ng isa chi
eved wi
tho nly aq uarte
rt urno ft he
coupli
ngnut.BNCsa reide
a l
lysui
te
df o
rc ableter
mina t
ionformi niature
tosubminia
turec oa
xialcabl
e( RG-58toRG- 179,RG- 316,et
c.).$e ya re
mo s
tc ommo nl
yf oundo nt e
stequi
pme ntand10ba se 2coaxi
a lEthernet
cabl
es.

TNC co
nnec
tor
swereals
oinvent
edb yNe i
lla
ndCo ncel
man,anda r
ea
t
hre
adedvari
at
ionoftheBNC.Duet othebett
eri
nter
conne
ctprov
ided
byt
hethre
adedconnec
tor
,TNC connector
swo r
kwellt
hroug
ha bo
ut12
GHz.TNCs t
andsfo
r$r ea
dedNe i
llConce
lman.

TypeN ( a
g a
inf o
rNe il
l,alt
ho ughs ome t
ime sa t
tributedt o Na v
y
)
connect
orswe r
eo r
iginal
l
yde velopedduringtheS econdWo rldWa r.$e y
areusabl
eup t o 18 GHz ,a nd v er
yc ommo nly usedf ormi crowave
appli
cat
ions.$e yareavai
labl
ef oralmostal
lty pesofca bl
e.Bo t
hthepl ug
/c a
bleandpl ug/s ocketj
o i
ntsa r
es uppos
edlywa t
erproof,provi
dinga n
e1ect
ivec abl
ec la
mp .Ne ve
rthele
ssf oro utdoor uset heys hould be
wrappedins el
faggl
ome r
ati
ngt apetopr e
ventwa terfr
o ms eepi
ngin.

SMAi sana c
ronymf orS ubMi niat
urev ers
ionA,a ndwa sde ve
lopedi n
the60s .S MA co nnectorsarepre ci
si
on,sub mini
atureunitsthatprovide
excel
le
nte l
ectr
icalpe rf
o r
ma nc
eup t o 18 GHz .$e s
ethreaded high-
perfo
rma ncec onne ct
o r
sa r
ec ompa cti ns iz
ea nd me c
hanica
ll
y ha ve
outst
andingdur abili
ty
.
$eS MB na mede ri
v e
sf romS ubMi niatureB,a nd i
tist hes e
c o
nd
subminiaturedesi
g n.$eS MBi sas ma l
l
e rvers
iono ftheSMAwi t
hs nap-
onc oupling.Itpr ovidesbr oa
dba nd ca
pa bil
it
yt hrough 4GHzwi tha
snap-onc onnect
o rdesign.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 61

MCXc o nnect
orswe reintroduce dinthe80s.
WhiletheMCXus esidentic
a linnercontacta ndi nsula
tordi mensio
nsa s
t
heS MB,t heo uterdia metero ftheplugi s30% s ma l
lertha ntheS MB.
$i sseri
espr ov
idesde s
ignerswi tho pt
ionswhe rewe i
ghta nd physi
cal
s
pacea relimite
d.MCX pr ovidesbroadbandc apabili
tyt houg h 6GHz
wit
has nap-onc onne c
torde si
g n.
I
na dditi
ont otheses t
anda r
dc onnect
ors
,mo stWi Fide vic
e suseav ari
ety
ofpropriet
aryc onne c
tors.Of ten,theseares impl ys ta
nda rdmi cro
wa ve
co
nne c
torswi t
ht hec entr
ec onduc to
rpa r
tsr ever
sed,o rthet hreadcuti n
t
heo ppo s
it
edi r
ecti
o n.$e s
epa rt
sa r
eo f
teni ntegrat
e dintoami cro
wa ve
s
ystem usi
ngas ho r
t,We xi
blejumpe rcall
edap i
g t
ailthatconv ert
stheno n-
s
tandar
dc o
nne c
torint osome thingmo rerob ustandc ommo nlyavai
la
ble.
Someo ftheseconnec t
orsinclude :

RP-
TNC.$i
sisaTNCc
onne
cto
rwi
tht
heg
ende
rsr
eve
rse
d.

U.FL (
als
ok no
wn asMHF) .$i si
spo ss
ibl
ythes mal
les
tmi c
rowav
e
conne
cto
rc urre
ntl
yin wideuse
.$eU. FL/MHF istypic
all
yusedto
conne
ctami ni-
PCIradi
ocar
dtoa na
ntennaorla
rgerco
nnector(
suchas
anN orTNC)us i
ngathi
ncabl
einwahtisknownasapigt
ail
.

$eMMCXs e
ri
es,whichisal
socal
ledaMicro
Ma t
e,i
soneoft
hes
mal
les
t
RFc onnect
orlinea ndwa sdeve
lopedinthe90s.MMCX isamicr
o-
mini
atureconnecto
rs er
ie
swithal oc
k-s
napme c
hani
small
owi
ngf
or360
de
g r
eesrot
ati
one nabl
ingWexi
bil
it
y.

MC- Cardc onnector

sa ree vens ma l
l
era nd mo r
ef r
agil
ethan MMCX.
$e yha veas plito ut
erc onnecto
rt hatbr e
akseasi
lya f
terj
ustaf e
w
inte
rconne
c t
s.
Adapter
sares hort
,two -
side
dde v
ice
swhicha reusedtoj oi
ntwocablesor
component
swhi chc annotbec onnec
teddir
e c
tl
y.Forexa
mple,anada
ptercan
beusedtoc o
nne ctanS MAc onnectortoaBNC.
Adapter
sma ya l
sobeus edto0tt oge
therconnect
orsofthesa
metype,butof
di1er
entgender.

Fi
gur
eATL6:AnNf
ema
leb
arr
ela
dap
ter
.
62 PHYSICS

Fo
rexampleaver
yusef
ulada
pte
ristheonewhic
henabl
est
ojoi
ntwoTy
pe
Nconnec
tors
,ha
vings
ocke
t(f
emale
)connec
tor
sonbot
hside
s.

Cho
osi
ngt
hepr
ope
rco
nne
cto
r
$eg ende rq uesti
o n.Mo s
tc onne ctorsha veawe llde 0ne dg ender.Ma l
e
connec t
o rsha vea ne xt
ernalho usi
ngo rs leeve(frequent lywi t
ha ni nner
thre
ad)t ha tisme a nttos urroundt hebo dyo fthef ema lec o nnec t
or.$e y
norma ll
yha veapi nt hatinsertsi nt hec orrespondings o cke toft hef e
ma l
e
connec t
o r,whi ch ha saho usingt hreade do ntheo ut ers urfaceo rt wo
bayone ts trudspr o tr
udingf ro m ac yli
nde r.Be wa r
eo fr ever
s epo lari
ty
connec t
o rs
,i nwhi cht hema leha sa ni nners ocketa ndt hef e
ma l
ea n
innerpi n.Us ual
lyc a
blesha vema l
ec o
nne ctorso nbo the nds,whi l
eRF
devic
e s(i.e.transmi tt
ersanda ntenna s)ha vef e
ma l
ec onne c t
o r
s.Li ghtning
arre
stors,di recti
ona lc oupler
sa nd l ine-throughme asuringde vi
cesma y
havebo thma l
ea ndf ema leconne ctor
s.Bes uretha teve ryma lec onnec t
or
inyours yst
e m ma teswi t
haf ema lec o
nne ct
or.
Lessisbe st!Tryt omi nimiset henumbe ro fco nnec t
o rsa nda dapte
r sin
theRFc ha in.Eachc onnectori ntroduc essomea dditiona lloss(upt oadB
foreachc onne c
ti
o n,de pendingo nt hec onne ct
or!)
Buy,do ntbui l
d!Asme ntio nede arl
ier,buyc ablest ha ta rea l
ready
ter
mi natedwi tht hec onnectorsy oune ed whe nev erpo s
s i
ble.S o l
dering
connec t
o rsi sno ta ne as
yt ask ,a nd todot hisj obpr operlyi sa l
mo s
t
impo ss
iblef ors ma llconne c
tor sa sU. FLa ndMMCX.Ev e nte rminating
Foamc ablesisno tane asyta sk.Do n
tus eBNCf o r2. 4GHzo rhig her
.
UseN t y pec onnec tor
s( orSMA,S MB,TNC,e tc.)

Mi crowavec onnectorsa re pre

cis
ion-ma de pa rt
s,a nd can be e as
il
y
dama gedb ymi s
treatme nt.Asag eneralrul e,youshouldrotat
etheo ute
r
sl
ee v
et ot i
ghte nt hec o nnect
or,le
avingt her e
sto fthec o
nnector(and
cable)s tat
ionary.I fo t herpartsoft he c onnect
ora ret wi
sted whil
e
ti
g ht
eningo rlo o
s e
ning ,da magecaneasilyo ccur
.
Ne vers tepo verc onne cto
rs,ordr opc o nnect
orso nt heWo orwhe n
disconnecti
ngc abl
e s(thi shappensmo reo f
tenthany ouma yi magine,
especial
lywhe nwo r ki
ngo nama stoverar oof).
Ne verus etoolslikepl i
e rstoti
ghtenc onne ctor
s.Alwaysuseyourha nds
.
Whe n wo r
k i
ng o utsi
de ,r emembe rt hat me tal
se x
pand a t high
tempe rat
uresandc ontrac tatl
owt e
mpe ratur es
:connecto
rtootightinthe
summe rcanbi ndo re venbr ea
kinwi nter.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 63

Ant
enna
sra
dia
ti
onpa
tte
rns
Ant e
nnasa reav e
ryimpo r
tantc ompo nento fcommuni cat
ions yst
ems .By
de0niti
on,a na ntennaisade vi
ceus edtot ra
ns f
orma nRFs ignaltr
aveling
on at ransmissionline intoa ne l
ectr
o magnetic wa veinf rees pa ce
.
Ant e
nnasha veapr opertyk nown a sr eci
procity
,whi ch me anstha ta n
antennawi llma inta
int hes amec hara
cteri
st
icsr eg
ardlessifwhe t
heri tis
tr
a ns
mi t
tingo rr ec
eiv
ing .Allant ennasoperatee Ncientl
yo verar elati
v el
y
narrowfre quencyband.Ana nt
e nnamus tb etune dtot hesa mef r
eque ncy
bando fther adiosyst
e mt owhi c hitisconnected,otherwiset hereception
andt het ra
nsmi ss
ionwi llbei mpa ir
ed.Inbr oadcast
ing ,wec anma k edo
withi neNc ientr ec
ei
v i
ng a ntenna s
,be causet he transmittersa r
ev ery
powe r
ful,buti ntwo-wa yc ommuni cat
ionswemus tha vepr operl
ys ized
antennas.Whe nas i
gna lisf e
di ntoana ntenna,thea ntennawi lle mit
radiat
iondi st
ribute
di ns paceinac erta
inwa y.Ag r
aphi ca
lr epres
entation
oft her ela
tivedi s
tri
butiono ft her a
diated poweri ns pac eisc al
leda
radiat
ionpa tt
ern.

Antenna term glossary

Be
forewet
alkabouts
pec
i0cant
enna
s,t
her
ear
eaf
ewc
ommo
nte
rmst
hat
mustbede
0nedandexpl
aine
d:

I
nputI
mpe
danc
e
Forane Nc ienttra
nsfe
rofe ne r
gy,theimpedanceoftheradi
o,a nte
nna,
andtransmi s
sioncabl
ec onnecti
ngt hem mustbet hesame.Transce
iver
s
andtheirtransmiss
ionli
nesa retypi
cal
lydesi
gnedfor50b impe dance
.If
theantennaha sani mpe dancedi1erentfrom 50 b therewi l
lbea
mismatcha ndr e
Wecti
onswi l
lo c
curunlessanimpedanc
ema tc
hingc i
rcui
t
isi
nser
ted.Whe nanyo fthesec omponentsar
emi s
ma t
che
d,transmiss
ion
eNcie
ncys u1e r
s.

Re
tur
nlo
ss
Ret
urnlossisanot
herwayofexpr
ess
ingmismatch.I
tisalo
gari
thmi
cra
tio
meas
ure
di ndBt hatco
mpar
esthepowe rr
eWec
tedbytheant
ennaPrtothe
po
werthatisfe
dintot
heant
ennafr
omt hetr
ans
missi
onli
nePi:

Re
tur
nLo
ss(
ind
B)=20l
og10Pi
/Pr
64 PHYSICS

Whi l
esomee nergywillalway
sber eWecte
dba ckintothesyste
m,ahi gh
r
e t
urnlos
swi l
lyie
lduna c
cepta
bleant
e nnaperfor
mance.
$ei nter
act
ionbe tweenthewa vetr
a vel
l
ingf r
omt het r
ansmitt
ertothe
ante
nnaa ndt hewa vereWec
tedb ythea ntennatowardsthet r
ansmi
tt
er
cre
ateswhatisknowna sas t
ati
onar
ywa v
e,there
for
ea nalt
ernat
ivewayto
measuretheimpe dancemi s
ma t
chisb yme ansoft heVolta
geS t
and
ing
Wa v
eRa t
io(VSWR) :

Re
tur
nLo
ss(
ind
B)=20l
og0(
1 VS
WR+
1/VS
WR-
1)

I
nape
rfe
ctl
yma
tche
dtr
ans
mis
si
onl
ine
,VS
WR=1.

I
npr
act
ic
e,wes
tr
ivet
oma
int
ai
naVS
WRbe
low2.

Ba
ndwi
dth
$eba ndwidtho fana nt
ennarefe
r stotherangeoffre
quenciesFH -FL
o
verwhicht heante
nnac a
no per
atec o
rre
ctl
y.$ea nt
enna'
sbandwidt
his
t
henumbe ro fHzf orwhichthea nte
nname e
tscert
ai
nr eq
uirement
s,li
ke
e
xhibi
ti
ngag ainwit
hin3dBo fthema xi
mum gainoraVSWRl e
sstha
n1.5.
$eba ndwidthcana l
sobede s
cri
bedi nter
mso fper
centa
geo fthecent
re
f
req
uencyoft heband.

Ba
ndwi
dth=100(
FH FL)
/FC

.
..whe
re FH ist hehi g
he s
tf r
equencyi nt heba nd,FL ist hel o
we s
t
fr
equencyi
nt heband,andFC isthecentrefrequencyi
nt heband.
Inthi
swa y,bandwidt
hi sconst
antrela
ti
v etofrequenc
y.Ifbandwidt
hwa s
expr
essedi
na bsol
uteuni t
so ffr
equency,itwouldbedi 1ere
ntde pe
nding
uponthecenterfr
equency.
Di1er
e ntt
ypesofante
nna shavedi1ere
ntba ndwidthli
mitat
ions.

Di
re
cti
vi
tya
ndGa
in
Dire
cti
vit
yi st heabil
it
yo fana nte
nnatofocusenergyinapa rt
ic
ular
dir
ect
ion whent ra
nsmitt
ing
,o rt orece
iveenergyfrom a part
ic
ular
dir
ect
ionwhe nr e
cei
ving
.
Ifawirel
esslinkus e
s0xedlo c
ati
onsfo
rbo t
he nds
,itispos
sibl
etouse
ant
ennadi r
ectivi
tyt oconcentr
atetheradi
at
ion bea
m i nthewa nte
d
dir
ect
ion.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 65

In amo bil
ea pplica
ti
o n wherethetrans
cei
verisnot0x ed,itma ybe
imposs
ibletopr edi
ctwhe rethetra
nscei
verwil
lbe,ands ot hea ntenna
shoul
di de
all
yr adi
atea s wel
la s po s
si
bleina l
l dire
c ti
ons. An
omnidir
ecti
onala nte
nnai susedi ntheseappl
ica
ti
ons.Ga i
nc annotbe
de0nedintermso faphy si
calqua
ntit
ysuchasthewattortheo hm,buti t
isadimensi
onlessrat
io.Ga i
nisgiv
eninr e
fer
encet
oas t
andarda ntenna.
$et womo stcommo nr e
fer
enceante
nnasaretheis
otr
opicant ennaa nd
thehal
f-wavedipoleantenna.

Di
re
cti
vi
tya
ndGa
in
Di recti
vityi sthea bi l
ityo fa na ntennat of ocuse nergyi napa rti
cula
r
direction whe nt r
a nsmi tting ,o rt or ece i
vee ne rg yf rom a pa rt
icula
r
directionwhe nr eceiving .Ifawi rel
e s
sl inkus es0x edl ocati
onsf orbo th
ends ,itispo ss
iblet ous ea ntennadi r
ectivitytoc onc entratether adiati
on
beam i nt he wa nte d di rec ti
on.I n a mo bil
ea pplicat
ion whe ret he
transceiveri sno t0x e d,i tma y be i mpo ssi
blet o pr edictwhe ret he
transceiverwi llbe ,a nds ot heant ennas houldi de all
yr adia t
ea swe l
las
po ss
iblei na l
ldi rect i
o ns.An o mni dire
c ti
ona la nte nnai sus edi nt hes
e
applications.Ga inc anno tbede 0ne di nt ermso faphy s
icalq uantitysuch
ast hewa tto rtheo hm,buti tisadi me nsionlessr a t
io.Ga i
ni sg ivenin
referencetoas tanda rda ntenna .
$et womo stco mmo nr eferencea ntenna sa rethei sotropica ntennaa nd
theha l
f-wa vedi po l
ea ntenna .$ei so
tropi cantennar adiatesequa l
lywe ll
ina lldi recti
ons.Re a li sotropica ntenna sdono te xis
t,butt he ypr ovi
de
usefula nds impl et he oreticala nte
nnapa tternswi thwhi cht oc ompa rereal
antenna s.Anyr eala nt ennawi l
lr adiatemo ree ne rgyi ns omedi rectio
ns
thani no thers
.S inc ea nte nnasc anno tc reat
ee ne rgy,t het otalpo we r
radiatedi st hes a mea sa ni sot
ro pica ntenna .Any a ddi ti
onale ner
gy
radiatedi nt hedi rectioni tfa voursiso 1se tbye qua llyl es
se nergyr adiat
ed
ins omeo therdi rection. $eg aino fa na ntennai nag ivendi recti
oni sthe
amo unto fe nerg yr adia tedi nthatdi rectionc ompa re
dt ot hee ne r
g yan
isotr
o pica ntennawo uldr adi at
ei nt hes a medi rec tionwhe ndr i
venwi th
thes a mei nputpo we r.Us ua l
lywea r
eo nlyi nterestedi nt hema ximum
gain,whi chi stheg aini nt hedi r
e cti
oni nwhi cht hea ntennai sradiati
ng
mo sto ft hepo we r,t hes oc al
ledb ore
sight.An a ntennag aino f3dB
compa redt oa ni so tropica nt e
nnawo uldbewr i
t t
e na s3dBi .$eha lf
-
wa vedi polec anbeaus efuls t
andardf orc ompa ringt oo thera ntennasa t
onef reque ncyo ro verav eryna r
rowba ndo ffreque nc i
es.
Unl iket hei sot
ro pic,i sv er ye asytobui lda nds ome ti
me sma nuf a
cturer
s
66 PHYSICS

wil
lexpressthegai
nwithref
erencet otheha l
f-
wa vedipoleinste
adoft he
i
sotr
opic
.Ana nte
nnagainof3dBc ompa r
edt oadi polea nt
ennawo uld
bewrit
tena s3dBd.S i
nceaha lf
-wa vedipol
eha sag ai
no f2.15dBi,we
ca
n0ndt hedBigainofanyantennab yadding2.15toi t
sdBdg ai
n.
$eme tho do fmeas
uri
ngg ainb ycompa ri
ngt hea ntennaunde rte s
t
ag
ains
ta k nown sta
ndarda ntenna,whi ch hasa c a
li
br at
edg ai
n,i s
t
echnic
all
yk nowna sagai
ntransfertec
hnique.

Ra
dia
ti
onPa
tte
rn
$er a di
ationpa tt
erno rantennapa tt
e rnde sc
ribesther el
at
iv
estre
ngthof
ther adiated0e ldi nv ar
iousdirect
ionsf r o
mt hea ntenna,ataconst
ant
dist
anc e.$er a
diati
o npatter
ni sare ceptionpa t
terna swell
,si
nceital
so
describest her ece
ivingpr oper
tiesoft hea ntenna,a sac onse
quenceof
reci
pro cit
y.$er adiati
on patte
rni st hree-di
me ns i
onal,butusual
lythe
publishedr adi
ation patte
rnsa r
eat wo -di
me nsi
o nalsli
ceo fthethre
e-
dime ns i
onalpa t
tern,intheho ri
zontala ndv er
tica
lpl a
nes.
$e sepa ttern mea s
urementsa r
epr ese nt
e dine i
therar ect
angul
arora
po l
arf orma t.
$ef oll
owi ng0g ures howsar ect
ang ula
rpl otpr ese
ntati
ono fat y
pica
l
ten-eleme ntYa g
ia ntennaradi
ati
o npa t
t er
n.
$ede tai
li sgoodbuti tisdiNculttov i
suali
zet heantennabehavi
ourin
di1erentdi rect
ions.

Fi
gur
eATL7:Ar
ec
tang
ula
rpl
oto
fth
era
dia
tio
npa
tte
rno
faY
agia
nte
nna
.
P
ola
rco
ordi
nat
esy
ste
msa
reus
eda
lmo
stuni
ver
sal
l
y.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 67

Inthepo l
ar-
coor
dinategraph,pointsarelo
c a
tedb ypro j
ecti
ona l
onga
rot
atingaxis(ra
dius)toa ni nt
ers
ecti
on wit
ho neo fsever
a lconc
ent
ri
c
ci
rcl
e stha
trepre
sentthecorres
pongg ai
nindB,r efe
rence
dt o0dBa tt
he
outeredgeoftheplot.
$i sr e
pre
senta
ti
onma ke
si teas
ie
rt ogras
pt her a
dia
ldistr
ibuti
ono ft
he
ant
ennapo we r
.
Fig
ur eATL8i sapo l
arplotofthesame10e l
eme ntYagiantenna.

Fi
gur
eATL8:ep
ola
rra
dia
tio
npa
tte
rnp
loto
fth
esa
mea
nte
nna

$e0 e
ldpatt
e r
ntha texis
tsclos
et otheantennaisdi1er
entfromtheone
a
tadista
nce,whichi stheo neo finte
res
t.$ef ar-0el
disalsoca
ll
edthe
r
adi
at
ion 0el
d.Fo rr adiat
ion patt
e r
n me as
ure
me ntiti simport
antto
c
hoos
eadi s
tancesuNc ie
ntlyla
rge.
$emi nimum pe rmissi
bledist
ancede pendsont hedi mensi
onsofthe
a
nte
nnainrelat
iontot hewa ve
length.
68 PHYSICS

$ea
cce
pte
dfo
rmul
afo
rthi
sdi
st
anc
eis
:

rn =2
mi d
2
/

wher
er n i
mi sthemini
mum di
sta
ncefro
mt hea nt
enna
,di
sthel
ar
ges
t
di
mensi
onofthea
nte
nna nd i
,a sthewave
leng
th.

Be
amwi
dth
Ana ntenna 'sbe amwi dthi sus ua ll
yunde rst
o odt ome ant heha lf-power
beamwi dth.$epe akr adiationi ntensi
tyi sfound,a ndthent hepo intson
eit
hers ideo fthepe aka twhi cht hepo we rha sreduc edb yha l
fa r
el ocate
d.
$ea ng ulardi stancebe t
we ent heha lfpo we rpo intsisde 0neda sthe
beamwi dth.Ha lft hepo we re xpre s
sedi nde ci
be l
si s-3dB,s ot heha l
f
powe rbe amwi dthi sso me time sre fe
rredt oa st he3dBb ea
mwi dth.Bo th
horizont alandv erti
calbe amwi dtha reus uallyc onside re
d.
Assumi ngt hatmo sto ft her a
dia t
e dpo we ri sno tdi vi
dedi nt oside l
obes
,
the di recti
v ea nd he nc et he g ai
ni si nversely pr oportionalt ot he
beamwi dth:a sthebe amwi dt hde crease
s ,theg ai
ni nc reas
es.
Av eryhi ghg aina ntennac anha v eabe amwi dtho faf ewde g re
esa ndwi l
l
havet obepo i
ntedv er
yc are
fullyi no rderno tt omi ssthet ar
g et.$e
beamwi dthi sde 0ne db yt heha lfpo werpo intsa ndi nturnde te
rmi nesthe
coveragea r
ea.
Co veragea r
e areferst og e ographic alspac e il
lumi na te
db yt hea ntenna
andi ti sr oug hl
yde 0nedb ythei nter
se cti
o no ft hebe amwi dthwi ththe
ear
ths urface.Onaba s
es tati
on,i tisno rma l
lyde sire
dt oma x
imi sethe
coveragea rea,buts o me time so ne mus tr es
o rtt o downt il
ti
ng t he
antenna ,e i
therme chanica l
lyo re lectri
ca l
ly,ino rde rtopr ovideserv i
cesto
custome rsv eryc loset ot he ba s
es tati
o na nd t heref
ore be low t he
beamwi dtho fano nt il
teda ntenna .$i sdo wnt i
ltingc ouldbea c hie
ved
byme cha nicall
yi ncli
ningt hea nt enna,buto ft
ent hebe amc anbes teer
ed
byc hang ingt hepha seo ft hes i
g nalappl i
edt ot hedi 1erente leme ntsof
thea ntennai nwha tiskno wna se lect
ri
ca l
lydo wnt i
lting.

S
ide
lobe
s
Noa nte
nnaisa bl
etor adi
at
ea l
ltheenergyino nepre
fer
reddir
ect
ion.
Somei sine
vit
ablyradi
atedino t
herdire
cti
ons.Thes
esmalle
rpeaksare
r
efe
rre
dt oassi
delo
bes
,commo nl
yspec
i0edindBdo wnfr
omt hemai
nlobe.
I
na nte
nnadesi
gn,aba l
ancemustbestr
uckbetweengai
nands i
del
obes
.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 69

Nul
l
s
Ina nantennara
diati
onpa t
ter
n,anul li
saz oneinwhichthee 1e
cti
ve
radi
ate
dpo weri
sa taminimum.Anul lof
tenhasanar
rowdire
cti
vi
tyang
le
compare
dt othato fthemain bea
m.$us ,thenulli
sus e
fulforse
ver
al
purpos
es,s
uchassuppr
ess
ionofint
erf
eri
ngs
igna
lsinagi
vendi
rect
ion

P
ola
ri
zat
ion
Po
lar
izat
ionisde 0nedastheo r
ie
ntat
iono ftheel
ec t
ri
c0 el
do fa
n
e
lec
tro
ma gne
ticwave.
$einiti
alpo
lari
zat
ionofar
adi
owaveisdet
ermi
nedbytheante
nna.
Mostant
ennasar
ee i
the
rver
ti
cal
l
yorhori
zont
all
ypol
ar
iz
e d.

Fig
ureATL9: eel
ect
ricCel
di spe
rpendi
cul
artomagnet
icCel
d,
bot
hofwhi
chareper
pendic
ulartothedir
ect
ionofpr
opag
ati
on.

$epo l
ari
zat
iono
fthetr
a ns
mi t
ti
ng and t
her
ece
ivi
ng a
nte
nnamus
t
ma
tch,o
rav er
ybi
glo
sswi
llbeincur
red.
70 PHYSICS

Somemo der
ns yst
emst akea dvantageo fpo lar
iz
ati
onb yse ndi
ngt wo
i
nde pendentsignalsa tthes amef requency
,s e
parat
edb ythepo l
ar
ization.
Pola
r i
zati
oni si ng eneralde s
cribedb ya ne ll
ipse
.Twos pecialcaseso f
ell
i
pt i
calpol
arizat
iona relinearpo l
ari
zatio
na ndc i
rcul
arpolar
izati
on.
Wi t
hl i
nearpo lar
iza
tion,thee le
ctri
c0e ldv ec
torst
aysinthesamepl a
nea l
l
thetime.
$ee l
ectr
ic 0eld ma yleavet hea nt e
nnai n av e
rti
calorienta
tion,a
hori
z o
ntalori
e ntat
ion,o ratsomea nglebetweenthetwo.
Vert
icall
ypo l
ar i
zedr adi
ati
o niss ome whatlessa1ecte
db yr e
We ct
ionso ver
thetransmis
sionpa th.
Omni direc
tio
na lantennasno rmallyha vevert
ica
lpo l
ari
zat
ion.
Ho r
izontalantennasa r
el essli
ke l
yt opi ckupma n-ma dei nter
ference,
whicho rdi
narilyisverti
callypolari
zed.

I
nc i
rc
ularpol
ari
zat
iontheele
ctr
ic0e
ldvectorappear
stober ot
ati
ngwith
ci
rc
ula
rmo ti
ona bo
utthedi r
ect
ionofpropaga
tio
n,ma kingonefullt
urn
f
oreachRFc y
cle
.
$isrota
ti
onma yberig
ht-handorle
ft-
hand.
Choi
ceo fpol
ari
zat
ioniso neofthedesi
g nchoice
sa v
aila
blet
ot heRF
s
yst
em desi
gne
r.

P
ola
ri
zat
ionMi
sma
tch
I
no r
dertotra
nsf
erma x
imum powe
rbet
wee
nat r
ans
mitandarec
eiv
e
a
nte
nna,bot
ha nt
ennasmustha
vethes
amespa
ti
alor
ie
nta
ti
on,a
ndthe
s
amepola
ri
zat
ionsens
e.

Whe nt heantennasareno tal

ig
ne do rdono thav
ethesa mepolari
zat
ion,
therewillbear e
ducti
oni npowe rtransfe
rbet
weenthetwoa nt
ennas.$i s
reduct
ioni npo wertransf
erwillreducet heov
era
llsys
teme Nciencyand
perfor
ma nce.
Whe nt het ransmitand r e
cei
v ea ntennasar
ebo t
hl inea
rly pol
ari
zed,
physic
ala nt
ennami sa
li
g nmentwi l
lresultinapol
ari
zat
ionmi s
ma tc
hloss,
whichc anbede ter
mine dusi
ngthef oll
owingfo
rmula:

Lo
ss(
dB)=20l
og1
0(c
os)

.
..
where i
sthedi
1er
enc
eint
hepo
lar
iz
ati
ona
ngl
ebe
twe
ent
het
wo
a
ntenna
s.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 71

For15thelo
ssisapprox
imat
el
y0.3dB,f or30wel
ose1.
25dB,fo
r45
welos
e3dBa ndf or90wehaveanin0nit
eloss
.
Inshor
t,thegr
eate
rt hemis
matchinpo l
ar
iza
ti
onbet
weenatra
nsmit
ti
ng
andrec
eivi
ngant
enna,thegr
eat
erthelos
s.

I
nt her ealwo rl
d,a90mi s
ma t
chi npo la
rizat
ioni squi telargebutno t
i
n0nite.S omea ntennas,sucha sYa giso rc ana ntennas,c an bes i
mpl y
r
o t
ated90t oma tchthepo lar
izatio
no ftheo there ndo ft hel i
nk.
Youc a
nus ethepo l
ari
zati
one 1ecttoy oura dvantageo napo int-t
o-po i
nt
l
ink.
Useamo nitori
ngt ooltoo bserveinte r
fer
e ncefroma djacentne t
wo rks
,a nd
r
o t
ateo nea ntennaunt ily ous eet hel owestr eceiveds i
g nal.$e nbr ing
yourli
nko nli
nea ndo ri
entatet heo t
he rendt oma tchpo larizati
on.
$i stechniquec ans ometi
me sbeus e dtobui lds t
a bl
el i
nk s,e veninno i
sy
r
adioe nvironme nts
.
Pola
ri
za t
ionmi s
ma tchc anbee xpl
o it
edt os endt wodi 1e rents ig
nalso n
t
hes amef requencya tthesa met ime ,thusdo ublingt het hroug hputo fthe
l
ink.Spe c
iala ntennasthatha vedua lfeedsc anbeus edf ort hispurpo se
.
$e yha vet woRFc o
nne c
to r
st hata tt
acht ot woi nde pende ntr adi
os.$e
r
eallifet hroughputi ss ome wha tl owert ha nt wi c
et hes inglea nt
e nna
t
hroughputbe causeofthei nevita
blec rosspo la
ri
z atio
ni nterference.

Fr
ont
-to-
bac
kra
ti
o
Itiso fte
n us ef
ult oc omparethe fr
ont-t
o-backr at
ioo fdirect
ional
ante
nna s
.$i sisther at
ioo ft
hema xi
mum direct
ivit
yofana nt
ennat oi t
s
dir
ecti
vit
yint heo pposi
tedire
cti
on.
Forex a
mple,whe nt her a
diat
ionpatt
ernisplot
tedo narela
tiv
edBs cale
,
thefront-
to-backr ati
oi sthedi1er
enceindB be twee
nt heleve
lo ft he
maximum r adi
a t
ionint heforwar
ddirect
ionandt heleve
lofradiat
iona t
180de gr
eesfromi t.
$i snumbe risme aningl
essforanomnidir
ect
ionalante
nna,butitisquite
rel
evantwhe nbuildingas yst
em withrepea
ters
,inwhi chthesignalsent
backwardwillinte
r f
erewiththeuse
fulsi
gnalandmus tbemi ni
mised.

Ant
ennaApe
rtur
e
$ee l
ect
ri
cal
aper
ture
ofar e
cei
vi
ngante
nnaisde0ne
dasthec
ros
s
s
ect
ionofaparabol
icant
ennat
hatwoul
ddeli
vert
hesamepo
wert
oa
mat
chedl
oad.
72 PHYSICS

Iti
seasytoseetha
tapa ra
bo l
icgri
dhasa napert
ureverysi
milart
oas o
lid
par
aboloi
d.
$ea pert
ureofanantennaisproport
ionalt
otheg ai
n.
Byreci
proci
ty
,theaper
tureisthesameforatransmit
tingant
enna.
Noti
cethattheconce
pto fapert
ureisno te
asi
lyvis
ualis
edinthecas
eofa
wir
ea nte
nnai nwhicht hephy si
calareaisnegli
gi
bl e
.Inthiscas
et he
ant
ennaapert
uremustbede ri
v e
dfromt hef
o r
mulao fthega
in.

Types of antennas
Ac
las
si
0ca
ti
ono
fant
enna
sca
nbeba
sedo
n:

Fr
eque
ncya
nds
iz
e.
Ant e
nnasuse
df orHFa r
edi 1e r
entfro
ma ntennasuse
df orVHF,whi
chin
turnaredi
1erentfroma ntenna sformic
rowave
.$ewa vel
engt
hisdi
1er
entat
di1ere
ntfre
que nci
es,sot hea nt
ennasmustbedi 1e
rentinsiz
etoradi
at
e
signal
satt
hec orr
ectwa v
ele
ng th.
Wea r
epart
icular
lyintere
stedi na nt
ennasworki
ngi nthemicro
wavera
nge,
especi
al
lyi
nthe2. 4GHza nd5GHzf reque
ncies
.
At2.4GHzt hewa ve
lengt
hi s12.5c m,whil
eat5GHzi tis6cm.

Di
re
cti
vi
ty.
Ante
nnascanbeo mni di
re
cti
ona
l,s
ect
ori
alo
rdire
cti
ve.Omnidir
ect
iona
l
ant
ennasradi
at
er oughlythesa
mes i
gna
lalla
round thea
ntennaina
comple
te360pat
tern.

$emo s
tpopul
artypesofomnidi
rec
ti
o nalant
ennasar
ethedipol
eand
t
hegr
oundpla
ne.Sect
ori
alant
ennasradia
tepri
ma r
il
yinaspeci0car
ea.
$ebea
mc a
nbea swideas180deg
rees
,o rasna
rrowas60deg
rees.

Dir
ect
ionalordir
ect
iv
ea nte
nnasareant
enna
sinwhic
ht hebe
amwidt
his
muchna r
rowert
hanins ec
tori
alant
ennas
.$e yha
vethehi
ghe
stg
ainand
ar
ether
eforeus
edforlo
ngdi s
tanc
elinks
.

Ty
peso fdir
ect
iv
eante
nnasa r
etheYa g
i,t
hebiq
uad,t
heho r
n,t
he
he
li
coi
dal
,thepat
cha
ntenna
,thepa
rabo
li
cdis
h,a
ndmanyot
her
s.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 73

Fi
gur
eATL10:Ant
ennat
ype
s

Phys
ica
lco
nstr
ucti
on.
Ante
nnasca
nbec ons
truct
edi
nma nydi1e
rentwa
ys,r
ang
ingf
roms
impl
e
wir
es,t
opara
boli
cdis
hes,t
oco1e
ec a
ns.

Whenconsi
der
inga
ntenna
ssui
ta
blef
or2.
4GHzWLAN us
e,a
not
her
c
las
si
0ca
ti
oncanbeuse
d:

Applica
tio
n.
Ac c
esspointstendt oma kepo int
- t
o- multipointnetworks,whileremo te
l
ink sorba ckbone sa r
epo i
nt-t
o-po int.Ea c ho fthes
es ugges
tdi 1erent
typesofa nte
nnasf orthe i
rpur pose.No dest hatareusedf ormul t
ipoint
acces
swillli
kelyuseo mnia ntennaswhi chr a dia
teequal
lyina l
ldirecti
ons,
ors e
vera
ls e
ctori
ala nte
nnase achfo cusi
ngi nt oas mal
larea.Inthepo int-
to-poi
ntca s
e,antennasa r
eusedt oc onne cttwos ingl
eloca
tionstogether
.
Di r
ect
iveantennasarethepr i
ma ryc ho i
cef o
rt hisappl
ica
ti
o n.
A briefli
sto fcommo nt ypeo fa ntenna sfo rthe2.4GHzf r
equencyi s
prese
ntedno w,withas hortdescri
ptiona ndba si
cinfor
ma ti
ona bouttheir
charac
teri
sti
cs.
74 PHYSICS

1/
4wa
vel
eng
thg
roundpl
ane
.
$e 1 4 wav
ele
ng t
hg round plane a nte
nna i sv erys i
mpl eini ts
co
nstr
ucti
onandi susef
ulf orcommuni cat
ionswhens iz
e ,cos
ta ndeas
eo f
co
nstr
ucti
ona rei mportant.$i sa ntenna isde s
ignedt ot ra
nsmita
ve
rti
cal
lypol
ari
zeds i
gnal
.I tconsi
st
so fa14wa vel
engthe le
me ntasact
iv
e
el
ementandthre
eo rf o
ur1 4wa v
ele
ng t
hg roundeleme ntsbent30t o45
deg
reesdown.$i sseto felements
,call
edr adia
ls
,isk no wna sag r
ound
pl
ane.

Fi
gur
eATL11:Qu
art
erwa
vel
eng
thg
rou
ndp
lanea
nte
nna
.

$isi
sasimpleande
1ec
ti
vea
ntennatha
tc a
nc a
ptureasig
nale
qua
ll
y
f
romal
ldi
re
cti
ons
.$egai
noft
hisant
ennaisi
ntheordero
f2-4dBi.

Ya
gi-
Udaa
nte
nna
A basi
cYa giormo reproper
lyYagi-
Udaa nt
ennaconsi
st
so fac er
tai
n
numbe ro fs t
rai
ght el
ements,e a
ch mea s
uri
ng appr
oximat
ely hal
f
wa v
ele
ngth.$edr i
venora c
ti
vee l
emento
faYa gii
sthee q
uiva
lentofa
centr
e-f
ed,hal
f-
wavedipo
leantenna
.

Para
ll
eltot
hedrivenel
ement
,andappr
oxi
matel
y0.2to0.5wa
vel
engt
ho n
ei
thersi
deofit
,arest
rai
ghtr
odsorwir
esca
ll
edreWe
ctor
sanddir
ect
ors
,or
si
mplypass
ivee
lements
.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 75

Ar eWectorisplacedbe hindthedrivene l
eme ntandisslig
ht l
ylong e
rthan
halfwa ve
length;direc
torsareplac
edinf ronto fthedri
vene le
me ntanda r
e
sl
ightlysho r
terthanha lfwavel
ength.At ypicalYagihaso ner e
Wectorand
oneo rmo r
edi re
ctors
.
$ea ntennapr opagatese l
ect
roma g
ne t
ic 0e l
de nergyint hedi r
ect
ion
running f r
om t hedr ivene le
me ntt owardt hedi re
ctors,and ismo s
t
sensi
tivetoinc ominge lect
romagneti
c0e lde ner
g yinthissamedi rec
ti
on.
$emo redirecto
rsaYa gihas,thegreat
ert hegain.
Fo l
lowing ist hepho too faYa gia ntennawi t
h 5 direct
o r
sa nd one
reWector
.Ya giantennasareofte
ne ncl
osedi nac yli
ndri
calradomet oa1ord
protecti
onf r
o mt hewe at
her.

Fi
gur
eATL12:Y
agi
-Ud
a

Yagiant
enna
sareus
ed pr
imar
il
yf o
rP o
int-
to-
Poi
ntli
nks
,haveaga
in
fr
om 10to20dBia
ndaho r
iz
onta
lbeamwidt
hof10to20deg
ree
s.

Ho
rn
$e ho rna nte
nna deri
vesits name from t he chara
cte
ri
stic War
ed
appea
rance.
$eWa redpo rt
ioncanbesquar
e,r
ectangul
ar
,cy l
indr
ica
lorconic
a l
.
$edi recti
ono fma xi
mum r a
dia
tionc or
res
po ndswiththea xisofthe
horn.
Itise
asi
lyfedwi t
hawa veg
uide
,butc anbefedwi thacoaxi
alcableanda
prope
rtransi
tio
n.
Whi l
eitisc umbers
omet omakeaho rnantennaa thome,ac yli
ndri
cal
canwithproperdimens
ionswil
lhavesimil
archaract
eri
st
ic
s.
76 PHYSICS

Fi
gur
eATL13:Fe
edh
ornma
def
rom af
oodc
an.

Ho r
na nt
e nnasarecommo nl
y use
da sthea c
ti
v eele
menti n a dish
ante
nna.$eho r
nispointedtowar
dthec e
ntreofthedis
hreWect
or.
$eus eo faho r
n,rat
he rthanadi pol
ea nt
ennao ranyo the
rt ypeof
ante
nna,atthefoca
lpointofthedis
hmi ni
mi z
eslo
s so
fener
g yaroundthe
edgeso
fthedi s
hreWec
tor.
At2.4GHz ,asi
mpleho r
na nt
ennama dewithatincanhasag ai
ni nthe
orde
rof10dBi .

Pa
rabo
li
cDi
sh
Antennasbasedo n par
abol
icreWect
orsarethemo stc ommo ntypeo f
dir
ecti
veantennaswhenahighgainisre
quire
d.
$ema inadvantagei
sthatt
heycanbema detohaveg a
ina nddir
ect
iv
it
y
asla
rgea srequi
red.$ema indisa
dvanta
geisthatbigdishesar
ediNcult
tomo untanda r
elike
lytohavealar
gewindload.
Randome scanbeus e
dt ore
ducethewindl o
adorwi ndage,aswel
lasfor
weat
he rpro
tecti
on.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 77

Fi
gur
eATL14:As
ol
idd
isha
nte
nna
.

Dishe suptoo neme tr

ea reusual
l
yma defro
ms oli
dma ter
ial
.
Alumi num isfrequentl
yus edforit
swe i
ghtadvanta
ge,it
sdur a
bil
it
ya nd
goode lect
ri
calchara
c t
eri
sti
cs.
Wi nda geincre
ase
sr a
pidly wit
h dis
hs i
zea nd soon becomesas ever
e
problem.Di sheswhichha vear eWec
ti
ngsurfac
et ha
tus e
sa nopenme sh
ar
ef requentl
yused.
$e sehaveapo orerfront-t
o-bac
krati
o,butaresafe
rtous eandeasi
erto
build.
Co ppe r
,aluminum,br a s
s,galv
aniz
eds t
eeland ste
ela r
es ui
tabl
eme sh
ma teri
als
.
78 PHYSICS

Bi
Qua
d
$eBi Qua da ntennai ss i
mpl etobuilda ndo 1er
sg o
oddi r
ecti
vit
ya nd
gainforP oi
nt-to-Pointcommuni cati
ons.Itconsi
st
so fatwos quar
eso ft
he
s
a mes iz
eo f14wa velengtha saradi
ati
nge le
me ntando fame t
all
icplat
e
org r
ida sreWec
t or
.$i sa ntennahasabe amwidthofa bout70de gr
eesand
ag ai
ni ntheo rdero f10-12dBi .I
tc a
nbeus edasstand-a
loneantennaor
asfeederforaPa raboli
cDi sh.
$epo l
ari
zati
oni ssucht hatlooki
nga ttheantennafromt hefront
,ifthe
s
q uar
e sareplac
e dsideb ysidethepola
rizat
ionisver
tical
.

Fi
gur
eATL15:eBi
Qua
d.

Lo
gPe
ri
odi
cAnt
enna
s
Logpe ri
odicant
ennasha vemo der
ategai
no verawidef re
q ue
ncyba nd,
$e ya r
eoftenus
edins pectr
um anal
yse
rsforte
sti
ngpurposesandarealso
popularasTV r e
cei
vinga ntenna
ssincetheycaneNc i
entl
yc overfrom
channel2upt ochanne l14.$e seante
nnasa r
eus edin Whi t
es pace
devic
esthatre
qui
rethea bil
it
ytowo r
kinwi de
lydi1e
rentchannel
s.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 79

Fi
gur
eATL16:Lo
gpe
ri
odi
cant
enna

Ot
herAnt
enna
s
Ma nyo thertypesofa ntennasex i
standne wo nesarecrea
tedfoll
owing
advancesintec
hno log
y.
SectororS ect
o r
ialantennas:theya rewidel
yus edinc el
l
ulartel
ephony
inf
rast
ructureand a r
eus uall
ybui ltaddingar eWect
iveplat
et ooneo r
mo rephaseddipoles
.
$e irhorizo
ntalbeamwi dthcanbea swideas180de gr
ees
,orasnarrowas
60de gr
ees,whiletheverti
calisusuall
ymuc hnarr
o wer
.
Co mpositeantennascan bebui l
twi thma nyS ect
orstoc ov
erawi der
horizo
ntalrange(multi
sectori
alantenna)
.
Panelo rPa tc
ha nte
nna s
:t heya res ol
id Watpa nel
susedf orindoor
covera
ge,withag ainupt o23dBi .
80 PHYSICS

Re'ector theory
$eba sicpro
pertyo fape rf
ectpar
abo l
icreWe
ctorist
hatitconve
rtsa
spheri
calwaveirr
adia
tingfrom apointsourcepla
cedatthefoc
usintoa
planewa ve
.Conv e
rse
ly,al
ltheener
gyr ec
eiv
edb ythedi
shfro
m adi s
tant
sourc
ei sre
Wect
edtoas ing
lepointa
tt hefoc
usofthedis
h.$epo si
ti
ono f
thefocus,orf
ocalle
ngth,i
sg i
venby:

f=D2/
16c

.
..
whereD i
sthedi
shdi
ame
tera
ndci
sthede
ptho
fthepa
rabo
laa
tit
s
c
entr
e.

$es i
zeofthedishist
hemo s
timport
antf
act
orsi
nceitdet
ermi
nest
he
maxi
mum ga i
nt hatca
n beachi
eve
da tthegiv
enf r
eque
ncyand t
he
r
esul
ti
ngbea
mwi dth.$egai
nandbeamwidt
hobtai
nedareg
ive
nby:

Ga
in=(
(3.
14D)
2
/2)

Be
amwi
dth=70 /D

..
.wher eD i sthedis
hdi amete
ra nd isthee Nci
ency.$ee Nciencyis
determi nedma i
nlybyt hee1ec
tivene
ssofil
luminat
iono fthedis
hb ythe
feed,buta ls
ob yotherfact
ors.Eachtimet hediame te
ro fadi s
hi s
double d,thegainisf
o urti
meso r6dBg r
e a
ter
.Ifbot
hs tat
ionsdoublethe
siz
eo ft hei
rdishes
,signalst
rengthcan beincre
ase
db y12dB,av ery
substantialgai
n.An e Ncie
ncyo f50% c an bea ss
ume d when ha nd-
buildi
nga nte
nnas.

$er ati
of/D ( f
ocalleng t
h/di
ameteroft hedi s
h)ist hefundamenta
l
f
act
org over
ningthede s
igno fthefeedforadi s
h.$er at
ioisdire
ctl
y
r
el
ate
dt ot hebe amwidtho fthef e
edne c
e ss
arytoi ll
uminatethedish
e
1ect
ivel
y.Twodi s
heso ft hes a
medi amet
e rbutdi 1er
e ntfoca
llengt
hs
r
equi
redi1erentde s
ignoff ee
di fbotharet obei ll
uminatedeNc i
ent
ly.
$ev al
ueo f0.25c or
res
po ndst othecommo nfocal-
pla
nedi shinwhich
t
hefocusisinthesamepla neastherimo fthedish.
$eo pti
mum i l
luminat
iono fadishisacompr omisebetweenma xi
misi
ng
t
hegainandmi nimisi
ngthes i
del
obes.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 81

Ampli2ers
Asme nti
onede arl
ier
,a ntennasdono tac tual
lycreat
epo we r
.$e ys i
mpl y
dire
cta llavail
ablepo we ri ntoapa rt
icularpa t
tern.Byus ingapo wer
ampl i
0er,youc anus eDC po we rtoa ug menty oura vai
labl
es ignal.An
ampl i
0erconne ct
sbe t
we ent her adiotransmi t
terandt heantenna,a ndha s
ana dditi
onalcablethatco nnectstoapo we rsource
.
Ampl i0er
sa reavail
abletha two rka t2.4GHz ,andc ana dds ever
alWa tt
s
ofpo wertoy ourtransmission.$e sedev icesse
nsewhe na na t
t a
chedr adio
istransmitt
ing,andq uicklypo we rupa nda mplif
yt hes i
gnal.$e yt hen
swit
c ho 1a gai
nwhe nt ransmissione nds .Whe nr ecei
vi
ng ,theya lsoa dd
ampl i
0cati
ont othes i
gna lbe f
ores endi
ngi ttotheradio.
Unfo rt
unatel
y,simplya ddinga mpl i0er
swi l
lnotma gical
lysolveallofy our
netwo rk
ingpr o
blems .
Wedono tdi s
cusspo wera mpl i0ersatl engthint hisboo kbe ca
uset he r
e
areanumbe rofsigni0cantdr awba ckstous i
ngthem:

$e ya ree xpensive.Ampl i0ersmus two rka tr el

ative l
y
wideba ndwidthsa t2.4GHz ,a ndmus ts witc
hq uick l
y
enought owo rkf orWi -Fia ppli
cat
io ns.
$e y provide no a dditi
ona ldirectional
ity.Hi g
hg a i
n
antennasno to nlyi mprovethea vai
lablea mo unto fsigna l,
butt endt or ej
ectno is
ef romo t
herdi rect
io ns.Ampl i0e r
s
bli
ndlya mplifybo thde si
reda ndi nterfer
ings ignal
s,a nd
canma keinte r
ferenceproblemswo rse.
Ampl i0ersge ner
a t
eno iseforo therus ersoft heba nd.By
increa
singy o uro utputpo we r
,y oua rec r
ea ti
ngal oude r
sourceo fno i
sef oro t
he ruserso ft heunl icensedba nd.
Co nversel
y,a ddinga ntennag ainwi llimpr o vey o
url ink
and c ana ctually decreaset he no i
sel e velfory our
neighbour s
.
Usinga mpli0ersi so f
teni l
legal
.Ev e r
yc o untryimpo s e
s
powe rlimitso nus eo funlicense
ds pectr
um.Addi nga n
antennat oahi ghlya mpli0eds i
gna lwi l
llik e
lyc a
us et he
l
inkt oe xceedleg a
ll i
mits.

Ante
nnascos
tfarles
sthanamps
,and c
ani
mpr
oveal
inks
impl
yby
cha
ngingt
heant
ennaononee
nd.
82 PHYSICS

Usingmo resensit
iveradi
osandg oodquali
tyc abl
ea l
sohelpssi
gni0cant
ly
onlongdistancewi r
el
essli
nks
.
$e setechniquesa r
eunl i
kel
yt ocauseproblemsf oro t
heruserso fthe
band,ands ower ecomme ndpursui
ngthem befo r
eaddingampli0er
s.
Ma nyma nufactur
e r
so 1erhighpowe rvers
ionso ftheirWi Firadi
o sat
both2a nd5GHz ,whichhaveabuiltinampli0ers.
$e seareb ett
ert hane x
ter
nalampli0ers
,butdono tassumet hatitis
al
wa y
ss martt ous ethehighpo werv er
si
on,f orma nya ppli
cati
ont he
st
andardpo wercoupledwithahighg ai
nantennai sact
ual
lybett
e r
.

Practical antenna designs

$ec os
to f2.4GHza nte
nna sha sfall
e ndramati
cal
lywit
ht heincr
e a
sed
popula
rityo fWi Fi.I nnovati
ve de si
g nsuses imple
rpa rt
sa nd fewer
ma t
eri
alstoa chiev
ei mpr e
ssi
veg ain withr el
ati
vel
yl i
ttl
e ma chini
ng.
Unfort
una t
ely
,avai
labi
lityofg ooda ntennasisst
il
lli
mitedins omea r
easof
theworld,andimpo rt
ingt hemc anbee xpensi
ve.
Whi l
ea ct
uall
ydesigni
nga na ntennac anbeac omple
xa nde rror
-prone
proce
ss,const
ruct
inga ntennasfroml o ca
ll
ya va
il
ablecompo nentsisvery
str
ai
ghtfor
wa r
d,andc anbeal oto ffun.

I
nAppendi
xA c al
le
dAnt e
nnaCo ns
tr
uct
ionwepres
ents
omepr
act
ic
al
a
nte
nnades
ignst
hatcanbebui
ltf
orver
yli
tt
lemone
y.

Antenna measurements
Pr
eci
s e a nte
nna i ns
tr
ume nts re
quir
e e xpe
nsi
ve instr
ument
s a nd
i
nsta
lla
tions.Itisther
efor
ea dvi
sa
bletoo bt
aintheante
nnapa r
ameter
s
va
luesdir
e ct
lyfr
om areputa
blemanufac
tur
er.
An a nechoicc ha
mbe ri s ne e
ded to pe r
for
m a ccura
te ant
enna
measure
me nts,o
the
rwisethereWe
cti
onswil
lcaus
efal
ser
eadings
.

Icea 1ec
tsthepe r
forma nceo falla nte
nna stos omedegre
ea nd t
he
problemg e
tsmores e
riousa thig
herf requenci
es.$ei mpe
danceoffre
e
spaceis377ohms.Ifthea i
rimme dia
te l
ysurroundi
ngthedi
poleel
ement
s
isreplac
edb yicewhi ch ha sa lowe ri mpedancethanair
,thenthe
impedancematc
ha ndr a
di a
ti
o npatt
ernso ftheante
nnawil
lchang
e.

$e
sec
hang
esbe
comepr
ogr
ess
ive
lywo
rsea
sthei
cel
oadi
ngi
ncr
eas
es.
 5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES 83

Antennae l
ement
sa r
eusual
l
ye nca
sedin apl
a s
ti
cprote
cti
vehousi
ng
(r
adome )
.$i spr
ovi
desanai
rspac
ebetwe
entheeleme
ntsandicec
asi
ng
sothatthel
owerimpeda
nceoft
heicel
aye
rhasonl
yas mal
le1ec
tonthe
ra
diator
s.

Detuningisgreatl
yr e
duc e
dbutr adia
tionpatte
rndi s
tort
ionma ysti
llbe
enc
o unte
red(detuningreducesusableantennabandwidth)
.Forag iv
eni c
e
t
hickness
,deviat
ionf ro
m no minalpe rf
ormancevaluesbecomewo rseas
f
requencyinc
reases.
I
na reaswheres eve
reici
nga ndwe ts nowa r
ec ommo n,itisprudentto
i
nst
a l
laf ul
lrado meo v
ers ol
idpa raboli
ca nt
ennas
,tous epanelantenna
s
i
nst
e adofcornerreWect
ors,andt ostayawa yf
romg ri
dpa ra
boli
cs.

Fi
gur
eATL17:E>e
cto
fic
eonap
ara
bol
icg
rida
nte
nna
NETWORKING
 6. NETWORKING 85

6. NETWORKING

Befor
epurchasi
nge quipmento rdecidi
ngo naha rdwareplat
for
m,y ou
shoul
dha v
eac lea
ri de
ao ft henat
ureo fyourcommuni c
ati
onsprobl
em.
Mo stli
kel
y,youa rer ea
dingt hi
sbo o
k becauseyou needtoc onne
ct
computernet
wo r
kst oget
he rino r
dert oshar
er es
ourc
esa ndult
imate
ly
rea
chthelar
gerglobalI
nternet.
$e ne t
work des i
gn y ou c ho
oset o implement shoul
d 0t t he
communicat
ionsproble
my o uaret
ryingtosolv
e .

Doy ouneedtoc o
nnectaremo t
esit
etoanI nte
rnetco
nne c
tioninthe
ce
ntr
eo fyourcampus?Willyournet
wor
kl i
kelygrowtoincludesev
era
l
r
emo t
esit
es?Wil
lmo s
to fyournet
workco
mpo nentsbei
ns t
al
ledin0xed
l
ocat
ions
,orwillyournetworkexpa
ndtoincludehundredso fro
aming
l
apto
psando t
herdevi
ces
?

Int hi
sc hapt
er
,wewi llrevie
wt hene tworking conceptsthatde 0ne
TCP/ I
P,thepri
ma r
yf a
mi l
yo fne t
wo r
kingpr ot
oc o
lscurr
entlyuse
do nt he
Int
ernet
.
Wewi l
la l
solo
oka ttheha rdwareo pti
onst hata r
el i
kelytofo r
mt he
underl
yingphysi
callayero fyourTCP/ IP networka nde ndwi t
hs ome
exa
mpl esofwi
rel
e s
scon0g ura
tions.$i swillprepar
ey ouverywellforthe
chapte
rc a
ll
edDe pl
oyme ntPlanninglateri
nt hisbook.

TCP/IPref
erstothesuit
eo fpro
tocol
stha
tallo
wc onver
sat
ionstohappen
ontheglo
balInter
net.
Byunde r
sta
ndingTCP/ IP,youc an bui
ld net
worksthatwi l
lscal
et o
vi
rt
uall
yanys i
ze,andwil
lulti
matel
ybecomepa r
toftheglo
ba lI
nte
rnet.

$i sedi
ti
ono fthebookno wi ncl
udesanint
roduct
iontoIPv6whic
hi s
t
henewnumbe r
ingsys
temo ftheInte
rnet
.
Asiti
sv er
ylike
lyyouwillbede pl
oyi
ngne t
worksusi
ngIPv6,i
tishi
ghl
y
re
comme ndedyoube c
omef amili
arwithhowthisworksandals
ohowi t
ca
nwo r
ka l
ongs
idetheol
derI Pv4network
sthatwil
lcont
inuetooper
ate
ontheInter
netf
o rs
omewhi l
ey et
.
86 NETWORKING

Introduction
Venice,Ita
lyisafanta
sticcityt
og etlostin.$er oadsaremeref o
otpaths
thatc r
osswaterinhundr edsofplaces,andne ve
rg oinas imples t
rai
ght
l
ine.P ost
alcarr
iersi
nVe nicea
reso meo ft hemo sthighlytr
ainedint he
world,s pec
ial
is
ingi n deli
verytoo nl
yo neo rtwoo fthes ixsest
ier
i
(di
stric
ts)ofVenice.$i si snec
essar
yduet otheintri
catelay
o utofthat
ancientcit
y.Ma nypeople0ndt hatkno wingt heloc
a t
ionofthewa te
ra nd
thesuni sfa
rmo r
eusef
ult hantr
yingt o0ndas tr
eetnameo nama p.

Imagi
neat our
istwhoha ppensto0ndpapi
er-
m chma s
kasas ouveni
r,
andwantstohav ei
tshippedfro
mt hes
tudi
oinS .Pol
o,Vene
ziatothei
r
homeinLo ndon,Unite
dKi ngdom.$isma ysoundl i
keanordinar
y( o
r
eve
ntri
vi
al)tas
k,butlet
'slookatwhata
ctua
ll
yha ppens
.

Fi
gur
eNG1:Ano
the
rki
ndo
fne
two
rkma
sk.
 6. NETWORKING 87

$ear
ti
st0rs
tpa
cksthema
ski
ntoas
hippi
ngbo
xanda
ddr
ess
esi
ttot
he
ho
meofthet
our
is
t.

$eythenha ndthistoapo s
tale
mpl
oye
einVeni
ce,whoatta
chesso
me
o
Nc i
alformsa nd sendsitto ace
ntr
alpa
ckag
e proc
ess
ing hub f
or
i
nte
rnat
iona
ldesti
nati
ons.

Aftersev
eraldays,t hepack
agec le
arsItal
iancust
omsa nd0ndsi tswa y
ontoaWi ghttot heUK,a rri
vingatac entra
limportproce
ssi
ngde potat
He a
throwa i
rport
.Onc ei
tcl
earsthroughcust
oms,thepackageisse
nttoa
dist
ri
buti
onpo i
nti nt heci
tyo fLo ndon,theno ntot helocaldis
tri
ct
postal
proces
singc entr
eofCamde nwhe retheto
uri
stli
ves.
$epa cka
g eeventua l
l
yma kesitswa yontoade l
ive
ryv anwhi c
hha sa
routetha
tbr i
ngsi ttothecorr
ecthouseo nthecorr
ectst
reetinCa mden.
A me mbero fthef amil
ya c
ceptsand s i
gnsforthepa cka
gef r
omt he
deli
veryvandr i
vera ndthenl ea
vesitint hehomes t
udioo fthetouris
t
whoe njo
ysunpa ckingits
omet imelater
.

$es o
rti
ngc l
erkattheo NceinCa mde nneit
herknowsnorcare
sa bout
howt ogettotheses
ti
ereofS.Pol
o,Ve nezi
a.
Hisjobissimplytoacc
eptpack
a g
esast he
ya r
ri
ve,a
ndde l
iv
erthemt othe
corr
ectpers
oninCa mden.
Simil
arl
y,thepost
alemployeei
nVe nicehasnone e
dtowo rryabouthow
togettothecorre
ctaddres
sinLondon.Hi sjo
bistoacce
ptpackag
e sfr
om
hisloc
alne i
ghbor
hooda ndforwardthe mtothenextcl
oses
thubi nthe
deli
ver
yc hai
n.

$i sisverysi
mil
artohowInter
netro
uti
ngwo rk
s.Ame ss
agei
sspli
tup
int
o ma nyindiv
idua
lpacke
ts,and a
relabe
ll
ed wit
ht he
irsour
ceand
des
tinat
ion.
$ec ompute
rthensendst
hesepac
ket
stoar out
er,whi
chdeci
deswher
e
tosendthem nex
t.

$er outerneedsonlytok ee
pt rac
ko fahandfulofro
utes(f
ore x
ample
,
howtog ettot heloca
lne twork,thebestroutetoaf ewo t
herloca
l
net
works,ando nerout
etoag at
ewaytotheres
to ft
heInter
net)
.$i sl
is
t
ofpos
siblero
utesiscal
l
edther outi
ngtabl
e.
Aspacketsarr
iveatther out
er,thedesti
nat
ionaddre
ssisexaminedand
compa
r edagai
nstitsi
nter
nalrouti
ngtable
.
88 NETWORKING

Ifther outerha snoe xpli

citroutetot hede s
tinat
ioni nq uesti
on,i tsends
thepa ck
e ttothec los
estma tchitcan0nd,whi chiso fteni tsownI nt e
rne t
gat
e way( vi
athede f
aultroute
).
And t hene xtr oute
rdo esthes a
me ,a nd s oforth,unt i
lthepa ck et
eventual
lya rr
ivesatitsdesti
nation.
Packagesc ano nlyma ketheirwa ythroug htheinternationa lposta
ls yst
e m
because we ha vee s
tabli
shed as tandardis
eda ddre s
si
ng s cheme f o r
packages.
Fore xampl e
,thede s
ti
na t
iona ddres
smus tbewr i
ttenl egiblyo nthef ro nt
ofthepa ck a
ge,a ndinc l
udea l
lc r
it
icalinfor
ma ti
on( suc ha sther e
cipient's
name ,s tree
ta ddres
s,c it
y,c ountry
,a nd po s
talc o de).Wi thoutt his
inf
o rmation,pa ckage
sa reeit
he rret
urne dtot hesende ro ra relostint he
sys
tem.Pa c k
etsc anonlyWo wt hrought heglobalInternetbe c
auseweha v e
agr
e edo n ac ommo na ddres
sings chemea nd proto colf orf or
wa rding
packets
.
$e ses tandardc ommuni cat
ion protocolsma kei tpo ssi
bl et oe xchang e
inf
o rmationo nag l
obalscal
e.

u
nti
lth
eyr
eac
hth
eiru
lti
mat
ede
st
ina
tio
n.
 6. NETWORKING 89

Cooperative communications
Co mmuni cat
ioniso nlypo ss
ibl
ewhe nt hepa rti
ci
pantsspeakac ommo n
l
a nguage.Buto ncet hec ommuni c
ation be come smo recompl e
xt hana
simplec onvers
ati
on be tweent wo pe ople,pr oto
c o
lbe come sjusta s
i
mpo rt
antaslanguage.
Allo fthepeopleina na udit
o r
ium ma ys peakEng li
sh,butwi t
houtas e
t
ofrulesinplacetoe s
tabli
shwhoha st her ighttous ethemicrophone,the
communi c
ati
ono fani ndiv
idua l

si de a
st ot hee nti
rer o
omi sne arl
y
i
mpo ss
ibl
e.No wima ginea naudi t
ori
um a sbiga sthewo rl
d,fullofallof
thec omputer
sthate x
ist.
Wi t
ho utac o
mmo nseto fcommuni c
at i
onpr ot
o co
lstor e
gula
tewhe na nd
ho we achc omputerc ans peak,theI nternetwo uldbeac haot
icme s
s
wher eeveryma chinet r
iestos peaka to nce.P e
opleha vede v
elopeda
numbe ro fc ommuni cat
ionsf r
a mewo rkst oa ddre
sst hi
spr obl
em.$e
mo stwe l
l-
knowno fthe s
eistheOS Imo del.

The OSI model

$ei nternationa lstandardf orOpe nS y
stemsI nte
rconne c
tion( OS I)i s
de0ne db yt hedo cume ntISO/ I
EC 7498 -
1,aso utlinedb ytheI nternat
io nal
Standa r
dsOr g aniz
ationa ndt heInternati
onalElec tr
otec
hnicalCo mmi ssi
o n.
$e f ulls tanda rdi sa v
ail
a blea s pub li
cat
ion" ISO/IEC 7498 -1:1994, "
avail
ablef romh t
tp://s
tandards .
iso
.org/i
ttf/
Public
ly Avail
able
S t
anda rds/.
$eOS Imo de ldividesnetwo r
kt raNci ntoanumbe roflayers.Ea chl ayer
isinde pende nto ft hel a
yersa round i t
,a nd each bui l
dso nt hes ervices
providedb ythel ayerbe l
ow whi lepr ovi
dingne ws ervi
cestot hel ayerabo v e
.
$ea bst
ractionbe t
we enlayersma kesite a
sytode si
gne l
aboratea ndhi g hly
rel
iablepr otoc olstacks,sucha st heubi quit
ousTCP/ IPs tack.A pr o
t ocol
st
acki sana ctualimpl ement ati
ono fal aye
redco mmuni cat
ionsf rame wo rk.
$eOS Imo deldo e s
n'tde 0net hepr oto
colsto beus edi n apa r
ticular
netwo rk,buts implyde l
egatese ac
hc ommuni c
ati
o ns" j
ob"t oas inglel ayer
withinawe ll-de0ne dhierar
chy .
Whi let heI SO/ I
EC 7498 -
1s peci
0cationde t
ail
sho wl a
yerssho uldi nteract
withe acho the r
,i tl e
avest he a ct
uali mpleme ntati
on det a
il
sup t ot he
ma nuf a
cturer.Ea chlayercanbei mpleme ntedinha rdware(mo reco mmo nf or
l
o werl ayer
s)o rs oft
wa re
.
Asl onga st hei nter
facebe t
we enl a
y e
rsadhe r
estot hes t
andard,impl eme nte r
s
arefreetous ewha teverme ansa reavail
abletobuil
dt hei
rprotocols t
ack.
90 NETWORKING

$ismeansthatanyg iv
enl a
yerfr
om ma nuf
actur
erA c
ano per
atewitht
he
s
amelay
erf r
om ma nuf
actur
erB (ass
umi ngtherel
eva
ntspeci
0cat
ionsa
re
i
mple
mentedandinterpre
tedcorr
ect
ly
).
Her
eisabriefoutl
ineo fthesev
en-l
ayerOS Inet
worki
ngmo del
:

Layer Name Description

7 Application The Application Layer is the layer that most network users are
exposed to; it is the level at which human communication happens.
HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are all application layer protocols.
The human sits above this layer, interacting with the application.
6 Presentation The Presentation Layer deals with data representation, before it
reaches the application. T h i s would include HTML, MIME encoding, data
compression, formatting checks, byte ordering, etc.
5 Session The Session Layer manages the logical communications session
between applications. RPC is an example of a layer five protocol.
4 Transport The Transport Layer provides a method of reaching a particular
service on a given network node. Examples of protocols that operate
at this layer are TCP, UDP and SCTP. Some protocols at the transport
layer (such as TCP) ensure that all of the data has arrived at the destination,
and is reassembled and delivered to the next layer in the proper order. UDP is
a "connectionless" protocol commonly used for video and audio streaming and
doesnt check arrival of data packets.
3 Network IP (the Internet Protocol) is the most common Network Layer protocol.
This is the layer where routing occurs. Packets can leave the link local
network and be retransmitted on other networks. Routers perform this
function on a network by having at least two network interfaces, one
on each of the networks to be interconnected. Nodes on the Internet
are reached by their globally unique IP address. Another critical Network
Layer protocol is ICMP, which is a special protocol which provides various
management messages needed for correct operation of IP. This layer is also
sometimes referred to as the Internet Layer.
2 Data Link Whenever two or more nodes share the same physical medium (for
example, several computers plugged into a hub, or a room full of
wireless devices all using the same radio channel) they use the Data
Link Layer to communicate. Common examples of data link protocols
are Ethernet, Token Ring, ATM, and the wireless networking protocols
(IEEE 802.11A/B/G). Communication on this layer is said to be link-local,
since all nodes connected at this layer communicate with each other directly.
This layer is sometimes known as the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. On
Ethernet networks, nodes are referred to by their MAC address. This is a
unique 48-bit number assigned to every networking device when it is
manufactured.
1 Physical The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model, and refers to
the actual physical medium over which communicationstake place.
This can be a copper CAT5 cable, a fibre optic bundle, radio waves, or
just about any other medium capable of transmitting signals. Cut wires,
broken fibre, and RF interference are all physical layer problems.
 6. NETWORKING 91

$el ayersinthismo delar

enumbe r
edo nethroughs e
ven,withsevenat
thetop.$i sisme a
ntt oreinf
orc
ethei deathateachlayerbui
ldsupon,
and dependsupo n,t helayer
sbe l
ow.I magine theOS Imo delasa
buil
ding,witht hefounda t
ionatlaye
ro ne,thene xtl
ayersassucce
ssi
ve
Woors
,a ndt her oofa tla
yerseve
n.Ify ouremo veanys i
nglelayer
,the
buil
dingwi l
lno tstand.Simil
arl
y,ifthef o
ur t
h Woori son0 r
e,then
nobodyc anpassthroughitineit
herdir
ecti
on.

$e0r stthreelayers(Physi
cal,Da t
aLi nk,a ndNe two r
k)a llhappen"o n
thene two r
k."$a tis,activi
tya tt hesel ayer
si sde ter
mi nedb yt he
con0guratio
no fc a
bles
,switches,router
s,a nds i
milardev i
ces.Ane twork
switchc a
no nlydistr
ibutepa cket
sb yus ingMAC a ddre s
ses,soi tneed
onlyimpl eme ntlayer
so nea ndt wo .A s i
mpl erouterca nr outepack
e t
s
usi
ngo nl
yt he i
rI Paddress
es,s oitne edst oimpleme nto nlylayer
so ne
throughthree.Awe bs e
rvero ralaptopc o mputerrunsa ppli
cations
,soit
mus timpleme nta l
lsevenlayers.Somea dvancedroutersma yi mplement
l
a y
e rfoura nd a bove
,t oa ll
owt he mt oma kede cis
ionsba se
do nt he
higher-
levelinforma t
ionc ontentin apa ck
et,sucha sthena meo fa
website
,o rthea t
tachmentsofa nema il
.

$eOS Imo delisinter

nati
onall
yrecog
nised,andi swide l
yr eg
ardedast
he
completea nd de 0niti
vene t
wo r
k mo del.Itpr ovi
desaf ra
me wor
kfor
manufacturer
sa ndne t
wo r
kpr ot
ocolimpl ementer
st hatc anbeus edto
buil
dne tworkingde vic
eswhichinter
operateinjustabo uta nypartoft
he
world.Fromt hepe rspect
iv
eo fane t
wo r
ke ngineerort roubles
hoote
r,t
he
OS Imo delcans eem needle
ssl
yc ompl
e x
.I npa r
ti
cular,pe opl
ewhobui l
d
andt r
oub l
eshootTCP/ I
Pne tworksra
relyne e
dt ode alwi thproble
msat
theS es
siono rPre s
entat
ionlayer
s.Fort hema jor
ityo fI nter
netnetwo
rk
impleme nt
ati
ons ,the OS I mo delcan be s i
mpli0edi ntoas mal
le
r
col
lect
iono f0v elaye
rs.

The TCP/IP model

UnliketheOS Imo de
l,theTCP/ I
Pmo delisnotani nte
rnat
ionals
tandar
d
anditsde0niti
onsv ar
y .Neve
rthe l
es
s,itiso f
tenuseda sapra
gma ti
cmo del
f
o runders
tandinga ndt r
oubl
esho ot
ingInternetnetworks.
$ev as
tma jor
ityo ftheInte
rne tusesTCP/ IP,andsowec a
nma kesome
ass
umpt i
onsabo utnetwo r
ksthatma ket heme as
iertounders
tand.
$eTCP/ IPmo delofne t
workingde s
cribesthefol
lowing0velayer
s:
92 NETWORKING

Layer Name
5 Application
4 Transport
3 Internet
2 Data Link
1 Physical

Int er
mso ftheOS Imo del
,laye
rs0v ethroughs evenarerol
ledintothe
topmo stla
yer(theAppl i
cati
onlayer)
.$e0r s
tfo urla
yersinbothmo dels
areidenti
cal.
Ma nyne tworke ngineer
st hi
nko fe ver
ythinga bo v
el a
yerfoura s" j
ust
data"thatvarie
sfroma pplic
ati
ont oappli
cati
on.
Sincet he 0r s
tt hreel ayer
sa rei nte
roperable betweenv i
rtuall
ya ll
ma nufact
urer
s'e q
uipme nt,andlayerfourwo r
k sbetweenallhostsusi
ng
TCP/ IP,and e ver
ything abovelayerf ourt endst oa ppl
yt os peci
0c
appli
catio
ns,t hiss impli0e
d mo delwo rk
s we llwhen building and
tr
o ubl
eshooti
ngTCP/ IPne t
wo r
ks.

Wewi
llus
etheTCP/
IPmo
delwhe
ndi
sc
uss
ingne
two
rksi
nthi
sbo
ok.

$eTCP/ I
Pmo delcanbec omparedtoape r
sonde l
iv
eri
ngal et
tertoa
cit
yoNc ebuil
ding .
$epe r
son0r s
tne edst ointe
rac
twi t
ht heroadits
elf(t
hePhy s
ica
llaye
r),
payatte
ntiontoo thertraNco ntheroa
d( theDataLinklaye
r),tur
na tt
he
corr
ectjunct
iont ojoina not
herroadanda rr
iveatthecorr
ectaddre
ss(t
he
Inte
rnetlaye
r),got ot hec or
rec
tWo orandr oom numbe r(t
heTr a
nsport
l
a y
er)
,a nd0na l
lyg iveittoar ecept
ionis
twhoc a
nt akethelett
erfrom
ther
e(theApplic
a t
ionla yer
).

Oncetheyhavedel
iver
edtheme ss
agetot herece
pti
onist
,thede l
ive
ry
per
sonisf
reet
og oonthei
rwa y
.$e0v ela
yerscanbee a
si
lyremembe r
ed
byusi
ngthemnemonicPl
easeDon
tLookIn$eAt ti
c,
whicho fcour
se
st
andsf
orPhy
sic
al/DataLink/Int
erne
t/Tr a
nspor
t/Appl i
cat
ion.

 6. NETWORKING 93

The Internet Protocols

TCP/ IPist hepr otoco
ls t
ackmo s
tc ommo nlyus edo nt hegloba lInt
ernet.
$e a c
r o
ny m s tandsf or Tr ansmi s
si
o n Co ntrolPr otocol( TCP)a nd
Int ernetPr o t
o c
o l(IP),buta c
tua l
lyr efe
rst oawho l
ef ami l
yo frelat
ed
co mmuni ca t
ionspr otocols.TCP/ IPisa l
soc all
edt heI nternetpr otocol
suite ,andi to perat
esatlay er
sthr e
ea ndf ouroft heTCP/ I
Pmo del
.
Int hisdiscussion,wewi llfocuso nv ers
ions i
xo ftheI Ppr otocol(IPv6)as
sinc e2012t hisi sthev e r
siont ode ployin pa ra
llelwi t
ht hepr evi
ous
ver sionf our( IPv4).I n 2012,a boutha l
fo ftheI nter
ne tc ontentis
ava il
a bl
ewi thabe tt
erusere xperienceb yusi
ngI Pv
6.
$epr eviousv ersi
oni se xpl
a i
ne di nt hi
sc haptert o
obe causes omeo l
d
co nte ntoro lda ppli
cati
ons( Sky pein2012)s t
illrequir
eI Pv4.Andi ndeed
ma nyne t
wo rkst hatyoumi ghtha vetoi nterc
o nnecttowi llstillhavethe
l
e ga cyI Pv4t echnologyde ploye
df o rsomey earstoco me .

Besidesthelengt
ho ftheaddres
s,IPv4a ndIPv6a r
equit
esimila
r:theyare
connecti
o nl
essnetwork proto
colsr unningont hesameda ta-l
inkl a
yer
(WiFi,Et he
rnet.
..
)ands er
vingthes amet r
ans
po r
tprotoc
ols(TCP ,SCTP,
UDP .
..
)I nthisbo ok
,whe nI Pi swr it
tenwithoutanyv er
si
on,t henit
me ansthatitappli
estobo t
hv ersi
ons.Adua l
-sta
cknetworkisane twork
thatrunsI Pv6a ndI Pv4a ndt hes ametime.Itise x
pecte
dt hatdual-
networkswi llbet heno rma tl eastuntil2020 whenI Pv6-only wil
l
becomet heno r
m.

I
Pv6Addr
ess
ing
$e IPv6a ddres
si sa 128- bi
tnumbe rus ual
ly wri
tt
ena smul t
ipl
e
hex
adec
imalnumbe r
s.Inordertoma kethisaddres
shuma n-
readabl
e,iti
s
wri
tt
eni nchunksof32bi tso r4he xa
decima lnumberssepara
tedbya
co
lon':
'.$ehe xade
cimalnumbe rsho
uldbewr it
teninlowe
r c
asebutcan
al
sobewrit
teninupperc
ase.Ane xa
mpleo fanI Pv6addr
essi
s :

2001:
0db8:
1234:
babe
:0000:
0000:
0000:
0001

$i
saddr
essc
orr
espo
ndst
o:

2001 0db8 1234 ba

be 0 0 0 1
94 NETWORKING

Asthe
seaddr
ess
esar
eq ui
telo
ng,i
tisc
ommontoremovet
hel
eadi
ng0i
n
ea
chchunk,s
o,thesa
mea ddre
ssc
anal
sobewr
it
tenas
:

2001:
db8:
1234:
bab
e:0:
0:0:
1

$isa ddre
ssc anfur
ther be s
impl
i0e
db yg r
oupi
ng o
ne blo
cko f
c
ons
ecutiv
ec hunksof'0'int
ot hea
bbrev
iat
edfor
mo f':
:'
,thesa
me
a
ddr
essbecomesthe
n:

2001:
db8:
1234:
bab
e::
1

$e
rea
res
omes
pec
i0cI
Pv6a
ddr
ess
es:

::
1( or0000:00000:
0000:0000:
0000:0000:
0000:
0001)repr
ese
nts
theloopba
cka ddre
ss,thi
sisthenodeitse
lfwhenthenodewants
tosendpacke
tstoitsel
f;
::(a
llzero
)ist heunde t
ermine
da ddre
ss,tobeusedb yano de
wheni tdoesno tknowi tsglo
baladdress
,forins
tanc
ewhe nit
boots.

I
Pv6Pr
e0x
es
IPv6no deso nt hesamelinko rnetwor
ksharet
hesameI Pv6pre0x,whi
ch
isde0ne da st hemo s
t-s
igni0cantpartoftheIPv6a ddres
s.$epr e
0x
l
e ng
thi s usua ll
y 64 bi to n a LAN. S o,o ur us uala ddre
sso f
2001:db8:babe::1canbewr i
ttenas2001:db8:
1234:babe::
1/64(thepre
0x
l
e ng
thi sa ddeda tthee ndo ftheaddre
ssaft
era' /'
).De 0ningapr e
0x
l
e ng
tho na na ddres
sa ct
uall
ys pli
tstheaddre
ssint wopa rts
:t hepre
0x
it
sel
fandt hei nterf
aceide
nti0er(II
D).

2001 0DB8 1234 babe 0 0 0 0

Prefix Interface Identifier

On aLAN o rWLAN,t hepr e

0xlengt
h mustbe64bi t
selses
ome
pr
otoco
lswillnotworkcorr
ect
ly
.Allnode
so nthesa
meLAN orWLAN
us
uall
ys ha
ret hesa
mepr e0xbuttheirII
D mus tbeuni
quetoavoid
co
nfusi
on.
$ea nal
ogywithapo s
tala
ddres
sinbigci
ti
esi
sthatt
hes
tr
eetna
meisthe
pr
e0xandtheho us
enumbe ri
stheII
D.
 6. NETWORKING 95

$epre0xleng
thcan bedi1er
ento nli
nksthatarene i
the
rLAN o r
WLAN.$ene two
rkit
sel
fisi
dent
i0edbythepre
0xwithoutanyI
ID but
wi
tht
hepre
0xlengt
h,f
orexampl
e:2001:
db8:
1234:
babe
::/
64

I
Pv4Addr
ess
ing
InanI
Pv4ne t
wor
k ,t
headdre
ssi
sa32- bi
tnumbe r
,no rmal
lywr
it
t e
na s
f
our8-
bitnumber
se x
pre
sse
dindecimalfor
ma nds e
parat
edbyperio
ds.
Exa
mpl
esofIPv4addr
ess
esar
e10.
0.17.
1,192.168.
1.1,or172.
16.
5.23.

Ifyo uenumeratede v
erypos
sibleIPv
4a ddr
ess
,t he
ywo ul
dr a
ngefrom
0.0.
0.0to255.255.255.
255.
$i syie
ldsatotalofmo r
ethanfourbi
ll
ionposs
ibl
eIPv4addre
sse
s(255x
255x255x255=4, 228,
250,625)
;alt
houghma nyofthes
eareres
erv
ed
forspec
ialpur
posesandshoul
dno tbeass
igne
dtoho st
s.

S
omeI
Pv4a
ddr
ess
est
hata
res
pec
ial
:

127.0.
0.1re
pre
sent
sthel
oopbac
kaddr
ess(
si
mil
art
o::
1forIPv6)
;
0.0.
0.0repr
ese
ntst
heunspec
i0e
daddr
ess(
si
mil
art
o::f
orIPv6).

I
Pv4S
ubne
ts
By a
pply
ing a s
ubne
tma s
k( al
socal
le
d a ne
two
rk mas
k,orsimply
ne
tmaskoreve
npre0x
)toanIPv4addr
ess
,yo
ucanl
ogi
cal
l
yde0nebot
ha
ho
standthenet
worktowhi
chitbel
ong
s.

Tradi
tiona l
ly,sub netma sksa ree xpres
sed us ing do t
ted deci
ma lform,
muc hlikea nI Pv 4a ddr
ess.Fo rexample,255. 255.255.0i sonec o
mmo n
netmask.Y ou will0nd t hisno tati
on us ed whe nc on0guri
ng network
inte
rfa
ce s,crea
tingr oute
s,etc.Ho wever,subne tma sksaremo resucc
inct
ly
expres
sedus i
ngCI DRno t
ation,whi c
hs impl ye nume r
atesthenumbe rof
bit
sint hema skafteraforwa r
ds l
ash( /
).
$us ,255. 255.255.0c anbes impli0eda s/24.CI DRi sshortforClass
les
s
Inter
-Do ma in Ro uting,and i sde 0nedi n RFC1518.A s ubnetma sk
deter
mi nest hes i
zeo fag ivenne t
wo rk.Us inga/ 24ne tmask,8bitsare
res
ervedf orho sts(32bi t
st otal-24bi tso fne tma s
k=8bi t
sforho s
ts)
.
$i syieldsupt o256po ss
ibleho s
ta ddress
e s(28=256) .Byc onventi
on,
the0rstv alueist akenasthene t
wo rkaddr ess(.0o r00000000),andt he
l
a s
tvaluei stakena sthebro a
dc as
taddress(.255o r11111111).
96 NETWORKING

$i sle
aves254addr
essesavai
la
bleforhos
tso nthisnetwo r
k.
Subnetma s
ksworkbya ppl
yingAND l og
ictot he32bi tIPv4numbe r
.
Inbinarynota
ti
on,the" 1"bitsinthema s
ki ndicat
et henetwor
ka ddr
ess
porti
on,and"0"bitsindic
a t
etheho s
taddressporti
on.Al o
gic
alAND i s
perf
ormedb ycompa r
ingt wobi t
s.$er esultis"1"i fbot
ho fthebits
bei
ngc ompare
da r
eals
o" 1".Ot he
rwis
ether es
ultis"0".
Herea reallofthepo s
si
bleo utc
omeso fabi naryAND c ompa ri
son
bet
we entwobit
s.

Bit 1 Bit 2 Result

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Tounders
tandhowane t
mas
kisappl
iedtoanIPv4addr
ess
,0rs
tconv
ert
eve
ryt
hing to bi
nar
y.$ene t
mask 255.
255.
255.
0in bina
ryc o
nta
ins
twent
y-f
our"1"bits
:
255 255 255 0
11111111.
11111111.
11111111
.00000000
Whe
nt hisne
tmaskisc ombine
dwi t
ht heIPv4addre
ss10.10.
10.
10,we
c
anapplyalogi
calAND t oe ac
ho fthebitstodete
rminethenet
work
a
ddr
ess
.
10.
10.
10.10:00001010.
00001010.
00001010.
00001010
255.
255.
255.
0:11111111.
11111111.
11111111.
00000000
-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-
10.
10.
10.
0:00001010.
00001010.
00001010.
00000000
$i
sre
sul
tsi
nthene
twor
k10.
10.
10.
0/24.
$i sne t
wo rkconsis
tsoftheho sts10.
10.10.
1t hro
ug h10.
10.10.
254,wi t
h
10.10.10.
0a sthene t
wo rka ddres
sa nd 10.10.
10.255ast hebr o
a dc
ast
addres
s .
Subnetma s
ksareno tl
imite
dt oenti
reo c
tet
s.Onec anals
ospe c
if
ys ubnet
ma sk
sl i
ke255. 254.
0.0(or/ 15CI DR) .$i sisala r
geblo
ck ,cont
aini
ng
131,072a ddres
ses
,from 10.0.0.0to10.1.
255.255.
 6. NETWORKING 97

Itc oul
d bef urt
hers ubdiv
ided,f orexamplei nto512s ubnetsof256
address
eseach.$e0r stonewo ul
dbe10. 0.
0.0-10.0.0.
255,then10.0.1.0
-
10.0.
1.255,a nd soo nupt o10. 1.
255.0-
10.1.255.255.Alter
nativ
ely
,it
couldb esubdivi
dedinto2bl ockso f65,
536a ddresses
,or8192bl o
ckso f
16a ddres
ses,orinma nyo therwa ys.I
tcoulde venbes ubdivi
dedi ntoa
mixtureofdi1erentbloc
ks i
zes,aslongasno neo fthemo ver
lap,andeach
isav al
idsubnetwhosesizei
sapo we roftwo.
Whi l
ema nyne tmasksarepossi
ble,commo nne t
ma sksincl
ude:

CIDR Decimal # of Hosts

/30 255.255.255.252 4
/29 255.255.255.248 8
/28 255.255.255.240 16
/27 255.255.255.224 32
/26 255.255.255.192 64
/25 255.255.255.128 128
/24 255.255.255.0 256
/16 255.255.0.0 65 536
/8 255.0.0.0 16 777 216

Witheac
hreduc
ti
onint heCIDR v a
luetheIPv4spa
ceisdoubl
ed.
Remembert
hattwo I
Pv4a ddr
ess
eswithi
ne ac
h ne
twor
ka r
ea l
ways
re
ser
vedf
ort
henet
workandbroa
dcas
taddre
sse
s.

$e rearethreecommo nnetmasksthathavespecia
lna mes.A/ 8ne t
work
(wit
h a ne tmasko f255.0.0.
0)de 0nes a Cl a
ssA ne twork.A / 16
(255.
255.0.
0)isaCl a
ssB,anda/ 24( 255.
255.255.0)isca
lle
daCl assC.
$e sename swe r
earoundlongbe f
oreCI DR no t
atio
n,buta resti
lloft
en
usedforhis
toric
alre
asons
.
Inma nywa ysasyoucanal
readyseeIPv6iseasie
rtopl anfortha
nI Pv4.

Gl
oba
lIPAddr
ess
es
I
nte
rco
nne
cte
dne t
wor
ksmus
tag
reeo
nanI
Paddr
ess
ingpl
anf
orI
Pv6
a
ndIPv4a
ddres
ses
.
98 NETWORKING

IPa ddr
ess
esmustbeuni q
ueandg e
nera
ll
yc a
nnotbeuse
di ndi
1er
ent
pla
cesont heInt
erne
ta tthesa
met i
me;other
wis
e,ro
uter
swoul
dno t
knowho wbestt
oroutepac
ket
stothe
m.

Fi
gur
eNG3:Wi t
hu ni
queIPaddre
ss
es
,ambiguo
usgl
obalr
out
ingis
i
mp o
ss
ibl
e.I
fth
ePCreq
u e
st
sawebpagefr
om 2001:
db8:
1::
2,i
twillr
eac
h
t
heco
rre
ctse
rve
r.

Ino rdert ok eepI Pa ddres

sesuniquea nd g l
oball
yr o
utable
,t heya r
e
al
locatedb yac entralnumbe ri
ngautho r
it
yt hatprovidesac onsi
stentand
coherentnumbe ringme thod.$isensuresthatduplic
a teaddres
sesarenot
usedb ydi1erentne t
wo rks.
$ea uthori
tya ss
ignsl argebloc
kso fconsecutiv
ea ddresse
st os ma l
le
r
authorit
ies
,whoi nt urna ss
ignsmallerconsecuti
vebl ockswi t
hint hes
e
rangestoo therautho r
iti
es,ortotheircust
ome rs.$eg roupsofaddresse
s
arecalle
ds ubnetsorpr e0xesaswehav eal
readyme nti
o ned.
Ag roupo frelat
eda ddresse
sisref
err
edt oasa naddres
ss pace.
Bo t
hI Pv 4andI Pv6a ddress
esar
ea dminist
eredb ytheI nterne
tAs si
gned
Numb ersAuthorit
y( IANA,ht tp:
//
www. ia
na .
org/).

IANA hasdiv
idedthes
eaddre
ssspacesintolargesubnet
s,and t
hes
e
s
ubnet
saredel
ega
tedtooneofthe0vereg
ionalInt
ernetr
egi
st
ri
es(RI
Rs)
,
whohavebe
eng i
venaut
hor
it
yoverla
rgegeogr
aphicare
as.
 6. NETWORKING 99

I
Pa ddre
sse
sa r
ea s
si
gnedanddist
ri
bute
dbyRe g
iona
lInter
netRe
gis
tra
rs
(
RIRs)toISPs.$eI SPthenal
l
ocate
ssmal
l
erIPbloc
kstothei
rcl
i
entsas
r
equir
ed.Vir
tual
lyal
lInt
erne
tuse
rsobta
int
hei
rIPaddre
sse
sfromanISP.

Cv
eRe
gio
nalI
nte
rne
tRe
gis
tr
ars
.

$e0v
eRI
Rsa
re:

1) Afri
canNe t
wo rkInformationCe nt
re
(Afri
NIC,http:/
/www. afr
inic
.net
)
2) AsiaPaci
0cNe tworkI nfor
ma ti
onCe ntr
e
(APNI C,htt
p://
www. apnic.
net)
3) Ame ri
canRegist
ryfo rInter
netNumbe rs
(ARIN,http:
//www. ari
n.net
)
4) RegionalLati
n-Ame ricana nd Ca r
ibbeanI
P Addr
essRe
gis
tr
y
(LACNI C,http:
//www. l
acnic.
net)
5) RseauxIPEur ope
ns
(RIPENCC,ht tp:
//www. ri
pe.
net)

Yo
urISPwil
lass
igngl
obal
l
yr o
uta
bleI
Paddr
esss
pac
etoy
ouf
romt
he
poo
lal
l
oca
tedtoi
tb yy
ourRIR.
100 NETWORKING

$eregi
st
rysy
ste
ma ss
ure
sthatI
Pa ddre
sse
sa r
eno treus
edina nypar
toft
he
ne
twor
kanywher
eintheworl
d.
OnceIPaddr
essas
si
gnmentshavebeena gr
eedupo n,itisposs
ibl
etopas
s
pa
cket
sbet
weennetwork
sandpartici
pat
eint heg l
obalInte
rnet
.
$eproces
sofmo v
ingpack
etsbet
we e
nne tworksiscal
ledrouti
ng.

S
tat
icI
PAddr
ess
es
As t
ati
cIPa ddres
sisanaddressass
ignmentthatne v
erc hanges.
Sta
ticIPa ddr
ess
esareimportantbecaus
es er
versusi
ngt heseaddre
ssesmay
have DNS ma ppi
ngs po i
nting towards them, a nd t ypi
cal
lys er
ve
i
nformationtoo t
herma c
hines(suc
ha sema i
lservi
ces,we bserv
ers
,e t
c.
).
Blocksofs ta
ti
cI Pa ddre
sse
sma ybea ssi
gnedb yy o urI SP
,eitherby
req
ue s
to rautomati
cal
lydependingo nyo urme anso fc onnec
ti
ont othe
Int
ernet.

Dy
nami
cIPAddr
ess
es
Dy namicIPa ddres
sesa r
ea ss
igne
db ya nISPf ornon-per
ma nentnode
s
connecti
ngt otheInternet
,sucha sahomec omput e
rwhichi sonadial
-
upc onnect
iono rala
pt opconnect
ingtoawi r
ele
ssho t
spot
.
Dy namicIPa ddres
sesc a
nbea ss
igne
da ut
oma t
ical
lyusi
ngt heDy na
mic
Ho stCo n0gurat
ion Proto
c o
l( DHCP) ,ort heP oi
nt-t
o-PointProt
oco
l
(PPP),dependi
ngo nt hetypeofInter
netco
nne c
ti
o n.

A nodeusingDHCP0r s
tr eque
stsanI Paddres
sa s
si
gnmentfromt he
net
wo r
k,andaut
oma t
ic
all
yc on0gure
sitsnetwo
rki nt
erf
ace
.IPaddress
es
canbea s
si
gnedra
ndomlyfrom apo olbyyourISP,ormightbeass
igned
acc
ordi
ngt oapo l
ic
y.IPa ddres
sesass
igne
db yDHCP a reval
idfora
spe
ci0e
dt i
me(ca
ll
edthele
asetime).

$enodemustrenewtheDHCPl e
asebe
for
ethele
aset
imeexpir
es.Upon
r
ene
wal
,thenodema yre
cei
vethes
ameIPaddre
ssoradi1e
rentonefr
om
t
hepoo
lofava
ila
bleaddr
ess
es.

While DHCP wo rksforIPv6and IPv4,IPv

6 hasanothe
rpri
ma r
y
mechani
sm whic
hismo recommonlyuse
df o
raddr
essa
ssi
gnment-i
tis
ca
ll
edS t
ate
les
sAddres
sAuto-
Con0gura
ti
on(SLAAC)whic
hi st
hedef
aul
t
onroute
rsandhost
srunni
ngIPv6.
 6. NETWORKING 101

Itdo e
sno tre
q uireaDHCPs erv
er;ther o
uterse
ndspe r
iodi
cal
l
yRo ut e
r
Adverti
sement( RA)me ssa
geso nallconnect
ed(W) LAN'swhichc o
nt ai
n
the64-bitpre0xt ob eusedo nthat( W)LAN;ho st
stheng e
nerat
et hei
r
64-bitint
erf
acei denti
0er(usual
l
yar andom numberoranumbe rbased
ont hei
rMAC a ddre
sss eefurt
her)a ndbuil
dtheir128-bi
taddres
sb y
concate
nati
ngt he64- bi
tpre0xfromt heRAa ndthenewlyc r
eat
ed64- bi
t
IID.

Dynami caddr
ess
esarepo pularwit
hInter
netSer
viceProv
ider
s,beca
useit
enabl
est hemt o us
ef ewe rI Paddres
sesthantheirtota
lnumbe ro f
cus
tome r
s.
$e yo nlyneedana ddr
e ssforeachcusto
me rwhoisa c
tiv
ea tanyo ne
t
ime .
Global
lyrouta
bleIPaddressescos
tmo ney
,andthereisnowas hor
tageof
IPv4addres
ses
.
Assi
gningaddre
sse
sdy na
mi call
yall
owsISPstosavemo ne
y,andtheywi l
l
oft
encha r
geext
ratoprovideas t
ati
cIPaddres
stothei
rcust
ome r
s.

Pr
iva
teI
Pv4a
ddr
ess
es
Around 2000,i tbe c a
mec le
artha tther
ewo uld notbee noughIPv4
addres
sesf ore v
eryone;t hi
si sther eas
ont ha
tI Pv6 wasspec
i0edand
devel
oped.
Butt herewa sa l
soat empo r
arytric
ka smo stpriva
tenetworksdonot
requi
rethea l
l
ocatio
no fglobal
lyrouta
ble,publ
icIPv4addre
sse
sf o
rever
y
computeri ntheo rga
nisat
ion.
Inpa rt
icular
,comput erswhi c
ha r
eno tpublicser
versdono tneedtobe
addres
sablefromt hepublicInter
net.
Or ga
nisatio
nst y
pical
lyus eIPv4a ddre
ssesfr
omt hepriva
teaddres
sspa
ce
forma c
hi nesonthei nter
nalnetwork.

$e rearec urrent
lyt hreebl o
c k
so fpr i
vatea ddr
e s
sspacer es
erve
db y
IANA:10. 0.
0 .
0/8,172.16.0.0/
12,and192 .168.0.
0/16.
$e searede0ne di nRFC1918.$e sea ddres
sesareno tinte
ndedt obe
rout
e do nt he I nte
rnet,a nd a r
et ypic
a l
ly unique only withi
na n
orga
nisa
tiono rg roup ofo rgani
sati
onst ha tchoosetof ol
lowt hesame
numbe r
ingscheme .
$i sme ansthatsever
aldistinc
to rganis
ationsca nusethes a
mea ddres
ses
aslongastheyne veri
nterconnecttheirnetwo r
ksdirect
ly
.
102 NETWORKING

Fi
gur
eNG5:RFC1918pri
vat
eaddr
es
se
smaybeus
edwit
hina
n
org
ani
sa
tio
n,a
ndar
enotro
ute
dontheg
lob
alI
nte
rne
t.

Ifyoueverint
endt
olinktoget
herpr
iva
tenet
wor
kstha
tuseRFC1918
addre
ssspac
e,besur
et o us
euniqueaddr
ess
est
hro
ughouta
llofthe
networ
ks.

Fo
re xa
mple,youmightbrea
kt he10. 0.
0.0/
8a ddre
ssspac
eint
omulti
ple
Cl
assBnetworks(
10.
1.0.
0/16,10.2.0.
0/16,et
c.).
Oneblockcoul
dbea ssi
gnedtoe achnetworka c
cordi
ngtoitsphy
sic
al
l
ocat
ion(thecampusma in branch,0e l
do Nc eo ne,0el
do Ncetwo,
do
rmitor
ie
s,andsofo
rth)
.

$ene two
rkadmini
st
rat
orsateac
hlo c
ati
onc a
nt henbreakthenet
wo rk
downfurt
heri
ntomulti
pleClas
sC ne t
works(10.1.
1.0/
24,10.
1.2.
0/24,
et
c.)o
rint
obloc
ksofanyotherl
ogi
calsi
ze.
 6. NETWORKING 103

Int hefuture
,shoul
dt hene
twor
kseverbel
ink
ed(ei
therbyaphysi
cal
connect
ion,wi r
el
essl
ink,orVPN),thenal
lofthema chi
neswil
lbe
re
achablef r
oma nypo i
ntinthene
tworkwi
thoutha
vingtorenumbe
r
networkde v
ice
s.

SomeI nt
erne
tpro
vider
smayal
l
oca
tepr
iva
tea
ddr
ess
esl
iket
hesei
nst
eadof
publi
ca ddres
sest o the
ircus
tome
rs,al
tho
ugh this hasseri
ous
dis
advant
ages
.

Sincetheseaddr
ess
esca
nnotberout
edov
ertheInt
ernet
,comput
erswhich
uset hema reno trea
ll
y" par
t"oftheInte
rnet
,a nd a
renotdirec
tly
reac
ha bl
ef r
o mit.Ino r
dertoa l
l
owthemt oc ommunica
tewi t
ht he
Inte
rne t
,the
irpri
vat
eaddre
sse
smustbet
rans
lat
edtopubli
caddr
ess
es.

$ist
ransl
at
ionpro
cessi
skno
wna sNet
workAddr
essTr
ans
la
ti
on(NAT),
a
ndisno r
ma l
l
yperfo
rmedatthegat
ewaybe
twee
nt hepr
iva
tene
twor
k
a
ndtheInte
rnet
.

Wewi l
llo
oka tNATi nmo r
ede t
ai
lla
teroninthischa
pter
.
Asther
earehugenumbe rsofIPv6addre
sse
s,the
reisnone e
dfo
rpriva
te
IPv
6a ddr
ess
es,a
lt
ho ug
ht he
reareUniqueLocalAddre
sse
s(ULA)tha
tare
sui
ta
blefo
rno nconnec
tednetworkss
uchaslabs
.

Di
sc
ove
ri
ngNe
ighbo
urs
Imagineane twork withthreeho s
ts
:HA,HB,a nd HC.$e yuset he
corr
espondingIPa ddre
ssesA,Ba ndC.
$e sehostsarepartofthesames ubnet/pre0x
.
Fortwoho st
stoc ommuni ca
teo nal ocalnetwork
,theymus tde t
ermine
eac
ho t
hers'MACa ddr
e s
ses
.Itispo ss
ibletoma nual
lycon0gureeachho s
t
withama ppi
ngt a
blefromI Pa ddresstoMAC a ddre
ss,butitiseas
ierto
dynamical
ly disc
overt hene i
ghbo ur'
sMAC a ddre
ssthrough Neighbor
Discover
y Protocol(NDP)i nI Pv6a nd Addres
sRe sol
ution Prot
ocol
(ARP)inI Pv4.NDPa ndARPwo r
kinav er
ys i
mila
rwa y
.
104 NETWORKING

Fi
gur
eNG6:IPv6nodeA,2001:
db8:
:1needstose
nddatato2001:
db8:
:3
inth
esa
menet
work(2001:
db8:
:/
64preCx)
.Bu ti
tmustCrs
taskf
orthe
MACa d
d r
es
stha
tcor
res
pondsto2001:
db8::
3.

Whe
nus
ingNDP,no
deAmul ti
cas
tst
osomehostst
heq ue
sti
on,
"
Whoha
stheMACa ddr
essf
ort
heIPv62001:
db8::
3?"

Whe
nnodeCs e
esaNei
ghbo
rSo
li
ci
tat
ion(
NS)f
oranIPv6addr
essofi
ts
o
wn,itr
epl
ieswit
hit
sMAC addre
sswit
h aNei
ghborAdver
ti
sement
(
NA)mes
sag
e.
 6. NETWORKING 105

Fi
gur
eNG7:IPv4nodeA,192.
168.1.
1,need
stosenddat
ato192.168.
1.3
i
nthesa
mes
ubne
t(192.
168.
1.0/
24).ButitmustCrs
tas
kthewholenet
work
f
ort
heMACa ddre
sst
hatcor
res
pondsto192.
168.
1.3.

Whe
nus
ingARP
,no
deAbr o
adc
ast
stoal
lhos
tsthequest
ion,
"
Whoha
stheMACaddr
essf
ort
heIPv4192.
168.1.
3?"

WhennodeC se e
sa nARP re
questforit
so wnIPv4address
,itr
epli
es
wi
thit
sMAC addr e
ss.NodeBwillal
soseetheARPrequestbutwi
llnot
r
epl
yas192.
168.1.
3i sno
ta naddre
ssofit.$isisver
ys i
mila
rtoNDP
f
orIPv
6exce
ptthatanIPv4nodehasonlyasing
leIPv
4a ddre
ss.

Al
soARPbro
adca
ststhereque
st,t
hismeanst
hatiti
sre
cei
vedbya
llI
Pv4
node
sint
henet
workc aus
ingmo r
ehostCPU uti
li
sa
ti
onthanI
Pv6NDP
whic
honl
ymult
ic
aststosomeho s
ts
.
106 NETWORKING

I
PRo
uti
ngt
ono
n-Ne
ighbo
urs

Fi
gur
eNG8:Twos
epa
rat
eIPv
6ne
two
rks
.

Considerno wa no t
hernetworkwi t
h 3no des,D,E,a nd F
,witht he
corr
esponding I Pv6 a ddres
ses 2001:
db8:2::
1, 2001:db8:
2::
2, a nd
2001:db8:
2::3.
$i sisanother/64network,butiti
snotinthesamer ang
easthenetwork
onthel e
fthands i
de.
Allthreeho s
tscanr ea
che ac
ho the
rdire
ctl
y( 0rs
tusingNDPt oreso
lve
theIPv6a ddressint
oaMAC a ddr
ess
,andt hensendingpack
etstothat
MACa ddress)
.

No w wewi lla ddno deG.$i sno deha stwone t

wo r
kc ards(a l
socall
ed
int
er f
aces),witho nepl ug gedint oeachne t
wo r
k.$e0r stne tworkc a
rd
usestheI Pv6a ddr
e ss2001: db8:1::
4,oninterf
aceet
h0a ndt heo the
r,et
h1,
uses2001: db8:2::4.
No deG i sno wl ink -
localt obo thne t
wo r
ks,and canf orwardpa cket
s
betwe e
nt hem:no deG c anr o
ut epacket
sbetweenthet wone two r
ks,i
tis
therefo
rec al
ledar outero rsome timesag at
eway.
Butwha tifho stsA,B,a ndCwa nttor e
achhostsD,E,a ndF?$e yneed
tok nowt hatt heys houldus eno deG a ndsotheywillneedt oaddar o
ute
tot heo therne t
wo rkv iaho stG.Fo re x
ample,hostsA- C wo uldadda
sta
ticroutev ia2001: db8: 1:
:4.
InLi nux,thisc anbea ccompl i
shedwi t
ht hefol
lowi
ngc omma nd:

#i
p-6r
out
ead
d2001:
db8:
2::
/64v
ia2001:
db8:
1::
4
 6. NETWORKING 107

.
..
andho
stsD-
Fwo
ulda
ddt
hef
oll
owi
ng:

#i
p-6r
out
ead
d2001:
db8:
1::
/64v
ia2001:
db8:
2::
4

Fi
gur
eNG9
:No
deGa
ctsa
sarou
terbe
twee
nth
etwone
two
rks
,ot
herh
ost
s
us
est
ati
crout
es
.

$er
esul
tfo
rno
deAi
ssho
wni
nFi
gur
eNG 9.

Not
icet
hatt
heroutei
sadde
dviat
heI
Pv6a
ddr
esso
nho
stG t
hati
sli
nk-
l
oca
ltother
espe
cti
vene
twor
k.

Ho s
tA c oul
dno ta ddar out
ev i
a2001:db8:2:
:4,e venthoug
hi tisthe
s
amephy s
ica
lma chineas2001:db8:1::
4(nodeG) ,sinc
ethatI
Pv6i snot
l
ink-l
o c
al.
$ea ddre
sso fthene x
tho pca n bee nt
ere
de ithe rasag l
obaladdres
s
(
2001:db8:2:
:4)o rasalink-
loc
a laddres
s(fe
80::
...
) ;iti
susual
l
ye as
ierto
con0gureastat
icroutewithagl
o baladdre
ss.

InI Pv6,ther out

erG alsosendsas ol
ic
it
ati
ona ndperi
odic
all
yroute
r
advert
isement
st hatc
onta
ini t
so wnlink-
loc
aladdres
s,hence
,allnode
s
usingstate
les
sa ut
o-c
on0gurat
ionorDHCPa utomati
cal
l
ya ddade f
aul
t
routeviatheroute
rli
nk-l
ocaladdr
essa
sshowninFigur
eNG 10.
108 NETWORKING

Fi
gur
eNG10:No
deGa ct
sasaro
ute
rbet
wee
nthetwone
two
rks
,ho
st
sus
e
s
ta
tel
es
sadd
res
saut
oco
nCg
ura
tio
n.

$i sisav erysimplero uti

nge xample,whe rethede s
tinat
ioniso nlya
si
nglehopa wayf ro
mt hesour c
e.Asne tworksg etmo rec omplex,ma ny
hopsma yneedt obet raver
sedtor e
acht heultimatede sti
nat
ion.Sinceit
i
sn'tpra
cti
c a
lfo rever
yma chineo ntheI nternettok nowt heroutet o
eve
ryo t
her
,wema keuseo far outi
nge ntryk nowna sthede f
aultroute
(a
lsoknowna sthede f
aultgat
e way)
.
Whe nar oute
rr ece
ive
sapa cketdes
ti
ne dforane tworkf orwhichi thas
noe x
pli
ci
troute,thepack e
tisforwar
dedt oitsdefaultgateway.
$ede fa
ultgatewayistypical
lythebestrouteouto fy o
urne twork,usuall
y
i
nt hedi
recti
ono fyourI SP
.

Ane xampleo faroute

rthatusesadefaultgatewayisshowninFi gureNG
11.FigureNG 11s ho
wst herouti
ngt able(whichisthesetofa l
lro utes
)
ont hei nter
nalrouterG whi c
hi ncludest hetwo dire
ctl
yc o nnected
netwo r
ks2001:db8:1:
:/
64a nd2001: db8:2:
:/64a swe l
lasar outet oa l
l
otherhostsontheInte
rnet::
/0.
A no dea l
waysusesthemo s
ts pec
i0cr out
e;t hatistheroutewi tht he
l
ong estma t
chtothede s
tinat
ion,inFig ur
eNG 11e t
h0wi l
lbeus edf or
dest
inati
on2001:db8:1::
1( mat
c hle
ng t
h/ 64)r a
therthanthelessspe c
i0c
::
/0(ma tc
hl e
ngthof0).
 6. NETWORKING 109

Ar o
utetel
lst
heOStha
tthede
si
re
dnet
workdoe
sn'
tli
eo nthei
mme dia
te
l
ink-l
ocalnet
wor
k,a
ndi tmus
tfor
war
dthetr
aNcthroughthespe
ci0ed
r
o ut
er.

IfhostAwa nt
stos endapa c
kettoho s
tF,itwoul
d0r s
tsenditt
ono de
G.No deG wo ul
dt henloo
kupho stFinitsro
uti
ngtabl
e,andseetha
tit
hasadir
ectconnecti
ontoho s
tF'snetwor
k.
Final
l
y,hostG wo uldre
sol
vethehardware(MAC)addressofhos
tFa nd
forwa
rdthepackettoit.

Rout
escanbeupdate
dma nual
ly
,orca
ndynamic
all
yrea
cttonet
wor
k
out
age
sandot
herev
ents.
Someexa
mple
sofpopul
ardyna
micro
uti
ngpr
oto
col
sareRI
P,OSPF
,BGP.

Con0g
uri
ngdynamicrout
ingisbeyo
ndt hesco
peoft hi
sboo
k,butf
or
f
urt
herre
adi
ngonthesubj
ect
,seet
hereso
urce
sinAppendi
xF.
I
Pv4behave
sex
act
lythesa
mewa yasdepi
cte
din0gureNG 12.
110 NETWORKING

Asno t
edbe f
ore
,mostne t
wo r
ksandtheInter
neta redual
-s
tac
ka nda l
l
host
sandrouter
shav
ebo thIPv4andIPv6addres
ses,thi
sal
some ansthat
thenodeswil
lhaver
o ut
esforIPv
4andr o
utesforIPv6.Forins
tance,the
seto
fallro
utesonnodeG ofthepre
vio
us0gureswillbe:

#net
sta
t- r
n-Aine
t6
Dest
inat
ion NextHop I
f
2001:db8:
1:/
64 :: e
th0
2001:db8:
2:/
64 :: e
th1
::
/0 2001:
db8:
2::
1 e
th1

#nets
tat-
rn-Ai
net4
Dest
inat
io
n Ga t
eway Ge nmas
k I
fac
e
192.168.
1.0 0.0.
0.0 255.255.
255.
0 e
th0
192.168.
2.0 0.0.
0.0 255.255.
255.
0 e
th1
0.0.
0.0 192.168.
2.1 0.0.0.
0 e
th1
 6. NETWORKING 111

Ne
two
rkAddr
essTr
ans
la
ti
on(
NAT)f
orI
Pv4
Ino rdert or each ho s
tso nt he I nter
net,privatea ddressesmus tbe
converte
dt og lobal,publ i
clyro utableIPv4a ddress
es.
$i sisac hi
e ve
dus ingat ec
hni quek nowna sNe t
wo rkAddr essTr a
nsla
ti
on,
orNAT.
ANATde vic
ei sar outerthatma nipulate
sthea ddress
eso fpack et
sinst
ead
ofsimplyf orwa r
dingt hem.
OnaNAT r outer
,t heI nterne tc onnect
ionus eso ne( ormo re)g l
obal
ly
routedI Pv4a ddresse
s,whi let hepr iva
tene t
wo rkus esa nI Pv4a ddres
s
fromt heRFC1918pr ivat
ea ddr essrange.
$eNATr outerallowst heg l
o ba laddres
s(e
s)tobes haredwi tha l
lofthe
insi
deus ers,whoa llus eprivatea ddr e
sse
s.
Itconv e
rtst hepa cketsf r
omo nef o r
mo faddress
ingt ot heo therasthe
packet
spa ssthr o
ug hi t
.Asf ara sthene tworkus erscant ell,theyare
dire
ctl
yc onne ct
edt ot heI nte rneta nd requir
enos pecia
ls oftwar
eo r
driv
ers.
$e ys impl yus et heNAT r oute ra sthei
rde faul
tg atewa y
,a nda ddres
s
packet
sa st heyno rma l
lywo uld.
$eNAT r outert ransla
teso ut bo und packet
st o us etheg lobalIPv4
addres
sa st heyl e
av ethene two rk ,andt r
anslat
esthe m backa gainasthey
arerecei
ve dfromt heI nte
rnet.

$ema j
orconse
quenc
eo fus
ingNATi st
hatmachi
nesf
romtheInte
rne
t
c
anno
te a
sil
yr e
achser
verswit
hintheorga
nis
ati
on wi
tho
utset
tingup
e
xpl
ic
itf
orwardi
ngrul
esontherout
er
.

Connec
ti
onsini
ti
ate
dfrom withi
nt hepriv
ateaddr
esss
pacege
ner
al
lyha
ve
notr
ouble
,al
thoughso
mea pplic
ati
ons(suchasVoic
eoverIPv
4andsome
VPN sof
twar
e)canhavedi
Nc ult
yde a
li
ngwi t
hNAT.
112 NETWORKING

a
ddr
es
swi
thma
nyi
nte
rna
lho
st
s,b
u tc
anma k
eitd
iMc
ultf
ors
omes
er
vic
est
o
workpro
per
ly
.

De pendingo nyourpo i
ntofvie
w,thiscanbecons
ider
edabug( si
nceit
ma kesithardert
os etuptwo-
waycommuni ca
ti
on)o
raf eat
ure.RFC1918
addr e
sse
ss hould be0lte
redo nthee dg
eo fyournetworkt o pre
vent
accident
alorma li
cio
usRFC1918t ra
Nce nte
ri
ngorlea
vingyournetwork.

Whil
eNATpe r
for
mssome0rewal
l-l
ik
ef unc
ti
o ns
,itisno
tar e
placementfor
are
al0r
ewa
llasmosto
ftheatt
ackshappenno wwhe nanint
ernaluse
rvis
its
s
omewebsi
teswi
thhos
til
eco
ntent(ca
lle
dma lwarefo
rma l
evo
lentsoft
ware
).

Internet Protocol Suite

Machi
neso
nt heInte
rne
tuset
heInt
erne
tPr
otoc
ol(IP)t
ore
ache
acho
the
r,
e
venwhensepar
ate
db ymanyi
nte
rme
diar
ymachi
nes
.

$ereareanumberofpro
toc
olsthatar
er uninc onj
unct
ionwit
hIPt hat
pr
ovi
defea
tur
eswhi
chareascr
it
ic
altonormalo per
ati
onsasIPi
ts
elf
.Ever
y
pa
ckets
peci
0esapr
oto
colnumberthati
denti
0esthepacke
tasoneofthes
e
pr
oto
col
s.
 6. NETWORKING 113

$emo s
tcommo nlyusedprot
ocol
sa r
etheTrans
mi s
si
onCo nt
rolPro
toco
l
(TCP,number6),Us e
rDa tag
ram Protoc
ol(UDP ,numbe r17),andthe
Int
erne
tCo ntro
lMe s
sage Pr
otoc
ol( ICMP,numbe r1 f orIPv4a nd
number58forIPv6).Takenasag roup,the
seprotocol
s(ando the
rs)ar
e
knownastheInte
rnetProt
ocolSui
te,orsi
mplyTCP/ IPforshort
.

$eTCP a ndUDP pr otocol

si ntr
oducet hec oncepto fportnumbe rs
.
Por
tnumbersa l
lo
w mul t
ipleser
v i
cestober uno nt hesameI Paddress
,
andst
il
lbedisti
ngui
shedf r
ome a c
ho ther
.Ev er
ypa ck e
tha sasourc
ea nd
des
ti
nat
ionpo r
tnumbe r
.S omepo rtnumbe r
sa r
ewe ll
-de0ne
ds t
andar
ds,
use
dt orea
chwe ll
-knowns erv
icessuc hase maila nd we bserve
rs.For
exa
mple,webserve
rsnorma l
lyli
steno nTCPpo r t80f orins
ecuretra
Nc
andonTCPpo r
t443fore ncr
ypted/s
ecuretraNc,NTPt i
mes e
rver
slis
ten
onUDPpo rt123,DNSdo mainna mes erv
erslist
eno nUDPpo rt53,
andSMTPe ma i
lser
ver
slist
eno nTCPpo rt25.

Whe nwes a
yt ha tas ervic
e" li
ste
ns"o napo rt(s
ucha sport80),weme an
thatitwi l
lac c
e ptpa ck etsthatuseitsIPa sthedesti
nati
onI Paddres
s,and
80a sthede stinationpo r
t.S er
versusual
lydono tc a
reaboutthes o
urceI P
ors ourcepo r
t,a ltho ughs o meti
me stheywi llusethemt oe st
abli
sht he
ide
ntityo ftheo t
he rs ide.
Whe ns endingar e spo nsetos uchpackets
,thes e
rverwil
luseitsownI Pa s
thesourc eIP,and80a sthes ourceport.
Whe nac l
ientc onne ctstoas er
vic
e,itma yuseanys our
cepo rtnumbe r
oni t
ss idetha tisno ta l
readyi nuse,buti tmus tconnec
tt othepr oper
porto nthes erver( e.g.80f orweb,25f orema i
l)
.
TCPi sas ession-o rientedpr o t
ocolwithg uar
anteedando rder
edde l
ivery
and transmi ss
io nc o ntrolf eat
ures(sucha sde t
ecti
ona nd mitiga
tio
no f
netwo r
kc o
ng esti
o n,r etri
es,packetreor
deringandr ea
sse
mbl y
,etc.
).

UDPi sdesi
gnedforconnec
tionles
ss t
reamso finformati
on,anddo esnot
guarant
eedeli
veryatal
l,orina nypa rt
icula
ro rderbutcanbef as
tersoit
isoft
enusedforrea
l-t
imeprotocolssucha sfortiming,voi
ceorv ideo.
$eI CMPpr ot
ocolisdesi
gnedf orde buggi
nga ndma inte
na nceont he
Int
ernet.
Ratherthanportnumbe r
s,ithasme s
sagetypes,whicha real
sonumbe rs
.
Di1erentme ss
agetypesa r
eus e
dt or equesta s i
mpler esponsef r
om
anothercomputer(
echorequest)
,no ti
fythes enderofano t
herpa ck
eto fa
possi
blerout
ingloop(ti
mee xceeded),orinformt hes e
ndertha tapa c
k e
t
114 NETWORKING

tha
tc oul
d notbede l
ive
red dueto 0re
wa l
lrule
so rothe
rpr o
ble
ms
(de
sti
nati
onunre
achable
).
Byno wyoushoul
dha veas ol
idunder
sta
ndingofho wco
mputer
so nthe
net
wo r
ka readdres
sed,and ho winfor
ma t
ion Wowsont he ne
twork
bet
weenthem.

Nowle
t'
sta
keab r
ie
flo
oka
tthephy
sic
alha
rdwa
ret
hati
mpl
eme
ntst
hes
e
ne
two
rkpro
toc
ols
.

Physical hardware

Et
her
net
Ether
neti sthe na me ofthemo s
tpo pul
ars tandardf orconnecting
toget
herc omputerso naLocalAreaNe t
wo rk(LAN) .I tisso
meti
mesus ed
toconnectindi
vidualcompute
rstotheInte
rnet,vi
aar o uter
,ADSLmo de m,
orwirel
essdevi
ce.
Ho weve
r,ifyouc onnectasi
ngl
ec o
mput e
rt otheInternet,youmayno tuse
Ether
neta tal
l.
$ena mec omesf romt hephysi
calconc e
pto ft hee ther
,theme dium
whichwa sonces uppo s
edtocarryli
ghtwa ve
st hroug hfrees
pace
.$e
oNc i
alst
a ndar
di scall
edIEEE802.3.

Onewi del
ydeploy
edEthe
rne
tsta
nda
rdiscal
l
ed100baseTalsokno
wna s
Fa
stEthernet
.
$isde 0nesada t
ar a
teof100Megabi
tsperseco
nd( he
nc et
he100),
r
unning o v
ertwis
ted(he
ncetheT)pa i
rwi r
es,wit
h mo dul
arRJ-
45
co
nnectorsontheend.

$ene tworktopolo
g yisastar
,withswitchesorhubsatthec
e nt
reofeac
h
s
tar
,ande ndno des(devi
cesanda ddit
ionalswit
ches
)attheedges
.Serv
ers
a
rea l
soc onne
ctedus i
ngGi gabi
tEt her
ne twithar at
eo f1Gi ga
bitper
s
econd.
I
ncrea
singl
yGi gabi
tEthernetisrepl
aci
ngF a s
tEthe
rnetinmanyne t
works
t
hes
eda y
sa sdema ndf orhighv ol
umev ideoando t
herhighda t
arate
a
pplic
atio
nsbecomemo repreval
ent.

Me
dium Ac
ces
sCo
ntr
ol(
MAC)a
ddr
ess
es
Ev
eryde
vic
eco
nne
cte
dtoa
n Et
her
neto
rWi
Fine
two
rkha
sauni
que
 6. NETWORKING 115

MAC a ddress,ass
ignedb yt hema nufact
urero fthene tworkc ard.Itserv
es
asauni queide nt
i0ert hatenable
sde vi
cest otalktoe acho the r
.Ho wever
,
thesco peo faMAC a ddressisli
mi t
edt oabr oa
dcastdo ma i
n,whi chis
de0neda sallthec omput ersconnecte
dt og e
therbywi re
s,hubs ,s
witches
,
andbr idges,butno tc ros
singroutersorInternetgat
ewa ys.
MAC a ddres
sesa rene v
e rused dire
ctlyo nt heI nternet,a nd areno t
trans
mi ttedacrossrouters
.
MAC a ddressesforEt hernetandI EEE802. 11Wi Fine twor ksare48bi t
s
l
o nga ndl ookl ikethis-00: 1c:c
0:17:78:8co r40:6c:8f:
52: 59:41;forthe
l
a t
terMACa ddr e
ss,the0r st24bits40:6c:8findic
atestha tAppl eass
igned
thisaddr e
ss.

Hubs
Ethernethub sc o nnectmul ti
pletwi
ste
d-pairEthe r
netdevicestog e
ther
.
$e ywo r
ka tthephy si
callayer(t
hel
owe s
to r0rstlay
er).$e yrepeatthe
sig
nalsrec e
ivedb ye ac
h po rtouttoa l
lo ftheo t
herports
.Hubsc an
ther
eforebec onside r
edtobes i
mpler
epeat
ers.
Duet ot hisde s
ign,o nl
yo nepo r
tca
ns ucces
sful
lytransmi
ta tat ime.If
two de vi
cest rans mita tt he same t
ime,t heyc orrupt ea
cho t
her'
s
tra
nsmi s
sions,andbo thmus tba c
ko1a ndr etr
ansmitthei
rpa cketsla
ter
.
$i si sk nown a sac o
lli
sion,and ea
ch ho strema i
nsresponsiblefor
detec
tinga nda vo idi
ngc ol
lisi
onsbef
oretransmit
ting,andretransmitt
ing
it
so wnpa cketswhe nneeded.

Whe nproble
mssuchasexce
ssi
vecol
l
isi
onsar
ede
tec
tedonapo r
t,s
ome
hubscandisc
onnec
t(par
ti
ti
on)tha
tportf
orawhi
let
olimi
tit
simpac
ton
ther
estofthenet
work.

Whileapo rtisparti
ti
oned,de vi
cesat
tac
hedtoi tc
annotco
mmuni c
ate
wit
ht here
stofthenetwork.
Hubsa r
elimit
edi nthei
rus e
fulnes
s,si
ncethe
yc a
ne a
si
lybec
omepo i
nts
ofconges
ti
ono nbus ynet
wo rkssotheyarenolonge
rnormal
lydepl
oyed
i
nne twor
ksnowa day
s.It
so nl
yimpo rt
anttonotet
hataWiFiacc
esspo
int
ac
tsasahubo nther a
dioside
.

S
wit
che
s
Aswitc
hisadevic
ewhichopera
tesmuchl
ikeahub
,butpr
ovi
desa
de
dic
ate
d(ors
wit
ched)c
onne
cti
onbetwe
enpo
rts
.
116 NETWORKING

Rathert hanr e peat

inga l
lt r
aNco ne verypo rt,thes witch deter mine s
whichpo r
t sarec ommuni cat
ingdi rect
lya ndt empo rari
lyc onnectst he m
t
o get
he r
.$e r
ec anb es ever
als ucht empo rarypo rtc onnecti
onsa tt he
samet ime.
Switchesge ner
a l
lypr o
v i
demuc hbe tterpe r
formancet hanhubs ,espe cially
on bus yne t
wo rkswi th ma ny c omput e
rs.$e ya re no tmuc h mo re
expensivethanhubs ,a nda rereplaci
ngt hemi nmo s
ts i
tuati
o ns.
Switc
he swo rka ttheda talinkl a
y e
r( t
hes econdlayer),si
ncet heyint erpret
anda ctupo nt heMAC a ddre
ssint hepa cketstheyreceiv
e.Whe napa c ket
arr
ivesa tapo rto nas witc
h,itma kesano t
eo fthes ourceMAC a ddres s
,
whichi tassoci
a te
swi t
ht hatport.Itstoresthisinformationi nani nt ernal
MAC t a
bleo ft
enk nowna sCo ntentAddr ess
ableMe mo ry(CAM)t able.$e
s
wi t
cht henl ook supt hede st
inationMAC a ddre
ssini tsMAC t a
bl e,a nd
t
ransmi t
st hepa cketo nlyo nt hema t
chingpo r
t.Ifthede s
tina
tio
n MAC
addressisno tfoundi nt heMAC t able
,t hepa c
ketisthens enttoa llo ft he
connectedinter
fa c
eshopi ngtoreacht herightMAC.

Hubsv
s.S
wit
che
s
Hubsa rec onside r
edt o be f air
ly uns o phisti
c at
ed dev ices,sincet hey
ineNc i
e ntlyrebr o a
dc a
sta l
ltr aNco ne verypo rt.$i ssimpl icit
yintr o
duc e
s
bo t
hape rforma ncepe nalt
ya ndas ecuri
tyi ssue.Ov erallpe r
forma nc eis
slowe r,s i
nc et hea vai
lableba ndwi dthmus tbes haredbe twe ena llpo rts
.
Sinc ea llt ra
Nci ss eenb ya llpo r
ts ,anyho sto nt hene t
wo r
kc a
ne asil
y
mo ni tora lloft hene two rktra Nc .
Swi tche sc reatet empo raryv irtualc onne ct
ionsbe t
we enr eceivi
ng a nd
transmi ttingpo r ts
.$i sy i
e ldsbe tterpe rfor
ma ncebe c
a usema nyv i
rtual
conne c tio
nsc an bema des i
mul t
ane ously.Mo ree xpensives witchesc an
switcht raNcb yi nspec t
ingpa cketsa thi gherl evel
s( a
tt het r
a nsporto r
appl i
cat io
nl aye r),allowingt hec reati
o no fVLANs ,a nd i mpl eme nting
othe ra dvanc edf e a
tures.
Ahubc anbeus edwhe nre pe ti
tiono ftraNco na llportsi sdesirabl
e ;for
exampl e,whe ny ouwa ntt oe x pli
citlya l
low amo nit
ori
ngma chinet os ee
allo ft het raNco nt hene two rk
.Mo s
ts witche sprovidemo nit
o rpo r
t
func ti
o nalitytha te nablesrepe atingo na na s
signe dportspe ci0cal
lyf orthis
pur po s
e .
Hubswe reo ncec heapertha ns wit
c hes.Ho weve r
,thepric eo fswitchesha s
reduc eddr ama ticallyov erthey ea
rs .$e r
e f
ore,o l
dne two rkhubss ho uld
ber epla cedwhe neverpo ssi
blewi thne ws witches.
 6. NETWORKING 117

Fi
gur
eNG1 4:Ahubsi
mplyre
peat
sallt
raMconeve
ryp
ort
,whil
easwi
tc
h
makesat
empo
rar
y,d
edic
ate
dconnect
io
nb et
wee
nthep
ort
sth
atnee
dto
c
ommu nic
ate
.

Bothhubsandswit
chesma yo1e
rma nag
edser
vic
es.
Someo fthe
seser
vic
esincl
udetheabil
it
ytosettheli
nkspeed(10baseT,
100bas
eT,1000bas
eT,fullorhalf
-dupl
ex)perport
,e nabl
et r
igge
rst o
watchfornet
workevent
s(suc
haschangesi
nMAC a ddres
so rmalf
orme d
packe
ts)
,a nd usual
lyi ncl
ude portc o
unte
rsf ore asy bandwidth
acc
ounti
ng.

A manag
eds wit
chthatprovi
desuploadanddownloadb yt
ecount
sfor
e
veryphys
ic
a lpo
rtca
ng re
atl
ysimpli
fynet
workmonito
ring
.
$eseser
vicesar
etypic
all
yavai
labl
ev i
aSNMP ,ortheyma ybeacc
ess
ed
v
iatel
net
,ssh,awebinte
rfa
ce,oracust
omc o
n0gura
tio
nt ool
.

Ro
ute
rsa
ndFi
re
wal
l
s
Whi l
e hubs a nd swi t
ches provide connecti
vi
tyo n al ocalnetwo
rk
se
g ment,ar outer
'sjobi stofor wardpack e
tsbet
weendi1erentnetwor
k
se
g ments.
Ar oute
rt y
picall
yhastwoo rmo rephy s
icalnetwor
kinte
rfa
ces.
Itma yi ncl
udes upportf o
rdi 1e r
enttype sofnetwor
kme dia,s
uchas
Ethernet
,Wi Fi,opti
cal0bre,DS L,ordial-
up .
Routerscanbede di
catedha r
dwa redevi
c esortheyca
nbema defr
oma
st
anda r
dPCwi thmultipl
ene t
wo rkc a
rdsanda ppr
opri
ateso
ftware.
118 NETWORKING

Ro ute
rssi
tattheedgeoftwoo rmo renetworks
.Byde0nit
ion,t
heyhave
onec onnect
iontoeachnetwork,anda sbordermachi
nestheymayt a
ke
ono t
herres
ponsi
bil
it
ie
saswe lla srout
ing.Ma nyrout
ershave0rewall
capabil
it
ie
sthatpro
videame chanis
mt o0l t
erorredi
rec
tpacket
sthatdo
not0ts ec
uri
tyoracce
sspo
licyre
q uir
ements.
$e yma yals
oprovi
deNe tworkAddr es
sTr a
nsla
ti
on(NAT)s er
vice
sfor
IPv4.

Rout
ersvar
ywide
lyincosta
ndc apa
bil
it
ie
s.
$el owes
tcosta
ndl e
astWexi
blear
esimple,dedi
cat
edhardwar
edevice
s,
of
ten wit
h NAT funct
iona
li
ty,usedtos hareanI nt
ernetconne
cti
on
be
tweenaf ewcomputer
s;wellknownbrandsincl
udeLinksy
s,D-Link,
Netg
ear.

$ene xts t
epupi sas of
twar
er out
er
,whi c
hc onsi
stso fano pera
ti
ng
sy
ste
mr unni
ng on as tandar
d PC with mult
iple networkinter
fac
es.
St
andar
do pera
ti
ngsy s
temssuchasMi cr
oso
ftWindo ws,Linux,andBS D
ar
ea l
lcapabl
eo fr
outing,anda r
emuc hmo r
eWexiblethanthel o
w-cost
har
dwaredevic
es;i
tisoft
enc a
ll
edInte
rnetConne
ctionS har
ing.

However
,the
ys u1erf
romt hesamepro
ble
msa sconv
ent
iona
lPCs,wit
h
hig
h powerconsumpt
ion,al a
rgenumberofc o
mplexand po
tent
ia
ll
y
unre
li
abl
epar
ts,andmoreinvol
vedco
n0gur
ati
on.

$emo stexpens
ivedevi
cesar ehigh-end dedic
ate
d hardwar
erout
ers
,
madebycompaniesl
ikeCis
coa ndJuniper.
$e yte
ndt oha v
emuc hbe t
terperf
o r
ma nce
,mo refeat
ures
,andhig
her
r
el
iabi
li
tythansof
twar
erouter
so nPCs .
I
tisal
sopo s
si
bl
et opurc
hasetechni
calsupportandma i
nte
nanceco
ntr
act
s
f
orthem.

Mo st moder
n rout
erso 1e
r mechani
sms to monit
ora nd rec
o rd
per
formanceremot
el
y,usual
lyvi
at he Si
mple Net
work Manag
eme nt
Prot
ocol(SNMP),al
thoug
ht hel
eas
te x
pensi
vedev
ice
so f
te
no mitthis
fe
ature
.
 6. NETWORKING 119

Ot
here
qui
pme
nt

Fi
gur
eNG15:ManyDSLmode
ms,ca
blemo
dems
,wir
el
es
sacc
es
spo
int
s,a
nd
VS
ATter
mina
lst
er
minat
eata
nEthe
rne
tjac
k.

Eachphy sicalnetwo r
kha sana s
socia
tedpi e
ceo fter
mi nalequipment.For
exampl e,VS AT c onnectionsc ons
isto fas atell
it
edi shc onnecte
dt oa
terminalt hate i
therplug sintoac ardi nsi
deaPC,o rendsa tas ta
ndard
Etherne tc onnection.DS Ll inesus eaDS L mo demt hatbr i
dgesthe
tel
epho nel inetoal oc alde v
ice
,e it
hera nEt her
netne tworko ras ingl
e
comput erv iaUS B.Ca blemo demsbr idgethet e
levi
si
onc abletoEthernet
,
ort oani nternalPCc ardbus .
Standard di alup lines us e mo dems t oc onnecta c omput e
rt ot he
tel
epho ne,us uall
yv i
aapl ug-i
nc ardo rseri
alpo rt
.Andt herearema ny
di1erentk indso fwi r
elessne t
workinge qui
pme ntthatconne c
tt oav ar
ie
ty
ofr adiosa nda ntenna s,butne arl
ya lwaysenda tanEt hernetjack.$e
functionali
ty o f t he s
e de vi
ces c an v a
r y signi0cantl
y be tween
ma nufacturers.So mepr ovideme chanismsformo nitori
ngpe r
for
ma nce
,
whi l
eo thersma yno t
.
120 NETWORKING

Sinceyo
urI nt
erne
tconnec
ti
on ult
imat
el
yc o
mesfro
m yourI
SP,y
ou
shoul
dfoll
owt hei
rreco
mme nda
ti
onswhe ncho
osi
ng e
qui
pme
ntthat
bridg
est
hei
rnetworkt
oyourEthe
rnetne
twor
k.

Putting it all together

Fi
gur
eNG16:Inte
rne
tnetwork
ing.Eachnet
workse
gme nthasarout
erwit
h
t
woIPaddr
es
se
s,maki
ngitli
nklocal
totwodi>e
rentnetwor
ks.Pac
ket
sar
e
fo
rwa
rde
dbetwe
enrou
tersunti
ltheyre
achth
eirult
ima t
edes
tina
tio
n.

Oncea l
lnet
wo rknodeshaveanIPa ddr
ess
,theycansenddat
apac k
etsto
theIPa ddressofa ny ot
herno de
.$r o
ug htheus eo fro
uting and
for
wardi
ng,t hes
epa cke
tsc a
nr eac
h nodeso n net
wo r
ksthata r
eno t
physi
cal
lyconnect
edtotheo r
igi
nati
ngnode.$i sproc
e s
sdes
cri
besmuc h
ofwhathappensontheInte
rnet
.

Inthi
se xa
mpl e
,y oucans e
ethepa ththa
tthepacket
sta
k easAli
cechat
s
wit
hBo busingani ns
tantme s
sagi
ngs e
rvi
ce.
Eachdotte
dlinerepre
sentsanEthernetca
ble,awir
el
essl
ink,oranyothe
r
ki
ndo fphysi
calnetwork.
$ec loudsymbo liscommo nlyusedt ost
andinfor$eI nter
net
,and
re
pres
entsanynumbe rofinter
veni
ngI Pnetwork
s.
 6. NETWORKING 121

Neit
herAli
ceno rBo bneedt obec oncer
nedwi t
hho wthosenet
wor
ks
ope
rate
,asl o
nga st herout
ersforwa
rdI Pt ra
Nct owar
dstheult
imat
e
des
ti
nati
on.
Ifi
tweren
tforInt
ernetpr
otocol
sandt hecooper
ati
onofeve
ryoneont
he
net
,thi
skindo fco
mmuni cat
ionwouldbei mposs
ibl
e.

I
nFi gureNG 16,Ali
ceisdual-
sta
cka ndhasIPv
4andI Pv
6addre
sse
s,
andasBo bhaso
nlyIPv6addre
sse
s,the
ywillc
ommunic
atebyus
ingIPv
6
whic
hi sthec
ommo nIPver
sio
nbe t
we e
nthem.

Designing the physical network

Itma ys eemo ddt ot al
ka bo utthe physical
ne tworkwhe n buildi
ng
wirel
essnetwo rks.
Afterall
,whe r
ei st hephysi
calpa rtoft hene two r
k?I nwirel
essne t
wo r
k s
,
the phy si
cal me dium we us e f orc ommuni cat
ion i so bvi
ously
ele
ctromagnet i
ce ne rgy
.
Buti nt hec o
nt exto fthisc hapter
,t hephy si
calne t
wo r
kr efe
rst othe
munda ne to pico fwhe ret o putt hing s.Ho w do y oua rr
a ngethe
equipments ot haty oucanreachy o
urwi r
eles
sc li
ent
s ?
Whe therthey0l lano Ncebui ldingo rs t
retcha cr
ossma nymi l
es,wirel
ess
netwo r
ksa re na turall
ya rr
ang edi nt he set hre
el ogic
alc on0gurat
ions:
point-t
o-point l ink s
, point-to-
mul ti
po int l i
nks,a nd mul tipoi
nt-to-
mul t
ipoi
ntc louds .Whi le di1erentpa rtso fyourne t
workc ant a
k e
advantageofa llt hreeofthesec o
n0g urati
o ns,anyi ndi
vidualli
nkwi llf
a l
l
int
oo neo fthe set o
po l
ogi
es.

P
oint
-to
-po
int
P
oint-t
o-poi
ntlinkst
ypic
all
yprov
ideanInt
erne
tc o
nnect
ionwher
es uc
h
a
ccessi
sn
totherwi
seava
il
abl
e.Onesideo
fapo i
nt-
to-po
intl
inkwi
llhav
e
a
nI nte
rnetc
o nnec
ti
on,whil
etheot
herus
est
helinktorea
chtheI
nter
net.

Fore x
ampl e,auniv
ersityma yha veaf as
tframer el
ayo rVSATc onnect
ion
inthemi ddleofcampus ,butc anno ta1ords uchac onnecti
onfora n
impo r
tant buil
ding justo 1c a
mpus .I ft he ma in buil
ding hasa n
unobstr
uc t
edv i
ewo fther e motesite
,apo int-t
o-pointconnecti
oncanbe
use
dt ol i
nkt hetwot og e
the r
.$i sc anaugme nto revenr e
placeexi
st
ing
dia
l-upl i
nks.Withpro pera nte
nna sandc l
earlineofsight,re
lia
blepoi
nt-
to-
po i
ntlinksinexces
so ft hir
tykilometre
sa r
epo ss
ible
.
122 NETWORKING

Fi
gur
eNG17:Ap
oin
t-t
o-p
ointl
inkall
owsare
mot
esi
tet
osh
areac
ent
ral
I
nter
netco
nnect
io
n.

Ofc ourse,o nceas i

nglepo i
nt-to-pointco nnecti
onha sbe e nma de ,mo r
e
canbeus edt oextendt hene t
wo rke venfur ther
.Ifther emo tebuildingi n
oure xampl ei sa tthet opo fat al
lhi l
l,i tma ybea blet os e
eo ther
i
mpo rt
antlo cat
ionst hatc an
tbes eendi r
ectlyfromt hec ent ralcampus .By
i
nstall
inga no t
herpo int-to-pointlinka tther emotes i
te,a no t
he rno dec an
j
o i
nt hene tworka ndma k euseo fthec entralInte
rnetc onne c
tion.
Point-t
o-po i
ntl ink sdo n
tne cessar
il
y ha v et oi nvol
veI nter
ne ta ccess
.
Suppo s
ey ouha vet ophy si
call
ydr ivet oar emo tewe a thermo nitoring
s
tation,highi nthehi l
ls,ino rdertoc oll
ectt heda t
awhi chi trecordso ver
t
ime .Y ouc ouldc onnectt hesitewi t
hapo int-
to-pointlink ,a l
l
o wingda t
a
col
lecti
ona ndmo nito
ringt oha ppeni nr eal
ti
me ,wi tho utt hene edt o
act
uallytraveltot hes i
te.
Wi re
lessnetwo rk
sc anpr ovidee noughba ndwidtht oc arryl argeamo unts
ofda ta(includi
nga udioa ndv i
deo )be t
we ena nyt wopo intst hatha vea
connectiont oe acho ther,eve nift herei snodi re
ctc o nne ct
iont ot he
I
nt er
ne t
.

P
oint
-to-
mul
ti
poi
nt
$e ne xtmo stcommo nl
ye ncounte
red networkl ayoutispo i
nt-t
o-
multi
point
.Whe nev
ersevera
lno de
sa retal
k i
ngt o ac ent
ralpointof
acc
ess
,thisi
sapo i
nt-
to-mult
ipointappli
cat
ion.$et ypi
calexampl
eo fa
poi
nt-t
o-multipoi
ntlayoutist heus eo fa wi r
e l
es
sa cces
spo i
ntthat
prov
idesaconne c
ti
ontos e
veralla
ptops.$el apto
psdono tcommunicat
e
wit
he achotherdir
ect
ly
,butmus tbei nrangeo ftheacce
sspointi
no r
der
tousethenetwork.
 6. NETWORKING 123

Fi
gureNG18:ece
ntr
alVSATisnowsha
redbymu
lti
pl
eremotes
it
es
.Al
l
t
hre
esi
te
sca
nals
oco
mmu ni
cat
edi
rec
tl
yatsp
eed
smuc
hfast
erth
anVS AT.

Point-
to-mult
ipointnetwor
kingcana ls
oa pplytooure a
rl
ierexampleat
theuniver
si
ty.Suppo s
etheremotebuil
dingo ntopofthehil
lisconnec
ted
tothec e
ntra
lcampuswi thapo i
nt-t
o-pointli
nk.
Ratherthans ett
ing up sever
alpo i
nt-t
o-pointli
nkst o di
str
ibutethe
Inter
netconnecti
o n,asing
leantennac oul
dbeus edthatisvis
iblefr
om
sever
alremotebui ldi
ngs
.$i sisac las
sicexampleofawi dear e
apo i
nt
(re
mo tesit
eo nt hehil
l)to multi
point( manybuil
dingsint hevall
ey
below)connect
ion.

Notethattherea r
eanumbe ro fperf
ormanceiss
ueswi t
hus ingpo i
nt-to-
multi
pointoververylongdis
tance,whic
hwi l
lbea ddre
sse
di nt hechapter
cal
ledDe pl
o y
me ntPla
nning.Suchl i
nksareposs
ibleandus efulinma ny
ci
rcumstances
,butdo ntmaket hec l
as
si
cmi sta
keo finstall
ingas ingle
hig
hpo we r
edr a
diotowerinthemi ddl
eo fto
wna nde xpec
t i
ngt obea ble
toserv
et housa
ndso fcli
ent
s,asyo uwouldwithanFM r adiostat
ion.As
wewi l
lsee,two-wayda t
anetworksbehav
ev er
ydi1e r
entl
yt hanbroadcast
ra
dio.

Mul
ti
poi
nt-
to-
mul
ti
poi
nt
$et hir
dt ypeofnet
wo r
kl ayo
utismul t
ipo
int-
to-multi
point
,whi c
hi s
al
sorefer
redtoa sana d-hoco rme s
h networ
k.I n amul ti
point-
to-
mult
ipoi
ntne t
work,ther
ei snoc ent
ralaut
hori
ty.Ev e
ryno deo nt he
net
wo r
kc ar
rie
sthe tra
Nc o fe v
eryo t
hera sneeded,a nd al
lno des
co
mmuni cat
ewitheac
ho therdi
rec
tl
y.
124 NETWORKING

o
the
ratv
eryh
ighs
pee
d,ora
nyoft
hemcanus
ethec
ent
ral
acc
es
spo
intf
ora
VSATco
nne
ct
iont
otheI
nte
rne
t.

$ebe ne0tofthisnet
wo rkla
y o
utisthatevenifno neofthenode
sa r
ein
rangeo fac entr
ala c
cesspoint,theycans til
lc o
mmuni cat
ewithe ac
h
other.
Go odme s
hne t
wo r
ki mplementat
ionsareself
-heal
ing,whic
hme ansthat
theya utomati
cal
ly detec
tr out
ing pro
blemsa nd 0x thema sneeded.
Ex t
endingame shnetworkisassimplea
sa ddingmo renodes
.
Ifo neo fthenodesint he"c l
oud"happe nstobea nInte
rnetgat
eway,
thenthatconnect
ionc anbesharedamonga llofthecli
ent
s.

S
eve
raldi
sa
dva
nta
geso
fthi
sto
pol
ogyi
ncl
udei
ncr
eas
edc
ompl
exi
tya
nd
l
owe
rperf
orma
nce
.

Securi
tyi ns uch anetworki salso ac once
rn,s i
nceeverypa rti
cipant
potenti
all
yc ar
rie
sthetr
aNco feve
ryo ther
.
Mul ti
point-
to-mult
ipo
intne twork
st endt obedi Nculttot ro
ubleshoo t
,
duet othela r
genumbero fchangi
ngv a r
ia
ble
sasno desjoi
na ndl e
avet he
network.
Mul ti
point-
to-mult
ipo
intcloudstypic
allyhav
er e
ducedcapacit
yc ompa red
topo i
nt-to-poi
ntorpo i
nt-t
o- mul
tipoi
ntne t
works,duetot hea ddi
tional
overheado fma nag
ingthene tworkro uti
ngandi ncr
ease
dc ontenti
o ni n
theradiospectr
um.

Neve
rthel
es
s,meshnetwo
rksar
eusef
uli
nma nyc
irc
umst
anc
es.
Fo
rmo r
einfor
ma t
ionaboutthe
m ple
aser
eadthecha
pte
rcall
edMe
sh
Net
wo rk
ing.
 6. NETWORKING 125

Us
ethet
echno
log
ytha
t0t
s
Allo fthesene two r
kde si
gnsc a
nbeus edt ocompl ementea c
ho t
herina
l
a r
gene two rk,a nda ddit
ional
lyt heyc anma keus eo ftradi
tionalwired
netwo r
kingt echniqueswhe neverpo s
sibl
e .Wi r
edne tworkssti
llofte
nha ve
higherba ndwi dthc apaci
tyt han wi r
e l
esss os hould beus ed whenever
appropriateora 1o r
dable.
Butl ookinga tthewi re
less
,itisac ommo npracti
ce,forexa
mpl e,tousea
l
o ngdistancewi reles
slinktopr ovideInt er
netaccesstoar e
mo t
elocati
on,
and the ns etupa na cc
esspo into nt her emo t
es idetopr o
v i
del o
c a
l
wirel
essa ccess
.Oneo ftheclie
nt soft hisa cc
esspo i
ntma ya ls
oa ctasa
me shno de ,all
o wingthene two rktos prea
do r
ganical
lybe t
wee nlaptop
userswhoa llultimate
lyus etheo rig
inalpo int-
to-pointli
nkt oa c
cessthe
Inter
net.

$isi
sj us
tonec
ommo
nsc
ena
ri
ofo
rwi
re
les
sde
plo
yme
nts
,the
rea
re
ma
nyother
s.

Nowt hatwehaveacl
earide
ao fho
w wi
rel
es
snet
work
sa r
etypic
all
y
ar
rang
ed,wecanbeg
int
ounder
sta
ndhowco
mmunic
ati
onispos
si
bleove
r
s
uchne t
work
s.
126 NETWORKING

7. WIFI FAMILY

IEEE 802: What is it, and why should I care?

$ee ar
lyda yso fne tworkingo nlysaw wi rel
inene t
works(ifyo udo n'
t
countt heo l
dAT&T Lo ngl i
ne smi crowa v
eba ck bonethatato net i
me
crossedt heUni t
edS ta
tes)No w ma nyne two r
k sa rebuil
tus ingbo th
wireli
nea ndwi r
ele
ssso l
utions.Ty pical
lyne t
wo rksba s
edo nwiresormo r
e
usua l
lytheseda ys
,0bresha veg reat
e rcapaci
tythanwi re
les
s.
Butl ayi
ng0br eismuc hmo ree x
pe nsi
vea ndtak e
st ime.Soofte
nne two r
ks
begina swi re
lessnetwo r
ksa nda st heyg r
owi nus e,0br
eba se
dne two rk
s
sta
r ttobede ploye
d.I nac ces
sne t
wo rks(thosene artheconsume rs
)o rin
dens eurba ne nvi
ronme nts,o f
tenwi rel
essismo r
epr a
cti
caltoo.Sov e r
y
impo rta
nt l
ya sy oube gi
nt ot hi
nka boutde ployingwi r
eles
snetwo r
k sin
yourl ocalareao rco mmuni ty,y ourne tworkc ouldf ormtheba si
so fthe
futuregro wtho fnetworkingi ny ourreg i
on.

Ana spectofwiredandwi re
lessnetworksimpo r
tanttounderst
andist he
vari
o usstandar
dst hatexi
sttodayaswe llasthosenews t
andardsthatare
bei
ng de vel
oped.Wi rel
essstandardsa r
et he basi
sf orma ny wirel
e s
s
produc ts
,e ns
uringintero
pera
bi l
it
ya ndus eabi
li
tyb ythosewhode si
gn,
deploya ndma na g
ewi r
ele
ssnetwo r
k s
.Wet ouchedo nthi
ssubjec
ta l
ready
int hec hapterc a
ll
ed RadioS pect
rum.$eS ta
nda r
dsus e
di nthev a s
t
ma j
o rit
yo fthene t
workscomef romt heI EEE Standar
d Associ
ati
on's
IEEE802Wo r
kingGr oup.I
EEE802r e
fer
stoaf amilyofIEEEs t
andards
deal
ingwi t
hlocalareanetwor
k sandme tro
polit
ana r
eanetwork
s.

Mo res pec
i0cal
ly
,t heIEEE 802 s tandardsa rer es
tri
c t
edt o networks
car
r y
ingv ar
iabl
e-si
zepackets
.(Byc ontr
ast
,i nc ellre
layne twork
sda tais
tra
nsmi ttedinsho r
t,unif
ormlysize
duni tsca l
le
dc e
ll
s).$enumbe r802
wass impl ythene xtfreenumbe rI EEE c oulda ss
ign,though 802i s
some timesassoc
iate
dwi t
ht hedatethe0rstme e
tingwa sheld Fe bruary
1980 .$es ervi
cesandprotocol
sspec i
0edinI EEE802ma ptothel ower
twol aye r
s(Da t
aLi nkandPhy s
ica
l)o fthes even-l
ay e
rOS Inetworking
ref
erenc emo del
.Inf ac
t,IEEE802s pli
tstheOS IDa t
aLi nkLa ye
ri nto
twos ub-la
yersna med Logica
lLink Co nt r
o l(LLC)a nd Me di
aAc ces
s
Co ntrol(MAC) .
 7. WIFI FAMILY 127

$eI EEE 802 famil

yo fstandar
dsismaint
ai
nedbytheI
EEE 802
LAN/MAN S ta
ndardsCommi tte
e(LMSC).
$ emo s
twi del
yus e
ds t
andardsarefort
heEther
netf
ami
ly
,Token
Ring
,Wi r
ele
ssLAN,Br i
dgingandVirt
ualBri
dge
dLANs.

Anindi
vi
dua
lWo r
kingg
rouppr
ovi
dest
hef
ocusf
ore
acha
reaa
ndt
heya
re
l
is
tedint
heta
blebe
low.

Name Description
IEEE 802.1 Bridging and Network Management
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n Wireless LAN (WLAN)
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certi5cation
IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence
IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate wireless PAN eg. Zigbee
IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN
IEEE 802.15.6 Body Area Network
IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (basis of WiMAX )
IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network
IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group
IEEE 802.24 Smart Grid TAG
IEEE 802.25 Omni-Range Area Network
128 NETWORKING

The 802.11 standard

$es t
andardwea remo s
tinte
res
tedinis802.
11a
sitde0nesthepr
oto
col
f
orWi r
elessLAN.
$e802. 11Ame ndme nt
saresonume r
ousthe
yhavei
nt hela
stfewyea
rs
s
tar
tedusing2lett
ersins
tea
do f1.(
802.11z-t
heDLSame ndment-
g
avewa yto802.11aa,ab
,ac..
.,e
tc)

Belo
wi sa t
abl
eo ft
he v
ari
ant
sof802.
11,t
hei
rfr
eque
nci
esa
nd
appr
oxi
mat
era
nge
s.

802.11 Release Freq. Bandwi Data Rate per Approximate Approximate

protocol dth stream indoor range outdoor range
(GHz) (MHz) (Mbit/s) (m) (ft) (m) (ft)
- Jun 1997 2.4 20 1, 2 20 66 100 330
a Sep 1999 5 20 6,9,12, 18, 24, 35 115 120 390
36, 48, 54
b Sep 1999 2.4 20 1, 2, 5.5, 11 35 115 140 460
g Jun 2003 2.4 20 6,9,12, 18, 24, 38 125 140 460
36, 48, 54
n 20 7.2, 14.4, 21.7, 70 230 250 820
Oct 2009 2.4/5 28.9, 43.3, 57.8,
65, 72.2
40 15, 30, 45, 60 ,
90, 120, 135, 150
ac Nov.2011 5 20 Up to 87.6
40 Up to 200
80 Up to 433.3
160 Up to 866.7

In2012I
EEEiss
uedthe802.
11-
2012S
tanda
rdt
hatc
ons
oli
dat
esa
llt
he
pre
vio
usa
mendment
s.

$edo c
umenti
sfr
eel
ydo wnl
oadabl
efr
om:
ht
tp:
//
st
anda
rds
.i
eee
.or
g/0nds
tds/
sta
ndar
d/802.
11-
2012.
html
 7. WIFI FAMILY 129

Deployment planning for 802.11 wireless networks

Be forepa cketsc anbef o rwa r
de da ndr outedtot heI nte
rne t
,l ay erso ne
(thephy sical)andt wo( theda tal i
nk )ne edt obec onnected.Wi t
ho utli
nk
l
o ca lc onne ctiv
ity,ne two rkno desc anno tt al
ktoe a
c ho thera nd r oute
pa ckets.
Topr o vi
dephy sicalco nne ctivit
y,wi rel
e s
sne tworkde vic
esmus to pe rat
ei n
thes a mepa rtoft her adios pe ct
rum.
$i sme anst ha t802. 11ar a di
oswi l
lt alkt o802.11ar adiosa ta r
o und5
GHz ,and80 2.11b/gr a dioswi lltalkt oo ther802.11b/gr adiosa ta r
ound
2.4GHz .
Buta n8 02.11ade v
icec annoti nte r
oper a
tewi t
ha n 802. 11b/ gde vi
c e
,
sincet he yus ec ompl etelydi 1e r
entpa r
tso fthee l
ectr
oma gne t
ics pec tr
um.
Mo res peci0c al
ly,wi r
eles sint e
rfacesmus ta gr
eeo nac ommo nc ha nnel.If
one802. 11br adioc ar
di ss ettoc ha nnel2whi l
ea notheriss e
tt oc hannel
11,t he nt her adiosc anno tc ommuni catewi t
he ac
ho ther.
$ec ent r
ef reque ncieso fe a chc hanne lfor802.11aa nd802b/ ga reg iven
inAppe ndixB:Cha nne lAl lo c
ations.
Whe nt wowi relessinter facesarec on0g uredt ouset hes a
mepr oto colo n
thes amer adioc ha nnel,t he nt heya r
er eadyt one goti
ateda tal inkl ayer
co nne ct
ivity.Ea ch802. 11a /b/gde vicec ano perat
ei no neo ffo urpo ssi
ble
mo des:

1. Ma st
ermo de( alsoc all
e d AP o rinfrastr
ucturemo de)i susedt o
crea
teas er
vicet hatlo oksl i
keat ra
ditionalacce
sspo i
nt .$ewi rel
e s
s
i
nt e
rfac ec r
eatesane t
wo rkwi thas pe c
i0edna me( call
e dtheS S
ID)
and c ha nnel,a nd o 1ersne tworkser v
iceso nit.Whi lein ma s
ter
mo de,wi re
lessi nterf
acesma nageallc ommuni cat
ionsr ela
tedtot he
netwo rk ( authe nti
c at
ing wi rel
ess c lie
nts, ha ndling c hannel
content i
o n,r epe at
ing pa c k
ets,etc
.)Wi rel
essinterf
ace sin ma s
ter
mo dec a no nlyc ommuni catewithinterfac
esthatarea ssoc
iate
dwi th
themi nma nagedmo de.
2. Ma nag ed mo de i ss o
me ti
me sa l
sor e f
err
edt oa sc l
ie
ntmo de.
Wi re
lessi nterf
a cesinma nagedmo dewi l
ljoi
nane two rkcrea
tedb y
ama s
te r
,a ndwi l
la utoma t
ica
llychanget heirchanne ltoma tchi t
.
$e yt he npr esenta nyne ce
ssar
yc redentia
lstot hema ster
,andi f
thosec redentialsa r
ea ccept e
d,theya r
es aidtobea ssociat
edwi t
ht he
ma s
ter.Ma na gedmo dei nt
erfac
esdono tcommuni catewithe ach
otherdi rect
ly,andwi l
lo nlyc ommunic atewithana ssociat
edma st
er.
130 NETWORKING

3. Ad- hocmo dec re

atesamul ti
point-to-
multi
pointne twor
k whe r
e
thereisnos i
nglema sterno deorAP .I nad-hocmo de,eachwire
less
int
er f
aceco mmuni catesdirect
lywithi tsnei
ghbours
.
No desmus tbei nr angeo fe ac
ho t
he rtocommuni cat
e,andmus t
agr
e eo nane two r
kna mea ndc hanne l
.Ad-hocmo deisofte
na ls
o
cal
ledMe shNe twork i
nga ndy ouc an0ndde t
ail
so fthistypeo f
netwo r
kingi nthec hapterca l
l
edMe shNe twor
king.
4. Mo nitormo dei susedb ys omet ools( s
uchasKi s
me t)topassi
vel
y
l
ist
e ntoa llradiotraNco nag i
venc hannel.Wheninmo nit
ormo de,
wirele
ssi nterf
acest ransmitnoda ta.$i sisusef
ulf o ranal
ysi
ng
problemso nawi rel
essl i
nko robservingspect
rum usageinthelocal
are
a .Mo nitormo dei sno tusedforno rmalcommuni ca
tions
.

Fi
gur
eWF1:APs
,Cl
ie
nts
,andAd
-Ho
cno
des
.

Whe nimple
me nt
ingapoint
-to-
pointorpoint-
to-mult
ipo
intli
nk,o ne
ra
diowillt
ypi
call
yope
rat
einma ste
rmo de
,whi l
etheo t
her
(s)o
perat
ei n
managed mode.In a mult
ipoi
nt-t
o-mul
ti
pointme sh,the r
adio
sa l
l
oper
ateinad-hocmodesothattheycancommuni ca
tewitheac
ho ther
dir
ect
ly
.

Itisi
mport
anttok
eept
hes
emo
desi
n mi
nd whe
n de
si
gni
ng y
our
net
wor
kla
yout.
 7. WIFI FAMILY 131

Rememberthatmanagedmo decli
ent
sc a
nnotco
mmunica
tewit
he ac
h
ot
herdir
ect
ly
,soiti
slike
lythaty
ouwi l
lwanttor
unahighre
peat
ersi
te
i
nma st
erorad-
hocmo de.
Ad-ho
ci smo r
eW e
xibl
ebutha sanumbe rofper
for
manceis
suesas
co
mpa r
edtousi
ngthema s
ter/manage
dmo des
.

The 802.22 Standard

Didy oue verwo nde rwhyo neo fthebi ggestuserso fwirel
es sspect
rum in
almo stanyc ountryo ne a
r t
h,ne vergo tintot he2wa yc ommuni cati
ons
business?No?We ll
,y oua sk,whydi dt heTe levis
ionBr oadc astIndust
ry
neverwa nttodot wo -
wa yc ommuni cations.
$es impl eanswe ristha tthi
swa sno tthebus inesstheywe rei n.
Wha tthe ydidi nsteadwa sg e
ta cces
stoa ndus eo fthebe st" beac
hf r
ont"
spectrum be t
we enDCa ndda yli
ght..anda lmo stforfreetobo ot
.
Asa na l
o gueTV g et
sr eplace
db ydi g
italTV,s o meo fthatbe achf r
ont
spectrum i sbeingma dea vail
ableforwi rele
ssne tworking.Andi npa r
tsof
thewo rl
dwhe reTV ha sbe e
nde pl
oyedl esse xt
ensivel
y,the sesamepa rt
s
ofther adios pectrum a r
ea vai
labl
ef orwire l
essnetwo rk
inga swe ll
.
$ene w wi relesst echnologyi sc ommo nlyc alle
d TVWS ( TV Whi te
Spaces)a nda lt
ho ughr el
a t
ivel
yne wa tthet imeo fwr it
ing,t histec
hno l
ogy
isinma nyt r
ialsforrur a
lbr oadbandwi reles
s.

Fro m wikiped
ia-
IEEE802. 22,knowni nforma l
lyasS uperWi -
Fi,isas t
andar
df orWi r
eles
s
Re gionalAreaNe twor
k s(WRAN)us ingwhi t
espacesintheTVf r
equency
spec t
rum.
$ede vel
opme nto ft
heI EEE802. 22WRAN s t
andardisaimeda tusing
cog ni
tiveradi
o( CR)tec hniquestoa l
lows ha
ringofg eogr
aphic
all
yunus ed
spec t
rum a ll
ocatedtot he Te l
evision Broadcas
tS e
rvi
ce,o n a no n-
interf
e r
ing ba s
is,to br ing broadba nd acces
st o ha r
d-to-
reach,lo w
po pulat
ionde nsit
ya r
eas,t ypi
calofr uralenvir
onme nts
,andi stheref
ore
time l
ya ndha sthepotentialfo
rawi dea ppli
cabi
li
tywo rl
dwide.

IEEE802. 22WRANsa r
edesi
gnedtoo per
ateintheTVbr oadca
stbands
whileassuri
ngt hatnoharmfulint
erf
erenc
ei scaus
edt otheincumbent
operat
ion,i.
e.,digi
talTV anda na
logTV br oa
dcas
ting,a
ndl ow power
l
icense
dde v
icessuchaswirel
essmicro
pho nes
.$es ta
ndard wa
s0na l
ly
publi
shedinJ ul
y2011.
132 NETWORKING

Te
chno
log
yof802.
22o
rTVWS
$einit
ia
ldraf
tsofthe802.22st
andar
ds peci
fytha
tthenet
wo r
kshoul
d
o
pera
tein apointtomul ti
poi
nttopol
og y(p2m).$es yst
em wil
lbe
f
ormedbyBaseStat
ions(BS)andCustomerPr e
miseEqui
pment(CPE)
.
$eCPEswillbeat
tachedtoaBSv i
aawi re
les
sli
nk.

Onek eyf e
atureofthe802. 22WRAN Ba s
eS t
ati
onsisthattheywil
lbe
capableofpe r
formingsensi
ngo favai
lablespect
rum.
$eI nsti
tuteofElectr
ica
landEl ectr
oni cEng i
neer
s(I
EEE) ,toge
therwit
h
theFCC,i ntheUS ,pursuedac entr
ali
s e
da pproac
hforavai
labl
espect
rum
disc
o ver
y.
Speci0cal
lye ac
hBa seS t
ati
on( BS)wo uldbea rmedwithaGPSr ecei
ver
whichwo ul
da ll
owi t
spo s
it
iontober epo rt
ed.
$i si nf
orma t
ionwo uldbes entba c
kt ocentr
ali
sedser
verswhichwo ul
d
res
po ndwi ththeinformati
ona boutav ai
labl
efreeTV channelsandguar
d
bandsi nthea r
eaoftheBa seStat
ion.

Ot
herpr
oposa
lswoul
dallo
wl oc
alspec
trum s
ensi
ngonl
y,whe
ret
heBS
wo
ulddec
idebyits
el
fwhichchannel
sareavai
la
blef
orcommuni
cat
ion.
$isi
sca
ll
eddis
tr
ibut
eds
ens
ing
.

$eCPEswi llbes ensi

ngt hes pectr
um ands e
ndingperiodi
cr epor
tsto
t
heBSi nf
ormi ngitaboutwha ttheysense
.$eBS ,wit
ht heinformat
ion
g
ather
ed,willeval
uatewhethe rac hangeisnece
ssa
ryinthec hannelused,
o
ro nthecontrar
y,ifitsho
ul ds t
ayt r
ansmit
ti
ngandr e
ceiv
ingint hesame
o
ne.Ac ombina t
ionofthesetwoa ppr
oachesi
sals
oe nv
isi
oned.

$e s
es e
nsi
ngme chanismsa r
epr i
ma ri
lyuse
dt oidenti
fyifther
eisa n
i
ncumb e
nttra
nsmitt
ing,andifthereisaneedtoavoi
dinter
fer
ingwithi
t.
$isme ansthatthephy si
callay
ermus tbea bletoa da
ptt odi1er
ent
c
onditi
onsandbeWe x
ibleinjumpi ngfro
mc hanneltochannelwit
hout
e
rror
sintra
nsmiss
iono rlos
ingcli
ents(CPEs)
.

$i sWexi
bil
it
yisals
orequi
redfordy
namic
all
ya djus
tingthebandwidth,
modulat
ionandcodi
ngsche
me s
.OFDMA( OrthogonalFre
quenc
y-Div
isi
o n
Mu l
ti
pl
eAc ce
ss
)isthemo dul
ati
onsche
mef ort r
ansmiss
ionin upa nd
downli
nks.Wi t
h OFDMA i twil
lbe possi
blet oa chie
vet hi
sf ast
ada
ptat
ionneededfo
rtheBSsandCPEs.
 7. WIFI FAMILY 133

ByusingjustoneTVc hannel( aTVc hannelhasabandwi dt

ho f6MHz ,
insomec ountr
iestheyc a
nbe7o r8MHz )theapproxi
ma tema ximum bi
t
rat
eis19Mbi t
/sata30k m distance.
$es peeda nddi s
tanceachievedi snote noughtof ul
0llther e
q ui
rement
s
ofthesta
nda r
d.
$e reisaf ea
turecall
edCh a
nne lBond ingwhichde al
switht hisprobl
em.
ChannelBo ndingus esmo ret hano nec hannelfortra
nsmi t
/recei
ve.$is
al
lowsthes ys
temt oha vehig herba ndwidthwhi c
hwi llber eWecte
dina
bet
tersys
tem performance.

Summary
Aswe c a
ns e
et he sta
ndards for wi
rel
ine and wirel
es
sa re mos
tl
y
i
nc o
rpo r
a t
edintotheIEEE802Wo rki
ngGr oup.
Atthemo me ntthe802.11familyofWi Fista
ndardsande q
uipmentar
e
byfara nda wayt hemo stwidel
yma nufac
turedandde pl
oyedinindo
or
ando utdoorwirel
essl
inks.
$e c hapte
rc all
ed Ha rdwar
eS e
lec
tio
na nd Co n0g
urat
ionlooksa t
equi
pme ntinmuc hmo r
ede t
ail
.

$ene w 802 .
22S tandardise x
pe ct
edt opl ayani ncre
asingro l
einma ny
rural( and ur ban)wi rel
essne tworks.$e f r
ee-i
ng up o funl i
censed
spectrum c urr
entlyusedb ybr oa
dc a
stTV wi llenabl
et histoha ppen.As
yett hestandardsa ndt hevari
ousg roupsi nvolv
edi nthiss t
andarda r
ei n
theirinfancy,asarethebo diesaroundt hewo rldinvolvedins pect
rum re-
allo
ca t
ion.Av ail
ableequipmenti ssti
llve r
yne wa ndde ployme nt
sa r
efe w
and f arbe tween.Int hene xt2- 3y earsiti santic
ipatedt hatthiswi l
l
chang esigni0cantl
ya ndthene xtrevi
siono fthisbo o
kma ywe llhavecase
studiesandde ployme ntinfo
rma t
iont os harewithrespectto802.22ba sed
ne t
wo rks.Me anwhiletherei
sa ninter
e s
tingpr oj
ectunde rwayinS cotl
and,
Uni t
e dKi ngdom whi chisdeployi
ngTVWS802. 22ne two r
ks.

Yo
uc a
nre
admo r
eabo
utt hepro
jecther
e:
ht
tp:
//
www.
wir
el
ess
whit
espace
.or
g/proj
ect
s.
as
px
134 NETWORKING

8. MESH NETWORKING

Introduction
Mes
hnetwo
rksar
eba se
do nmul
ti
poi
nt-
to-
mult
ipo
int(m2m)net
wo r
king
.
I
nthenomencl
atur
eo fIEEE802.
11,m2m ne
tworki
ngisre
fer
redtoas
'
ad-
hoc
'or'
IBSS'mo de.

Mostwire
les
snetwo
rksto
daya
rebase
donpo
int
-t
o-po
int(
p2p)o
rpo
int
-
t
o-mult
ipoi
nt(p2m)communi
cat
ion.

Fi
gur
eMN1:Amet
rop
olit
anare
ames
hnet
work
,p r
ovi
dingl
oca
lco
nne
ct
iv
it
y
andI
nte
rnetacc
es
svi
amul
ti
pl
eInt
ernetg
atewa
ys

At y
pica
lwi rel
es
sho t
spotoper
ate
si n p2m inf
ras
tr
uct
ure mode-i t
c
onsi
stsofa na cc
esspoi
nt(wit
h ar adi
oo pe
rat
ingin mas
termo de)
,
a
tta
chedtoaDS Lli
neorothe
rla
rgesc
alewir
ednetwor
k.
I
naho t
spottheacce
sspoi
ntact
sasama s
ters
tat
iontha
tisdis
tr
ibuti
ng
I
nter
netacc
esstoit
scli
ent
s.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 135

$i shub-and-s
poketopolo
g yisal
sotypi
cal
lyusedf orthemo bil
ephone
(2G or3G)s e
rvi
ce.
Mo bi
lepho ne
sconnecttoaba s
estat
ionp2m -witho utthepres
enceofa
basest
ati
onmo bil
escan'
tcommuni c
a t
ewitheac
ho ther.
Ifyouma keaj o
kec a
llt
oaf r
iendthati
ssit
ti
ngo nt heo t
hersi
deo ft
he
tabl
e,yourphonesendsdatatothebases
tati
onofyo urprovide
rthatmay
beami l
ea way-thebases t
ati
onthensendsdataba cktot hephoneof
yourfri
end.

I
n ar emo t
ea r
eawi t
houtbases tat
ionsaGS M phoneisusel
es
sasa
co
mmuni cati
ondevic
e,si
mplybeca useGSMr adi
osaredes
igne
dinsuc
ha
waythatt
heyc a
nno tcommunicatedi r
ect
lywit
heachothe
r.
$isi sunli
kea na
logradioset
st hatcanc ommunica
tem2m wi t
heach
ot
heraslongastheyarewit
hinrang e
.
Wire
lessr
adioisbyde fa
ultabro adcas
tme di
um,anda nysta
ti
onwhich
ca
ntransmitandrece
ivecoul
dc ommuni catem2m.

Withr eg
ards t
othe technol
ogic
alc hal
le
nge,i mpl
ement
ing m2m
net
worki
ngismuchmoredemandi
ngt he
np2m a ndp2p.
St
rat
egi
estoimpl
eme
ntchannelac
cessco
ordi
nati
onaremorecompl
ex,f
or
ex
ample,t
herei
snoce
ntra
lauthor
it
yt oas
si
gntrans
mitti
meslo
ts.

Becausethereisnoce nt
ralmana
gement
,m2m s tat
ionsne edtomut al
ly
agre
eo nc e
llcoor
dina
tionparame
ter
ssuchastheMAC l i
kec e
ll
-i
do fthe
wire
lesscel
l
.
$ef actthat802.
11na mesthem2m modeofWi Fi"a
d- hoc"sugg
est
sthat
theIEEEbo ardthoughtofam2m networ
ka saspontaneous,pro
vis
ional
,
sub-opti
malsolut
ion.

Mult
ipo
int-
to-
mult
ipo
intcommunic
atio
ni sa c
tua
ll
ymo r
ev er
sati
leand
ca
nbemuc hmoreeNcie
nttha
npo int-
to-
po i
ntorpoi
nt-t
o-multi
poi
nt
co
mmuni c
ati
on: m2m c o
mmunicati
on i ncl
udes t
he a bil
it
y t o
co
mmuni c
atep2pandp2m,becaus
ep2pa ndp2m arejustsubse
tsof
m2m.
136 NETWORKING

Anet
wor
kco
nsi
st
ingofj
ustt
womul
ti
poi
nt-
to-
mul
ti
poi
ntc
apa
blede
vic
es
s
impl
yco
mmuni
cate
sp2p:

A--B

Anetwor
kofthre
eme
sh-
capa
blede
vic
esA,B,Cc
anf
orm at
opo
log
yli
ke
t
his
,fore
xample
:

A--B--C

He reAc anco mmuni cateo nlywithB.C c anonlycommunicatewi t

hB,
whi l
eBc anc ommuni catewi thA a ndC.Ba ct
uall
ydo e
scommuni c
ate
p2m.Wi t
houtr outi
ng ,Aa ndCc anno tc ommunicatewit
he a
cho therin
802.11a d-hocmo de.
Bya ddingar outi
ngpr ot
oc olA c a
na utoma t
ica
ll
yl ea
rnthatbe hi
ndB
thereisC a ndv iceversa,andt hatBc a
nbeut i
li
sedasac ommuni ca
tion
rel
ays oa l
lno descanc ommuni ca
tewi t
he achother
.Inthiscas
eBwi l
lact
simil
a r
lyt oa na cces
spo i
nti n802. 11i nfr
ast
ruct
uremo de.Wi Fic a
rds
con0g ureda sinfras
tructurec li
entsc a
n'tc ommunicatedir
ect
ly,sot hey
wo ulda l
wa y
sne edthea cces
spo i
ntBa sar el
ay.
Ifthet hreedevicesmo vearo und,thetopo l
ogymightbecomeaf ullme s
h,
whe reev e
ryno dec a
nc o
mmuni catewithe ve
ryothernodedir
ect
ly:

A
/ \
B----C

Inthiscas
erel
ayi
ngt r
aNcisno tneces
sary
,g i
venthatthelinksa
reall
goode no
ugh.Ini nf
ras
tr
ucture mo de
,c ommunicati
ng dir
ectl
yisno t
pos
sibl
e.Allt
hetraNcbe t
we enc l
ie
ntsha stober el
aye
db yt heacc
ess
poi
nt.Ifwenowa ddD tot helit
tlechaintopol
ogyexample,al
ldevi
ces
ca
nc ommunic
atewitheac
ho therift
hisisame s
h.

A--B--C--D

On theotherhand,t hiswouldnotbepossi
bleifthenetworkisan
inf
ras
tr
uct
uremo dene twor
ka ndBisana c
cesspoi
nt.C a
ndD wo ul
d
bothb ei nf
ras
truct
urec l
ients
,and asa lr
eady ment
ioned bef
o r
e,
inf
ras
tr
uct
urecli
entscannotcommunic
atedi
rec
tlywi
theac
ho the
r.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 137

S
oc l
ie
ntD c
oul
dno tj
ointhei
nfr
ast
ruc
turene
two r
kbec
aus
eiti
soutof
r
angeoft
heacc
esspoi
ntB,whi
leitwouldbesti
llint
hera
dior
angeo
f
c
li
entC.

Bandwidth impact of multi-hop relaying routes

Me s hne two rksc ons i
sti
ngo fde vicestha tfeatureo nlyo ner adioa r
eal o w
costwa yt oe s t
a bli
shaubi q uitouswi relessne twork ,butt hisc o me sa ta
tradeo 1.Wi tho nlyo newi relessi nter
facei ne achde vi
ce,t her adiosha ve
too pe r
a teo nt hes amec ha nne l
.S i
mpl ys endi ngda tat hroug har out i
ng
pathg o i
ngf ro m no deAt hr oug hBt oC ha l
vesthea vai
lableba ndwi dth.
Whi leAi sse ndi ngda tat oB,Ba ndCha vet or e
ma ins i
lent.
Whi leBi sfor wa r
dingda tat oC,Aha st ore mains il
enta swe l
l-a nds o
on.No tet hatt hes amei st ruei ftwoc l
ientsc onnectedt oa na ccesspo int
ini nfrastructur ewa nttoc ommuni catewi the acho ther.
Ifwea ssumet ha ta l
lwi rel
e sslink sint heA- B-C- D me shc ha ino peratea t
thes ames pee d,t hec ommuni cati
o nbe tweenAa ndD wo ul db er oug hly
1/3o ft hes pe edo fas i
ng lel ink ,givent hatAa ndD c anus ethene two rk
capa citye xclus i
ve l
y.$eba ndwi dthi mpa ctca nbemi t
igate
do ra voidedb y
using de v i
ceswi t
h mul tipler adios,g ivent hatt heya r
eo pe rat
ing o n
di1e rentf reque nc i
est hatdo n' tinte r
ferewi the acho ther
.
De spitet heba ndwi dtht rade o1,s ing l
er adiome shde vicess t
illha vet he i
r
me rits.$e ya rec heaper,le ssc ompl exa ndc o nsumel esspo we rtha nmul ti
-
radiode vices
.$i sc anbei mpo r ta
nti fthes ys
temsa res ol
aro rwi ndpo we red
orr eq uireaba tt
e r
yba c
k up .Ift hewi r
elessli
nk sinat hreeho pne two rk( a
chainwi th4no de slikeabo ve)o perat
ea t12Mbi teach,thet o t
ale nd-to-e nd
bandwi dthwo ulds ti
llo1e rpl entyba ndwi dt
ht osaturatea2Mbi tI nternet
uplink .

Summary
Mesh netwo rkinge xt
endst her angeo fwirel
es
sde v
icesb ymul ti
-hop
r
el
a y
ingtra Nc .Byme ansofdy namicrouti
ng,me s
hescanbes el
f-heal
ing
i
nc aseofno def ai
lur
eandg r
o wo r
gani
cal
lyifmo r
eno desareadded.If
t
heme s
hno desha veonl
yo ner adi
o,thebene0tincover
agecome satthe
t
radeo1o freduc edbandwidt
h.He r
eisanexampleofac urr
entl
yde pl
oyed
meshne t
wo rk .Youc an0ndmo reinfor
mationaboutthisdeplo
y mentat
t
heur lhttp://
c o
de.googl
e.
com/ p/af
ri
me s
h/
138 NETWORKING

S
out
hAf
ri
ca

Routing protocols for mesh networks

Rout
ingpro
toc
olsfo
rwir
el
es
smeshne
two
rkshav
etobede
si
gne
dwi
th
t
hechal
le
ngeso
fradi
oco
mmunic
ati
oni
nmind.

Wirele
sslinksandt
het opolog yofame shnetworka rei nher
e ntl
yunstable
,
devi
cesca ngoupanddo wn,t hea v
ail
abl
eba ndwidthv ar
ies
,a ndlinksare
of
tenWa wedwi t
hpacketloss.
Ame s
hr out
ingprotoc
ols ho uldber e
si
li
enta ga
instro utinge r
rorsevenif
ro
utingpr ot
ocolmess
agesa rede l
ayedorlos
t.
Atthesa metimetheavailablecommuni ca
ti
o nba ndwi dtha ndc omputing
per
forma nceo fme s
h no desi sli
mi t
eda nd sho uldn'tbe wa st
edo n
pro
tocolde c
isi
onsandtraNco verhe
ad.

In2005,whe nt he0r s
te dit
iono ftheWNDW bo okwaswr it
ten,t he
re
wereo nl
yf ew pra
ctic
allyusabl
er outi
ngpro t
ocolsformeshne t
wo rks.In
prev
iousediti
ons,thischapterhasbe e
nfocusedo nOLS R.Ba c
kthe n,the
OLS Rda emonwa sn'tshippedwithawo r
kingde fa
ultc
on0gurati
on,s oit
wasne ce
ssar
yt owa deintothede pthsoftheo l
srd.
confcon0gura
t i
on0l e
to0ndo utwha tthebe stcon0gurati
onoft herouti
ngalgor
ithm was .$e
si
tuat
ionha schangedq uit
eabi ts
ince2005.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 139

$e r
earenowanumbe ro fmeshproto
c ol
sandi mpl
eme nt
ati
ons,andall
theimple
me ntati
onswhi chareme nti
o nedint hi
sc hapt
era r
er ea
dil
y
ava
il
abl
easins t
all
ati
onpa c
kage
sforOpe nWRT.
Meshprotoc
o ldevel
opersarec
ompetingi nachall
eng
et odeli
verthebest
meshrout
ingpr otoc
ol.$e rei
snowaa nnualcompet
it
ioneventforme s
h
prot
oco
lde v
e l
o pe
rs,tak
ingplaceonceay ear
.Itiscall
ed"Battl
emesh",
www.bat
tl
eme sh.o
rg

Mo stme shr out ingpr otocols(BABEL,BATMAN,OLS R,BMX,BMX6)

takec a
reo fma intaini ngtheI Pv 4a ndI Pv6r outi
ngt a blesi name shno de
bya dding,upda tinga ndde le
tingr outes.$e seme shpr ot ocol
sa reus i
ng
IP-basedro uting .$e ya r
el ayer3me shpr otocols
,sinc eI Pr e
pr es
e ntsthe
thir
dl aye
ro ft heOS Ine t
wo rkinglayermo del
.
Batma n-a
dv (anc ed)i sa r ela
tively new pr otocolt ha to perateso nt he
secondlayero ft hene tworkingmo del,henc eitisala yer2me shpr otoco l
.
Tot hehi gherl a yers( i
ncludingI P),Ba tma n-advma k est hewho leme sh
appeara sas wi tch,whe r
ea l
lc onnec t
ionsa relink-loca l
.A Ba tma n-adv
me s
hi stranspa rentf o rthehi gherlayerso fthene t
wo rk i
ngmo de l.
$i ss i
mpli0est hes etupo fame shne tworkag r
eatde al,sinc eitispo ss
ible
tous eDHCP ,mDNSo rMACbr i
dg i
ngwi thBa t
ma n- adv .Batma n- advi s
aLi nuxk e r
ne lmo dul e,whi c
hi sshippe dwi t
ht heo Nc i
a lLinuxk ernel
sources
.Me shr out i
ngpr o tocolsshoul da l
soma naget hea nno unc eme nt
and s el
ecti
o no fg ateway st oe xternalne two r
k slik et he Int erne t
.A
commo npr oble m wi thg ateways electi
o nme chanismsi st hatt her o uti
ng
protocolmi ghtde cidet os witchbe tweeng atewayst o
oo ften-f ore xampl e,
becauseoner out ingpa tht oo neg atewa yjustg otsl
ig htlybe t
tert ha nthe
other.$i sisa nno yingbe causei tcanc auseg at
ewa yWa ppi nga ndr e sult
si n
sta
tefulco nne ctions e s
sionsbr eakingdo wnf requently.I ft herei smo re
thano neI nte rne tg atewa yi nt heme sh,us i
nga na dv anc edme tho df or
gatewayselectioni ss tronglyrecomme nded.

Ho
wabo
ut802.
11s
?
$er oadmapo f802. 11si stoscal
eup t o 32 no
des.Acc
o r
ding t
o
Wi k
ipediaitusesHWMP( Hybri
dwirel
es
sme shprot
oco
l)asthedef
ault
rout
ingpr ot
o c
o l
,wi t
ht heopti
ontouseo t
herrout
ingprot
oco
ls.Quote:
"HWMPi sinspir
edb yac ombi
nati
onofAODV( RFC3561[2]
)and
tr
ee-ba
sedr outing".Since802.11sisre
lat
iv
elynewt he
reisno tmuch
prac
tic
alexperiencesofar.
140 NETWORKING

Devices and 2rmware for embedded devices

NotallWiFidevicesont hemarketa
resui
ta
bleforme s
hnetworki
ng.
In2005,whent he0r stedit
ionofthi
sbookwa swr i
tt
en,o
neo fthecle
ar
har
dwa r
er eco
mme ndat
ions for mes
h ne t
working wast he Links
ys
WRT54G r out
e rinc ombinat
ionwitht
heFreif
unk0r mwar
e.
WhiletheWRT54G( L)issti
llonthema r
ket,itisnolo nge
rwo rt
ha
re
comme ndat
ion.1

Ope nWRT i sav e r

yv er
s a
til
e0r mwa rede velopme nte nv i
ronme ntf or
deve lopersanda0r mwa ref o
ra dvanc edLinuxus ers.
$eo ldFr eif
unk0 rmwa reisba s
edo nt heo utdatedOpe nWRT v er
si
o n
"Whi teRus s
ian" ."Whi teRus s
ian"s upportedo nlydev i
ceswi thBr oadcom
chips et
swi thapr oprie
tarybi narywi relessdr iverandi sba sedo nLi nux
2.4.I tha sbe eno ustedb yt he Ope nWRT r el
ease
s' Ka mi kaze 'and
'
Ba ck 0re'(la
testr el
e ase
).Wi th'Ka mik a
ze'a nd' Back0re
'Ope nWRT ha s
gaine ds upportfo rma nydi 1e r
entwi rele
ssc hipsets,CPU a rchitecturesand
devic es.$ene xts tabl
er eleaseofOpe nWRT wi l
lbena me d' At tit
ude
Adj ustme nt',whi ch,a tt het imeofwr iting ,isa t'releasec a ndidate'
stage . $e ' AR7x xx 'a nd ' Athe ros' pl atform por ts of ' At tit
ude
Adj ustme nt'ca nbec onsider e
ds table.
$e me shr out ing pr otocols me ntioned be forea rea lla vailablea s
install
ationpa ck a
g e
sf orOpe nWRT.
A f ew o pen ne two r
king c ommuni t
ies ha ve dev e
lopedt heiro wn
custo mised0r mwa r
ei ma geswi t
hOpe nWRTKa mi ka
zeandBa ck0r e.
Ho we v ertheya remo s
tl
yg e
aredt o me ett he i
rl ocalpr eference sand
requi r
eme ntsa nd s uppo rtal i
mitednumbe ro fde vic
es.S incet heya re
oftenl ocali
sedt heymi g
htbeo flimitedus ef ort heg e
neralpubl ic.
Ope nWRT ha sa pa ckagema nage ments ystem,whi c
hc ome st ot he
rescue.I tist ypicalfo rOpe nWRT t oi nstalls of
twarepa ck agesi ntot he
route ra f
teritha sbe enWa shed.$e reisno wame tapackag ena me d' l
uc i
-
frei
funk- c
ommuni t
y',whichwi l
la utoma t
icallyc onvertas t
o ckOpe nWRT
ima gei ntoac o mmuni tyme shne two rki
ng0r mwa r
e.

1.Whi
l
etheWRT54
GL i
sst
il
lav
ail
abl
eont
hema
rke
t,a
tpr
ic
eso
f60 US-
$iti
s
over
pri
ced.$eWRT5 4Gr e
v i
si
on4. 0wa ssol
da sWRT5 4GLr evi
si
o n1.0byLi nks
ysin
2005,afterLinks
yshadi ntroduce
dt heWRT54G r evi
si
on 5.0,which wasn'tLinux
compati
bleanymore
.$eWRT5 4G rev
isi
on5. 0hasonlyhalft
heWashstorag
ea ndRAM
capa
cit
y.$eWRT54G mo delistheWi Firoute
rwiththelonge
stproduct
ionlif
eti
me.For
themone yyouneedtospendo naLi nks
ysWRT5 4GLi n2011y oucanbuyt woo rthr
ee
simi
la
rde vi
cesf
romo t
herbrandsthatar
ef as
terinte
rmso fCPU andda t
arate.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 141

$enumbe rofdevi
cestha
tc an bec o
nv e
rte
dt o ame shr o
uterhas
i
ncre
ase
d drama
tic
all
y.On theotherhand theproces
so fconver
ti
nga
s
tock OpenWRT 0r mwareinto a me s
h 0r mwarev i
at he pack
age
manage
mentsys
temisof
te
nmo r
eerror
-proneunfo
rtuna
tel
y.

So
mema nuf
act
ure
rsofWiFiro
ute
rsares
hippi
ngdevic
est
ha tc
omewith
OpenWRT a sthei
rfac
tor
y 0rmwar
e:Me sh-
Pot
ato
,Dr a
gino MS-12,
Al
lnet0305.

Fi
gur
eMN3:Me s
h-Pot
atoout
doormeshWiFiro
ute
rwi
thVoI
P(withone
FXSp
ortt
oco
nnectanal
ogt
ele
phoneha
nd s
et
s)
.www.
vil
l
age
tel
co
.or
g

$e Me sh-Po
tatoisa low-poweroutdoordev
ice des
igne
df ormes
h
net
work
ingwi than FXS( a
nalogte
lephone
)port
,soy ouc an pl
uga
n
ana
logt
elephoneha
ndseti
na ndmaketele
phonec
all
sv i
athemesh.

$eMe s
h-P
ota
toi
sshi
ppe
dwi
thame
sh0r
mwa
ret
hatus
est
heBATMAN
La
yer3mes
hprot
ocol
.
142 NETWORKING

As e
cond0r mwa rename dSECN ( Smalle
nt e
rpri
se/ca
mpusne twor
k)is
al
soavai
la
blefortheMe sh-Pota
to,whichusestheBATMAN- ADVLa y
er
2me s
h.
Butthes
eareno ttheonl
yde vi
cestha
tshoul
dbec o
nsidere
df o
rpurc
hase.
OpenWRTs upportsaverybroa
ds el
ect
ionofwirel
essroute
rs.
Repl
aci
ngthef a
c t
ory0rmwa r
ewi t
hOpe nWRTi sof
tenq ui
teeas
y.

Agai
n,these
lec
ti
ono fava
il
abl
edevi
cesi
ssodive
rsetha
tthe
reisn'
ta
si
ngl
eupdat
eme t
hodtha
two r
ksfo
rthewhol
eva
ri
etyofhar
dwa
re,whi
ch
coul
dbedes
cri
bedher
e.

$e Ope nWRT ta
bleofsuppor
ted ha
rdwa
rei
shug
eand i
tke
eps
ex
panding:
ht
tp:
//wik
i.
ope
nwr
t.
org
/to
h/s
tar
t

$i
ssi
tes
houl
dbet
hepl
acet
ost
artbe
for
eyo
ugoa
ndbuyde
vic
es.

Att hemome nt,i

fyouar
eloo
kingforar
out
erbas
edo nachi
pse
ttha
t
support
s802.11ninad-
hocmode,myrec
ommenda
tio
na r
edev
ice
stha
t
aresuppor
tedbytheAR7XXXporto
fOpenWRT.

Notethathar
dwaremanuf
act
urer
sma ychangethechips
etso
fthedev
ice
s
wi
thoutexpl
ici
tl
ysta
ti
ngit.Newerhardwa
rer e
vis
ionsar
eno tg
uar
ante
ed
t
owo rkunle
sssomeo
nehastes
tedandrepo
r t
editintheOpenWRTwi ki
.

Notabl
edev
ice
swhic
hcanbeWa
she
dwithOpenWRT a
retheout
doo
r
uni
tsmadebyUbi
qui
tia
ndt
heSOHO de
vic
esmadeb
yTP-Li
nk.

TP-Linkpr oducessev
era
llow-c
ostSOHO de v
ice
swit
hAthe
rosar71xx
chi
pset
s(802.11n).
$eTP- LinkMR3220( 802.
11nsing
les
tre
am)a ndMR3420(802.11n
dualst
ream)feat
urea400MHzMi ps24k
cCPU,o neUSB2.
0po r
t,a4
por
t100Mbi tswitc
h,WAN port
,4MBWa s
ha nd32MBRAM.
Pri
cesst
artataround30US$.

SincetheTP- Linkde v
ice
shaveaUS B 2.
0porti
tisposs
ibl
etoa dd
anotherWiFiint
e r
facev
iaUSBWi Fido
ngle.
Ac t
uall
yUS B2.0a ddsmanyopport
uni
tie
s,li
kea
ddi
ngaddi
ti
onals
tor
age
space,audi
osupport,webc
amsandsoon.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 143

Fi
gureMN4:DIYou
tdoo
rrout
er
sbas
edonPCBsta
kenf
romS
OHO rou
ters
(
Pic
tures
howi
ngt
wodev
ice
sbas
edonTP-Li
nkWR741andWR941a
ndo ne
bas
edonaFone
raro
ute
r)

Anot
her0rmwar
edist
ri
but
ionwhichini
ti
al
lyorgi
nat
eda sanalte
rnat
ive
0r
mwa r
eo fthe WRT54G i sDD- WRT.DD- WRT i s a 0r
mwa re
di
st
ri
buti
ondesi
gne
df ore
nd-use
rs.I
tonlysuppo
rtstheOLS Rr out
ing
pr
otoc
ol.

Frequently observed problems

$et ypi
calproble
mso fmul t
ipoi
nt-t
o-mul
ti
poi
ntc ommunic
ati
ona re
e
it
hero nt he phys
ic
alradi
oo rtheMAC l ay
er.$e I EEE 802.
11
s
ugge
sti
onsaboutmulti
poi
nt-
to-
multipoi
ntmodewerenotuptotheta
sk.
144 NETWORKING

$ema
inc
hal
l
eng
esa
re:

Channela
cce
ssc
oor
dina
ti
on,na
mel
ythehi
dde
nno
dea
nde
xpo
sedno
de
pr
oblem
Goi
ngbacktoourli
tt
leme s
hwi t
ht hetopol
ogyABCi tc
anhappenthat
AandC s t
artt
os e
ndda t
at oB a tthesametimebeca
usetheydon't
r
ece
iveea
chother
,re
sult
inginac ol
lis
ionatthelo
cat
ionofB.802.
11ha s
amecha
nis
mt omiti
gat
et hi
s:RTS/CTS( re
questt
osend,c
lea
rtosend)

Befo
ream2m no desendsdataitreques
tsair
ti
meb ysendingashortRTS
packe
t,i
no r
dertor e
serv
et hec hannel
.Itwa i
tsunti
litr e
cei
vesaCTS
si
gnal
.SoA wi l
lsendas hortRTSpa ck
et,andB s endsas hor
tCTS
packe
t.$iswayCwi l
lde t
ectthatther
ewillbeatra
nsmi s
si
onofahi dde
n
nodetha
tits
houldn'
tinte
rfer
ewi th.

Howevert hecurr
entRTS /
CTSme chani
smo f802.11wor kswellonl
yfor
2hopro utes.Onl onge
rro ute
sitc a
nha ppenthatmulti
ples t
ati
onssend
RTSs i
gna ls
,whichr e
sul
tsi na l
ltheno desst
oppingthe i
rtransmis
si
ons
andwaiti
ngf o
raCTSs ignal.$i siscal
ledaRTSbr oa dcas
tstorm.For
meshnet wo r
kso fconsi
derablesi
zei tisnotrecomme nde dtous ethe
RTS/CTSme c
hanis
m.

Ti
mers
ync
hro
nis
ati
on
$epe opl
edesi
gni
ngt he802.11ad-
hocpro
tocolt
houg
htitwoul
dbe
s
ma r
tiftheWiFidev
iceswoul
ds y
nchr
oni
sethe
irMAC ti
mercl
ock
sby
s
endi
ngt i
mest
ampsinbe a
cons
.

Howeverbogust
imest
ampscano cc
urduetobugs,a
ndtheyof
te
ntrig
ger
ra
cecondit
ionsi
nthehardwa
re,dri
ver
sandthe802.11ad-
hocpro
tocol
,
whic
hha snotbe
endes
ignedt
oc opewit
hsuchis
sues
.

F
ail
eda t
tempt
stos y
nchr
onis
etimest
ampsof
te
nr e
s ul
tsi
ncellspl
it
ti
ng
(
see bel
ow).$e r
ea resome hac
kswhic
h have beenint
roduce
dt o
o
verc
o methepr
oble
m.

$ebe s
tsol
uti
oni st
odisa
blet
ime
rsync
hro
nisa
ti
one nti
re
ly
.Ho wev
er
ti
mers
ynchr
onis
ati
oniso
fte
ndoneint
hewire
les
sint
erfa
cehardwa
reor
0rmwa
reofaint
erf
ace
.
 8. MESH NETWORKING 145

OpenWRT ha sa hac
kt o dis
abl
etimers y
nchroni
sat
ion when us
ing
Athe
ros802.11abgca
rdsthatworkwiththeMa dwi0driv
er.Ifyouare
us
ingarecentLinuxker
nel
,cer
tai
nwirel
es
sdrive
rs(namel
ya t
h9k)which
ar
eofte
nuse dformes
hde v
ice
sarequi
terobus
tagai
nstti
meriss
uesi
na d-
hocmode.

Howeverthi
sdoesn'
thel
piftheWiFidev
iceco
me swit
hac l
ose
dsour
ce
bi
nar
y0r mwarewhic
hisnotpre
pare
dtodealgr
acef
ull
ywitht
imeri
ss
ues.
$ere is no t much we c an do about it,o t
herthan usi
ng
dr
ive
rs/
0rmwares
/chi
pse
tswhi
charekno
wnt oworkre
li
ably
.

I
BSSc
ells
pli
tt
ing
$isisatypi
c a
lproblemo fthewa y802.11sugg
est
simplementati
ono f
t
hem2m mo de.Ad-ho cde vi
cesma yfai
lt oagr
eeonac ert
ai
nc e
ll
-id
(
IBSS-
ID).Iftheydo n'tma naget oagr
eeo nusi
ngo nec e
rtai
nc el
l-i
d,
t
heyar
elogi
call
ysepar
atedwi rel
es
sc el
l
s.
$isisarealshows t
o pper,becausewir
eles
sdevi
ceswil
lnotbea bl
et o
c
ommunicat
ewi theac
ho ther
.$epr obl
emi sr
el
ate
dtoissueswithtimer
s
ynchr
oni
sat
ion.S i
nceLi nux2. 6.31itispo s
si
bleto manuall
y0xt he
I
BSS-I
D.$i sfeat
ureisa l
soavail
ableinOpenWRT.
146 NETWORKING

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

Introduction
Whileunlice
nsedspect
rum provi
desahug ecostsavingstotheuse r
,ithas
t
heunf ort
unatesi
dee1ectthatDenialofSer
vic
e( Do S)atta
cksaretri
vial
ly
s
imple.Bys i
mplyturni
ngo nahi ghpowe r
edaccesspo i
nt,cor
dle
s sphone,
vi
deotransmit
ter
,oro t
her2.4GHzde v
ice,ama l
ici
o uspers
onc ouldcause
s
igni0cantprobl
emso nthenetwork.Ma nynet
wo rkde vi
cesar
ev ulnera
ble
t
oo therfor
mso fdenialofserv
iceatt
acksaswell
,s uchasdisas
sociat
ionW
oodi
nga ndARPt abl
eo ver
Wo ws.
$e reareseve
ralcat
egori
esofindivi
dualswhoma yc auseprobl
e mso na
wi
r e
les
snetwork:

Uni
nte
nti
ona
lus
ers
.
De nsel
ypo pula
teda re
ass ucha scityc ent
resa nduni ver
sit
yc ampus esc a
n
l
e a
dt oade nsi
tyo fwirelessa ccesspo i
nts.Int he s
epo pula
t e
da reas
,i tis
commo nf orlaptopus er
st oa c ci
de ntal
lya s
sociat
et othewr ongne t
wo rk.
Mo stwi rel
e s
sc l
ientswills i
mpl yc ho o
sea nya va i
l
ablewi r
e l
essne t
wo rk,
oft
e ntheo newi t
ht hes trong estsignal,whe nt heirprefe
rredne tworki s
unav a
il
able.
$eus erma ythenma keus eo ft hisne t
wo rkasus ual,completelyuna ware
thattheyma ybet ra
nsmit t
ings ensitivedatao nsome onee l
sesne t
wo r
k .
Ma lic
iouspe oplema yev ent akea dvantageo ft hi
sb ys et
tingupa c c
ess
pointsins trat
egiclocati
ons,t ot ryt oa tt
ractunwi tt
ingus e
rsa ndc apture
theirdata.
$e0r ststepi na voidingt hi spr o
blemi se ducati
ng y ourus ers
,a nd
str
essi
ng t he impo rta
nceo fc onne cti
ng o nlyt ok nown a nd truste
d
netwo r
ks.
Ma ny wi reles
sc l
ientsc an be c on0g uredt oo nlyc onnectt ot ruste
d
netwo r
ks,o rtoaskpe rmissi
o nbe forej o
iningane wne t
wo rk.
Aswewi llseelat
erint hischa pter,us er
scans afel
yc onnecttoo penpubl ic
netwo r
ksb yus i
ngs t
ronge ncry ption.

Wa
rdr
ive
rs.
$ewardr
ivi
ngphe
nomeno
ndr
awsi
tsna
mef
romt
hepo
pul
ar1983
ha
cke
r0l
m,WarGames
.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 147

Wa rdr i
ver
sa reint
eres
tedin 0ndi
ngt hephysi
calloc
ati
ono fwi r
ele
ss
networks.
$e yt ypic
all
ydr i
vearound wit
h alaptop,GPS,and o mni
direc
ti
onal
antenna,lo
ggingthenamea ndloc
ati
ono fanynet
worksthey0nd.$e se
l
o g
sa rethenc o
mbinedwi t
hlogsfr
omo t
herwardri
ver
s,andareturned
i
ntog raphi
calmapsdepi
cti
ngthewire
les
sfoot
pri
ntofapart
ic
ularci
ty.

$ev as
tma jo
rityofwa rdri
versli
kel
ypo s
enodi r
ectthre
attonetwork
s,
butthedatatheycoll
ectmightbeo fi
nter
esttoanet wor
kc r
acker
.For
exa
mple,i
tmi ghtbeobv i
ousthatanunprot
ecte
da c
ces
spo i
ntdete
cte
db y
awardriv
erisloca
tedinsi
deas ensi
ti
vebui
ldi
ng,suchasag ov
ernmentor
cor
pora
teoNc e.

A malic
iouspe r
sonc ould us
et hisi nformati
ont oill
egal
lyacc
essthe
ne
tworkthere.Argua
bly,suchanAPs ho uldneverhavebeensetupinthe
0r
stplac
e,butwa rdri
vingma kesthepr o bl
ema llthemo r
eurgent
.Aswe
wi
llseelate
ri nthischapter
,wa rdriverswhous et hepopula
rprogr
am
NetS
tumb l
ercanbede tect
edwithpr ogramss uchasKi s
me t
.
Fo
rmo r
einformat
ionabo utwardri
v i
ng ,seesit
essucha s
:
ht
tp:
//wigl
e.
ne t
/,
ht
tp:
//www.nodedb.c
om/ ,orhttp:
//www. stumbler.
net/.

Ro
guea
cce
sspo
int
s.
$e
rea
ret
wog
ene
ralc
las
seso
fro
guea
cce
sspo
int
s:

$o s
ei nco r
rec
tlyi nst
all
edb yl egi
timateusers
,a nd t
ho s
ei nstal
ledb y
ma l
ici
ouspe oplewhoi ntendtoc ol
lectdat
ao rdoha r
mt othene twork.I n
thes i
mpl estcase,al egit
imatene t
wo rk us
erma ywantbe tterwi r
eless
coverageint heiro Nce,o rtheymi ght0nds ec
urit
yrestr
ict
ionso nt he
corporat
ewi rel
essnetwo r
ktoodi Nculttocomplywi t
h.
Byi nstal
lingani ne x
pensiv
ec onsume racces
spo i
ntwi t
houtpe rmissi
o n,
theus e
ro pensthee nti
rene t
wo r
kupt opo t
enti
alatt
ack
sf r
omt heinsi
de .
Whi leitispo s
sibl
et os c
anf orunauthori
sedaccesspoi
ntsony o urwire d
network,s et
ti
ngac l
earpoli
cythatpro hi
bit
sthemi saveryimpo rta
nt0r st
ste
p .
$es econdc la
sso froguea c
cesspointcanbev e
rydiNculttode a
lwi th.
Byi nst
all
ingahi g
hpo wer
edAPt hatusesthesameES SIDa sane x
ist
ing
network,ama li
ciouspe r
soncant ri
ckpe opl
eintousingthei
re quipme nt,
andl ogo revenma nipulat
ealldatathatpass
esthroughi
t.
148 NETWORKING

Agai
n,i
fyouruser
sar
etr
ai
nedt
ous
est
ronge
ncr
ypt
ion,t
hispr
obl
emi
s
si
gni
0ca
ntl
yreduc
ed.

Ea
ves
dro
ppe
rs.
Asme nti
onede a
rli
er
,eaves
droppi
ngi sav erydiNcul
tprobl
emt odeal
wit
ho nwi re
les
snetworks
.Byus ingapa ss
ivemo ni
tor
ingtool(
suc
has
Kis
me t)
,ane a
vesdr
oppercanloga l
lnetworkdatafr
om ag r
eatdi
st
anc
e
away,wit
houteve
rma ki
ngthei
rpresenc
ek nown.
Poorl
ye ncr
ypte
d datacans i
mpl ybel ogg
e dand cra
ckedlat
er
,whil
e
unencry
pteddat
ac a
nbee as
il
yr e
adinrealti
me .

Ifyouha vedi Ncultyc onvincingo t

he rsofthispr o
blem,y oumightwa nt
todemo nstr
ateto ol
ssucha s
Drif
tnet(http://www. ex-parrot.com/ ~chri
s/drift
net/).
Drif
tnetwa tchesawi r e
lessne tworkf orgraphicaldata,sucha sGIFa nd
JPEG 0les.Whi leo t
herus ersa r
ebro wsingtheI nt
ernet,theseto
olssi
mpl y
dis
playallgraphicsfoundi nag raphicalcoll
age.Whi leyo ucantel
laus er
thattheire ma i
li sv ul
ne rablewi thoute ncrypti
on,no t
hingdr i
vest he
me s
sageho mel i
k eshowi ngt hemt hepi ct
urestheya relookingatinthe i
r
web brows e
r.Ag ain,whi l
ei tc anno tbec o mplete
ly pr e
vente
d,pr oper
appl
icat
iono fs t
ronge ncryptionwi l
ldi s
couragee a
vesdropping.

Protecting the wireless network

Inat r a
diti
ona lwi r
edne twork ,acce
sscontrolisrel
ati
vel
ys t
raightf
or ward:
Ifape rsonha sphy sic
ala ccesstoac ompute rorne t
wo r
khub ,theyca nus e
(ora buse)t hene tworkr esources
.Whi les oftwareme chanismsa rea n
i
mpo r ta
ntc ompo nento fne two rksecur
ity
,l i
mi t
ingphysica
la cce
sst othe
ne t
wo rkde vi
cesist heul tima t
ea cces
scontrolme c
hanis
m.S impl yput ,if
allte rmina l
sa nd ne two rkc ompo nentsarephy s
ica
ll
yo nlya cces
siblet o
trustedi ndividuals,thene two rkcanl i
kel
ybet r
uste
d.$er ule
sc hang e
signi0c a
nt l
ywi th wi rele
ssne tworks
.Whi let hea ppare
ntr angeo fy o ur
accesspo i
ntma yseemt obej us tafewhundr edme tre
s,auserwi thahi g h
gaina ntennama ybea bletoma k
euseo fthene tworkfr
oms ever
albl ocks
awa y.
Sho ulda nuna utho ri
sedus e rbede tect
ed,i simpo s
si
bletos imply trace
thec ableba ckt otheus erslo cati
on.
Wi tho utt r
ansmi t
tingas inglepa cke
t,asuNc ientl
ytale
ntedne far
iousus er
canc a ptureandl o gtraNco nawi re
les
snetwo r
kt odisk.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 149

$i sda tacanl a
terbeus edt ol a
unchamo resophisti
cate
da ttac kagainst
thene t
wo rk.Ne vera s
sumet hatr a
diowa v essimply st
opa tt hee dgeo f
yourpr ope r
tyl i
ne ,o rinsidey ourbui l
ding .Phy s
icalsecurit
yi nwi re
less
networksisl imitedt opr e ventingc ompro mi seoft heac t
iveco mpo nents,
cable
sa ndpo wersuppl y.
Whe rephy sicalaccesstot hene tworkc a
nno tbepr event
edweha vet orel
y
one l
ectronicme ansf orco ntrolli
nga cces
st ot hewi rel
essinfr
astructurein
ordertoo nlya ll
o wa utho risedpe rsonsa nds ys
temst ous et hewi re
less
network.Butr eme mbe r
,whi l
eac erta
ina mo unto fa cc
e s
sc o ntroland
authentic
ationi sne cess
aryi na nyne t
wo r
k ,y ouha vef a
ile
di ny ourjobi f
l
e gi
ti
ma teus ers0ndi tdiNc ulttous ethene tworktoc ommuni cate.Lastl
y,
itisusuall
yunr ea
so nablet oc ompl et
elytrus tallusersofthene two rk,als
o
onwi redne two r
ks.Di sgrunt l
e de mployee
s ,une ducatednetwo r
kus er
s,and
simplemi stakesont hepa rto fho nestuser sc a
nc ausesigni0cantha rmt o
networko perati
ons.Ast hene tworka rchitect,yourg oali stof aci
li
tat
e
priva
tec o
mmuni cati
on be twee nl e
giti
ma teus er
so fthene two rka nd
betweenl e
g i
tima t
eus ersands ervices
.

$ere
'sano ldsayi
ngt ha
ttheo nl
ywa ytoc ompl
etel
ysec
ureac omput e
ris
t
ounplugit,lo
cki tinasaf
e,de s
tr
o ythekey
,andburythewho l
et hi
ngi n
c
oncr
ete.Whi l
esuc has ys
tem mightbec omplet
elys
ecure
,itisusele
ss
f
orcommuni cat
ion.Whe ny ouma kes e
curi
tydec
isi
onsforyourne t
wo r
k,
r
emembe rthatabo veal
le l
se,thene tworkexis
tssothatitsus er
sc an
c
ommuni ca
tewi t
he a
cho t
her.Securi
tyconsi
der
ati
onsareimportant,but
s
houl
dno tgetint hewayofthene twork'
suser
s.

As i
mpl er ule-
o f
-thumba stowhe therorno tt
hene t
wo r
ki sg ett
ingi nthe
wayo fitsusersistol ooka thowmuc ht imeyouo ro t
he rsta1s pendo n
hel
pingpe oplegeto nthene twork.
Ifregularusersarer e
pea t
edl
yha vingproblemssimplygaininga ccesstothe
netwo rk,evena ftertheyha vebe enprovidedinst
ruct
iona ndt r
ainingo n
howt odos o,i t
'spo s
sibl
et hatthea c
ces
spr oce
duresaret ooc umbe rso
me
andar evi
ewo fthemi sino rder
.
Takinga llo fthisintoa ccount,o urgoalistopr ov
idea de q
ua t
ephy s
ica
l
sec
ur i
ty,controla cce
sspr ot
ectthec ommuni ca
tio
nwi thouts acri
0c i
nge a
se
ofuse.
150 NETWORKING

Physical security for wireless networks

Whe ni nstall
ingane two r
k ,y oua rebui ldinga ni nfrast
ructurethatpe o pl
e
de pe ndo n.S ecurit
yme asure sexisttoe nsur etha tthene two r
ki sr e
liable.
Wi relessne two rksha vephy sica
lc ompo nent s
,s uc ha swi resand bo xes,
whi c ha r
ee asil
y di s
turbe d.I n ma ny i ns tall
ations, people wi l
lno t
unde rstandt hepur po seo ft heins t
allede quipme nt ,orc urio
sit
yma yl ead
the mt oe xpe ri
me nt.
$e yma yno treali
set hei mpo r
tanceo fac ablec onnectedtoapo rt.
So me onema yunpl uga nEt hernetc ables ot hatt heyc anc onne ctthe i
r
l
a pt opf or5mi nutes,ormo veas witchb ecausei tisi nthe i
rwa y.Apl ug
mi g htbe r emo vedf rom a po werba rbe causes ome one ne e
dst ha t
rece ptac l
e.As suri
ngt hephy si
cals ec
ur i
tyo fa ni ns t
all
a t
ionispa ramo unt .
Sig nsa ndl abelswillonlybeus efultot hosewhoc anr e
ady ourl angua ge.
Put tingt hingso uto ft hewa ya ndl imi ti
nga c c
essi sthebe s
tme anst o
assur et hata ccidentsandt ink er
ingdono to ccur.I ny ourl oca
li
ty,pr oper
faste ners,ties,orbo xesma yno tbee a s
yt o0nd.
Yo us ho uldbea bleto0nde lec
tricalsuppl iest hatwi llwo rkjusta swe l
l.
Cus tome nc l
o s
uresa r
ea ls
oe asyt oma nuf a
c turea nds houldbec onsidered
esse ntialt oa nyi nstall
ati
o n.I ti so ftene c ono mi caltopa yama s
o nt o
ma keho lesandi nstal
lc ondui t.PVCc anbee mbe dde dinc ementwa llsf o
r
pa ssingc ablefromr oomt or oo m.$i sa v oi
dst hene edt os ma shne w
ho lese veryt i
meac ablene edst ob epa ss
e d.Pl asticba gscanbes tu1e d
intot hec ondui taroundt hec ablesfori nsula t
ion.S ma llequipme ntsho uld
bemo untedo nthewa l
landl argereq uipme nts houldbeputi nac lose
to r
inac abine t
.

S
wit
che
s
Swit
ches
,hubsorinter
ioracc
esspoi
ntsca
nbes c
reweddi
rec
tl
yo nt
oawa l
l
withawa l
lplug.Itisbestt
oputt hise
quipmentashi
gha spos
sibl
eto
r
educethec ha
ncet ha
ts o
me onewil
lbea bl
etot o
uchthedevic
eo rit
s
cabl
eswi
thoutsi
gni0cante1o
rt.

Ca
ble
s
Atthev er
yl ea
st,cable
sshoul
dbehi ddena ndfas
t e
ne d.I
ti spossi
bleto
0ndplasti
cc a
bleconduitt
hatcanbeusedi nbuil
dings.Ifyoucannot0nd
it
,si
mpl ecabl
ea tt
achment
scanbenailedintothewa l
lt os
ecurethecable
.
$i swil
lma k
es urethatt
hecabledo
e s
n'thangwhe rei tc
anbes nag
g e
d,
pinche
do rcut.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 151

Whe nf ast
eningc abletot hewa l
l,itisimpo rt
anttono tnailorsc r
ewi nto
thec a
bleitself.$ec ableco ntai
nsma nyt i
nywi re
sthatthene two r
kda ta
trave
lsover.Na i
li
ngt hrought hec a
blewi l
ldamageitandma kei tusele
ss
fortrans
mi tti
ngda t
a.Ta kec arealsotono tover
lybendo rt wi
stt hecable
asthiswillda ma g
eita swe l
l.
Itisprefer
a bletobur yc ables,rathertha ntoleavethem hanginga cro
ssa
yard.Ha ngingwi resmi ghtbeus edf ordr yi
ngclot
hes,orb esnagg e
db ya
l
a dder
,etc.Toa voi
dv ermi na ndi nsect
s ,usepla
sti
cele
ctri
calcondui t
.$e
ma rgi
nale xpensewi l
lbewe llwo rtht het r
ouble
.$ec onduits houldbe
buriedabo ut30c m de ep,o rbe l
o wt hef ros
tleve
linc oldc l
i
ma t
es.Itis
wo rt
ht hee xtrainvestmento fbuy ingl a
rgerconduitthani spr es
ently
requir
ed,s ot hatfuturec a blesc a
n ber un throughthes a
met ubing.
Co nsi
derla beli
ngbur iedc ablewi tha" cal
lb e
for
ey oudig"s i
gnt oa voi
d
futur
ea cci
de ntaloutages.

P
owe
r
I
tisbe s
tt ohavepowerba r
slockedi nac abine
t.I fthatisnotpossi
ble
,
mountt hepo werbarunderade sk,o ront hewalla nduseducttape(or
ga
1e rtape ,ast
rongadhesi
vetape)tos e
c ur
ethepl ugi nt
ot here
cepta
cle
.
Ont heUPSa ndpo werba r
,dono tleaveanye mpt yr ec
epta
cle
s.Tape
t
hemi fne c
ess
ary
.P eopl
e willhav ethet e
ndenc yt o usethee as
ies
t
r
eceptacl
e ,somakethesecri
ti
calone sdiNculttous e.Ifyoudono t,you
might0ndaf anorli
ghtpluggedintoy ourUPS ;thoug hitisni
cetohave
l
ig
ht ,itisnice
rtokeepy o
urserve
rr unni
ng !

Wa
ter
Protec
ty ourequipme ntf r
om wa t
erandmo i
st
ure.I
na llcas
esma kesure
thatyoure qui
pme nt,incl
udingy ourUPSi sa tle
ast30c mf r
omt he
ground,toavoi
dda ma g
ef rom Wooding.Als
otrytohavear oofove
ry our
equipment,sot hatwa tera nd moist
urewillnotfal
lo ntoit.In mo is
t
cli
ma t
es,itisimpo rt
antt hatthee qui
pmentha sproperventi
la
tiont o
ass
uret hatmo isturec an be e x
hauste
d.S mallclos
etsne edto ha ve
venti
lat
ion,ormo istur
ea ndhe a
tcande gr
adeordest
royy o
urg e
ar.

Ma
sts
Equi
pmentins
tal
l
edonama s
tisof
te
nsaf
efromthi
eve
s.Never
the
les
s,t
o
de
terthi
eve
sandtokeepy
ourequi
pmentsa
fefr
om winds
,itisg
oodto
ov
er-e
ngi
neermount
s.
152 NETWORKING

Pai
nti
nge quipmentadul lwhiteorgre ycol
ourreWec
tsthesuna ndma kes
itl
ookpl a
ina nduninter
est
ing.Panela nt
ennasar
eo ft
enprefe
rredbe c
ause
the
ya r
e muc h mo r
es ubtlea nd l es
sinter
esti
ng than dishes.Any
ins
tal
l
ationo nwa ll
sshouldb ehighe noughtorequir
eal addertor ea
ch.
Trycho os
ingwe ll
-l
itbutno tpr ominentplace
st opute q
uipme nt.Also
avoi
da nte
nna ethatres
emblet el
evi
si
o na nt
ennae,asthos
ea reite
mst hat
wil
latt
ractinter
estbythi
eves,wherea
sawi 0ante
nnawi l
lbeus e
lesstothe
ave
ragethief
.

Authentication and access control

Tal
k i
ngabouta uthent
ic
ati
on anumberofrel
at
edtermsl i
ke(di
gita
l)
i
dentit
y,authori
sa
t i
on,pri
vac
ye t
c.pop up.So be
fore we ge
ti nto
aut
henti
cat
ionpr operweneedtoint
roduc
esometer
minology
,without
tr
yingtobee x
hausti
ve.

Di gi
tali de ntityi st hee l
e ctr
o nice ntityt hati sa r epresentat
iono fa
phy s
icale ntity,likeape rso no rade vi
ce .Authe nti
catio
ni st hepr ocesso f
verif
y i
ngt hec l
a i
mt ha tan( ele
c tr
o nic)e ntit
yi sall
owe dtoa cto nbe ha l
fo f
ag i
venk no wn ( phy sic
a l
)e nti
t y
.I no therwo r
ds,a uthenticat
ioni st he
pro c
esso fpr oving t ha tt hephy sicale nti
tyc or
respondst o ac ertain
elect
roni co ne.Aut ho ri
sa t
io ni nt urni st hepr oce
sso fe stabl
ishingt he
rightso ft hei dentityt oa cce
ssc ertainr esourceso rt ope rformc ertain
tasks.Pr i
vac y,0na ll
y,i sac ompl e
xi ss
uebutha stodowi tht her ighto fa
personno tt oha vet he irpe r
sona lda taa ndbe ha vio
urbek no wnt opa rt i
es
thatdono ts tr
ictl
yne e di ttopr ovidet hes ervicetheus ersrequest.S of or
exampl e,i ti sr easona bl
ef oral iq uors ho pt ok nowt hatac ustome ri s
abo v
eac ertaina g ebe f
o res el
linga locho l
icdr i
nk s
,butno ttok no wt he
nameo ft hec us t
ome r,andt hirdpa rti
ess houldno tha veanyk nowle dgeo f
thet ra
ns actiona ta ll.Pr i
v acyiso fpa rti
c ula
rc onc e
rni nawo r
ldi nwhi ch
usersi ncrea s
ingly us e ne two rksa nd s er
viceso uts
ide t heir ho me
env i
ronme nt.Wi thoutpr o pera tt
ent iont opr ivacyaspectsitist ooe asyt o
traceaus e rsbe hav i
oura ndmo veme nt.
Itiswo rthme ntioningt ha tt hereisat rade -
o1be t
wee nauthe nti
cati
o na nd
privacy.Ve rifyi
ngt hei de ntityo faus eri ni t
selfinvadestheus e
r'spr i
vac y
,
thea uthent icati
ngpa rtyk no wswhoi sus i
ngwha tresourcea tapa rticular
timea nd l o cati
on,butt hec halleng ei st o mi nimiset hea mo unto f
informa ti
o na bo utaus e
ra ndt henumbe rofpa rti
esthata repr i
vvyt ot hat
informa ti
o n.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 153

Int hec ontexto ft hisbo okwea rema i

nlyintereste
di nt echniquesfor
contro l
li
nga cc
e sstot hene two r
k.Ino therwords ,wewa ntt obea bleto
decidewho( a
ut henticate
di dentit
y)g etstoa ccesswha t( authori
sat
ion)
witho utsac r
i0cingpr ivacy
.
Authe nticati
oni sty pica
ll
ydo neb ypr oofofk nowledgeo fas ecret(a
passwo rd,as ig
na ture),possess
ionofat okeno rcha rac
teri
sti
c( acerti
0cat
e,
a0ng erprint)o rbo th.Ac cesscontr
o lisoft
enne ededt oma kesurethat
onlya utho ri
sedus ersc anuset henetwo r
k,topr eventexhaustiono fscar
ce
re
so urcesa nd/o rc ompl i
ancewi thr ule
sa ndr egulati
ons.I na dditi
ont o
accessc ontroll
edne t
wo r
ksthe r
ema ya ls
ob eo penne t
wo rk
swi thl i
mited
accesso rf oral imitedt ime ,butduet othene edf oro r
g anis
ati
onst o
contro lacc e
sst ot he i
rs c
a r
cer es
ourcesand alsoa nti-
terrori
stlawst hey
beco mel essub i
q uit
o us.Ov ertheyearsanumbe ro ftechniqueshavebe en
empl oyedt oco ntrola cce
sst owirel
essne t
work s
.S ubsequentlytheyha ve
been mo stlya bando ne d duet os ecuri
tyo rs calabi
li
tyi ssuesa sWi Fi
becamei ncreas
ing l
ypo pul
a r
.

Ma
c0l
te
ri
ng
AccesstoaWi Finetwo r
kcanbeba sedo ntheMAC a ddres
s.$i sist
he
48-bitnumb era ssi
gne db yt he manufact
ure
rt oe ve
ry wirel
essand
Ethernetdevic
e,a ndt hatissuppose
dt obeuni queandpe r
si
ste
nt.By
emplo y
ingma c0lteri
ngo no ura c
cesspoint
s,wec a
na uthenti
cat
eusers
basedo nthei
rMACa ddre
ss.
Wi t
ht hisfeat
ure,thea cce
sspo i
ntk ee
psa ninte
rnalta
bleo fapprov
ed
MACa ddr
ess
es.

Whe n awi rel

essus e
rt r
iest oa s
s oc
iat
et ot hea ccesspo int,theMAC
addressoft heclientmus tbeo nt heapprovedl i
st,ort hea ss
ocia
tionwill
bede nied.Al t
ernativel
y,theAPma yk eepat abl
eo fkno wn badMAC
address
es,a ndpe r mitalldevicesthatareno to nt hel is
t.Unf ort
unate
ly,
thisi
sno ta nide alsecuri
tyme chanism.Ma intai
ningMACt abl
eso never
y
devic
ec anbec umbe r
some ,r
e qui
ringa l
lcli
entde vic
e stoha vethei
rMAC
address
esr ecor
de da ndupl oadedt otheAPs .Ev enwo r
se,MAC a ddres
ses
cano ft
enbec hang edi nsoft
wa re
.Byo bser
vingMACa ddresse
sinus eon
awi rele
ssne t
wo rk,ade ter
mi neda tt
ackerc ans po of(impe rs
onate)an
approvedMACa ddr e
ssandsuc ces
s f
ull
ya s
soci
atetot heAP .
Whi l
eMAC 0l teringwi llpreventuni nte
ntionalus e
rsa nd even mo st
curio
usi ndivi
dua lsf r
om a ccess
ing thene t
wo r
k ,MAC 0 l
ter
ing al
one
cannotpr eventattacksfrom determineda t
tackers
.
154 NETWORKING

MAC 0lte
rsareuse
fulfortempora
ril
ylimiti
nga c
ces
sfrom mis
behavi
ng
c
li
ent
s.Forexample
,ifal apt
ophasav irusthats
endslar
geamountsof
s
pamo rothe
rtra
Nc ,i
tsMAC a ddres
scanbea ddedtothe0lt
ertabl
eto
s
topt
het r
aNcimme di
ate
ly.$iswillbuyyout i
metotra
ckdownt heuse
r
a
nd0xt hepr
oble
m.

Cl
ose
dne
two
rks
Ano the ra to net imepo pula r" authe nticat
ionf eat ure"ofWi Fine twork sis
the s o-c al
ledc lo s
ed ne two rk mo de .I n at y picalne two rk,APswi l
l
broadc astt he i
rES SID ma nyt ime spe rs econd,a llowingwi relessc l
i
ent s(as
we l
la st oolss uc ha sNe tStumbl er)t o0ndt hene two rka nddi s
playi t
s
presenc et ot heus e
r.I nac lo sedne two r
k,t heAPdo e sno tbe acont he
ES SID( "hidde n ES SI
D" ),a nd us e r
smus tk no wt hef ullna meo ft he
netwo r
kbe f
o ret heAPwi lla llowa s
sociat
ion.$i spr eve ntsc as
ualus e r
s
from di sco veringt hene two r ka nds elect
ingi tint he i
rwi relessc li
ent.$e re
areanumbe ro fdr a
wba c kst ot hi sfe a
ture.Fo rci
ngus erstot y pei nthef ull
ES SID be forec o nne cti
ngt ot hene two r
ki se r
rorpr onea ndo fte
nl eadst o
suppo r
tc allsa ndc ompl aints.S i
nc et hene two rki sn
to b viouslypr esenti n
sit
es urveyt oo lsl ikeNe tStumbl e r
,t hisc a
npr ev enty ourne tworksf rom
showi ngupo nwa rdr i
v ingma ps .Buti ta l
some anst hato therne two rk
builde r
sc anno te asil
y0nd y o urne two r
ke i
the r,a nd s pe ci0call
ywo n
t
kno wt ha ty o ua rea lreadyus ingag ivenc hanne l
.
Ac o nscientio usne ig
hbo urma ype rf
orm as ites urvey,s eeno ne arby
netwo r
k s,a ndi nstallthe iro wnne t
wo rko nt hes amec ha nne lyoua re
using .$i swi l
lc ausei nterfe rence pr oblemsf orbo thy oua nd y our
neighbo ur.
Finally,us ing c losed ne two rk sul ti
ma tel
ya ddsl itt
let oy ouro v eral
l
netwo r
ks ecur ity.Byus ingpa ssi
v emo nitori
ngt o ol
s( suc ha sKi s
me t),a
ma li
c iousus erc ande t
e ctf rame ss entfromy ourl egit
ima tec li
entstot he
AP.$e sef rame sne cessarilyc o ntaint hene two rkna me .$ema li
c ious
userc a
nt he nus et hisna met oa ssociat
et ot hea ccesspo i
nt ,justlik ea
norma lus e rwo u l
d.Enc r yptioni spr obablyt hebe s
tt o olweha vef or
authe nticatingwi rel
e s
sus e r
s.$r o ug hstronge nc ryption,wec anuni q ue l
y
identifyaus e ri nama nne rt ha ti sv erydi Nc ultt os po of,a ndus et hat
identityt o de te rminef ur t
he rne two r
ka cces
s.Enc ry
pt i
o na lsoha st he
bene 0to fa ddi ngal ayero fpr iva cyb ypr eve nt i
nge a vesdro ppersf rom
easil
ywa tchingne two rkt r
aNc .Enc r
yptioni st het echni quet hatisus ed
fora uthe nticatingus ersinmo s tc urrentde ployme nts.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 155

WEP
$e0r s
twi delye mployede nc r
yptionme thodo nWi Fine two r
kswasWEP
encry
ption.WEPs ta
ndsf orWi redEq ui val
entPr ivacy,a ndi ss
uppo rt
ed
byv i
rtual
lya ll802.11a /b/ge quipme nt.I ncidentall
y,t hisisac ompl et
e
misnome ra st hepr i
vacyt ha tWEPpr o videsisi nnowa yequiv
alentto
thatofwi r
edc onnecti
o ns.WEPus esas ha re
d40- bi
tk eyt oe ncr
yptda t
a
betweenthea cces
spo inta ndc l
ient.$ek eymus tbee nt ere
do ntheAPs
aswellaso ne acho fthec l
ients.
Wi t
hWEPe nable
d,wi rel
essc li
ent sc anno ta ssoci
atewi tht heAPunt il
theyus ethec orre
ctk ey .Ane a
v esdroppe rl i
steningt oaWEP- enabl
ed
networkwi llstil
lseet raNca ndMAC a ddresses,butt heda tapayl
o adof
eachpacketise ncrypted.
$i spr ov
ide da na uthe nti
c ati
onme chani sm whi lealsoa ddi
ngabi tof
pri
vacyt ot hene t
wo rk.WEPi sde 0nitelyno tthes trong e
stencrypti
on
sol
uti
o navailable.
Foro net hing ,theWEPk eyi ss haredbe twe ena l
lus ers.Ifthek eyis
compro mised( say
,ifo neus ertel
lsaf ri
endwha tthepa ss
wo rdis
,o rifan
employeei sl etg o)t he nc hangingt hepa sswo r
dc an bepr o
hibiti
vel
y
diNcult,s
inc ea l
lAPsa ndc l
ientde vicesne edtobec hang ed.

$isalsomeansthatl e
git
imateus e
rsofthenet
workc a
nst
il
leave
sdr
opon
e
acho t
hers
tr
aNc ,sincetheyallknowtheshar
edkey.
$ek eyitse
lfiso ft
e npo or
lyc hos
en,ma ki
ngo kinecr
ack
ingatt
empt
s
f
eas
ibl
e.Butmo sti mpo r
tantl
y,WEPi t
sel
fisbr
oken,maki
ngitver
yeas
y
t
oga i
nill
ega
laccessthene t
work .
S
oWEPs houldno tbeus edany more
.

Fo
rmo rede
tai
lsaboutthest
ateofWEPe ncr
ypti
on,s
eet
hes
epa
per
s:
ht
tp:
//
www.is
aac.
cs.
berk
e l
ey
.edu/
is
aac/
wep-
faq.
html
ht
tp:
//
www.cs.
umd.edu/~waa
/ wi
re
les
s.
pdf

"
Swi
tc
hed"wi
re
les
sne
two
rks
Onec ri
ti
caldi1er
encebet
weenmo de
rnswit
chedEthe
rne
tnet
work
sa nd
wir
ele
ssisthatwir
el
essnet
work
sarebui
ltonashar
edmedi
um.
$e ymo recl
o s
el
yr e
sembl
etheoldnetwo
rkhubsthanmode
rnswi
tches
,
i
nt hatever
yc omputerc
onnec
tedtothenet
wo r
kcanse
et
hetr
aNco f
ev
eryo t
heruser
.
156 NETWORKING

Tomo nit
oral
lne two rktr
aNco nana cc
esspoint,o nec ansimplytuneto
thec ha
nnelbeingus ed,putthenet
wo r
kc a
rdi nt
omo nit
ormo de,andlog
everyframe.
$i sda tamightbedi re
ctl
yv a
lua
bletoa ne aves
dr opper(incl
udingdata
sucha se mail
,v oiceda ta
,o ronli
nec hatl ogs
).I tma ya l
so prov
ide
pass
wo rdsando t
he rsensi
ti
vedata
,ma ki
ngi tpossiblet oco
mpr o
misethe
netwo r
ke v
enfurther.WPAa nd802.1Xarede si
gne dt omak ethewire
les
s
netwo r
kbehavelikeas witc
hedrat
herthanas haredne twork
.

WPA
Anotherdata-l
inklaye
ra uthe
nticat
ionpr oto
c o
li sWi -FiPr o
tect
edAc ce
ss,
orWPA.WPAwa scr
e a
teds peci
0cal
lyt ode a
lwi tht hek nownpr obl
ems
wit
h WEP me nti
onede a
rli
er.WPA wa si ntendedt o beaba ckwar
ds
compati
bleint e
ri
ms oluti
onwhi lethef ullsta
nda r
d802. 11i( WPA2)wa s
deve
loped.
WPAa ndWPA2c ano perat
ei nc ombinati
o nwi ththe802. 1X umbr e
ll
a
st
andardforwi re
les
sauthenti
c a
ti
on( se
ebe low)buta lsomuc hi nthesame
modea sWEP ,wit
has ha r
eds e
cretbetweena l
lc l
ientsandt heAP,theso-
ca
lle
dPr eS ha r
edKe y(PS K)mo de(theWi FiAl li
ancec all
sWPA- PSK
"WPA P e
rsonal"
,a so ppo s
edt o" WPA Ent erpri
se"t hati suse din
combinati
onwi th802.1X).

Overal
l
,WPApr ovi
de ssi
gni0cantlybet
terauthenti
cat
ionandpriva
cythan
st
andar
dWEP ,ma i
nlybylev e
ragingtheTempo raryKeyInte
gri
tyProtoc
ol
(TKIP)thatconti
nuo us
lya nda utomati
cal
lyc hangesthekeyi
ngma te
ria
l
bet
weenc l
ie
ntsanda cces
spo i
nts.
Unfort
unate
lyprecise
lytheba ckwardscompa t
ibil
it
yo fTKI Phasg i
ven
ri
setosomea tt
ackv ect
orsa g
ainstTKI Pthatallowfordecr
ypti
ngc e
rta
in
encr
ypte
dpa cke
ts,thati
nt urnc anbema nipulat
edforfurt
heratt
acks
.

Morei
nfor
ma t
ioncanbefoundinthefoll
owingar
tic
les
:
ht
tp:
//
dl.
ai
rcr
ack-
ng.or
g/br
eaki
ngwe
pa ndwpa.
pdf
ht
tp:
//
downloa
d.ai
rc
rack-
ng.
org/
wik
i-0les
/doc
/enha
nced_t
kip_mi
cha
el.
pdf

$econse
quenc
eofthe
sedi
sco
ver
ie
sisthati
tiswi
set
omo
vet
othene
xt
g
ene
rat
ionofse
cur
eWiFiac
ces
sprot
oco
ls:WPA2.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 157

WPA2-
PSK
WPA2i
sthef
ullI
EEE802.
11is
tanda
rd.

$emai
ndi1e
rencewi
thWPA i
stheus
eoftheAdvanc
edEncrypt
ion
S
yst
em(
AES
)inste
adof
TKIPa(
sofar
)no
tbr
okenenc
rypt
ions
tandar
d.

S
otheus
eofWPA2wi
thAESc
anbec
ons
ide
reds
ecur
efo
rno
w!

Summary
$ema jordownsi
deofanyofthe
selas
tthre
eaut
hent
ic
ati
onme t
hodsis
that,r
egar
dle
ssofthes
tr
engt
ho ft
heencry
pti
on,t
heyar
estil
lbui
ltupon
theno t
ionofac o
mmo nshar
edsec
retbet
weenal
lcl
ie
ntsandtheacce
ss
point.

$eydo n'
tal
lowfori
dent
if
yi
ngi ndiv
idualus
ersand f
rank
ly,as
ecr
et
s
har
edb ypot
ent
ia
ll
yte
nsoft ho
usandso fus
ersca
nha r
dlybecal
l
eda
s
ecr
et.

Anotherse
rio
usprobl
em wit
h wi
re
les
sne t
work
st o whic
ha c
cessis
contr
oll
edbyanyo
fthemet
hodsme
nti
oned,i
sthati
tsus
ersar
ere
lat
iv
ely
anonymous
.

Whil
eitistruethatev
erywir
ele
ssdevic
eincl
udesauniq
ueMAC a ddres
s
t
hatissuppli
edb ythema nufa
ctur
er,asmenti
onedthes
ea ddr
ess
escan
of
te
nbec hangedwithsof
twar
e.
Andevenwhe nt heMAC a ddre
ssisknown,itcanbev e
rydiNc ul
tto
j
udgewhereawi r
ele
ssuse
risphysi
cal
l
ylocat
ed.

Multi
-pat
h e1ects
, high-
gai
n antennas
,a nd widel
yv a
rying r
adio
tr
ansmit
terc
hara
cter
is
ti
cscanmakeitimposs
ibl
etodete
rmineifawir
ele
ss
use
rissi
tt
inginthenextro
omo ri
sina napart
mentbui
ldi
ngami lea
way.

$econc
ernsabouts
ecuri
ty
,acc
ount
abi
li
tyands
cal
abi
li
tyhav
ele
dtot
he
r
is
eofwhatisco
mmo nlycal
l
edide
nti
ty-
bas
edne
twork
ing.

I
dent
it
y-ba
sed ne
two
rki
ng
I
nide
nti
tyba
sed ne
two
rki
ngi
ndi
vi
dua
lus
ersa
rebe
inga
uthe
nti
cat
ed
158 NETWORKING

r
athe
rtha
nse
cre
tss
har
edbe
twe
enma
nyus
ers
.

Typi
cal
l
ythea uthe
nti
cat
ions
yst
emv e
ri
0esus
erc
rede
nti
al
sag
ains
tso
me
so
rtofent
erpr
isedat
aba
seordi
re
cto
ry.

Commonlybyusi
ngtheRADI USprot
ocol
,aproto
color
igi
nal
l
yde s
igne
d
f
orcont
rol
li
ngacce
sstodia
l-i
nmo dem poo
lsbutsuNci
ent
lyver
sat
il
eto
s
erv
easgene
rica
cces
scont
rolpro
toc
olfornet
workacc
ess
.

Ca
pti
vepo
rta
ls
Onec ommo naut
henti
cat
iontoo
lus e
do nwir
eles
snetwo
rksi
sthecapt
iv
e
port
al.Acapti
vepor
talus
esastandar
dwe bbrowse
rtogi
veawire
les
suser
theoppor
tunit
ytopres
entlog
incredent
ia
ls
.
Itcanals
obeus edtopr es
entinfor
ma t
ion(s
ucha sanAcce
ptabl
eUs e
Poli
cy)t
otheuserbef
oregr
anti
ngf ur
the
racce
ss.

Byus ingawe bbr

owseri
nst
eadofac
ust
om pr
ogr
amf oraut
hent
ic
ati
on,
capti
vepo rt
alswor
k wit
hv i
rt
ual
lya
lll
apt
opsand oper
ati
ng s
yst
ems.
Ca pt
ive por
tal
saretypi
cal
l
y use
dono pe
n net
workswi t
h no ot
her
authenti
cat
ionmet
hods(s
uchasWEPorMAC0lte
rs)
.

Tobegi
n,awi r
el
es
suserope
nst he
irl
aptopbrows
erandisdi
rect
edtothe
por
tal
.
$e ywil
lthe
nbea s
kedtoacceptt
heusepoli
cyoranswe
ro t
herque
sti
ons
suc
hasenter
ingause
rnamea ndpass
wo r
d,andcl
ickonalogi
nbutt
on,
orper
hapsty
peinnumbersf
rom apre-pa
idtic
ket
.

$eus erent
ersthe
ircr
edent
ial
s,whi
char
echec
kedbytheac
ces
spoi
nto
r
anot
herse
rveronthenet
wo r
k.
Allo
thernet
wo r
kacce
ssisbl
ockedunt
ilt
hes
ecr
ede
nti
al
sareve
ri
0ed.

Af
te
rve
ri0ca
ti
onthei
rcomput
erwi
llr
ece
iveaDHCPle
ase.
$eyca
nt he
nusethei
rwebbr
owse
rtogotoanys
it
eontheInt
erne
t.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 159

Fi
gur
eSWN1:eu
serr
equ
est
sawe
bpa
gea
ndi
sre
dir
ec
te
d.

Fi
gur
eSWN2:eu s
er
scr
edent
ial
sarev
eri
Cedbef
or
efur
thernet
wo r
kacc
ess
isgr
ant
ed.eaut
hent
ica
tio
ns e
rve
rcanbetheac
ces
spo
intit
sel
f,
anot
her
mach
ineont
helo
calnet
wo r
k,orase
rve
ranywher
eontheInt
ernet
.
160 NETWORKING

Fi
gur
eSWN3:Aft
era
uthe
nti
cat
ing
,theus
eri
sper
mitt
edtoac
ces
sth
ere
sto
f
t
hene
two
rkandist
ypi
cal
lyr
edi
re
cte
dtotheo
rig
ina
lsi
te
req
uest
ed-inth
isc
aseGoog
le
.

Capti
veportalsprovi
deno e ncr
y pti
onf o
rt hewi re
lessus e
rs,inst
ead
r
elyi
ngo ntheMAC a ndIPa ddressofthecli
entasauni q
uei dent
i0er
,
whic
hc anbes poof
ede a
si
ly,manyi mple
me nt
ati
onswilltheref
orerequi
re
t
heus e
rtok eepac onnect
ionwindo wopen.Sincethey,jus
tl i
keMAC-
orWEP- ba
sed,dono tprovi
deprotect
ionagai
nsteav
esdropping(theyuse
ashar
edme dium)a ndarevulne
rabletoses
sio
nhi j
acki
ng ,capti
veportal
s
ar
eno taveryg oo
dc hoi
cef o
rnetwo r
ksthatneedtobel oc
k e
ddo wnt o
onl
yallo
wa cces
sfromtrust
eduser
s.

$e ya remuc h mo resuite
dt oc afe
s,ho t
els
,a nd o therpubl ica cces
s
l
oc a
ti
onswhe rec a
sualnetworkus e
rsareexpected.Ano therdo wnsideo f
capt
iveportalsisthattheyrel
yo ntheuseofabr o wserfora uthenticati
on,
whichc a
nbev e r
yc ounte
ri
ntuit
iveforuser
sthatjus ttr
yt oc heckt heire-
ma i
lo rsend a ni nsta
ntme s
sag
e,no ttome ntiont hef actt hatma ny
wirel
es
sde viceslikes e
nsors
,pr i
nter
sa nd camerasdo n'tha v eabui lt
in
browser
.
Inpublicors emi -
publicnetworksett
ings
,enc r
yptiont echnique ssucha s
WEPa ndWPAa ree1e c
ti
velyusel
ess
.$e reissimpl ynowa ytodi str
ibute
publi
co rs haredk e y
st o me mberso ft he g eneralpubl ic wi thout
compromisingt hesecuri
tyofthosekeys.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 161

Intheses e
ttings,as impl ea pplicat
ions ucha sac apti
vepo rta
lpr o
videsa
l
evelo fs ervices ome whe r
ebe tweenc o
mpl et
elyo pena nd comple t
ely
cl
osed.Ma nyv endo rsa ndo pe ns ourcepr oj
ectse xi
stthatprovidecaptive
por
talcapabi l
ity,tona meaf e w:
Co ova Chil
li,Co ovaAP ( http://coov
a.org/CoovaChi l
l
i/)
,Co ov ais
thes ucces
so ro ftheno l ong eractiv
ely ma i
ntai
ne d Chill
ispot
pro j
ect.Co o vaa llo
wsf ort heus eofaRADI USa uthenti
catio
n
back end.
Wi Fido g( http://
www. wi0do g.org/
),Wi FiDo gpr ov
idesav ery
compl e
tec aptivepo rtalauthe ntic
ati
onpa ckageinv erylit
tl
es pace
(typicall
yunde r30k b).Fr om aus er
spe rs
pecti
ve,itrequir
esno
pop- upo rj avascri
pts upport,a ll
owingi tt o worko n awi der
varietyo fwirelessdev i
ce s
.
M0n0wa ll
, pf Sense( http://m0n0.ch/wa l
l/
), m0n0wa lli sa
compl e
tee mbe dde do perati
ng s yst
em ba s
edo n FreeBSD.I t
include sac aptivepo rtalwithRADI USs upport,aswe l
lasaPHP
we bs erver
.
Manyg e neralne two rkingv endo rso 1ers omef ormo fi ntegr
atedcaptive
por
tals
,e .g
.Mi croti
k ,Ci s
c o
,Ar uba ,Apt il
o.

802.1X
Ine nte r
pris
ea nd c ampusde pl
oy me nts
,t he mo stc ommo n wi rel
es
s
networka uthenticat
ionf r
ame wo rkist hatbasedo nIEEE802. 1X.802. 1X
isalayer2pr o t
o colthatcanbeus edbo t
hf orwireda ndwi rel
essnetwo r
k
authe
nt ic
ati
o na ndi nf actc o
mpr i
sesanumbe ro ftechno log
ies.802.1X
descr
ibesthei nteract
ionbe tweent hec lie
ntde vi
ce(suppl i
c a
ntin802. 1X)
andtheAc ces
sP o i
nto rSwitch( Authe nti
cato
r)a swella sthatbetweenthe
Acces
sP oi
nto rS wit
c ha ndaba c
k endRADI USs erver( Authenti
cati
on
Serve
r)t hatint urnv er
i0esuserc redential
sagainstane nte r
pri
sedi r
ector
y
(orWa t0lef ort hatma tter
).Fina l
ly,802. 1X descr
ibesho wt ot r
anspor
t
userc redenti
a l
sf ro
m t he s upplicant t ot he a uthentic
atio
ns erve
r
tra
nsparentl
yt ot hea uthenti
catoro ra nyo therde vi
c ei nthepa thb y
l
e v
eragingtheEx te
nsibl
eAut hent i
cati
o nPr ot
ocol(EAP) .

$ee ncryptio
nbetwe
enthesuppli
cantandt
heaut
hent
ic
atorc
anbedone
usi
ngr o
tatingWEP-key
s,WPAwi t
hTKI PorWPA2wi thAES.Fo
rthe
re
asonsme nti
one
dinthepar
agrapho nWEP,WPA-PSKandWPA2-PSK,
WPA2wi t
hAESi shi
ghlyr
ecomme nded.
162 NETWORKING

Pro bablyt hemo s

ti nteresti
ngf eat ur eo ft he802. 1X i st heus eo fEAP .
EAPde 0ne sag enericwa yo fe nc aps ulatingc r
e de ntial
sa ndt ra
nsporting
the mf r
o m as upplicant( clie
nts oftwa re)t oa na uthent i
cati
ons e rve
r
(RADI US s er ver)
.S o-c al
led EAP- me t hods de 0ne ho w s pec i
0c
aut henti
c ati
onme t
ho dsc anbee nc a psul a
te di ntoEAP .$e r
ea reEAP-
me thodsf ora llc ommo nt ypeso fa ut he ntica ti
onme t
ho dsl i
k ecert
i0cates,
SIM- car
ds ,use rname /pa s
swo rd,o ne -timepa sswo rdsa ndha rdwaretok ens.
Duet ok eyo rt ok endi stri
butionpr o blemswi thha ndi ngo uttokenso r
cert i
0cat
e sa ndr evocati
o nt hev astma jorit
yo fla rges calede ploymentsus e
wha ta rec al
le dt unne l
led EAP-me tho ds:us erna me /pa s
swo r
d ba sed
aut henti
c ati
onus i
ngaTLSt unne lt ot hea uthe ntica t
ions erv
erthro ugh
whi c ht he a ctua lus ername a nd pa sswo rda r et ransmi tted.$e us e
r
ident i
ty us ed f ort he TLS- e nv elo pe i st y picall
y o ft he f o rm
ano nymo us@do ma i
n( thi
si sc al
ledt heo ut eride ntity)whe reasthei nner
ident i
ty( insi
det heTLSt unnel)i so ft hef orm us e r
na me @do ma i
n.$i s
distincti
o ni spa rti
cularlyi nter
estingf orr o ami ngt oo the ro r
ganisa
tions
ne tworks.I tispo s
sibletot ransportt hea uthe nti
c ationc rede ntia
lsofaus e
r
ov ertheI nternetwhi leo nlyr e
ve alingt heho meo rganisationo ftheus e
r
(thedo ma inpa rt)
,butt ha tisthet o pico ft hene x tpa ragraph.Sowha t
ha ppensi nat ypi ca
l802. 1Xa uthe nt icationwi that unne ll
edEAP- me thod
ist hefollowing :

Fi
gur
eSWN4:eu
seo
f802.
1Xwit
htunne
ll
edEAPf
orne
two
rka
cce
ss
(c
our
tes
ySURFnet
)
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 163

$ec li
e ntassociat
eswi tht heAc ces
sP oint( a
uthe nti
cator).
$eAc cessPointr equeststhec l
ient(supplicant)toa uthe nti
cat
e .
$ec l
ientsendsa nEAPme ssagec ontainingaTLSpa ck etwitha no uter
identit
y a nony mo us@do ma in a nd i nside t he TLS pa cket
username @do ma ina ndt hepa s
swo r
dt ot hea cce s
spo into verthe802. 11
l
ink( EAPo ve
rLAN o rEAP oL).
$eAc cesspo intr e
c ei
vest heEAP- me ssage,enc a
psulate sitinRADI US
ands endsi ttot heo rganisati
o nalRADI USs e r
ver( a
uthe ntica
tions er
ver).
$eRADI USs e r
verde c
a psulate
st heEAP- me s
sagea ndv eri
0e stheus er
cre
dnt ialsagai
ns tsomes orto fba ckendl ikeaWa t0le,anLDAPdi re
ctor y
,
ActiveDi r
ector
yo rsome thinge l
se.
Ifthec redenti
a l
sa rev alidt heRADI USs ervers endsba ckaRADI US
AccessAc ceptme ss
aget ot heAc cessP oint.$eAc ce ssP oi
ntg ivest he
cli
enta ccesstot hewi rel
essLAN.
$ec li
e ntpe r
formsaDHCPr equest
,g etsanI P- a
ddr e
s sandi sc o
nne cted
tothene twork.
$e r
ea r eanumbe ro ftunne ll
edEAP- me thodst hate ssenti
allywo rkt he
same ,thedi 1erencesa reint hes uppo rtinc ommo no pe rati
ngs ys
tems,t he
vulnarabili
tyt odi ctionarya nd ma n-in- t
he-mi ddlea ttacksa nd whe ther
theyr e
q uirestorageo fclear-textpasswo rdsint heba ckend.

$emo stwi del

yde ploye
dt unne l
l
edEAP- methodsno wadaysa reEAP-
TTLS( EAP Tunne l
le dTransportLay e
rS ecuri
ty)and PEAP( Protect
ed
EAP) .
$e re ha ve beeni ncompati
blei mpleme nta
tio
ns of PEAP due t o
disagre
eme ntsbe twe ent he pr oponent
so fPEAP ( Appl e,Ci sc
oa nd
Mi cros
oft)r esul
tingi n alargeupt akeofTTLS .$ef a
ctt hatt hes
e
incompa ti
b i
li
tiesa rel ar
gel
ys olvedand thel acko fna ti
ves upportfor
TTLSi n anumbe ro fc ommo nOS es(Applei OSa nd MS Wi ndows
variant
s)ha ver e
sultedi nani ncreas
ei nuptakeo fPEAP .Ane werEAP-
me thodt hati sg aining tract
ioni s EAP- FAST due t oi tsse c
urit
y
prope r
ti
e s
.EAP- FAS Tha sals
obe enc hos
ena sthebasi
sf orthene wt obe
de v
elopedt unnell
e dEAP- me t
ho d(TEAP)t hattheIETFe xpe c
tstobet he
singleendo rs
edo ne.

Inter-organisational roaming
RADIUS ha
st hei
nte
res
ti
ngprope
rtyt
hatRADI
US me
ssa
gesc
an be
pr
oxi
edt
oo t
herRADIUSser
ver
s.
164 NETWORKING

$atme a
nsi tisposs
ibl
ef orano rganisati
ont oall
owf oreacho t
hersus e
rs
t
og aina ccesst ot he ne tworkb ya uthenti
cat
ing t ot hei
r ho me
or
ganisa
ti
on'sRADI USs erv
er.
Whent heRADI USs erve
ro fo rga
ni sat
ionA r ecei
vesa nauthentica
tion
r
equestfro
ma nonymo us@o r
ganisat
io nB.orgitcanforwa r
dt herequestto
or
ganisa
ti
on B' sRADI US-serveri nstea
do fv eri
fyi
ng the c r
edential
s
l
ocal
ly.Org a
nisat
ionB'sRADI USs e rverinturnc a
nv erif
ythec r
edential
s
a
nds endt hea cc
essacceptbackt oo rganisa
tionA'sRADI USs erv
e r
,that
t
hent el
l
stheAc c
essPointtoa l
lowtheus eracces
s.$i sso-c
alle
df e
de r
ated
a
ccessal
lowsf orthecreati
ono fv e
rys cala
b l
ea ndlar
gede plo
y mentswhile
a
tthes amet imea l
lo
wingt hei ndi
vidua lorganis
ati
onstoa pplytheirown
a
uthenti
cationpo l
ic
iestotheirusers
.

Whi l
e RADI US pr oxying i sc ert
ai
nly po ss
iblei n c aptiv
e po rta
l
depl
oyme nt sitde 0nitel
ys hinesinan802. 1X/ EAPe nvi
ronme nt.
ByusingEAPt heus ercredential
scanbepr otect
eds othato nlytheho me
orga
nisat
io no ftheus e risabletos e
ethem.
$i swa yl argede ployme ntsc an be crea t
ed wi t
houtt he l eak
a g
eo f
cre
denti
alsa ndwi t
ho utteachingus er
stoe nterthei
rsecr
e tc re
dential
sin
ever
y we bsitet ha tist hr own up i nfro nto fthem.Asa ne xample
,
eduroa
m,t her oami ngwi reles
sa cc
essf
ederationine ducat
ion,t hatexte
nds
the abovec oncept s li
ghtlyb yi nst
eado f having direct RADI US
connect
ionsbe t
we eno rganis
ations,itbui ldsa hi er
arc
hi calsystem of
nati
onala ndi nterna t
ionalRADI USs erv
ers,a l
lowingmi l
li
o nso fstudent
s
tog a
ina cc esstoo ver5000c ampusne t
wo rksinma nyc o untri
esina l
l
conti
nentswi t
ht hee xceptiono fAntar
cti
ca .

Fi
gur
eSWN5:ee
dur
oami
nfr
ast
ruc
tur
efo
rwo
rl
d-wi
der
oami
ngi
n
aca
demia
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 165

End to end encryption

Its ho uldbeno te
dt ha twhe reasWEP ,WPA- PS Ka ndWPA2- PSKa re
usinge ncryptiont e
chniq uestopr o
v i
dea cc essco ntrolandpr otectagai
nst
eaves dropping ,t heyo nlypr otectt hewi relesst raNcbe tweenc li
entand
accesspo i
nt ,no to nthewi redpa rto fthec ommuni c at
ionpath.I norder
to pr otectt he c ommuni ca
tiona gainst una uthor i
sedt ampe ri
ng o r
eaves droppinge ndt oende ncryptionisne e ded.
Mo st us ersa re bl i
ssfull
y una waret ha tt he ir pr i
vatee ma il
,c hat
conv e r
sati
o ns,a nde ve
npa sswordsa reoftens e
nt int hec l
ear
o verdozens
ofunt rust
e dne tworksbe forearri
v i
nga tt he i
rul timatede st
inati
ono nt he
Interne t.Ho wev ermi s
ta kenthe yma ybe ,us erss til
lt ypi
cal
lyha vesome
expe ctati
ono fpr iv
acywhe n usingc omput erne two r
ks.Pr i
vacyc an be
achie ved,ev eno nuntrus t
edne two r
k ssucha spubl ica cc
e s
spointsandt he
Interne t.$eo nlypro vene 1ectiveme tho df orpr otect
ingpr i
vacyist he
useo fs t
ronge nd-to-ende ncr
yption.$e set ec
hni que swo r
kwe lleveno n
untr ustedpubl i
cne two rks,whe reea ve
sdro ppe r
sa relisteni
nga ndpo ssi
bly
evenma nipulatingda tac omingf roma na cce s
spo int.
Toe ns ureda tapr ivacy,g oode nd-to-ende ncr
y ptions houldpr ovi
det he
fol
lo wingf e at
ur es:

Ve
ri
0eda
uthe
nti
cat
iono
fther
emo
tee
nd.
$eusershouldbeabl
etok no
wwi t
houtadoubttha
tthere
mo t
ee ndis
whoi
tc la
imstobe.Withoutaut
hent
ica
ti
on,ausercoul
dgivesensi
ti
ve
da
tat
oa nyonecl
ai
mingtobethel
egit
imat
eser
vic
e.

S
tro
nge
ncr
ypt
ionme
tho
ds.
$ee nc
rypti
ona l
gor
it
hm shoul
dsta
nduptopubl
icscrut
iny
,andnotbe
e
asi
l
yde cry
ptedb yathir
dpa r
ty
.$e r
eisnosec
urit
yi nobsc
uri
ty
,and
s
tr
ongencrypti
onisevenstr
ongerwhe
ntheal
gori
thm iswide
lyknown
a
ndsubjec
ttope e
rrev
iew.

Ag ooda l
gorit
hm withas ui
ta
b l
ylarg
ea ndpr ote
ctedke
yc a
n pro
v i
de
enc
r y
ptio
nt hatisunli
kel
yt obebrokenb ya nye 1or
tinourli
fet
imes
usi
ngc ur
renttechno
logy
.Bewareofproductvendor
swhoa s
sur
eyouthat
the
irproprie
tar
ye ncr
ypti
onusi
ngt r
ade-s
ecre
ta l
gori
thmsar
ebett
erthan
open,peer
-revi
ewedones.
166 NETWORKING

Pub
lick
eyc
rypt
ogr
aphy
.
Whi l
eno tanabsol
uterequir
ementfore
nd-to-
endenc
rypti
on,theuseof
publi
ck eyc r
yptog
raphy inst
eadofas haredkeycane nsur
et hatan
indi
vidual
'sdat
aremainspr i
vat
e,ev
enifthek e
yofanotheruserofthe
serv
iceiscompromis
ed.Ita l
sosol
vescer
tai
nprobl
emswi t
hdi s
tri
buti
ng
keystouserso
veruntrus
tednetwor
ks.

Da
tae
nca
psul
at
ion.
Ag oode nd-t
o-end encry
pti
on mechanis
m pr ot
ect
sa smuc h dat
aa s
possi
ble
.$i scanr angefromencry
pt i
ngas ingl
ee ma i
ltrans
acti
ont o
encaps
ulat
iono fa l
lI Pt ra
Nc,includi
ng DNS l ookups and o t
her
support
ing prot
o c
ols
.S omee nc
rypt
iont ool
ss imply prov
idea s e
cure
channelthato t
hera ppl
ica
ti
onscan use.$i sa l
lo
wsus erstor un any
progra
mt heylikeands t
il
lhavet
hepro t
ect
iono fst
rongencrypt
ion,even
iftheprogra
mst hemsel
vesdonts
upportit
.

Beawa rethatlawsr egar

dingtheuseo fencr
ypti
onv a
rywi del
yfrom pla
ce
toplac
e .
Somec ountri
e str
ea tencrypt
ionasmuni ti
ons,andma yr e
qui
reape rmit
,
esc
rowo fprivateke ys
,o reve
nprohibiti
tsuseal
toget
her.
Befor
ei mpleme ntinga nys ol
uti
ont hatinvol
vesencr
y pti
on,bes ureto
ver
if
yt hatuseo fthistechnol
ogyispermitt
ediny o
urloc a
lare
a.
Inthef ol
lowings ecti
ons,we'l
ltakeal o
o katsomespeci0ctool
sthatcan
provi
deg oodpr ot
ectionforyouruser
'sdata.

TLS
$emo stwidel
ya va
il
abl
ee nd-t
o-e
nde ncry
pti
ont echnol
ogyisTr ans
port
Laye
rS ecur
ity
,k nown si
mpl yasTLS ( oritspredece
ssorS S
L:S e
cur
e
SocketsLaye
r )
.
Buil
ti ntovirt
uall
ya l
lwe bbrowser
sandma nyo t
he rappl
ica
tions,TLS
use
spubl ickeycrypt
ogra
phya ndatrus
tedpublickeyinfra
str
ucture(PKI)
tose
c uredat
ac ommuni c
ati
onsonthewe b.
Whe neveryouv i
si
tawe bURLt hatst
artswit
hht t
ps,youareusi
ngTLS .

$eTLSi mpl
ementati
onbuilti
ntowebbrowser
sincl
udesac ol
l
ecti
onof
c
ert
i0ca
tesfr
omo rgani
sa
tionsca
ll
edCert
i0cat
eAuthori
ti
es(CA).
ACAv ali
date
stheident
ityofnetwo
rkuser
sand/orprovi
der
sande ns
ure
s
t
hatthe
ya r
ewhot heysaytheyar
eandi
ssuesacer
ti0c
atesay
ingso.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 167

Rat
hert
handoi
ngthi
sbyasigne
dfa
ncydocuments
uit
abl
efo
rfr
ami
ng,
t
hisi
sdonet
hro
ughthee
xcha
ngeofc
rypt
ogr
aphi
ckey
s.

Asanexample
,someonewant
ingac er
ti
0cat
eforthei
rwebs
it
esubmit
sa
Cert
i0c
ateReques
t(CR),enc
o de
d( "
sig
ned")wit
hac r
ypt
ogr
aphi
ck e
y
cr
eat
edspec
i0ca
ll
yforsi
gni
ngthecer
ti
0cat
ereque
st.

$e ys
ubmitthisreque
sttotheCA,whot hen" s
igns
"t here
ques
twith
the
iro
wnk ey
.$e seareenc
odedinthecerti
0ca
tea l
ongwiththeex
act
nameoft
hewe bsi
tetha
tther
eques
terwa
ntsthecer
ti
0catetobeval
idf
or.

Fo re xample,WWW. AIPOTU. GOV,f rom ac

ert
i0cateperspe
ctiv
e ,isno t
thes amea sAIPOTU. GOV.Ea chs i
tewouldr
equir
ei t
so wnc ert
i0c at
eto
pres e
ntt oabrows e
rtodoa uthenticat
edHTTPSt ransac
tions.
Ift heo wnerofAIPOTU. GOVdo mainonl
yhastheircer
ti
0c a
teissuedf o
r
AI POTU. GOV a ndno tals
oWWW. AIPOTU.GOV,aus eraccessingthe
"WWW"a ddr
esswillse
eawa rningforaninva
li
dc ert
i0catefortha tsi
te.
$i sc anbec onfusi
ngt os o
meus e
rsand,ov
ert i
me ,le
adt hemt oj ust
expe ctTLSCe r
ti0cat
ewa rni
ng sfromt hei
rbr
ows e
ra sno rmalwhe nthe
truthi scomplet
elytheo ppos
itecase.

Whenyoubro
wsetoawe bs
it
etha
tus
esTLS
,thebr
ows
era
ndt
hes
erv
er
0r
ste
xcha
ngecer
ti
0ca
tes
.

$ebr owserthenveri
0esthattheho s
tna
mei nthecer
ti0c
atepr
ovi
dedb y
t
heservermatchestheDNSho stnamethatthebr
owserknowstheser
ver
b
y,thatthecert
i0ca
tehasnotexpire
do rbee
nr e
voke
da ndthati
thasbeen
s
ignedbyat r
ustedcer
ti
0cateauthor
ity
.

$es er
vero
ptional
l
yv er
i0e
stheval
idi
tyoft
hebrows
er'
scer
ti0c
ate
.Ifthe
ce
rti
0cat
esar
ea ppro
ved,bothsi
desthenneg
oti
at
eama s
terses
si
onk ey
us
ingtheprev
iousl
ye x
change
dcert
i0cat
est
oprotec
tthesessi
onthatis
be
ingest
abl
i
shed.

$atkeyisthe
nusedtoencr
yptal
lco
mmunicat
ionsunt
ilt
hebr
ows
er
di
sc
onne
cts
.
$iski
ndofdat
aenc
aps
ula
ti
oniskno
wna sat
unne
l.
168 NETWORKING

o
vera
nenc
ryp
tedt
unne
l.econv
ers
at
ioni
nsi
dethetunne
lisi
dent
ic
alt
o
anyot
heru
nenc
rypt
edco
nve
rsa
tion.

$eus eo fc e
rti
0cat
eswi th aPKIno tonlypr ot
ectsc o
mmuni cat
ion
agai
nste a
ves
dropper
sbuti salsousedt opr ev
entthes o-ca
lle
dMa n-
in-
the-
Mi ddl
e( Mit
M)a tt
ack.InaMi t
Ma t
tac
k,ama lic
ioususerint
erce
pts
allc
o mmunicat
ionbetwee
nac l
ientandas erve
r.Bypresenti
ngcounter
fei
t
cert
i0cat
estoboththecli
enta ndthes erve
r,ama li
ci
ousus ercoul
dc a
rry
ont wos i
multa
neousencr
y pt
eds es
si
o ns.Si
ncet hi
suserk nowsthesecr
et
onbo thconnect
ions
,iti
strivi
altoobs e
rveandma nipulat
etheda t
abeing
pass
e dbet
weenthecli
entandt heser
ve r
.

Fig
ureSWN7:ema n-i
n-t
he-midd
lee>ec
ti
vel
yc o
ntro
lsev
eryt
hingth
eu s
er
see
s,a
ndcanr
eco
rda ndmanipul
ateal
ltra
Mc.Wi tho
utap ubli
cke
y
inf
ras
tr
uct
uret
ove
ri
fytheaut
henti
ci
tyofkeys
,st
rongenc
rypt
ionalonec
annot
prot
ecta
gains
tthi
sk i
ndofattac
k.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 169

Useo fagoo dPKIc a nsi

gni0cant
lyr
e duc
et hechance
so fthiski
ndo f
att
ack.Inordertobes ucce
ssf
ul,thema l
ic
ioususe
rwo uldhavetobei n
posse
ssi
onofac ert
i0cat
esig
nedb yatr
us t
edCAt hatitca
npr es
enttothe
cli
enttoac
ceptasauthenti
c.
$i sisonl
ypo ss
ibl
ei fthe
yc antri
cktheend-use
rintoaccept
ingitorif
theCAi sc
ompr omised.

Certi0cateAut horit
iesbe aras pecialburde nt opr ot
ec tthei
rsyste
msa nd
netwo r
kf rom una utho ris
eda c c
essandma li
c i
ousus er
s.
Ifa CA we ret o be c ompr omised,t hea t
tackerwho pe rf
ormedt he
compr omi s
ec ouldc o nduc tMi TM a tt
a ckso na nyo ft heuser
st r
yingt o
conne c
tt osystemswi thac er
ti0cateiss
uedb ythatCA.
$e yc oulda lsoi s
suec ounterf
eitc ert
i0catesi nr e
s ponsetol egi
timate
cer
ti0cater e
q uests
,e ns uringt heira bi
lit
yt oi nte
rcepto rinterf
erewi th
encryptedc ommuni cationsbe tweenbr ows erus e
rsands erver
s.
Whi leCAc ompr o
mi sewa so ncehe l
dt obev eryunli
k elytohappen,there
havebe enanumbe ro fi ncidentsatthet imeo fthi
swr iti
ngprovingthisis
nolo ngerthec ase.
Co mpa nieswho seprima rya c
tivit
ywa sina ctinga sac omme rci
alCAha ve
goneo uto fbus ines
sa sar es
ulto fhavingt heirsyst
emsc ompromise
da nd
counterfei
tcerti0cat
e sissue dunde rtheirna me .

InSepte
mber2011,thecer
ti
0ca
teaut
hor
it
yDigiNota
rwasfo
undtoha
ve
bee
ns ubve
rte
db ycrac
kers
,for
ci
ngalli
tsce
rti
0ca
testoberev
oke
dand
se
ndingiti
ntoba
nkruptcy
.

$e s
ec o mpromi se
s we r
e no tthe res
ultofs o
phist
ic
ate
dc ompute
r
cr
iminal
se mplo y
ingexoti
cs o
phist
ica
tedatt
acksbutsimplyla
pse
sinthe
se
curi
tyoft he
iro ve
ral
linfr
ast
ruct
ureandsecur
it
ypo l
ic
iesandpro
cedur
es.
Fi
nall
y,iti sg oodt o poi
nto utthatTLS isno to nl
yus edforweb
bro
wsing.Inse
c ureemai
lprotocol
ssuchasIMAP ,POP,andSMTPc anbe
se
curedbywr appingthemina nTLSt unnel
.

Mo stmo de
rne mai
lcli
ent
ss upportIMAPSa ndPOPS(secur
eIMAPa nd
POP)a swe l
lasTLS pr o
te c
tedS MTP .Ifyourema
ilserv
erdo e
sno t
provi
deTLSs upport
,youc ansti
llsecur
eitwit
hTLSusingapackag
elik
e
Stunnel(ht
tp:/
/www.st
unnel.
org/
).TLSc a
nbeus e
dtoe 1ec
tiv
elyse
cur
e
justaboutanyser
vic
ethatrunsove rTCP.
170 NETWORKING

S
SH
Mos
tpeo
plethinkofS
SHa sasec
urer
epl
ace
mentf
ortel
net
,jus
tasS
CP
a
ndSFTParethese
cur
eco
unter
part
sofRCPandFTP.

ButSSHi smuc
hmo retha
nane nc
rypt
edr
emotes
hel
l
.Forex
ample
,it
ca
na l
soacta
sagene
ralpur
pos
eencr
ypti
ngt
unne
l,o
revena
nencr
ypt
ing
webprox
y.

By0rstes
tabl
is
hinga
nS SHconnect
iont
oat r
ust
edloc
ati
onnear(
ore
ven
on) a remo t
es er
ver
,i ns
ecur
e prot
oco
lsc an be pro
tec
tedfr
om
eav
esdr
oppingandat
tac
k.

LikeTLS ,i
tus esstrongpubli
ck eycryptogra
phyt overi
fyt heremote
ser
vera ndencryptdat a
.Inst
eadofaPKI ,i
tus esak ey0ngerpri
ntcache
thatischeck
edbe f
o r
eac onnect
ionispermit
ted.
Itcanus epas
swo r
dsa ndpubli
ck e
ysforuserauthe nt
ic
ati
on,and,through
i
tss upportforthePl uggabl
eAuthenti
cati
onMo dul
es(PAM)s ys
tem,it
cana l
sosupportotherme t
hodsofauthenti
cat
ion.

Whilethi
stechniq
uema ybeabi tadv
anc
edformanyus
e r
s,net
wor
k
ar
chi
tect
scanus eSSHt oenc
ryptt
raNcac
ros
sunt
rus
tedl
inks
,suchas
wir
el
esspoi
nt-
to-poi
ntl
inks
.

Sinc
ethetoolsarefre
e l
yavail
abl
eandr uno v
erst
andar
dTCP ,any
educa
tedusercanimpl ementSSHc onne c
ti
onsfo
rthemsel
ves
,pro
vidi
ng
t
he i
rowne nd-to-e
nde ncrypt
ionwithoutadmini
str
ato
rint
erve
nti
on.
OpenSSH( http:/
/openss
h.org
/)isprobabl
ythemo s
tpopul
ar
i
mpl e
me nt
ati
ono nUni x-l
ikepla
tfor
ms .

Freeimple
me nt
ati
onss uchasPutt
y( htt
p:/
/www.put
ty.
nl/
)and WinSCP
(http:/
/winscp.net/)area
vai
la
blefo
rWi ndows.
Ope nSSH willa l
sor un on Windows undert he Cygwin packag
e
(ht
tp:/
/www.cyg
win.com/)$eseexa
mpl e
swilla
ssumethatyouareusi
nga
rec
entvers
ionofOpe nSSH.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 171

i
ts
el
f.

Toe s
tabl
is
ha nenc r
ypte
dt unne
lfrom aportontheloca
lma c
hinet
oa
portontheremoteside
,usethe-Lswit
ch.Fo
rexample,s
uppos
e
youwanttofo r
wa r
dwe bproxytr
aNco ve
ranencrypt
edli
nktothesq
uid
se
rveratsquid.
example.
net
.Fo r
wardpo r
t3128(thedefa
ultpr
oxyport
)
usi
ngthiscomma nd:

s
sh-
fN-
g-L3128:
sq
uid
.ex
amp
le.
net
:3128s
qui
d.e
xamp
le.
net

$e -f
N swit
che
sins
tr
ucts
sht
ofo
rki
ntot
he ba
ckg
round a
ft
er
c
onne
cti
ng.

$e- gs
wit
cha
ll
owsot
herus
ersonyourl
oca
lseg
me nttoc
onnec
ttot
he
l
oca
lmachi
nea
ndusei
tfore
ncry
pti
onove
rtheuntr
uste
dli
nk.

Ope nSS
H wi l
lus
eapubl
ickeyf
orauthe
nti
cat
ionifyouhaves
etoneup,
oritwil
lpromptyouf
oryourpa
sswor
do nt
her e
mo t
eside
.Youca
nt he
n
con0gur
ey ourwebbr
ows
ertoconnec
ttoloca
lhos
tport3128asi
tsweb
proxyser
vic
e.
172 NETWORKING

AllwebtraNcwillthenbee nc
r y
pte
db e
foret
ransmissi
ontotheremo t
e
si
de.SSHc anals
oa ctasady namicSOCKS 4o rS OCKS 5proxy
.$i s
al
lowsyo
ut ocrea
tea nencr
ypti
ngwe bprox
y,withouttheneedtosetup
sq
uid.Notetha
tthisisnotacachi
ngprox
y;its
implye ncr
ypt
sallt
raNc:

s
sh-
fN-
D 8080r
emo
te.
exa
mpl
e.
net

Con0gur
eyourwebbr
ows
ert
ous
eSOCKS
4orS
OCKS
5onl
oca
lpo
rt
8080,a
ndawayyo
ugo.

S
SHcanencr
y ptdat
aonanyTCPpor
t,i
ncl
udi
ngpor
tsus
edforemai
l.I
t
c
ane
vencompr es
stheda
taal
ongt
heway
,whic
hcandecr
eas
elat
enc
yo n
l
owc
apac
it
ylinks:

s
sh-
fNCg-
L110:
l
oca
lho
st
:110-
L25:
l
oca
lho
st
:25ma
il
hos
t.
exa
mpl
e.
net

$e-
Cswi
tc
htur
nso
nco
mpr
ess
ion.

Youc ana ddasma nypo r

tforwardingr ul
esasyouli
kebyspeci
fy
ingthe
-Lswitchmul t
ipleti
mes.
No t
etha tinordertobindtoal o c
a lportle
sst
han1024,yo
umus tha
ve
rootpri
vileg
eso ntheloca
lma chi
ne .$e s
earej
ustafewexa
mpleso ft
he
Wexi
bil
ityo fS SH.By i mpleme nting publ
ickeysand us
ing thessh
for
wa r
dinga gent,youc a
na utoma tethec r
eat
ionofencr
ypte
dt unnel
s
throug
ho utyourwirel
es
sne t
work,a ndpr ot
ecty
ourcommunica
ti
onswith
str
ongenc ry
pti
o nandauthent
icat
ion.

Ope
nVPN
Ope nVPN i saVPN i mpl eme ntati
onbui l
to nSSLe nc
r y
pti
onwi t
hbo t
h
ac omme rc
iall
y-l
ic e
nseda nda nOpe nS ourc
e" co
mmuni ty"e
dit
ion.
$e reareOpe nVPN c lie
ntimpl ementat
ionsforawi der a
ngeofopera
ti
ng
syst
emsi ncluding Li nux,Wi ndow 2000/ XP a nd higher
,Ope nBSD,
FreeBSD,Ne tBS D,a nd Ma c OS X.Ma ny users0nd i teasi
erto
unde r
st
and a nd c on0g uret ha nI PSEC VPNs .Ope nVPN ha ssome
disa
dv a
ntagestho ugh,sucha sf airl
yhighl a
tencyo ftra
Nco v
ertheVPN
tunnel. S ome a mount o f l ate
ncy i s una voi
dable since all
encrypt
ion/decr
y ptioni sdo nei n use
rs pace,butus ingrela
ti
vel
yne w
comput e
rso neitherendo ft
het unnelcanmi ni
miset hi
s.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 173

Whi l
eitcanus etradi
tionals hare
dk eysf orauthenti
cati
on,Ope nVPN
r
e a
ll
yshi
neswhe nusedwi thS SLc er
ti
0catesandac erti
0cat
ea uthori
ty.
OpenVPN hasma nya dvantagesthatma keitag oodo pt
ionfo rprovidi
ng
end-t
o-e
nds e
curit
y.Someo ftheserea
sonsinclude:
i ti
sbasedo nproven,r obust
,encr
ypt i
onpr ot
ocols(S
SLa ndRS A)
i ti
srela
tive
lyeasytoc on0gure
.Itfunc t
ionsacro
ssma nydi 1ere
nt
pla
tfo
rms
i ti
swe ll
-documente d.AnOpe n-
S ource"Co mmunity"v er
s i
onis
mainta
inedina ddit
io ntoaf or-
payc omme rci
alvers
ion.

Ope nVPN ne e
dst oc o
nnectt oas i
ngleTCPo rUDPpo rto ntheremo te
side.Onc ee sta
blished,itcane ncapsula
tea l
lda tado wnt otheNe tworking
l
a yer
,o re v e
ndo wnt otheDa ta-
Linkl a
y e
r,i fyo urs o
luti
o nrequi
r e
si t
.
Yo uc an us ei tt oc r
eat
er o
bustVPN c onne ct
ionsbe tweeni ndi
v i
dual
ma chines,o rs implyus eitt oc onnectne two r
kr oute
rso veruntrusted
wi r
eles
sne two r
k s.VPN t echno l
ogyisac ompl ex0e ld,andi sabitbe y
ond
thes copeo ft hiss e c
tio
nt og oi nto mo rede tail
.I tisi mpo r
tantt o
unde rs
tandho w VPNs0ti ntothes t
ruct
ureo fyo urne t
wo rkino r
dert o
providetheb estpo ss
iblepro t
ect
ionwi tho
uto peningupy ourorgani
s a
ti
o n
touni ntentionalpr oblems.
$e rearema nyg oo do nl
iner e
sourcesthatde alwithi ns
tal
lingOpe nVPN
onas er
ve randc l
ient,wer ecomme ndt hi
sa rt
iclefrom LinuxJ ournal
:
http://
www. l
inuxjour nal
.com/art
icl
e/7949
aswe llast heoNc i
alHOWTO:
http://
ope nvpn.ne t
/ho wto.
html

Tor & Anonymizers

$eI
nte
rne
tisba
si
cal
l
yano
penne
two
rkba
sedo
ntr
ust
.

Whe ny ouc onnecttoawe bserveracros

stheInter
net,yourtr
aNcpa ss
es
thr
o ughma nydi 1erentr oute
rs,o wnedb yag r
eatvari
etyofinsti
tutio
ns,
corporat
ionsandi ndi
v idual
s.
Inpr i
ncipl
e,anyo neo ft hes
eroutershastheabil
it
ytolookc l
ose
lya tyour
data,see
ingthes ourcea ndde s
tinationaddre
sse
s,andq ui
teoft
ena lsothe
act
ua lconte
nto ftheda ta.
Eveni fyourda taise ncrypte
dus i
ngas e
cureprot
ocol,i
tispo ss
iblefor
yourI nt
ernetprovidert omo nit
o rtheamo untofdatatra
nsfer
red,aswe l
l
asthes o
urcea ndde s
tinatio
no ftha tdat
a.
174 NETWORKING

Oftenthisise nought opi ecet oget

heraf a i
rlycompletepictureofy our
act
ivi
ti
eso n-l
ine.Priv
ac yanda no nymitya r
ei mportant
,andc lose
lylinked
toeacho t
her
.$e rea rema nyv al
idre a
sonst oc onsi
derpro t
ect
ingy our
pri
vacyb yanony miz
ingy ourne two r
kt ra
Nc .
Supposey ouwa nttoo 1erI nte
rne tconnectivi
tytoy ourlocalcommuni ty
byset
tingupanumbe ro facces
spo i
ntsforpe opl
etoc onnectto.
Whe t
he ryouc hargethe mf orthe i
racc e
sso rnot,thereisalwaysther i
sk
thatpeopleus et hene t
wo rkf ors o
me thingt hatisno tl eg
ali ny our
count
ryo rregion.
Youcouldpl e
a dwitht helegalsystemt hatthispart
icul
arill
egalacti
onwa s
notperformedb yy oursel
f,butc oul
dha vebe en perf
orme db ya nyone
connect
ingt oy ourne twor
k .$epr o
bl e
mi sneatl
ys i
dest
eppedi fitwere
tec
hnical
lyinfeasi
bletode terminewhe rey ourtraNcwa sactual
lyhea de
d.

Andwha
tabo
uto
n-l
inec
ens
ors
hip?

Pub l
ishing we b pagesa nonymo usl
y ma ya l
so be nece
ssar
yt oa void
governme ntc ensor
shi
p .$e rearetoolstha
tall
owy outoa nonymiz
eyo ur
tra
Nci nr e
lati
velyeas
ywa y s
.
$e c omb i
na ti
on o f To r( http:/
/www.to
rproj
ect
.or
g)a nd Priv
o xy
(htt
p://www. privox
y.org
)isapo we r
fulwaytorunal oca
lproxyser
verthat
willpa ssyourI nte
rnettraNct hroughanumbe rofser
versallac
ros
st he
net,ma k i
ngitv er
ydiNc ulttofoll
owt hetr
ai
lofinfo
rmatio
n.
Torc a nber uno nal ocalPC,unde rMicr
osoftWindows,Ma cOS X,
Linuxa nd av ari
etyo fBS D's,whe reitanonymizestraNcf r
omt he
browse rontha tpart
icula
rma chine.

TorandPri
vox
yc a
na l
sobeins
tal
l
edonag a
tewa
yse
rve
r,o
reve
nasmall
emb e
dde
dacces
spoint(s
uchasaLinksy
sWRT54G)whe r
eitpr
ovi
des
anonymi
tyt
oallnet
workuse
rsaut
omat
ic
all
y.

Torwo rksbyrepea
tedl
ybounci
ngyourTCPc onnect
ionsa
c r
ossanumber
ofs er
versspre
a dthroug
houttheI nt
erne
t,and by wrapping r
outi
ng
info
rmationin anumbe rofencr
yptedlaye
rs(hencethet er
mo ni
on
routi
ng),tha
tgetpeel
edo1asthepacke
tmo ve
sacr
o s
sthenetwork.
$i sme ansthat,atany gi
ven po
intint henetwork,thes o
urceand
dest
inat
ionaddres
sesca
nnotbeli
nkedtoget
her
.

$i
sma
kest
raNca
nal
ysi
sex
tre
mel
ydi
Ncul
t.
 9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS 175

$ene edforthePr ivo

xypr i
vacyprox
yinc onnec
tio
nwi t
hTo risdueto
thefac
tthatna mes erverquer
ies(DNSq ue r
ie
s)inmo stcas
esarenot
pas
sedthr
ought heproxys e
rve
r,andsomeoneanaly
singyourt
raNcwould
eas
il
ybea bletos eethatyouwe retry
ingtor ea
chas peci
0cs i
te(s
ay
googl
e.
com) byt he factthaty ous e
nta DNS q ue
ryt ot r
ans
la
te
googl
e.
comtot hea ppropri
at
eIPa ddr
ess
.

Pri
voxyconnect
stoTorasaSOCKS 4apr o
xy,whichuse
sho s
tnames(
not
IPa ddr
ess
es)togetyourpac
ketstotheintende
dde st
ina
tio
n.I not
her
words,usi
ngPrivox
ywi t
hTori sasi
mpl eande 1ec
ti
vewa ytoprev
ent
tr
aNca naly
sisfr
oml i
nkingyourIPa ddre
sswiththes e
rvi
cesyouuse
onl
ine.

Combinedwit
hsec
ure
,encr
ypte
dpro t
oco
ls(
suc
ha st
hos
ewehav
ese
enin
t
hischapt
er)
,TorandPri
voxypro
videahighle
velofa
nony
mit
yonthe
I
nter
net.
PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 177

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

Estimating capacity
Inordertoestima t
ec apac
it
y,iti
simpo r
tanttounde r
s t
andthatawi r
eles
s
devi
ce
slis
teds peed(thesocall
edda t
ar at
e)ref
erstot herat
ea twhic
ht he
ra
dioscane xchangesy mbols
,nottheus ea
blethr
o ughputy o
uwi l
lobserve
.
$r oughputisa ls
or efer
redtoasc hannelcapaci
ty,o rsimplybandwidth
(a
lt
ho ughthist e
rmi sdi1er
entfro
mr adi
oba ndwidth!

$e ba ndwidt
h-throughput i
s me a
s ur
edi n Mbps,whil
et he ra
dio
bandwidt
hisme asur
esinMHz .)
.Fore x
ample
,asingl
e802.
11gli
nkma y
use54Mbpsr adios
,buti twillonl
ypr ov
ideupt o22Mbpso factua
l
thr
oughput. $e r e
sti soverhea
dt hatthe ra
diosneedino rde
rt o
coordi
nat
ethei
rs i
gnalsusi
ngthe802.11gprot
oco
l.

Notethatthr
oughputisame asure
me ntofbi
tsove
rti
me .22Mbpsme a
ns
t
hatina nygiv
ensecond,upt o22me ga
bit
scanbesentfro
mo neendof
t
hel i
nkt ot
heo t
her.I fuser
sa tt
emptt opushmo r
et han22meg a
bit
s
t
hrought hel
i
nk,itwilltakelongerthanonesec
ond.
Si
ncet hedatac a
ntbes enti mme di
at
ely
,itisputi n aqueue
,a nd
t
ransmitt
edasquic
klya spossi
ble.

$isbac
klogofda t
ai ncr
ease
sthetimene e
dedforthemo s
tr e
cent
ly
q
ueue
dbitstothetr
ave
rsetheli
nk.
$eti
met ha
tittak
esfordatatotr
ave
rseal
inkisc
all
edla
tenc
y,andhig
h
l
at
enc
yiscommo nl
yref
e r
redtoasl
ag.

Yourli
nkwilleventual
l
ys endallo
ftheq ueue
dtraNc
,butyouruser
swill
l
ikel
ycomplaina sthel
agincrea
ses
.
Ho wmuc hthroughputwillyo
urusersrea
ll
yneed?
Itdepe
ndso nho w ma nyusersyouha v
e,andhowtheyusethewirel
es
s
l
ink.
Vari
ousInt
ernetappli
cati
onsrequi
redi1er
entamount
softhr
oughput
.
178 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Application Requirement/ Notes

User
Text messaging / < 1 kbps As traffic is infrequent and asynchronous, IM will
IM tolerate high latency.
Email 1 to 100 kbps As with IM, email is asynchronous and
intermittent, so it will tolerate latency. Large
attachments, viruses, and spam significantly add
to bandwidth usage.
Note that web email services (such as Yahoo or
Hotmail) should be considered as web browsing,
not as email.
Web browsing 50 - 100+ kbps Web browsers only use the network when data is
requested. Communication Is asynchronous, so a
fair amount of lag can be tolerated.
As web browsers request more data (large
images, long downloads, etc.) bandwidth usage
will go up significantly.
Streaming audio 96 - 160 kbps Each user of a streaming audio service will use a
constant amount of relatively large bandwidth for
as long as it plays.
It can tolerate some transient latency by using
large buffers on the client. But extended periods
of lag will cause audio skips or outright session
failures.
Voice over IP 24 - 100+ kbps As with streaming audio, VoIP commits a
(VoIP) constant amount of bandwidth to each user for
the duration of the call. But with VoIP, the
bandwidth is used roughly equally in both
directions. Latency on a VoIP connection is
immediate and annoying to users.
Lag greater than a few milliseconds is
unacceptable for VoIP.
Streaming video 64 - 200+ kbps As with streaming audio, some intermittent
latency is avoided by using buffers on the client.
Streaming video requires high throughput and
low latency to work properly.
Peer-to-peer file 0 - infinite While peer to peer applications will tolerate any
sharing Mbps amount of latency, they tend to use up all
applications available throughput by transmitting data to as
many clients as possible, as quickly as possible.
Use of these applications will cause latency and
throughput problems for all other network users
unless you use careful bandwidth shaping.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 179

Toe s
ti
ma tetheneces
sar
ythro
ughputyouwi
llneedf
oryournetwor
k,
multi
plytheexpec
tednumberofus
ersb
yther
equi
re
ment
sofappl
ic
ati
ons
the
ywi l
lprobabl
yuse.

Forexampl
e,50 use
rswho a
rechi
eWy brows
ing t
heweb wi
llli
kel
y
cons
ume2.5to5Mbpso rmoreo
fthroughputatpeakt
ime
s,andwil
l
to
ler
ates
omela
tenc
y.

Ont heotherha nd,50si

multane
o usVo I
Pus er
swo ul
drequi
re5Mbpso r
moreo fthro
ug hputinbo t
hdi r
ecti
o nswithlowl at
ency
.Sinc
e802.11g
wir
eles
seq ui
pme nti
shalfduple
x( thatis,itonlytr
ansmit
sorrecei
ves
,
neve
r botha to nc
e)y ous houlda ccordi
ngly doubl
et he r
equi
red
thr
oughput,forat ot
alo
f10Mbps .

Your wire
le s
sl inks must prov
ide t
hatc apac
ityever
ys eco
nd, o r
conver
sat
ionswi lllag.
Si
ncea l
lofy o urus e
rsareunl
ike
lytousetheconnect
ionatpr
eci
sel
yt he
sa
memo me nt,itiscommo nprac
ti
cetoove
rsubsc
ri
beavai
la
blet
hroughput
bys o
mef ac t
or( tha
tis,al
low moreus
ersthant hemaxi
mum a va
ila
ble
bandwidt
hc ans uppo rt
).

Over
subsc
ri
bingbyafac
toro
f5to10isqui
tec
ommo n.Inal
lli
kel
ihood,
yo
u willove
rsubs
cri
bebysomeamountwhen bui
ldi
ng y
ournet wo
r k
i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
.

Bycar
eful
l
ymo ni
tor
ingthr
oughputt
hroug
houty
ournet
work
,youwi
llbe
abl
etoplanwhent oupgradevari
ouspart
softhenet
work
,and ho
w
muchaddi
tio
nalr
eso
urce
swillbeneede
d.

Calculating the link budget

Dete
rmini
ngifal inkisfe a
si
bleornotisapr o
cesscal
l
edl i
nkbudge
t
c
alc
ulat
io
na nd ca
n bee i
therper
for
med manual
lyo rusi
ngspeci
al
is
ed
t
ools
.
A bas
iccommuni c
a t
ionsy s
temconsi
st
so ftwo ra
dios
,e a
ch wit
hi t
s
as
soc
iat
edante
nna,thet wobe i
ngse
para
tedbythepathtobec o
ver
edas
s
howninfoll
owingFigur
eDP1.
180 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fi
gur
eDP1:Co
mpo
nent
sofaBa
si
cCo
mmu
nic
ati
onS
yst
em.

Inordertoha veac ommunicat

ionbetweenthet wo,t her a
diosrequir
ea
cer
tai
nmi nimum s i
gnaltobec o
ll
ectedbythea ntenna sandpr e
sentedat
thei
rinputpo r
ts.
Whe t
hero rno tsi
gnal
sc a
nbepa ss
edbetweenther adio sdependso nthe
char
acter
is
ticsofthee qui
pmentando nt hedimi nis
hme ntofthes ig
nal
duetodi s
tance,ca
ll
edp at
hlos
s.I
ns uchas y
ste
m,s omeo ftheparameter
s
canbemo di0e
d( t
hee q
uipmentused)whil
eo t
hersa re0x ed(thedist
ance
bet
we enther a
dios)
.Let
ssta
rtbye xa
miningthepa rame tersthatcanwe
canmo dif
y.

1
.$echar
act
eri
st
ic
soft
hee
qui
pme
ntt
obec
ons
ide
redwhe
nca
lcul
at
ing
t
hel
i
nkbudge
tare:

Tr
ansmi
t(TX)P o
we r
.Iti
sexpr
ess
edi
nmi l
li
wat
tso
ri ndBm.TXpoweri
s
of
te
ndependentonthetr
ans
missi
onr
ate.
$eTX po we rofag iv
en de
vic
eshoul
d bespe
ci0edinthel
it
era
tur
e
pr
ovi
dedbythema nuf
act
ure
r.

An exa
mpleisshown her
efol
lowi
ng,wher
eyoucanseet
hatus
ing
802.
11gther
eisadi1e
renc
eof5dBinout
putpo
werwhe
nusi
ng6Mbs
or54Mbs .
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 181

AntennaGa i
n.
Antennasarepassi
vede vi
cesthatcre
atethee1ecto fampli
0cat
ionb y
vi
rtueofthei
rphy s
ic
alshape.
Antennashavethesamec hara
cter
is
ti
cswhenr e
cei
vingandt r
ansmit
ti
ng.
Soa12dBia nt
ennaissimplya12dBia nt
enna,wit
houtspeci
fy
ingifi
tis
i
nt ra
nsmiss
ionorrecept
ionmo de.
Typica
lval
uesareasfoll
ows:para
boli
cante
nnashaveag a
inof19-24dBi;
omnidir
ecti
onalante
nnashave5-12dBi ;se
cto
ria
la nt
ennashavero
ughly
a12-15dBig ai
n.

Mi ni
mum Re c
eiv
edS ignalLe ve
l(RS L),o rsimply,thesensit
iv
it
yofthe
recei
ver
.
$emi nimum RS Lisa l
wa y
se xpress
eda saneg at
iv
edBm ( -
dBm)andis
thelowests
ignall
evelther adiocandi s
ting ui
sh.
$emi nimum RS Lisde pendentupo nr at
e,a nda sag ener
alrul
ethe
l
o westra
te(1Mbps )hast heg reat
estsensiti
vi
ty.
$emi nimum willbetypic a
llyinther angeo f-75to- 95dBm.
Like TX po wer,the RS Ls pec
i0cati
o nss hould be provi
dedb ythe
ma nufa
ctur
erofthee q
ui pme nt.
182 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Intheda t
asheetpre
sent
eda bov
ey ouc anse
etha
tt he
reisa20dB
di
1ere
nceinr ec
eiv
ersens
it
iv
it
y,with-92dBm at6Mbsand-72dBm a
t
54Mbs .Dontfor
gettha
tadi 1e
renc
eo f20dBmeansarat
ioof100i
n
te
rmsofpowe r
!

CableLoss
e s.S
omeo fthes i
gnal
'sene
rgyislos
tinthec abl
es
,the
connec
tor
sa ndot
herde
vic
es,g
oingfr
omthera
dio
stotheant
ennas
.T
helos
sdependsonthet
ypeofcabl
euseda
ndonit
sleng
th.

Signall
ossf
orsho
rtcoa
xialc
abl
esinc
ludingco
nnect
o r
sisqui
telo
w,int
he
rangeof2-3dB.Iti
sbet
tertohav
ec abl
esass
hortasposs
ibl
e.Equi
pme
nt
no wtendstohav
ee mbedde
da nt
ennasandthusthecablel
engt
hisve
ry
short
.

2.Whencal
cul
at
ingthepa
thlos
s,s
eve
rale
1ectsmustbec
onsi
der
ed.One
hast
otak
eintoacc
ountt
hefr
ees
pac
elos
s,a
tte
nuat
io
na nds
cat
te
ri
ng.

FreeSpaceLo ss
.
Geo metr
ics pre
adingo fthewa ve f
ront,commo nlyk nowna sfre
es pace
l
o s
s,diminishessignalpo we r.Ignori
nge veryt
hinge l
se,thefur
theraway
thetwor adios,thesma l
l
ert her ec
eivedsigna
li sduet ofre
es pa
cel o
ss.
$i sisindependento fthee nvi
ro nme nt
,itdependso nl
yo nthedist
ance.
$i slos
sha ppensbe c
a us
et her adiat
eds i
gnalenergyexpandsasafuncti
on
ofthedist
anc efr
o mt hetrans mitt
e r
.
Usingde ci
be l
stoe xpr e
sst hel ossandus ingag ene
ricfre
quencyf,the
equati
onfort heFreeS paceLo s
sis:

Lfsl=32.
4+20*
log
1(
0 D)
+20*
log
10(
f)

whereLfsli
se xpr
essedi ndBa ndD isink i
lome t
resandfi si
nMHz .
Whe npl ot
tingthef reespacel o
ssvsthedist
anc e
,o neg etsa0gureli
ket
he
onebe low.Wha ts houldbeno t
edi sthatthedi 1erencebe t
weenusi
ng
2400MHza nd5300MHzi s6dBi nt er
mso ffreespacel os
s.
Sothehi g
he rfrequencyg i
v esahi gherfre
es pacelo ss
,whi chisusua
ll
y
bal
ancedb yahi gherg ai
nint heparabol
icantennas.
Apa ra
bo li
ca nte
nnao pera
tinga t5GHzi s6dBmo repo wer
fultha
none
oper
a t
inga t2.4GHz ,forthes amea nte
nnadime nsions.
Havingt woa ntenna sof6dBhi ghergai
no ne achs i
de ,provi
desanet6
dBa dvantagewhe nmi grat
ingf rom 2.4to5GHz .
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 183

Fi
gur
eDP3:Fr
eeS
pac
ePa
thLo
ssc
alc
ula
tio
ngr
aph
.

At
tenuation
$es econdc o
ntributiontothepathl os
sisat
tenuat
ion.
$ista k
e spla
cea ss omeo fthepo werisabsorbe
dwhe nthewavepa s
ses
t
hroughs ol
idobjectssuchastre
es,wa l
ls
,windowsa ndWo or
sofbuil
dings
.
At
tenuationcanv aryg rea
tl
yde pendingupont hes t
ruct
ureoftheobject
t
hesignalispass
ingt hroug
h,andi tisver
ydiNc ul
ttoq uant
if
y.

Scatt
ering
Alongt hel inkpa th,theRFe ne rgyleavest het ransmitti
nga ntennaa nd
energys preadso ut.Someo ftheRFe ne r
g yreac hesther eceivi
nga ntenna
dire
ctly,whi l
es omebo unceso 1t heg r
o und.Pa rto ftheRFe nergywhi ch
bounc eso 1t heg roundr eache sther eceivinga nt e
nna .Sincet her e
Wected
sig
nalha sal ong e
rwa yt ot rav el
,i tarri
vesa tt her ecei
vinga ntennal at
e r
thant hedi r
e ctsignal
.$i se 1e ctiscall
e dmu lt
ipath,o rsignaldispersi
o n.
Insomec asesreWec t
eds i
gna l
sa ddt oge
thera ndc ausenopr o bl
e m.
Whe nt heya dd t og
ethero uto fpha se,t her ecei
veds i
gna lisa lmo st
wo r
thless.Ins omec a
ses,thes igna latther eceiv
inga nt e
nnac anbez eroed
byther eWe c
teds ig
na l
s.
$i sisk no wna se x
tre
mef ading ,o rnu ll
ing.$e r
ei sas impl etechnique
thatisus edtode alwi t
hmul tipath,c al
leda ntennad ivers
it
y.
Itcons i
stsofa ddingas econda ntennat ot her a
di o.Mul ti
pa thisinf acta
verylocation-speci0cphe nome non.
184 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Iftwo signa l
sa dd outo fphasea tonel o
cati
on,they wi
llnota dd
des
tructi
velyatas e
cond,near
byl o
cati
on.
Ift
he r
ea retwoa nt
ennas,atl
eastoneofthems houl
dbeabletorece
ivea
use
ablesignal,eveniftheo t
herisrece
ivi
ngaf adedone
.Inc omme rc
ial
devi
ces,antennaswit
chingdive
rsi
tyisuse
d:ther
ea r
emult
ipl
eantennason
multi
pleinput s
,withas i
ngl
erecei
ver
.

$es ignalisreceive
dt hroughonlyo nea ntennaatatime.
Whe nt r
ansmi t
ting,theradiouse
st hea ntennalas
tusedforre
cepti
on.$e
dis
tort
iong ivenb ymul ti
pat
hde gr
ade sthea bi
li
tyoftherec
eiv
ertorecover
thesi
gnali nama nnermuc hli
kesigna lloss.
Putt
inga l
lt heseparame t
erstog
etherl eadstothelinkbudgetcal
culat
ion.
Ifyoua r
eus i
ngdi 1erentradi
oso nt het wos i
desoftheli
nk,yousho ul
d
cal
cula
tet hepathl os
stwi c
e,oncefore achdi r
ect
ion(usi
ngtheappropr
iate
TX po we r,RX po wer,TX a ntennag ain,RX a nte
nnag ai
nf ore ach
cal
cula
tion).

Addi
ngupa
llt
heg
ainsa
nds
ubt
rac
ti
nga
llt
hel
oss
esg
ive
s:

TXPower Ra
dio1
+Ante
nnaGain Ra
dio1
-Cab
leLos
se
s Ra
dio1
+Ante
nnaGain Ra
dio2
-Cab
leLos
se
s Ra
dio2
=Tot
alGai
n

S
ubt
rac
ti
ngt
hePa
thLo
ssf
romt
heTo
talGa
in:

To
talGa
in-Pa
thLo
ss=S
igna
lLe
vela
tre
cei
vi
ngs
ideo
fth
eli
nk

I
ftheresul
ti
ngsignall
evelisgre
a t
erthanthemi ni
mum r
ece
ive
dsi
gna
l
l
eve
loftherec
eiv
ingradio
,thenthelinkisfe
asi
ble
!
$erece
ivedsi
gnalispower
fulenoughfortheradi
otous
eit
.

Remembert
hatt
heminimum RSLi
sal
way
sex
pre
sse
dasane
gat
iv
edBm,
so-56dBm i
sgr
eat
ert
han-70dBm.

Onag i
venpath,t
hev a
ri
ati
oninpa
thlos
so v
erape
ri
odo
fti
mec
anbe
l
ar
ge,s
oac e
rta
inma r
ginsho
uldbec
ons
ide
red.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 185

$isma r
gini
st heamo
unto fsi
gna labovethesens
it
iv
ityofr
adi
otha
t
sho
uldberec
eivedi
no r
dertoe nsureas ta
ble
,highq ua
li
tyr
adi
oli
nk
duri
ngba
dweathera
ndothe
ratmo s
phericdis
tur
bance
s.

Ama rgi
nof10to15dBis0ne.Togiv
eso
mes pa
cefora
tte
nua
tio
nand
mult
ipat
hinthere
cei
vedr
adi
os i
gna
l,amarg
inof20dBshoul
dbesaf
e
eno
ug h.

Onc eyouha vecal

cul
atedthel i
nkbudgetinonedir
e c
ti
on,re
pea
tthe
cal
cula
ti
o nf
ortheo t
herdir
ect
ion.
Subst
it
utethetrans
mitpo werf
o rthato
fthese
condradi
o,andcompa
re
t
her es
ultag
ainstt
hemi ni
mum r e
ceiv
edsi
gna
lle
veloft
he0rstr
adi
o.

Exampl
elinkbudge
tcal
cul
at
ion
Asane x
ample,wewanttoe st
imatet
hef
eas
ibi
li
tyo
fa5k
mli
nk,wi
th
oneacc
esspoi
ntandonecl
ientradi
o.

$ea c
c e
sspointisconnect
edt oano mnidi
rec
ti
o nala
ntennawit
h
a 10dBig a
in,whi l
et hec l
ie
nti sconne
cte
dt o a di
rec
ti
onal
a
ntennawi th14dBig ai
n.
$et ransmitt
ingpowe roftheAPi s100mW ( or20dBm)a ndits
s
ensiti
vit
yis-89dBm.
$et ransmitt
ingpo weroft hecli
entis30mW ( or15dBm)a nd
i
tssensit
ivi
tyis-82dBm.
$ec abl
esa r
es hor
t,sowec ane st
imat
eal o
sso f2dBa tea
ch
s
ide.

Let
ss
tar
tbycal
cul
at
ingt
hel
inkbudg
etf
romt
heAPt
othec
li
ent
,as
sho
wninFig
ureDP4.
186 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fi
gur
eDP4:Li
nkBu
dge
tca
lcu
lat
io
nfr
om APt
ocl
ie
nt.

Addi
ngupal
ltheg
ainsa
nds
ubt
rac
ti
nga
llt
hel
oss
esf
ort
heAPt
ocl
i
ent
l
inkgi
ves
:

20dBm (TXPowerRad
io1)
+10dBi (Ant
ennaGai
nRadio1)
-2d
B (Cabl
eLos
se
sRadi
o1)
+14dBi (Ant
ennaGai
nRadio2)
-2d
B (Cabl
eLos
se
sRadi
o2)
40dB= Tota
lGain

$epathl
ossfo
ra5k mlink
,cons
ider
ingthef
rees
pac
elo
ssi
s-114dB.
S
ubt
rac
ti
ngthepat
hlo
ssf
romtheto
talgai
n:

40d
B-114d
B=-
74d
B

Since-74dBi sgr
eate
rthant hemi nimum rec
eiv
es ens
it
iv
it
yo fthecli
ent
radi
o( -82dBm) ,thesig
nallev e
lisjustenoughforthecl
ientradiotobe
abletohe a
rt heacces
spo i
nt.$e r
ei sonly8dBo fmargi
n( 82dB-74
dB)whi chwillli
kelywork0nei nf ai
rwe at
her
,butma ynotbee nought o
protec
ta g
ainstex
tremewe a
the rcondit
ions.
Ne xtwec alc
ulat
et heli
nkf romt heclie
ntbacktot heaccesspo i
nt,as
shownont henextpage.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 187

Fi
gur
eDP5:Li
nkBu
dge
tca
lcu
lat
io
nfr
omc
li
entt
oAP
.

15d
Bm (TXPowerRadio2)
+14dBi (Ant
ennaGa i
nRadio2)
-2dB (Cabl
eLos
sesRadi
o2)
+10dBi (Ant
ennaGa i
nRadio1)
-2dB (Cabl
eLos
sesRadi
o1)
35d
B= Tota
lGain

Obvi
ousl
y,t
hepat
hlossisthesa
meo nt
her
etur
ntr
ip.S
oourr
ece
ive
d
s
igna
lle
velo
ntheacc
esspoi
ntsi
deis
:

35d
B-114d
B=-
79d
B

Si
ncetherec
eiv
es ens
iti
vit
yo ftheAPi s-89dBm,thislea
vesus10dBo f
margi
n(89dB-79dB) .Overa
ll,thisl
inkwil
lpro
bablywork0ne.
Byusi
nga24dBidi sho nthec l
ients
idera
thertha
na14dBia nte
nna,we
wil
lgetana dditi
onal10dBio fg a
ino n bot
h dire
cti
onso ftheli
nk
(r
emember,a
ntennagainisre
ciprocal
).

A moreexpe
nsi
veo pt
ionwo ul
dbetousehi
g he
rpowerradio
so nbo
th
e
ndso ft
heli
nk,butnotetha
taddi
nganampl
i0erorhi
gher
-powere
dca
rd
t
oo neendgene
ral
lydoesnothel
ptheo
ver
al
lquali
tyoft
helink.
188 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Ta
ble
sfo
rca
lcul
at
ingl
inkbudg
et
Tocal
cul
at
ethel
inkbudg
e t
,si
mpl
yappr
oxi
mat
eyo
url
inkdi
st
anc
e,a
nd
the
n0lli
nthef
oll
owi
ngtabl
es:

Fr
eeS
pac
ePa
thLo
ssa
t2.
4GHz
Distance
(m) 100 500 1000 3000 5000 10000
Loss (dB)
80 94 100 110 114 120

Ant
ennaGa
in:
Radio 1 Antenna + Radio 2 Antenna = Total Antenna Gain

Lo
sse
s:
Radio 1 + Cable Radio 2 + Cable Free Space Path
Loss (dB) Loss (dB) Loss (dB) = Total Loss (dB)

Li
nkBudg
etf
orRa
dio1Ra
dio2:
Radio 1 TX + Antenna - Total Loss = Signal > Radio 2
Power Gain Sensitivity

Li
nkBudg
etf
orRa
dio2Ra
dio1:
Radio 2 TX + Antenna - Total Loss = Signal > Radio 1
Power Gain Sensitivity

I
fthere
cei
vedsig
nalisgr
eat
ertha
nt hemini
mum r
ecei
veds
igna
lst
reng
th
i
nbothdire
cti
onsofthel
ink,a
swe l
lasanynoi
ser
ece
ive
dal
ongthepath,
t
hentheli
nkisposs
ibl
e.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 189

Link planning software

Whilecalcul
ati
ngal inkbudg etb yhandiss t
raig
htfo
rwar
d,ther
ea r
ea
numbero ftool
sa vai
lablethatwillhel
pautomatetheproce
ss.I
naddit
ion
tocal
culati
ngf r
ees pacelo s
s,thesetool
swi l
ltakema nyotherr
ele
vant
fa
ctor
si ntoa c
co unta swe ll(sucha stre
ea bsorpt
ion,te
rra
ine1ects
,
cl
imate
,a nde v
ene s
ti
ma ti
ngpa thlossinurbana r
eas
).Mo s
tcommercia
l
too
lsarev er
ye xpensi
v eanda r
eo f
tendes
ignedtobeus edwithspec
i0c
har
dware.Inthiss e
cti
o nwewi l
ldi s
cus
safreetoolcal
l
edRadioMobil
e.

Ra
dio
Mobi
l
e
RadioMo bil
eisatoolforthedesignandsimulati
ono fwir
e l
es
ssyste
ms.It
predict
st heperf
ormanceo far a
di oli
nkb yusinginformati
ona boutthe
equipme ntandadi g
italmapo fthea r
ea.I
tispublicdoma i
ns o
ftwarebut
itisnoto pensource
.Ra dioMo bileusesadig
italter
rai
ne le
vat
ionmo del
fort hec al
cula
ti
ono fc o
vera
ge,i ndi
cati
ngre ce
iveds i
gnalstrengt
ha t
vari
ouspo i
ntsalo
ngt hepa t
h.Ita utomat
ica
ll
ybui ldsapr o0lebetween
twopo intsinthedigit
alma psho wingthecovera
gea re
aa nd0rstFres
nel
zone.Ane x
ampleisshowni nFigureDP6be low.

Fi
gur
eDP6
:Ra
dioMo
bil
esi
mul
ati
onshowingad
igi
talt
er
rai
nel
eva
tio
n
a
ndCrs
tFre
sne
lz o
ne.

Dur i
ngt hesimulat
ion,itchecksfo rlineo fs i
ghtandc al
culat
esthePa th
Loss,i
ncludingloss
esduet oobstacles
.
Itispo ssi
bletoc reat
ene tworkso fdi 1er
e nt to
pologi
es,incl
uding net
ma s
ter
/sl
ave, point
-to-
point,a nd po i
nt-to-multi
poi
nt. $e s o f
tware
cal
culat
esthec ov
e r
ageareafro
mt heba s
es t
ationinapo int-
to-multi
point
syst
em.I two rk
sf orsyste
msha vingf requenciesfrom 100k Hzt o200
GHz .Di gi
talele
v a
ti
o nma ps(DEM)a rea vail
abl
ef orfreefr
oms eve
ral
source
s,anda r
eav a
il
ableformo sto fthewo r l
d.
190 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

DEMsdono tsho wc oas

tl
ineso rotherreadil
yi dent
i0ablela
ndma r
k s
,but
theycane a s
il
ybec o
mbi ned witho t
herk indso fda t
a( s
ucha sa e
ria
l
photosort opographic
alcharts)ins ever
allayerstoo btai
namo reusef
ul
andreadil
yr ecognisa
blerepresenta
tion.Youc andigit
iseyouro wnma ps
andcomb inethem wi thDEMs .$edi gi
talelevat
ionma pscanbeme r
ged
withscannedma ps,sate
lli
tepho tosa ndI nter
netma pservi
ces(suchas
Go og
leMa ps)topr oduceaccuratepredict
ionpl ot
s.
$e rearet wov ersi
onso fRa dioMo bil
e:av ersi
onr unningo nWi ndows
and av ers
ionr unningo nli
nev iaawe bi nterf
ace
.He r
ea rethema in
di1er
encesbetweent hetwo .

We
bve
rsi
o n:
itc a
nr uno na nyma chine(Linux ,Ma c
,Wi ndo ws,tabl
et,phone,
etc)
itdo esnotrequirebigdo wnlo
a ds.Asitr unso nli
ne ,dat
aiss t
ore
d
ont hes er
verando nl
ythene c
e ss
aryda t
ai sdo wnloaded.
its avesses
sions.Ify ourun as i
mul at
iona ndl ogina f
tersome
time ,youwi l
lsti
ll0ndy oursi
mul a t
ionandt her esult
s.
itise as
ie
rtous e,espec
iall
yforbe ginner
s.
itr equi
resconne ct
ivi
ty.Itisno tpo ss
ibletor unas i
mulationif
youa r
eo kine.
asi thasbee nde vel
opedforthec o mmuni tyo fr a
dioa mateurs
,it
canwo rko nlyforc er
tai
nf r
eq uencyb ands.Asa ne xample,itis
no tpo ss
ibl
et os imula
tel i
nksa t5. 8GHzbuto nlya t5.3GHz .
$i sisgoode noug hfrom apr actica
lpo into fview,buto neha s
tok eepitinmi nd.

Wi
ndo
wsv er
sion:
i tcanr uno kine.Onc et hema psaredownloaded,ther
eisno
needt obeo nli
net orunt hesimula
ti
on.
o nec an us eane xt
ernalGPSt ogetthee xa
ctpo s
iti
ono fthe
sta
tion.Whi let hisi s noto ft
en used,itc ould be usef
ul
some t
ime s.
i trunso nWi ndo ws(i
tdo esruninLinuxbutno tdir
ect
ly)
.
i tr equires bi
g do wnl oads
.I fy our bandwidthi slimit
ed,
downl oadingma nyma psmi ghtbeapr o
blem.$eo nli
nevers
ion
requir
ess mall
erdo wnloads.
I tisnotus erfr
iendly
,e s
pecia
ll
yforbegi
nners
.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 191

$ema inRadi
oMo bil
ewe bpag
e,wit
he xa
mple
sandtut
ori
al
s,i
sav
ail
abl
e
at
:htt
p:/
/www.
cpl
us.org
/rmw/engl
is
h1.
html
Fol
lo
wt hei
nst
ruc
ti
o nstoinst
al
ltheso
ftwar
eonWindows
.

Ra
dio
Mobi
l
eonl
i
ne
To us etheo nl
inev er
sio
no fRa di
oMo bil
ey ou must0rs
tc re
atea n
account.Go to:http:
//www.cplus
.or
g/r
mw/ rmonl
ine.
htmland crea
tea
newa ccount.Youwillrec
eiv
eac on0r
ma ti
onema i
linfew minut
esa nd
willbereadytogo.
Simulati
ngal i
nkrequir
essomes te
psthatrequi
refol
lo
wingtheme nuo n
thelef
t,fromtoptobo t
toma sshowninFi g
ureDP7be low.

Fi
gur
eDP7:Pr
epa
ringt
osi
mul
at
eal
inku
singRa
dioMo
bil
e.

$e0rstst
epist
oc l
ic
ko nNewSit
e.Youwi
l
lbepre
sent
edaMa p,s
imil
ar
toGoogl
eMa ps
.Youcanzoo
mi nt
othemapto0ndthelo
cati
onofyour
0rs
tsi
te
.DragtheOrangePl
ace
markandpl
acei
tinthede
sir
edposi
ti
on.
Onceyouar
edone,cl
ickonS
ubmit.

Givetheloc
ati
oname aning
fulname,a ndc l
ic
ko nAddt oMyS i
te
s.I
n
t
hisway,youwil
lbea bletousethi
sloc
a ti
onforthesi
mul a
tio
n.
Repea
tthesamepr o
cessfort
hes e
condsite
.
Oncey ouhav
ea tle
asttwosites
,youcanpr ocee
dwitht henextst
ep.$e
i
nter
facewil
lnotall
owy o
utoe nte
rdir
ec t
lythecoor
dinate
so ft
hesit
e,s
o
youmightwanttoe nteranapproxi
matepo si
ti
onforthec ur
sorandthe
n
af
ter
wa r
dcorr
ectthevalueofthecoor
dinatesi
nthetable
.
192 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$e s econd st
epi nvol
vese nter
ing inf
ormat
iona boutthe li
nk:the
equipmentchar
act
eris
ti
cs,thea nte
nnas,et
c.
ClickonNe wLinki ntheme nuo nthelef
t.Sel
ectthetwos i
te
sfromthe
drop-downme nus.Enterame a
ningf
ulnamef orthel inkandente
rthe
inf
orma t
ionaboutthee quipme ntuse.$es e
nsit
ivityo ft
herece
ive
ris
expres
sedinmicro
Vo l
ts
,whi leweus ual
lyusedBm.

Tot
rans
la
tef
rom mi
cr
oVo
ltst
odBm,he
rea
res
omee
xampl
es
:

-
90dBm i
s7.07mi
cr
ovol
ts
-
85d
Bmi s12.6mi
cro
vol
ts
-
80dBm i
s22.4mi
cr
ovol
ts
-
75dBm i
s39.8mi
cr
ovol
ts
-
70dBm i
s70.7mi
cr
ovol
ts

Itisver
yi mpo
rtanttochoos
eaf r
equenc
ytha
tRa di
oMobi
leo
nli
nec
an
handle
.
He r
earethemostimpor
tantf
req
uenci
esforWi
Fil
inks:

Us
e2300MHzf
or2.
4GHzl
ink
sand5825MHzf
or5.
8GHzl
ink
s.

Onc
eyouha
veent
ere
da l
ltheinfo
rmat
ion,c
li
ckonSubmit
.Inas
hor
t
t
ime
,yo
uwil
lbepr
ese
nte
da0g uresi
mil
artot
heonebe
low.

Fi
gur
eDP8:Ou
tpu
toft
hes
imu
lat
io
n.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 193

$i spa g
eha sa l
lthene cess
aryi nforma t
iontounde rst
andi ft hel inkis
f
e asi
bleo rnot.
I
tg ivesinfor
ma t
iono n:t heli
nkl ength,theazimut h,elevat
iona ndt il
t
yous houldg iv
et oa nte nnas,thef re
es paceloss,t het o
tals pa celo s
s
i
nc ludingt hestat
is
ticall ossand,mo stimpo r
tantl
y,t hereceiveds ig
nal
l
ev el.
Wi tht her e
ceiv
ersensi
tiv i
tyy oue ntered,youwi llbepr ese
ntedwi tht he
f
a dema r
g i
na ndyouwi llbea bletode t
ermineifthelinkisfeasibleo rno t
.
Ify oua r
eha ppywi t
ht her es
ult,att hetopo fthepa geyous ho uldc l
ick
onAddt omys it
esandt helinkwi llbes tor
ed.Ify o
ua r
eno tsatis0eda nd
wa nttos imulat
eadi 1erente quipme nts e
tup,cl
icko nMo di
fythi slink.

Ra
dioMo
bil
efo
rWi
ndo
wsi
nsi
mpl
est
eps
$i sisa
na br
idge
dg uidet
ost
artus
ingRadi
oMo bi
lea
ft
eri
nst
al
la
ti
on.Ev
ery
para
me t
ernotspe
ci0edher
eca
nbel ef
tatt
hede
faul
tval
uea
ndlat
ermodi
0ed
ifnee
ded.

Step 1:do wnl oadt hedi git

a lelevati
on ma ps( DEMs )o fy oura reao f
i
nt ere
st.cho oseS RTM f orma t.
Step2:c reateama p.In Fi l
eMa ppr operti
e s
,cho oset hemi dpoint
ofy ourareao fintere s
ta sthec oor
dinatesfory ourma pa ndas izeink m
l
a r
g eenoug ht oe nc ompa ssa llyourpo ints
.Us e514X514pi xelsforno w.
Youc ana dda nothe rtypeo fma p(li
k eonewi thr oads)tot her awDEM i f
youl i
ke.
Step3:Cr eates ystems .In FilNe
e tworkpr opert
ies Sys
tems.
Eac honei sac ombi nationo fTXpo we r
,RXs ensit
ivit
ya nda ntennagain.
Selectomnia ntennae veni fyo urantennaisdirectional,buti nsertthereal
gain.
Step4:c reateuni ts.Ea chuni tha sana mea ndag eographicalpo sit
ion.
Yo u
canus ede grees,mi nut es
,s econdso rde gre
esandf ract
ions,butma kesure
tos el
ectthepr ope rhe misphe re(No rS,Eo rW) .
Step5:As signr ole s
:s ele
c tite m Ne t
wo r
k spr operti
esf romt heme nu
File
.$e ng ot ot het ab Me mbe rship
whe r
ey o uwillbea l
lowe dtoedit
thes ys
tema ndr olef ore a c
huni t.Ena bl
ee achuni tint hel i
stwi t
ha
checkma rk.As signana met oy ourne tworka ndi nt he pa rame t
ers
t ab
setthemi nimum a ndma ximum f r
equencyo fope rat
ioninMHz .
Step 6:Vi ewy our ne twor ko nt he ma p.S ele
c t Vie w Show
netwo r
k s
All
194 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Ste
p 7:Obt aint hepr o0lea nd po intto pointlink budget.Tools

Radioli
nk.Youc a
ns witcht othedetai
ledviewthatgiv
e syoua
tex
tualdes
cri
pti
ono ftheo utputo fthesimula
tio
n.
Ste
p8:Vi e
wc ov
e r
age:got o Tool
s Radioc ove
rage S
ingl
e
pola
rtoo bta
int heco v
erageo feachs t
ati
on.He rethetypeo fante
nna
becomesre
lev
ant.Ifitisno tano mniy o
us houl
de di
tthea nte
nnapa t
ter
n
andtheori
enta
tio
no fthebo re
sight(dir
ect
ionwherethebeami spoi
nti
ng).

Us
ingGo
ogl
eEa
rtht
oobt
ai
nane
lev
ati
onpr
o0l
e
Go o
gleEa r
thisav erypopul
arma ppi nga ppli
cati
on.I tc anbeus edto
obta
int heele
vati
onpro0l
ebe t
weent wopo i
ntsandt heref
oredeter
mine
t
hee xis
tenc
e( o
rno t
)oftheopti
callineo fs i
ght.$er adioel
ect
ricli
neo f
s
ightcanbede ri
vedfr
omt heopti
calo neb ya ddi
ngt hee 1ectoftheeart
h
curv
ature(byusi
ngthemo di
0edradiuso fthee ar
th)a ndt hereq
uire
me nts
f
o rcl
eari
ngthe0rstFr
esne
lzone.

$epr
oce
dur
eist
hef
oll
owi
ng:
I
nst
al
lGo
ogl
eEa
rthi
nyourdev
ice
,launc
htheappl
ic
ati
onandz
oomi
nto
t
hemaps
oyouc
anse
ethetwopoi
ntstha
tyouwantt
olink
.

1. Intheuppe rme nu,c l

icko n"Addpath"
2. Cli
cktos etthe0r stpointandthenforthesecondpoint
3. Givethec onnectionana me( "
Link"fore x
ample)andc l
i
ckOK
i
nt hepop-upwi ndo w
4. $ec onnectiona ppearsintheme nuont helef
t
5. Rightc l
ic
ko nt hena meo ft heconne c
tio
n( "Link
"i nour
exa
mple )
6. Sel
ect"Showe l
evatio
npr o0le
"
7. $ee le
v a
ti
o npr o0leappe a
rsatthebott
omo nthesc
reen
8. Ifyoumo v ea l
ongt hepr o0l
e,y ouwil
ls e
ear edarrowshowi
ng
wherethepo intisinthema p

Avoiding noise
$eunl i
cens
edISMa ndU- NIIba
ndsrepr
ese
ntaver
yti
nypieceofthe
knownele
ctr
omagnet
icspe
ctr
um.Si
ncet
hisregi
onc
anbeuti
li
sedwit
hout
payi
nglic
ensef
ees,manyc o
nsumerde
vice
suseitfo
rawi derang
eo f
appl
ic
ati
ons.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 195

Cordles
spho nes
,analogv i
deos ender
s,Blue
toot
h,babymo nit
ors
,a nd
eve
nmi c
rowaveovenscompetewithwi r
ele
ssdat
anetwork
sforuseofthe
ver
yl i
mited2.4GHzba nd.
$e sesi
gnals
,aswel
la sothe
rlocalwirel
es
snetwor
ks,ca
nc a
usesi
gni
0cant
pro
blemsf orl
ong-r
angewi r
el
essli
nk s
.He r
eares
omes t
epsyouca
nus eto
re
duc ere
cepti
onofunwa nte
dsignals.

Inc
rea
seant
ennagai
nonbo t
hside
so fapoi
nt-
to-
pointl
ink.Ant
enna
snot
onl
ya ddgai
ntoal i
nk,butthei
rincr
eas
eddire
cti
onal
it
yt e
ndstore
jec
t
noi
sefro
ma r
easa
roundthel
ink.

Twohig hg
aindis
hest
hata
repo
int
edateac
ho t
herwi
llr
ej
ectno
isefr
o m
dir
ect
ionst
hatareout
si
dethepat
ho ftheli
nk.Usi
ngomnidi
rect
ional
ant
ennaswi
llre
cei
venoi
sef
romal
ldi
re
cti
ons.

Fi
gur
eDP9:As
ing
leo
mni
dir
ec
ti
ona
lant
ennav
s.mu
lti
pl
ese
ct
ori
al
s.

Us
ese
cto
ria
lsi
nst
eado
fus
inga
nomni
dir
ect
iona
l.

Bymakinguseofs
eve
ralsect
ori
alant
enna
s,y
ouc
anr
educ
etheo
ver
al
l
no
iser
ecei
veda
tadi
str
ibut
ionpoint
.

Bysta
gger
ingt
hechanne
lsusedoneachs
ect
ori
al
,yo
uca
nal
soi
ncr
eas
e
thea
vai
la
bleba
ndwi
dthtoyourcl
ie
nts
.
196 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Do n
tusea na mpl
i0er
.Ampli
0er
sc a
nma keint
erf
ere
nceissue
swo r
seby
indi
scr
imi na
tel
ya mplif
yi
ng a
llrece
ive
ds ig
nal
s,includi
ng sour
cesof
inte
rfe
rence.Amp l
i0e
rsals
oca
useint
erf
ere
nceprobl
emsf o
ro t
hernear
by
user
so ftheband.

Usethebestava
il
ablechanne l
.Re membe rthat802.11b/gcha nnelsar
e22
MHzwi de,butareonlyseparate
db y5MHz .
Per
form asi
tesurvey
,ands e l
ectac hannelthatisasf a
raspo s
siblefr
om
exi
st
ingsourc
esofinter
fer
enc e.Reme mberthatthewi rel
esslandscapecan
cha
ng eatanyt i
mea spe oplea ddne w de vi
ces(cordle
sspho ne s
,o t
her
net
wo r
ks,et
c.
)Ify o
urlinks uddenlyhastroublesendingpac k
ets,youma y
nee
dt operf
orma not
hersitesurveyandpi ckadi1e r
entcha nnel
.

I
fpo ss
ibl
e,us
e5.
8GHz .Whil
ethisisonlyashort
-t
ermsolut
ion,t
herei
s
cur
rentl
yfarmor
econs
umerequi
pme ntinst
al
ledinthe0e
ldthatuse
s2.4
GHz .Usi
ng802.
11ayouwi
lla
voidthisconges
ti
onalto
get
her.

Ifalle l
sefails,usel i
censeds pect
rum.$e reareplace
swhe reallavail
able
unlicenseds pectrum isactuallyused.I nt hesecases
,itma yma kes e
nset o
spendt hea ddi t
ionalmo neyf orobtainingt herespect
iv
elicenseandde ploy
equipme ntt ha tus e
sal es
sc ongestedb and.Fo rlongdistancepo i
nt-to-
pointl i
nkst ha trequir
ev eryhi g
ht hro ughputa ndma ximum upt ime,this
iscer ta
inl
ya no pt i
on.Ofc ourse
,t he s
ef eatur
esc omea tamuc hhi gher
pri
c et a
gc ompa r
edt ounlicensedeq uipme nt.
Rece ntl
ye qui pme ntint he17GHza nd 24GHzba ndsha vebe come
avail
a bl
e.
Altho ughiti sco nsi
derabl
ymo r
ee xpensive,italsoo1ersmuc hg r
eater
bandwi dth,a ndi nma nyc ountrie
st hesefreq ue
nc i
esar
eunl ic
ensed.

Toidenti
fysour
cesofno
ise
,y o
une edto
olsthatwi
lls
howy ouwhatis
ha
ppeningintheaira
t2.
4GHz .Wewi l
lseeso
mee x
ample
softhes
eto
o l
s
i
nt he chapter
sc al
l
ed Network Moni
tori
ng and Maint
ena
ncea nd
Tr
oubl
e s
hooti
ng.

Repeaters
$emo
stc
ri
ti
calc
ompo
nentt
obui
ldi
ngl
ongdi
st
anc
ene
two
rkl
ink
sis
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 197

l
ineo fsi
ght(oft
ena bbrev
iat
edasLOS ).
Terre
str
ialmicro
wa vesyst
emss i
mplyc annottol
er
atelargehil
ls
,tre
es,or
otherobsta
cle
sint hepa t
ho falongdista
nceli
nk.Y oumus thav
eac le
ar
ideaofthelayofthel a
ndbe t
weentwopo int
sbeforeyouc a
ndeter
mineif
al i
nki seven possi
ble.Bute v
eni fthereisamo unta
in bet
weentwo
points
,remembe rt
ha tobst
acl
escansome t
imesbeturnedintoas
set
s.

Mo untainsma yblocky o ursig

nal,buta ss
umi ngpo wercanbepr ovide
d
theya lsoma keverygoo dr epe
ate
rsites.
Re peatersa renodest hata recon0guredt orebroadcas
ttraNct hatisno t
destinedf o rtheno dei t
self
.Iname shne t
work ,ever
yno dei sar e
peate
r.
Inat raditi
o nali
nfras
tructurenetwork,repea
terno desmustbec on0gure
d
topa s
sa longt r
aNct oo the
rno des.A repeatercan useo neo rmo re
wire l
essde vice
s.
Whe nus ingas i
ngleradio( ca
ll
edao ne-a
rmr epeate
r),ove
ralleNc i
encyis
sli
ght l
yl essthanha l
fo fthea va
il
ablebandwidth,sincetheradiocane i
ther
sendo rr eceiv
eda ta,butne ve
rbo tha tonce.$e s
ede vi
cesa r
ec heape
r,
simpl e
r,a ndha velowerpo werre
quirements.

Ar epe a
terwithtwo(o rmore)ra
diocardscano pe
rat
eallradi
osatful
l
capaci
t y
,a slonga stheyareeachc o
n0g ur
edt o us
eno n-ov
erl
appi
ng
channe l
s.
Ofc o urs
e,repea
ter
scana l
sosuppl
ya nEt he
rnetconnec
ti
ont oprovi
de
l
o ca
l connect
ivi
ty
.
Repeat e
rscan bepurchase
da sac omplet
eha r
dwaresol
utio
n,o reas
il
y
ass
emb l
edb yc onnec
ting t
wo ormo r
e wirel
es
sno destoget
herwith
Ethernetcabl
e.

Whe npl anningtousear epea

terbuil
twit
h802.11t echnolo
gy,r
eme mbe
r
thatnodesmus tbec o
n0g ure
df ormast
er
,ma na
ge d,orad-hocmode.
Typica
ll
y ,bo t
hr a
diosinar epe
a t
erar
eco n0g
ur edforma st
ermo de,t
o
all
ow mul t
iplecl
ient
st oc onnecttoe i
thersideo ft herepe
ate
r.But
dependingo ny o
urne t
wo rklayo
ut,oneormo rede v
icesmayneedt ous
e
ad-hoco revencli
entmo de.
198 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

h
avenod
ire
ctl
ineo
fsi
ght
.

Typical
l
y ,repe
ater
sareusedtoo verc o
meo bst
ac l
esint hepa t
ho falo ng
dis
tancelink.Forexample,t
herema ybebui l
dingsinyo urpath,buttho s
e
buil
dingsc onta
in peopl
e.Arrangeme ntscano ft
enbewo r ke
do utwi th
buil
dingo wner
st oprovi
deba ndwi dthine xchangef orro ofri
ghtsand
ele
ctri
ci
ty.I ft
hebui l
dingowne risn
tinter
est
e d,tenantso nhighWo o r
s
ma ybea blet
obepe rs
uadedtoi nstal
le qui
pme nti nawi ndow.Ifyo u
can
tgoo verorthro
ug hano bst
acl
e ,youc ano fte
ng oa ro
undi t.Rather
thanusingadi r
ectli
nk,tryamul t
i-hopa pproachtoa v
o idtheobsta
cle
.

c
ir
cumv
ent
edb
yus
ingmu
lti
pl
ere
pea
ters
it
esa
rou
ndt
heb
ase
.

Fi
na l
ly
,y o
u may nee
dt oc ons
idergoing bac
kwardsi
no rdertog o
fo
r war
ds.I
fthe
rei
sahi g
hs i
teavai
la
bleinadi1ere
ntdir
ect
ion,a
ndt ha
t
si
tecanseebey
ondtheobst
acl
e,astabl
elinkca
nbema devi
aa nindi
rec
t
route
.
 10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING 199

Fig
ureDP12:S i
teD co
u l
dno tmakeacl
eanlinktosit
eAo rB,s
incesi
teCisinthe
wayandisno
thost
ingano de
.Byinst
all
ingah i
ghrepeat
er,node
sA,B,a ndD can
c
ommu ni
cat
ewitheac
ho the
r.Not
et h
attraMcfrom nodeD actu
allytr
avel
sfu
rth
er
awayfr
omt h
erestoft
h ene
tworkbef
orethere
p e
aterfor
wardsital
ong.

Deployment planning for IPv6

Asweme nt
ionedinthec haptercal
le
dNe t
work
ing,mo s
treg
ionsofthe
wor
ld ha
vee i
therex
haus t
edo rnearl
yexha
ust
edt he
irIPv4a ddr
ess
es.
$eref
oreiti simpo r
tant t ha
ty ou bui
ldintoy our pl
anning t
he
de
plo
ymentofIPv6basednet works
.

I
tisunder
sto
odthatatt
heti
meo fwri
ti
ngthe
rea
res
ti
llma
nys
it
esa
nd
s
erv
ice
sthatar
est
il
lonl
yava
il
abl
ebyIPv4.

Soinordert
obe c
omealea
derindepl
oyi
ngI Pv
6,yo uwil
lnee
dtobeable
toint
erc
onnectwit
hle
gac
yIPv4network
sa swella
st e
achandgui
dey
o ur
use
rsanddevel
oper
showtohandl
eIPv6alo
ng s
ideIPv4.

Byleadi
ngthewa yindepl
oyi
ngIPv6inyournetworkyouwillbeatt
he
f
o r
efr
ontoftheInt
erneta
ndrecog
nis
edassomeonewhoi spr
epare
dtobe
awareofandsuppor
tthenex
tgener
ati
onofnet
wo rk
ing.
200 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

I
nprepa
ringf
orIPv6he
rea
res
omes
tepsy
ouc
ant
aket
ohe
lpmo
vey
ou
i
ntheri
ghtdi
re
cti
on-

1. Do ntbuyr out e
rs,0r e wallsando the rIPe q ui
pme ntt hatpr ocess
IPv4 pa cketsi n hardwa rea tf ulls peeda nd o nlypr ocessI Pv6
packetsmo res lo
wl yi ns o f
twa r
eo rwo rses t
il
ldo ntha ndl eIPv6a t
all
.$ev astma j
o r
ityo fa vail
a blene two rkde vice ssuppo rtIPv 6.
RIPEha spr epareds o mer equireme ntst obea dde di ntoa nyc all
fortendert oe nsuret ha tIPv6i si nclude d:
http:
//www. ripe.net/ripe /
do cs
/cur rent- ripe -
do c
ume nts/ri
pe-554
Youma ya lsoloo kf ort heI Pv 6-Re adyl o goo nt heda t
as heet
so f
thede vi
ce s
.
2. Whe nde pl
o yi
ngne ws oftwa r
e,ma k es urei two rkso verIPv 6.
3. Whe ndi s c
ussingy o urba ckhaull inkwi thal ocalI SP,che cktha t
they havede plo ye
do rha vepl anst o de ploya nd o 1e rIPv 6
ser
v i
ces.Ifno tdi sc
us swi t
ht he m ho wy o umi g htc o-operatea nd
inter
conne cty ourI Pv 6 ne two rkwi t
ht hem.$ec osto fIPv 6
shouldbei nclude di nt heo ver a
llc o st;t hisme anstha ty ouwi ll
notpa ya ny t
hingmo ret og etI Pv 6.$eS ervi
ceLe velAg ree
me nt
(SLA)f orI Pv6s ho uldbei dent i
cal( thro ughput ,latency,incident
res
po nset ime ,. .
.)a sf orI Pv 4.$e rea res ever
alI Pv 4/I
Pv 6
tra
nsiti
o ntechni quest ha tcanbede pl oye d.

Herearesomeur lsthatyouc anr ea

dt hatwil
lgiveyo
u up t
o da
te
i
nfor
mati
o naboutthes
e-
ht
tp:
//
www. pet
ri
.co.
il
/i
pv6-
tr
ansit
ion.
htm
ht
tp:
//
en.wiki
pedi
a.or
g/wi
ki/
IPv6_tra
nsi
tio
n_mechani
sms
ht
tp:
//
www. 6di
ss.
org/
tut
ori
al
s/t
ransi
ti
oning.
pdf

$e r
eismo r
ei nfor
ma t
ionaboutthegro wt
ho fIPv6a nd t
hel
acko
f
av
ail
abl
eIPv4a dres
sesi
nt hi
sar
tic
lepubl
ishedinl
ate2012.
ht
tp:
//a
rst
echni
c a.
com/busi
nes
s/
2013/01/
ipv6-t
ake
s-one
-st
ep-
for
war
d-
i
pv4-t
wo-st
eps-
b ac
k-in-
2012/

$e r
eisal
soa nEC fundedproj
ectc
alle
d6De ploywhoo 1ertr
ai
ningand
he
lpdesks
ervi
cesfornet
workengi
neer
ss t
art
ingthei
rIPv6deploy
me nt
s.I
t
i
shighl
yrecomme ndedtha
tyoucont
actthemt odis
cussyourpro
ject
.
ht
tp:
//www.6depl
oy.e
u/i
ndex.
php?
page=home
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 201

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND

CONFIGURATION

Int hel as
tfewy e
ars,an unpr e
cedente
ds urg
eo fi nte
res
tin wi re
les
s
netwo r
kinghar
dwa r
eha sbroughtahug evar
iet
yo finex
pensi
veequipment
tothema r
ket
.
Somuc hv ar
ie
ty,inf act
,thatitwo uldb eimpo s
sibl
etoc at
al
o ge v
ery
avai
labl
ec omponent.I
nt hischapte
r,wel
llookatthesortoffe
aturesand
att
ribute
sthatar
ede si
rabl
einawi rel
es
sc omponent.

Wired wireless
Wi t
hana melikewir
ele
ss,yo uma ybes urprise
da thowma nywi r
esare
i
nv ol
vedinma kingasimplepo int-
to-pointli
nk .
A wi r
eles
sno de consis
tso fma ny c ompo nents,whi c
h mus ta l
lbe
connect
edt oeac
ho therwitha ppropri
atecabli
ng .
Youo bviousl
y needa tlea s
to nec omput erc onnecte
dt oa n Ether
net
network,andawi r
ele
ssro ute
ro rbr i
dg eattachedtot hesamene t
work.
Radioco mponentsneedt obec o
nne c
tedt oa ntennas
,butalongthewa y
theymayne edtointer
facewi t
hal ightni
nga rrest
o ro
ro t
herdevi
ce.

Manyc ompo nentsrequirepower

,e i
the
rviaanAC ma insli
neorusi
nga
DCt rans
former.
Al
lo fthe
sec ompo ne
ntsus evar
ioussor
tsofconne
cto
rs,nottomenti
ona
wi
dev ari
et
yo fc a
bletypesandthicknes
ses
.
Now mul t
ipl
yt hoseca bl
esandc onnect
orsbythenumbe rofnode
sy ou
wi
llbri
ngo nli
ne,andy o umaywe llbewonde
ringwhythisst
u1isre
fer
red
t
oa swir
eles
s.

$edi agr
am ont henextpagewi llgi
vey o
us omei deaofthec a
bli
ng
r
equir
edforat ypi
calpoi
nt-
to-
pointl
ink.
Notethatthisdi
agra
mi snottoscal
e,norisitnece
ssa
ril
ythebestchoi
ce
of net
wo r
k de si
gn.But it willintr
oducey out o ma ny commo n
i
nter
connectsandc ompone
ntsthatyouwi l
llik
elyencount
erint hereal
worl
d.
202 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fi
gur
eHW 1:Co
mmo
nInt
er
conne
ctsa
ndCo
mpo
nent
sfo
raWi
re
le
ssPt
P
l
ink.

Whil
ethea
ctua
lc omponentsuse
dwi l
lva
ryf
rom no
det
ono
de,e
ver
y
i
nst
al
la
ti
onwil
linc
orpor
atethes
epart
s:

1.Ane x i
sti
ngc omputerornetworkconnec
tedtoanEt her
netswit
ch.
2.Ade v i
cet hatconnect
sthatnetwor
kt oawi r
ele
ssde v
ice(awirel
es
s
rout
er,bridge,orrepe
ater
).
3.Ana ntennat hatisconnec
tedv i
afeedli
ne,orisinteg
rate
dintothe
wire
lessdeviceit
sel
f.
4.Elect
ricalc omponentsconsis
ti
ngo fpo wersuppli
es,condit
ione
rs,
andlightningarre
stor
s.

$ea ctuals
ele
cti
onofhardwareshouldbede t
erminedbyest
abl
is
hingthe
re
quirement
sf orthe pr
o j
ect
,de t
ermining the ava
il
abl
e budget
,a nd
ver
if
yingthatt
heproj
ecti
sfeasi
bleusingtheavai
la
bleres
our
ces(i
ncludi
ng
pro
vidingfo
rspare
sandong o
ingma inte
nancecost
s).

Asdi
scus
sedinothe
rcha
pte
rso
fthi
sboo
k,esta
bli
shi
ngthesc
opeo
fyo
ur
pr
oje
ctiscr
it
ic
albef
orea
nypur
cha
si
ngdec
is
ionsar
ema de.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 203

Choosing wireless components

Unf or
tunat
ely,in aworldofc ompe ti
ti
vehardwar
ema nufa
cture
rsand
l
imi te
dbudg ets
,thepri
ceta
gist hesinglef
act
orthatusuall
yrecei
vesthe
mo statt
enti
on.
$eo l
ds a
yingthatyo
ug etwha tyo upayforofte
nho l
dstruewhe n
buyinghi g
ht echequi
pment,buts houldnotb econsi
deredana bsol
ute
truth.Whilethepri
ceta
gisani mportantpa
rtofanypurchasi
ngde c
isi
on,
itisvit
altounde r
st
andprec
is
el
ywha ty o
ugetforyo
urmo neysoyouc an
ma keac hoi
cethat0t
syourneeds.

Whe
nc ompar
ingwir
ele
sse
qui
pme
ntf
orus
einy
ourne
two
rk,bes
uret
o
c
ons
ide
rthes
evari
abl
es
:

I
nte
roper
abil
it
y.Wi l
lt he equi
pme nty ouarec o
ns i
der
ing wo r
k wit
h
e
quipmentfr
omo t
herma nufa
ctur
ers?Ifnot
,isthi
sa nimpo rta
ntfa
ctor
f
orthi
ssegmentofyournetwork?Ifthegea
rinquest
ionisstandar
d(suc
h
a
s802.11b/
g),the
ni twil
llik
elyinter
oper
atewit
he qui
pme ntfromother
s
our
c e
s.

Rang e.$i sisnotsomethi

ngi nhe
rentinapa rt
ic
ula
rpieceofeq
uipment
.
Ade v i
ce
srangedependsonthea ntennaconnect
edtoit
,thesur
roundi
ng
t
errain,thecharact
eri
st
icsofthedev i
ceattheo t
herendo ft
heli
nk,and
ot
he rfacto
rs.
Rathert hanr e
lyi
ngo nas emi -0c
tionalra
ngerat
ingsuppl
ie
db ythe
manuf ac
turer
,i ti
smo reusefultok nowt hetrans
miss
ionpowero ft
he
ra
dioa swe l
lastheantennagai
n( i
fana nte
nnaisincl
uded)
.

Withthi
sinfo
rmatio
n,yo
ucanc a
lcula
tethet
heor
eti
calr
angeasdone
whenloo
kingatli
nkbudg
etc
alc
ula
tionsaswedidinthecha
pte
rcal
l
e d
Depl
oymentPl
anning.

Radiosensi
tiv
it
y .Howsensi
ti
veistheradi
ode v
iceatagi
venbitr
ate
?$e
manufactur
ers houl
dsupplythi
si nfor
mati
on,atl e
asta
tthefas
tes
ta nd
sl
owestspee
ds.
$i scanbeus e dasame as
ureoft hequal
it
yo fthehar
dware
,aswellas
al
lowy o
ut oc o
mpl e
teali
nkbudg etcal
cul
at
ion.
Whe nco ns
ider
ingradi
osensi
ti
vi
ty,alowernumbe ri
sbet
ter
.
204 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$roughput .Manufac t
urersconsis
tent l
yl i
stthehighestpo ss
ibl
ebitrat
eas
t
he s
peedo ftheire q
uipme nt.Ke epi nmi ndt hatther adi
osy mbolrat
e
(
eg.54Mbps )isne verthea ctualt hroughputr at
ingo fthede v
ice(eg
.
a
bout22Mbpsf or802.11g )
.
I
fthroug hputratei nf
o r
ma ti
oni sno tavail
ablefort hede vi
c eyoua r
e
e
val
uating,ag oodr uleo fthumbi st odividethede vice s
peedbyt wo
,
a
nds ubtract20%o rso.Whe ni ndo ubt,perfor
mt hro ughputtes
tingon
a
ne val
ua ti
onuni tbe for
ec ommi ttingt opur c
hasi
ngal ar
gea mountof
e
quipme ntthathasnoo Ncialthroug hputrating.

Requir
eda cc
e s
sori
es.Tok eeptheinit
ialpri
cetaglow,vendorso f
tenle
ave
outaccess
ori
esthata r
er e
q ui
redfornormaluse.Doesthepr i
cetagincl
ude
al
lpowe radapter
s?Fo rexampleDCs uppl
ie
saretypic
all
yi ncl
uded;Power
ove
rEt hernetinje
ctorstypical
lyarenot.Doub l
e-c
hecki nputv o
lta
gesas
wel
l,ase q
uipme ntissome ti
mesprovi
de dwit
haUSpo we rsupply
.
Wha taboutpi gta
il
s,a dapter
s,cabl
es
,a nt
ennas,andr adiocards?Ifyou
i
ntendtous eitoutdoo r
s,doesthedevicei
ncl
udeawe atherproofcas
e?

Avail
abil
it
y.Wi l
lyoubea bletoeasi
lyre
placefa
il
edc o
mpone nt
s?Canyo u
orderthepar
tinlargequantit
y,s
ho ul
dy ourproj
ectr
equi
reit?Whatisthe
proj
ectedlif
es pa
no fthispart
icularproduct
,bo t
hi ntermso fuse
ful
runningti
mei n-t
he-0el
da ndlik
elyavai
la
bili
tyfr
omt hevendor?

Powerconsumption.Forremotei nst
al
lati
ons,powerc ons
umptionist he
mostcri
ti
caliss
ue.Ifthedevi
cesaretobepo we r
edwi thsol
arpanel
s,itis
ve
ryimpo r
tanttoselec
ttheonesthatrequi
rethelowestposs
ibl
epowe r
.
$ec ostofsol
arpa nel
sandbatte
riescanb emuchhig hert
hantheco s
to f
wi
rele
ssdevice
s;sol o
werpowerc onsumptioncanresultinamuc hlowe r
ov
e r
al
lbudg e
t.

Otherf act
ors.Bes urethato therfe
aturesa r
epr ovi
dedt o meetyour
part
icularnee
ds.Forex a
mple,do e
sthede vi
ceincl
udea nexte
rnalant
enna
connector?Ifso,wha ttypei sit?Aret her
eus e
ro rt hr
oughputlimit
s
impos e
db ysoft
ware,andifso,whatisthec os
ttoincr
easethes
elimit
s?
Wha tisthephysic
alformf a
ctorofthedev i
ce?
Do e
si tsupportPOE a sa po wers ource?Do esthe devic
epr ovi
de
encr
y pti
on,NAT,ba ndwidthmo nit
ori
ngt ool
s,oro t
herfea
ture
sc r
it
ica
lto
theintendednetworkdesig
n?
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 205

Bya ns weri
ngt hes
equesti
ons0rst,youwillbea bl
etoma kei nte
ll
igent
buyingde cis
ionswhenthet i
mec ome st
oc hoos
ingnetworki
ngha r
dwa r
e.
Itisunl i
kel
ytha ty
ouwillbeabletoanswerever
ypossi
blequestionbe f
ore
buyingg e
ar,butifyoupr i
ori
tis
et heques
tio
nsa ndpressthev endort o
answe rthem befor
ecommi t
ti
ngt oapurchase
,youwi l
lma k
et hebe stuse
ofy ourbudg etandbui
ldane tworkofcomponentstha
tarewe llsui
tedt o
yourne eds.

Commercial vs. DIY solutions

Your network proje
ct wi l
la l
mo stc ert
a i
nlyc o nsi
sto fc omponent
s
purchas
edfromv e
ndo r
sa swe l
la spa r
tsthataresourcedorevenf a
bri
cat
ed
l
o ca
lly
.$i sisaba s
iceconomi ct r
ut hinmo sta r
easo fthewo r
ld.Atthi
s
st
ageo fhuma nt ec
hnolog y
,g lobaldi s
tri
buti
o no fi nf
ormati
oni squit
e
tr
ivi
alc omparedt og l
o baldi str
ibutiono fg o
o ds.In ma ny reg
ions
,
impo r
ti
nge ver
yc ompone ntne ededt obui l
dane tworkisprohibi
ti
vel
y
expensi
veforal
lbutthelargestbudg ets
.
Youc ans aveconsi
derablemo neyi nt hes hortt ermb y0ndi ng l
oca
l
source
sforpa r
tsandlabo ur
,a ndo nlyimpo r
tingc ompo ne
ntsthatmust
bepur c
hase
d.

Ofc ours
e,t hereisal i
mitto how muc h wo rkca n bedo neb ya ny
indi
vidua
lorg r
oupinag iv
enamo unto fti
me .Toputi ta not
herway,by
importi
ngtec hnol
ogy,youcanexchangemo ne yf ore quipmentthatcan
solv
eapa rt
icularpro
bleminac ompa ra
tive
lys horta mo untoftime.$e
artofbuil
dingl oc
altel
eco
mmuni c
ationsinfr
astruct
ur eliesin0ndingthe
rig
htba l
anceo fmoneytoe 1o
rtne ededt obee xpende dtoso l
vethe
proble
ma tha nd.

Somec omponent s,sucha sradiosanda ntennafeedl ine,arelikelyfartoo

complextoc onside rha v i
ngt hemf abri
catedlocall
y.Ot herc ompo nents
,
suchasant
enna sa ndt owe rs,arerel
ati
vel
ys impleandc anbema delocal
ly
foraf r
act
iono ft hec os tofi mpo r
ti
ng.Be tweent he s
ee x t
reme sliethe
communicat
ionde vicesthe mselves.
Byus i
ngoff-
the -shelfra diocards,mo t
herbo a
rds,ando therc ompo nents
,
youcanbuildde v ice
st ha tprovidefeat
urescompa rable( orev e
ns uperi
or)
to mo stc omme rciali mpleme nta
ti
ons. Co mbini ng o pen ha rdware
pla
tfor
mswi t
ho pens o urces oft
wa r
ec any i
elds i
gni0ca nt bangfo rthe
buckbyprovi
di ngc usto m,r obustsol
uti
onsf orver
yl o wc ost
.
206 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$i si
sno ttosaythatcomme r
ci
alequipmentisinf
eri
ortoado -i
t-
y oursel
f
sol
uti
on.
Bypr ovi
dingso-cal
l
e dturn-ke
ys ol
utio
ns,manufact
urersno tonlys ave
devel
opme ntti
me ,butt heycana l
soa l
lo
wr ela
tiv
elyunskill
edpe o pleto
ins
tal
landma i
ntai
ne qui
pme nt.
$ec hiefstr
engthsofc o
mme r
cia
lsoluti
onsarethattheypr o
v i
des upport
anda( usual
lyli
mited)eq ui
pmentwa rr
anty
.$e ya l
soprovideac ons i
st
ent
pla
tfo
rmt ha
ttendst oleadtov e
rystable
,o f
teninte
rchangeablene twork
ins
tal
la
tions.

Ifapi eceo fequipme nts implydo es

n
two rko ri sdiNcultt ocon0gureo r
tro
ub lesho ot,ag oodma nufac
turerwi l
lassisty ou.
Shouldt hee quipme ntf ailinno r
ma luse( bar ri
nge xtr
emeda mage,sucha s
alightnings tr
ike)the nt hema nufactur
e rwi lltypical
lyreplaceit
.
Mo stwi llpr ovi
det he ses er
vic
esf oralimi tedt imea spa rto ft
hepur chase
pri
c e
,a ndma nyo 1ers uppo r
ta ndwa rrant yf ora nextende dperi
o dfora
mo nthlyf ee.Bypr o vidingac onsist
entpl atform,i tiss impl
et ok e
ep
spareso nha nda nds impl yswa po uteq ui pme ntthatf ai
lsinthe0e ld,
withoutt hene e
df orat e c
hnici
a ntoc on0g uree q
uipme nto n-s
it
e.
Ofc o urse ,allo fthisc omesa tc ompa ra
tive lyhi g
heri ni
tialcostforthe
equipme ntc ompa redt oo f
f-t
he-shel
fc ompo ne nts.
From ane two r
ka rchit
e ct
spointo fv i
ew,t het hreegreatesthi
dde nrisks
whe nc ho osi
ngc omme rci
also l
utionsa rev endo rlock-in,disconti
nued
produc tlines,ando ng oinglicensi
ngc osts
.

Itcanbec os
tl
yt oall
o wt helur
eo fil
l-
de 0nedne w feat
ures
drivethe
devel
o pme ntofyournetwo rk
.
Ma nufacturer
swi l
lfr
equentlyprov
idefeat
ur e
st hatar
ei ncompati
blewith
thei
rc ompe t
it
ionb y design,and theni s
sue ma r
ke t
ing mater
ial
st o
convincey out hatyous i
mpl ycannotlivewi thoutthe m( re
gar
dles
so f
whe t
he rthef e
atur
ec ont
ributest
ot hesoluti
ono fyourc ommunicati
ons
problem) .
Asy oube gi
ntor el
yont he s
efea
tures
,youwi l
llike
lyde ci
detoc ont
inue
purchasingequipmentfromt hesamema nufacture
rint hefutur
e.

$isi
stheesse
nc eofv
endorl
ock-i
n.
I
fala
rgeinst
it
utionuse
sasig
ni0ca
ntamounto
fpropri
et
arye
quipment
,it
i
sunl
ik
elythattheywil
lsi
mplyabando
nitt
ouseadi1er
entv
endor.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 207

S
ale
ste
amsk no
wt hi
s(andi
ndeed,somer
el
yoni
t)a
ndus
eve
ndo
rlo
ck-
i
nasast
rat
egyforpr
ic
enego
tia
ti
o ns
.

Whe nc ombined wit

hv e
ndorlock-in,ama nufact
ure
rma ye v
e ntual
ly
decidetodi scont
inueapr o
ductline,rega
rdl
esso fit
spo pula
ri
ty .$i s
ensuresthatcusto
me r
s,al
re
adyreli
anto nthema nufac
tur
er
spr opriet
ary
fea
tures,willpurchas
ethene we
st( and near
lyalwaysmo reexpe nsi
ve)
mo del.$el ongterme1ect
sofvendo rl
ock-i
nanddi s
cont
inuedpr oducts
arediNc ul
ttoe st
imatewhenpla
nni ngane t
wo r
kingproj
ect,buts houl
d
bek eptinmi nd.

Finall
y,ifapar
ti
cularpieceofequipmentusespro prie
tarycomput
ercode
,
youma yneedtoli
censeus eofthatco
deo nano ngo i
ngba s
is
.$ec os
tof
thes
el i
cense
sma yvaryde pendi
ngo nfeat
urespro vided,numberofus
ers
,
connecti
o nspe
ed,o ro therfacto
rs.Ifthelicens efeei sunpai
d,some
equipme ntisdesi
gnedt os implystop wor
k i
ngunt ilav a
li
d,pai
d-up
l
icenseisprovi
ded!Bes urethatyouunderst
andt hete r
mso fus
eforany
equipme nty
oupurchase,incl
udingongoi
nglicensingf ees
.

Byus inge quipme ntt hats upportss t

anda rdsa ndo pens o urc
es oft
wa re
,
youc ana voi
ds omeo ft hesepitfal
ls.
Fore xample,itisv e
rydi Nc ulttobe comel o cked-int oav endo rthatuses
openpr ot
ocols( sucha sTCP/ IPo ver802. 11a/b/g).Ifyo ue ncountera
problem wi t
ht hee quipme nto rt hev endo r
,y ouc ana lwa y
spur chase
equipme ntfrom adi 1e rentv endort hatwi llinteroperat
ewi thwha ty ou
havea lr
eadypur chased.I tisfort heserea s
o nsthatwer eco mme ndus ing
propri
e t
arypro t
o co l
sa ndl i
c e
ns e
ds pectrum o nlyi nc as
eswhe r
et heo pen
equivale
nt(sucha s802. 11a/b/g)isno ttechni c
all
yf easi
ble.
Likewise,whilei ndi v
idua lpr oductsc a
na lwa ysbedi sc
o ntinueda ta ny
ti
me ,y oucanl imi tthei mpa ctthiswillha v eo ny ourne two r
kb yusing
generi
cc ompo ne nts.
Fore xample,apa rt
icularmo therboardma ybe comeuna va i
la
bleo nt he
ma rke
t,buty o uma yha veanumbe ro fPC mo therboar
dso nha ndt hat
willperf
o r
me 1e ctivel
yt hes amet ask.
Ob viousl
y,theres houldbenoo ngoinglicens i
ngc ostsinvolv e
dwi tho pen
sources oft
ware( witht hee xce
ptiono fa v endo rpr ovidinge xte
nde d
supporto rsomeo thers er
vice,withoutc hargingf ortheus eo fthes of
tware
it
self)
.
208 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$ereha veo ccasi

ona l
lybeenv endorswhoc apit
ali
seo nthegif
tthatopen
s
ourcepr o
gra mme rshav egive
nt ot heworl
db yo1eri
ngt hecodeforsal
e
o
na no ng oingl i
censedba si
s,therebyvi
ola
tingt hetermso fdis
tri
but
ion
s
etfort
hb yt heo ri
ginalauthors
.
I
two ul
dbewi setoa voidsuchv endors
,andt obes uspi
c i
ousofcla
imsof

fr
ees o
ftwaret hatcomewi t
ha no ngoi
ngli
ce nsefee
.
$edi sadvantageo fusingo pens ourceso
ftwa r
ea ndg ener
ichardwar
eis
c
lea
rl
yt heq ue s
tio
no fsupport.

Asprobl
emswi ththenet
wor
kari
se
,y ouwi
llneedtosol
vet
hosepr
oble
ms
f
o ry
oursel
f.$isisoft
enacc
ompli
shedbyconsul
ti
ngfre
eonl
inere
sour
ces
andsear
che ng
ines
,andappl
yi
ngcodepat
chesdir
ect
ly
.

Ifyoudono thavet e
am me mber
swhoa r
ec o
mpe t
entanddedi
cat
edto
desi
gningas ol
uti
o ntoy ourcommunica
tio
nsprobl
em,thenitca
ntakea
consi
dera
bleamo untoftimet ogetanet
workproj
ecto1theg
round.
Ofc ours
e,ther
ei sneverag uar
ante
ethatsi
mplyt
hrowi
ngmo neyatt
he
probl
emwi l
lsol
v eitei
ther.

Whilewepr ovi
dema nyexamplesofhowto do mucho fthewor
k
yo
ursel
f,youmay0ndt hi
swo r
kv er
ycha
ll
eng
ing
.Youwillnee
dto0nd
t
heba l
anceofcommerci
als
olut
ionsandt
hedo-i
t-
your
sel
fappr
oac
htha
t
work
sfo ry
ourproj
ect
.

I
ns hort
,a l
waysde0nethes copeo fyourne twor
k 0rs
t,ide
ntif
ythe
r
esour
cesyoucanbri
ngtobe a
ront hepro
bl e
m,a ndal
lo
wt hese
lec
ti
onof
eq
uipmenttonatur
al
lyemergefr
omt heresul
ts.
Consi
dercommerci
also
lut
ionsaswe l
lasopencomponents
,whil
ekeepi
ng
i
nmi ndthelong
-ter
mc os
tsofbo t
h.

Whe nconsi
der
ingwhichequi
pmenttouse
,al
way
sremembert
ocompar
e
theexpe
cte
dusefuldi
st
anc
e,rel
ia
bil
i
ty,a
ndthr
oug
hput,i
naddi
ti
ontot
he
pri
ce.

And 0nal
ly
,ma kesur
et ha
tt he ra
diosyou purc
has
eo pe
rateina n
unl
ice
nsedbandwhe
reyouareinst
al
li
ngthe
m,ori fy
oumustuseli
cens
ed
spe
ctr
um,thatyo
uhavebudgetandpermi
ss
iontopayfort
heappropri
at
e
l
ice
nses
.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 209

Professional lightning protection

Lig
htni
ngisanatur
alpr
edat
orofwir
el
es
se q
uipment.Amapsho
wingt
he
gl
obaldis
tri
but
iono fli
ght
ning f
rom 1995 to 2003 i
ssho
wn he
re
fo
ll
owing.

Fi
gur
eHW 2:Gl
oba
ldi
st
ri
but
io
nofl
ig
htni
ngf
rom 1995t
o2003

$erear
etwodi1er
entwaysl
ig
htni
ngc
ans
tr
ikeo
rda
mag
eeq
uipme
nt:
di
re
cthi
tso
rinduc
ti
onhit
s.

Dir
ecthit
shappen whenli
ght
ningact
ual
lyhitstheto
we rora
nte
nna
.
I
nducti
onhit
sareca
usedwhenl
ight
ningst
ri
kesnea
rthetower
.

Ima g
ineanegat
ive
lycharg
edli
g ht
ningbo l
t.
Sinceli
kecha
rgesrepe
leachother
,thatboltwillca
usetheel
ect
ronsint
he
cable
stomo v
eawa yfr
omt hestri
ke,cr
eati
ngc urr
entonthel
ines
.
$i sc a
nbemuc hmo recur
rentthant hesensit
iver
adioequi
pme ntc
an
handle.
Eitherty
peofst
rikewil
lusua
ll
yde str
oyunprot e
cte
dequipment
.
210 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fi
gur
eHW 3:At
owe
rwi
thah
eav
yco
ppe
rgr
ound
ingwi
re
.

Pr o
tect
ingwi r
elessnetwo r
ksf roml i
g htningi sno ta nex a
ctscience,a nd
thereisnog ua rante
et hatalightni ngs tr
ikewi l
lno thappen,eveni fever y
singl
epr ecauti
o ni staken.Ma nyo ftheme thodsus edwi l
lhelppr event
bo t
hdi r
ecta ndi nductio
ns tr
ike s
.
Whi leitisno tne cess
arytous ee v er
ys inglel ightni ngprot
ecti
onme tho d,
usingmo reme t
ho dswi l
lhelpfur t
he rpr otectthee q ui
pment.
$ea mo unto fl i
ghtninghist
o ric
allyo bserve dwi thinas erv
iceareawi llbe
thebiggestg ui
det oho wmuc hne e dst obedo ne .
Startatthev erybo tt
omo fthet owe r.Re me mbe r,t hebotto
mo ftheto we r
isbe l
owt heg round.Af te
rt het o we rfounda t
ioni slai
d,butb e f
oret he
ho l
eisba ck0ll
e d,ar i
ngo fhe a v
ybr aidedg roundwi reshouldha vebe en
insta
ll
edwi t
ht heleade xte
ndinga bov egro unds ur faci
ngnearat owerle g.
$ewi resho ul
dbeAme rica
nWi r
eGa ug e( AWG)#4o rthi
cker.
Ina ddit
ion,aba c
kupg r
oundo re a
r t
hingr ods ho uldbedr i
veni ntot he
ground,a ndag r
oundwi r
erunf romt her o dt ot heleadfromt hebur i
ed
ring.
Itisimpo rta
ntt ono tethatno talls t
eelc onduc tse l
e ct
ri
ci
tythesamewa y.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 211

Somet ype sofs t

eela ctasbe tterelect
ricalc onduc t
orst hano thers,and
di1erents urfa
c ecoatingsc ana l
soa 1ectho wt owe rsteelhandl ese l
ectr
ical
curre
nt .S tai
nlesss t
eeli so neo ft hewo rs
tc o nducto r
s,a ndr us tpro o
f
coati
ng sli
k ega l
v a
nizi
ngo rpaintlessenthec onduc ti
vityo fthes t
e el
.
Fort hisr eason,abr aidedg roundwi r
ei sr unf r
omt heb ot
tomo fthe
towera llthewa ytothet op.$ebo ttom needst obepr operlya ttachedto
theleadsfr om bo thther i
nga ndt heba ckupg r
o undro d.
$et opo ft het owers houldha veal ig
htningr oda t
tached,a ndt het opof
thatne edst obepo i
nt e
d.$e0ne ra nd s harpert hepo int,t hemo r
e
e1ecti
v ether odwi llbe .
$ebr aidedg ro undwi r
ef r
o mt hebo tt
o m ne edst obet er
mi nate datthe
groundingo ft helightningr od.Iti sveryi mpo r
tantt obes uret hatthe
groundwi reisc onnectedt othea ct
ua lme t
al.Anys orto fcoa t
ing,s uchas
paint
,mus tber emo vedbe forethewi reisa t
tache d.Onc et hec o nnect
ion
isma de,t hee xposeda r
eac an be repainted,c overi
ng t hewi rea nd
connec t
o r
si fne ce
ssar
yt os avetheto werfromr us tando therc orro s
ion.

$ea bo v
es o l
uti
onde tai
lsthei nstal
lat
iono ftheba si
cg r
oundi ngsyst
em.
Itpro vi
despr ote
ctionf orthet o we rit
selffrom directhits,a ndinsta
ll
sthe
bases ys
temt owhi che verythinge l
sewi l
lco nnect.
$ei dealpr otec
ti
o nf orindi recti nductio
nl ig
htnings tri
kesa regastube
arr
estorsatbo thendso fthec abl e
.
$e sea rr
estorsnee dt obeg rounde ddirectl
yt otheg roundwi reinsta
ll
ed
ont hetowe rifitisatthehi g he nd.
$ebo t
tome ndne edstobeg r
o unde dtos ome thingelectr
icall
ys af
e,li
kea
ground plateo rac opperpi pet hatisc o nsi
ste
ntlyf ullo fwa ter
.Iti s
impo rta
nt t o ma kes uret hatt he o ut doorl ightning a rr
estori s
weathe r
proofed.
Ma nya r
res
te r
sf o
rc oaxc ablesa rewe atherpr oof
ed,whi lema nya r
res
ters
forCAT5c a bleareno t.Int hee ve ntthatg asarre
s t
orsareno tbei
ngus ed,
andt hec ablingisc oaxba sed,t he nattachingo nee ndo fawi retothe
shi
eldo fthec a
blea nd t heo thert ot heg ro
undwi rei nstal
ledo nthe
towerswi l
lpr ovi
deso mepr otection.
$i sc anpro videapa t
hf ori nduc tionc urrents
,a ndift hec hargeiswea k
enoug h,itwi l
lno ta 1ectt hec onduc t
o rwi reo fthec able.Whi l
et his
me t
ho disb ynome ansa sg oo dapr otec
tiona susingtheg a sarres
tors
,itis
betterthando ingno thinga ta l
l.
212 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Access Point Con2guration

$issec
ti
onwillpr
ovi
deasimpleproce
dureforthebasi
ccon0gurat
ionof
WiFiAcce
ssP oi
ntsand Cli
entsbyr ev
iewi
ng thema i
ns et
ti
ngsa nd
a
nal
ysi
ngthei
re1ect
sonthebehavi
ourofthenetwork
.
I
twillal
sosugges
tsomepracti
calti
psa nd tr
ick
sa nd t
rouble
shooti
ng
a
dvi
ce.

Be
for
eyo
ust
art
Whenyoure
cei
veso
mene w wir
ele
sse
quipmentta
kes
omet
imet
oge
t
a
cqua
int
edwi
thit
smainf
eat
uresandmakesur
eyou:

Do wnloado ro ther
wi s
eo bta
inalluser

sma nualsands peci
0cat
ion
sheetsavai
labl
ef orthede vi
cesyo
ua regoi
ngt odeploy.
Ify o u hav es econd-hand dev i
ces
,be s uret or ece
ivef ul
l
inf
o r
ma ti
ono nt he
irc urr
entorlast-
knownc o
n0g urat
ion(e.g
.
passwo r
d,IPa ddres
se s
,etc.
)
Yous houlda l
readyha veapl ano nhandfort henetwo r
ky oua r
e
going t o deploy( i
nc l
udi
ng link budget,ne tworkt opology
,
channe l
sandI Ps et
tings)
.
Ber eadytot akewrittenno t
esofallse
tti
ngsthatyoua regoingto
apply( e
specia
llypasswo r
ds!
)
Ma keba ckupso fla
stk nowng oodcon0gurat
ion0l e
s.

Ge
tti
ngi
nto
uchwi
tht
hede
vic
e
Asa0rstst
ep,i
tisi
mpor
tanttha
tyoulea
rnt
hemea
ningofallLEDson
thede
vic
e.
$e0g urebel
owshowst
hetypic
alf
rontofa
nAcc
essPoi
nt,wit
hsev
era
l
LEDslit
.

Fi
gur
eHW 4:ef
ronto
fat
ypi
calAc
ces
sPo
int
.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 213

LEDst
ypi
cal
l
yindi
cat
e:

Pr
esenceofpower
Act
iveport
s/traNc(yel
low/
gre
encolo
ur)
Err
orstat
us(r
edc o
lour)
Rece
ivedsi
gnalst
rengt
h(LED bar
s,some
ti
mesmult
ic
olour
;some
dev
icescanevenbes e
ttoli
ghteachLED ats
pec
i0cthre
sho
lds
,
e.
g.Ub i
qui
ti
)

Sometimes
,di1er
entme
ani
ngsar
eass
oci
at
edwit
hthesameLED,us
ing
di1e
rentcol
oursanddy
namic
s(e.
g.LED i
son/
o1/
bli
nkinga
tdi
1er
ent
spee
ds).

Y
ous
houl
dide
nti
fyt
hedi
1er
entpo
rtsa
ndi
nte
rfa
ceso
nthede
vic
e:

Radi
oi nt er
face s
,s ome timesca l
l
ed WLANs .$e ys hould have
oneormo rea ntennac o nnec
tors(ornon-det
achabl
eantennas
).
Oneo rmo r
eEt hernetinterf
aces:
Oneo rmo r
epo rtsforlo c
alnetwork(LAN)
Onepo rtforupl i
nk( alsocal
ledWAN)
Powerinput( 5,6,7. 5,12V o ro ther
,usual
lyDC) .Iti sreall
y
(r
eal
ly)i mpo rtantt hatt hepo wers upplyma t
chesthev olta
g e
!
Someti
me st hepo weri sprovi
dedt othede v
icethr
ought hesame
UTP c ablet hatc arr
iest heEthe r
netda t
a:thisiscal
ledP owe r
-
ove
r-Ethernet( Po E).
Powerbut t
on( nota l
wa yspres
ent).
Rese
tbut ton( oftenhi ddeninas mallhol
e,canbepr e
ssedusing
astr
aig
ht enedpa perc
lip).

$er es
etbuttonma yha vedi1e r
ente1ect
s(from as i
mpler est
arttoa
fac
toryfullrese
t)ifpres
sedbr ieWyv s
.foralongertime.Itc antake30
sec
ondso rmo retotri
ggeraf ul
lr e
set
.
NOTE:t ofullyres
et(i.
e.resett ofac
tor
ysett
ings)adevicethatisina n
unknowns t
atema ybeapa i
nfultask!
Bes uretok eepwr i
tte
n no teso fcri
ti
calpar
ame te
rsli
ket hede vi
ceI P
addres
sandne tworkma s
k ,andt headmini
st
rat
o ruser
namea ndpa s
sword.
$ef ol
lowing0g uresho wsac o mmonLinksysAc ce
ssP oi
nt,withthe
powerinput,thenetworkpo rts
,therese
tbutt
ona ndtwoa ntennas
.
214 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fi
gur
eHW 5:Li
nks
ysAc
ces
sPo
int

Us
eri
nte
rfa
ces
Yo
uc a
nint
era
ct(i
.e
.is
suecommandsa
ndcha
nges
ett
ing
s)wi
tht
heAcc
ess
Po
intinse
vera
lwa ys
,dependi
ngonthehar
dwa
rey o
ua r
eusi
ng.$e
pos
si
bl
ewaysar
ethefol
lowi
ng:

Gra
phic
alUserInte
rfa
ce( webpa ge
)
Gra
phic
alUserInte
rfac
e( propri
eta
rysoft
war
eappl
i
cat
ion)
CommandLineI nt
erf
ace( t
el
ne t
,ssh)
So
ftwa
reint
erf
aceembe ddedi nthesyst
em(whent
heAP/cl
ie
nti
s
acomput
erorsma r
tphonewi thadi s
pla
yandit
sownOS )

Us
eri
nte
rfa
ces
:GUI(
webpa
ge)
$issy
ste
mi suse
dinLink
sys
,Ubi
qui
tiandmo s
tmode
rnAps
.
Onceyouareconne
cte
dtotheAP,y
o uint
era
ctwi
ththede
vic
eus
inga
no
rmalbrowse
r.

Advantages
:itworkswithmo stbro
ws e
rsandoper
ati
ngs y
ste
ms
Disadvant
ages
:thes t
ati
ci nt
erfa
cedo e
sno tre
Wectchangesimme di
ate
ly;
poorf e
edback;canbei ncompati
blewithsomewe bbrowsers
;requir
esa
working TCP/ I
P c on0gurati
on.S ome rece
nt implementat
ions (e
.g.
Ubiquiti
,shown below)a reveryg oodand usemo der
n dynami cweb
fe
aturestoprovi
defee
dba c
ka ndadvance
dt o
ols
.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 215

Fi
gur
eHW 6:Ub
iqu
itiu
seri
nte
rf
ace
.

Us
eri
nte
rfa
ces
:GUI(
sof
twa
rea
ppl
ic
ati
on)
Inthi
sc a
seyouneed aspec
ialpi
eceofs of
twa
ret oint
era
ctwit
hthe
dev
ice
.$i ssyst
emisuse
di nMi k
roti
k( c
all
edWi nbo
x )
,Appl
e(cal
l
ed
Air
portUt
il
it
y),Mot
oro
la(ca
ll
edCanopy),manyoldAPs.

Adv a
ntages
: usual
ly power
fula nd appeal
ing int
e r
face
s;a l
lo
w ba tc
h
con0gurat
iono fmult
ipl
edevic
es.
Disadvant
ages
: propri
eta
rys ol
utio
ns; usual
lya va
ila
blef oro nlyone
operat
ingsyst
em;soft
waremustbei ns
tal
le
dbe f
orestar
tingcon0gura
ti
on.
Mi kr
otikWi nbox,shown bel
ow,i sav erypowe r
fuls o
lut
iona nd c
an
ma nagela
rgenetwor
ks.
216 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Us
eri
nte
rfa
ces
:Co
mma
ndLi
neI
nte
rfa
ce(
some
ti
mesc
all
edt
exts
hel
l
)
Int hi
sc asey o
uc onnec
tt othe devic
e using a se
ria
lo rEthernet
conne cti
on,vi
atelnetorssh.s
shismuchsafe
rt ha
nt e
lnetfr
om asecuri
ty
perspecti
ve(t
helatte
rshouldbeavoi
dedifposs
ible
).
Co n0g ur
ati
oni s pe r
for
me d wi
thc omma nds exec
utedi nthe ho st
opera t
ingsys
tem,usuall
yaWa v
ourofLinuxorapr opr
iet
aryOS,asshown
ont hene xtpage.

$isi
ssys
temisuse
db yMik
rot
ik(
call
edRout
erOS),Ubi
qui
ti(
cal
l
ed
Ai
rOS
),hi
gh-
endAPs(Ci
sc
o)a
ndembeddedPC-
base
dAps.

Adv
ant
age
s:v
erypo
wer
fula
sitc
anbes
cri
pte
d.

Di
sa
dva
nta
ges
:di
Ncul
ttol
ear
n.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 217

Fi
gur
eHW 8:Co
mma
ndLi
neI
nte
rf
ace
.

Co
n0g
uret
heAP
Be
for
eco
n0g
uri
ngt
heAP
,re
membe
rto
:

Startfrom ak no wnstat
e,orres
ett hedevicetofact
o r
ys ett
ings
(al
wa ysag oo didea!
).
Co nnectingt ot hedevi
ceviaEthernetisusuall
ye a
siert hanv ia
wireles
s.Mo s
tde v
ice
swi t
h a we b GUIha ve a defa ultIP
con0g ur
a ti
ono nt henetwor
k192. 168.
0.0,butthisisno tar ul
e!
Rea dthema nual.
Ifc onvenient,upg r
adethe0rmwa retot hel a
tes
tstablev e
rsio
n
(butbec a r
eful!
)
Cha ngethede f
aultadminuser
namea ndpa ss
wo r
d0rst!
Cha nget hede vicenamewithsome thi
ngt hatcl
ear
lyide nti0esit
(e.
g . s ome t
hing l ike AP_confere
nce_roo
m_3 o r
ho t
spot_public_are
a)
.$i swil
lhe l
py outor ec
ognis
et heAPi n
f
ut urewhe ny ouc onnec
ttoitove
rt henetwork.
218 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Fir
mwa reupgr
adeiso ftenaris
k yprocedure,besuret oadopta l
l
pre
caut
ionsbefo
reattempt i
ngit-sucha s-connectingthedevice
andthec omput
ert oaUPS ,thendono tperfor
mt he0rmwa re
updat
ewhi l
edo i
ngo thertask
so nthec o mputer
,a ndc hec
kt hat
you ha veav al
id 0 rmware binaryi mage, READ THE
INSTRUCTI ONSCAREFULL Y!Ifthepr ocedurefail
s,youc an
endupwi thanunus a
bl edevi
cethatcanno tberecovered(t
hes o-
cal
le
d bri
ck
).
Remembe rtowr i
tedo wn( ands tor
ei nas afepla c
e)allthese
set
ti
ngs
,e s
peci
al
lythea dminusername/pa s
sword.

Co
n0g
uret
heAP-I
Pla
yer
Ifyoua r
ec on0dentwithwha tyoua r
edoing,youcanpe rf
ormt heI P
con0gur
ati
o na f
terthewi r
el
essse
tupt oavoi
dt herecon0gura
ti
o nand
rec
onnecti
ono fy ourPC o rla
ptop.Butint hi
swa y
,ify ouma kea ny
mista
keinbo tht hewire
da ndwireles
sse
tup,youma ye ndupwi tha n
unrea
chabl
eAP .We 'dst
rongl
yadvi
sethaty
oudot hecri
ti
calcon0gura
ti
o n
st
epsonea tatime,chec
kingthest
atusoft
hede v
icea
ft
ere ac
hstep.
Reme mbertowr i
tedown( a
ndstor
ei nasa
feplac
e)al
lIPs et
ti
ngs!

Con0g
uretheEt
her
neti
nte
rfa
ceo
ftheAP a
cco
rdi
ng t
oyo
urwi
re
d
ne
twor
kset
up:

IPaddre
ss/net
ma sk/g
ate
wayo rDHCP
DNSa ddress(
es)
Doubleche c
kt hene wsett
ingsa
nda ppl
ythem( s
ometi
mesyou
mayhavet oreboottheAP)
Nowy ouma yne e
dt orec
on0gureyo
urPC/lapt
opt omatc
hthe
newEthernetsetup,andre
connec
ttotheAP.

Co
n0g
uret
heAP-phy
sic
all
aye
r
Con0guret
hemo de:ma st
er(oracc
esspoi
ntorba s
esta
tio
n).$e
devi
ce
smodecanus ual
lybec on0gure
da s
:maste
r(al
socalle
d
ac
cesspoi
ntor bas
es ta
ti
ono r BS)
,cl
ient
( al
socalle
d
manage
dorsta
ti
o norcli
entst
a t
ion
o rCPE),monit
o r
,
WDS (Wirel
es
sDi str
ibut
ionS ys
tem),and ra
rel
ys omeo ther
var
iant
s.
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 219

Co n0guret heS SID( ServiceS e

tI denti0er,t hena meo ft he
wirel
essnetwo rkc r
ea t
edb yt heAP,upt o32c haract
erslo ng ):itis
bestt
oc ho
oseame aningfulna me.Reme mbe rtha tsecurit
yt hroug h
obfuscat
ioni sno tr e
als ecuri
ty,so ahi dde no rf ak e/rando m
SSID doesno taddmuc hs ecuri
tytoy ourne two rk.
Co n0gurethewi r
elesschanne l
,a c
co r
dingt ot hel oc
a lreg ulati
o ns
andt heres
ul tofthes it
es urvey.
Dono tuseac hanne lthati salr
eadyo ccupiedb yano the rAPo r
othersourceso fRFpo we r.Yous houl
da l
readyh a
vep l
a nne dt he
channelinad vance,d ur
ingt hedesi
gnp hase.$ec hoi
c eo ft hebe st
channelissome time saha rdt a
sk,andy ouma yne e
dt ope rforma
sit
es urvey wi t
hs oft
wa r
et ool
s( wi r
eles
ss ni 1ers
)o rha rdwa re
spect
rum a na ly
sers( li
ket he Wi Spy from Me tag
e eka nd t he
AirViewfrom Ubi quit
i).
Co n0gurethet ra
ns mitpo werand ne two r
ks peed( thesev al
ue s
ma ya l
sobes e
tt o automa ti
cins omede vices)
.$ev a l
ueo f
tra
nsmi tpo we risa l
sos ubjec
tt ol o ca
lr e gulat
ion,c he cki n
advancethema xi
mum po wera l
lowedb yl aw,a ndt rya lwa yst o
uset hemi nimum v a
luet hat0ty ourne eds,i no rde rt oa v
o id
inter
fer
encewi t
ho therne t
wo rks(yoursoro the rs
).

$ec hoiceofnetworks pee

di sl
imit
edtot heva
lue
st hatar
epa r
to f
802.11a/b/
g/nsta
ndards( up t
o 54 Mbps)
,butsomev e
ndor
sc re
ate
d
ext
e ns
ionstothest
andards(oft
encal
l
ed t
urbomo
des)of100Mbpso r
higher
.$e s
earenon-st
andardandma ynotbeabl
etointer
oper
atewit
h
equipmentfromothervendors
.

Con0g uri
ng backwards compa t
ibi
li
ty mo des( s
ucha ss uppo
r t
ing
802.11b o n 802.11g ne t
works) wil
lr educet he ov
eral
lt hr
oughput
avai
labl
etoy ourf a
ste
stclie
nts.$eAc ces
sPointmustsendtheprea
mbl e
atas lowerrat
ef or802.11bc l
ient
s,anda ct
ualco mmunic
ati
onsbet
we en
theclie
nta ndt heAPha ppena t802.11bspeeds.$istakesmoretime,
ands l
owsdo wnt heotherwis
ef a
ste
r802.11gclie
nts.

Co
n0g
uret
heAPs
ecur
it
y
Se
curi
tyset
ti
ngsa
reof
tenahardchoi
ce,andi
tma
ybedi
Ncul
ttobal
ance
go
odpr o
tect
ionf
rom uni
nte
nti
onaluser
swit
hea
sya
cce
ssf
oraut
hor
ise
d
us
ers
.
220 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Mor
ecomple
xsecur
it
ynee
dswi
llr
equi
reamo
rec
ompl
exc
on0g
ura
ti
on
a
ndaddi
ti
ona
lso
ftwar
e.

Co
n0g
uret
hes
ecur
it
yfe
atur
eso
fthene
two
rk:

Noe ncrypti
on(alltraNci sincle a
r )
WEP( Wi r
edEqu i
va l
entPr i
vac
y ),40o r104bi t
sk e
y s
,itisWawed
andt herefor
edeprec ate
d
WPA/WPA2( Wi FiPr ot
ect
edAc cess):PS K,TKI Pa ndEAP
Ena bleo rdis
able(hi de)theSS ID br oadcas
t( be a
c on
).Hidden
SSIDa ndMAC 0l teringdono ta ddmuc hsecurity,anda r
eha r
d
toma i
ntainandas o urceoftrouble sfori nex
perience duser
softhe
netwo rk.
Ena bleo r dis
ablea n Ac ces
s Co ntr
o lLi s
t( basedo n MAC
addressesofcli
ents).MAC0l teringi sawe aksecur i
tyme as
ure:
A
ma l
iciousc l
ie
ntc anc apt
urepa c ketsa nd0ndo utwhi chMAC
addresseshavether ighttoa ss
o ciateI tc a
nt henc hangeit
so wn
MAC a ddresstoo neo ftheac ceptedo nesand fooltheaccess
point.

Fo
rmo r
einf
ormat
ionabouthowtode
si
gnthes
ecur
it
yo fy
ourwir
el
es
s
ne
two
rkple
aser
eadthecha
pte
rcal
l
edSe
cur
it
yinWire
les
sNet
work
s.

Co
n0g
uret
heAP-r
out
ing
/NAT
Adva
ncedI
Playera
ndrouti
ngcon0gura
ti
onfeat
uresar
eo f
te
nincl
ude
din
moder
na c
ces
spo i
nts
.$i scani ncl
udefunct
ional
it
yf orro
uti
ngand
Net
wo r
kAddr
essTr
ansl
at
ion(NAT),inaddi
ti
ontoba s
icbri
dgi
ng.

Adv
anc
edI
Pco
n0g
ura
ti
oni
ncl
ude
s:

S
tat
icr
out
ing
Dy
nami
cro
uti
ng
NAT(
mas
que
radi
ng,po
rtf
orwa
rdi
ng)
Fi
re
wal
l
ing
So
meAPscana l
soacta
s0l eser
ver
sandpr
ints
erv
ers(
ext
erna
l
HD a
ndpr
int
erscanbeconnec
tedvi
aUSB)
 11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION 221

Co
n0g
uret
heAPa
dva
nce
d
Afe
wmo r
eadva
nc e
dset
ti
ngsmaybea
vai
la
blef
ory
ourAP
,de
pendi
ngo
n
t
hemode
l/
vendo
r/0rmwa
re/
etc
.:

Beaconi nterv
al
RTS /
CTS .RTS /CTS( re
adyt ose nd,cl
eartosend)me chani
sm
canhe lpa ll
evi
atet hepr obl
e mofhi ddennodes(cl
ientsthatcan
hear
t he AP butno tt he otherc l
ie
nts
,theref
o r
ec reat
ing
int
erferences
).
Fragme ntat
ion.Co n0g urati
ono ft hefra
gmenta
ti
o nc a
nbeus ed
toincrea s
epe r
for
ma nceinthec a
seo fl
owsig
nalarea
s,thosewith
margina lcove
rage,o rlonglinks
.
Int
erferencerobustne s
s
Vendo re xt
ensi
onst otheWi Fis
tanda r
ds
Others e t
ti
ngsforl ongdi st
ancelinks(10to100k il
ome t
res)and
bet
ters ecuri
ty.

Con2gure the client

$ec
li
ents
idec
on0g
ura
ti
oni
smuc
hsi
mpl
er
:

Con0gurethemo de
:clie
nt(o rma nage
d,s tati
on,cli
e nts ta
ti
on,
CPE)
Con0guretheS SI
Do fthenetworktobej oined
$ec hannel,s
peed,ando t
herparameter
swi llbesetauto matic
all
y
toma t
chtheAP
IfWEPo rWPAi sena
bledont heAP ,youwi llhavetoe nte
rthe
matchi
ngpa ss
wo r
d(key)
Cli
entsma yalsohaveaddit
ional(oft
env endo r-
spec
i0c )s e
tti
ngs
.
Forexa
mp l
e,somecli
ent
scanb econCgure
dtoa s
soc
iat
eo nlywi t
ha n
APwi t
has pec
iCedMACa d
dres
s.
222 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Hints - working outdoors

Yo
us houl
dt rytocon0g
uret hedevi
ces(bo
thAPsandcl
ient
s)
wel
linadvanceandinac omfor
tabl
eplac
esuchasala
bor
ator
y.
Worki
ngo utdoor
sismo r
edi Ncultand mayle
adto mi
st
akes
(
on-s
it
econ0gura
ti
on=trouble
).

Ifyoumustcon0guredevic
eso utdoor
s,besur
etoha veenoug
h
bat
ter
yc har
geo ny our laptop,t oc a
rryallthe requi
re
d
inf
ormat
ionwit
hy ou( onpape r
,no tonl
yine l
ect
roni
cformat
!)
andtoc a
rryano tepa
dt ota keno t
es.Gooddocumenta
tionis
par
amountforf
uturema i
nte
na nceinthe0el
d!

Troubleshooting
Organiseyourwo rkinl o
g i
calst
epsa ndfo ll
owt hem.
Readthema nual
,s t
udyt heme a
ni ngo fpa ra
me te
rsa ndsett
ings
,
runtest
sa nde x
pe r
iments(do n
tbes car
ed!).
Inthec as
eo fprobl
ems ,doaf act
o ryres
eta ndt ryagai
n.
Ifthepr obl
em pe r
si
sts,tryagainc hangingo nepa ra
me te
r/se
tti
ng
atatime .
Itsti
lldo e
sn
two r
k?Tr yt ose arc
ho nt hewe bf orreleva
nt
keywords( nameo ft hede vic
e,e tc.
),searchi nf or
umsa nd on
manufacturer/vendorswe bs
ites
.
Upg r
adet he0rmwa retothel a
testv e
rsi
on.
Ifyous t
illhaveproblemst r
ywi thadi 1e rentclie
nt/AP,tocheck
i
fy ouha v
eaha rdwarei s
suewitht heo r
iginalone.
 12. INDOOR INSTALLATION 223

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

Introduction
Pre
viousediti
onsofthisbo okha vefocusedonwi de-a
reao utdoo
rwi re
les
s
asame anso fc onnect
ing c o
mmuni tie
swi t
he a
cho the rand tot he
Int
ernet
.Ho wev
er,witht hea v
ail
a bil
it
yo fWi Fiacce
sspo intsforal ow
pri
ceandt heproli
fer
ati
ono fport
ablede vi
cesthatar
eWi Fic apa
ble,WiFi
hasbecomet hedef a
ctostandardfo rindoornetwor
ka cce
ssi nEnterpr
ise
s
ands c
hools.$i schapte
ri ntroduc e
st hema i
nf oc
uspo intsinc hoos
ing
andinst
all
ingWi Finetworksindoo rs.

Preparations
Bef
oreinstal
lingawi rel
essLAN i ti sag oodi de ato0r s
tthinkt hings
thr
oughabi t:
Wha tisi ttha tyo ua r
epl anningt odowi ththewi re
les
sne twork?
Isita na ddit io
nt ot hewi redne t
wo r
ko rar eplacementfo rit
?Ar e
youg o i
ngt or una ppl i
cationso verthene tworkt hatareno tde l
ay
tol
er anto rs ensiti
vet oba ndwi dthv ar
iat
ions( l
ik evoic
ea ndv ideo
conferenc i
ng ) .
$ema indi 1e rencebe tweeni ndoorando utdo orwirel
essi sthe
absorptiona nd reWe c
tiono fr adiowa ve
sb yt hebui l
dingi ts
elf
.
Wha tbui l
di ngf eat
ur e
sdoy o
une edtot akeintoa ccount?Dot he
wallsha veme tal
,wa t
ero rhe av yconcret
ei nt hem?Dowi ndo ws
haveme tali nt hem( e.g.me t
a lcoat
ingo rme ta
lg r
ids)?Ist he
buildingl onga nds tre
tchedo rc ompact?
Doy o ue xpe ctus e
rstobema i
nl ysta
ti
c,o rwi l
lt heymo veal o t
?
And whe nt heymo ve,isi ti mporta
ntt o ha veuninte r
rupted
hando ver( t hisme ans,aha ndo v
ers oq uickt ha tyou wi l
lno t
noticet hei nt e
rruptiono fav o i
c ecal
l)
?
Ar et hereg o odpl acestoha ngt heAc cessPo i
nts?Ar ewireds ocket
s
ande le
ctricityfort heAPsr eadilyavail
able?Ise lec
tri
cit
ys ta
ble?If
not,e veni ndo orAPsmi ghtne eds tables olar/
batt
ery po wer
suppliesa nd/ orUPS .
Ar et he reso urceso fint e
rferenc e
,likead- hocAPsbr oughti nb y
users,blue t
o o t
hde vices,mic r
o wa ve
s?
224 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Bandwidth requirements
Stepo nei
nde si
gni
nga ni ndoorwirele
ssne tworkistode t
erminet heneed
intermso fthenumbe ro fc o
ncurr
e ntus erstosuppo r
t,thenumbe rand
typeo fdevi
cesandt het ypeofappl i
ca t
ionstheya rerunning.Itisa ls
o
impo r
tanttounde r
standt hedist
ributiono ftheus er
s.Lectureha l
lsor
me et
ingroomsha vedi 1erentusagepa t
ternsthanc o
rri
dors.A wi rel
es
s
networkthatishardl
yus eda ndtha tne edstos uppo r
tal o
w numbe rof
usersiseas
yt odeploya ndwi l
lno truni ntotroubleeasi
ly
.$et roubl
e
st
a r
tswhent henumbe ro fusersandt hei
rus eo fthene t
wo rkincreas
es.
$i schapte
rtheref
orefocusesonhigh-de nsit
ywi r
eles
sne t
works.
Tog i
vey o
ua ni deaf ort hebandwi dthr equir
eme ntfors omet ypical
appli
cati
ons:

web surCng: 500 - 1000 kb/s

audio: 100 - 1000 kb/s
streaming video: 1 - 4 Mb/s
Cle sharing: 1 - 8 Mb/s
device backup: 10 - 50 Mb/s

Typic a
li ns
tal
lat
ionsi na no Nceenvi
ronme nta redime nsi
o nedtos upport
20-30us ersperc el
la ndha veabout1a ccesspo i
ntpe r250- 500s quar
e
me tres
,buta sme ntioned bef
ore,depe ndingo nc har
acteri
st
icso fthe
environme ntthisma yno tbesuNc i
ent.Inade nseenv i
ronme nttheremay
beupt o1de vi
cepe r20s quar
eme tr
es.Bo t
t oml ine,y o
une e
dt ocalcul
at
e
thet hroughputne ededpe rcove
ragear
e a
.
Soi fyouha v
elet'
ss ay10us er
sina100s qua reme trearea,ofwhi c
h8a r
e
sur0ngt hewe ba nd2a rewa t
chingonlinev ideoy ouwi l
lne e
d:8*1000
kb/s+2*4000k b/s=16000k b/sforthe100s quareme tr
eareao r160
kb/spe rs q
uareme tre.

Frequencies and data rates

$e2. 4GHza ndthe5GHzs ol
utionsdi1erinafewk e
yaspe
cts
.$e2. 4
GHzba ndhasabe tte
rrang
ea ndl es
sa t
tenuat
ionandissuppor
tedin
mostdevic
es.
$ema indowns i
deofthe2.4GHzba ndi sthatthe
rear
eo nl
y3no n-
ov
erl
apping channel
s,whi
chs e
verelylimit
st hethenumb erofacce
ss
poi
ntsthatca
nbepl ace
dinacerta
ina r
ea.
 12. INDOOR INSTALLATION 225

$i sisunf or
tuna t
es i
nc ema kings ma l
lercells(f
orme db yha vi
ngt heAPs
broadcastwit
hl e s
spo wer )isthee as
iestwa yo fcreat
ingmo rethro
ug hput
perarea.
No t
e:s ometi
me s4s lightlyo v
e r
lappingc hannelsa r
ea dvis
ed,butr es
earch
showst hatinf a c
tt hisde creas
e spe rfo
rma nce.P er
formanc eing eneral
,
degradesfas
twi tho verlappingc hanne l
s(co-c hannelinterf
e r
ence)
.$e5
GHzba nd ont heo the rha nd ha sa wo r
ser angebutha sin mo s
t
geographie
sa round20c hanne l
swhi chma k esitmuc he a
s i
ertode ploy
wit
ho utinter
fer
e ncefroma dja
c entcha nnel
s.
$eo therimpo rtanteleme ntist hec hoiceo fWi Fistandard,consi
de r
ing
tha
ta verag
ethro ughputi nMb/ sforthemo stcommo nt ec
hno l
ogie
sa re
:

11b: 7.2 Mb/s

11g: 25 Mb/s
11a: 25 Mb/s
11n: 25 - 160 Mb/s

Itsho uld beno tedt hatperf

ormancedr opswhe n,forexampl e,both
802.11ba nd11gde vice
sareserv
edb ythes a
meAP .Inane two rkwhe r
e
cl
ientde vi
cesar
eus i
ngami xof802.11gand11b ,theAPwi llshif
tdo wn
tolowe rspee
ds.
5 GHzi sapr eferre
dc hoic
ef orhigh perf
ormancea nd high densit
y
net
wo rk s
.Asy ouwo uldlik
etolimitthecover
ageofe a
chAPt oo nes mall
wellde 0nedareaa nyway,si
gnalatt
enuat
ionb ywallsetci
sa na dvanta
ge
rat
hert hanapr obl
e m.
$ede ploymento f2.4GHzf o
rthema jor
it
yo fdevice
s,co
mbi nedwi t
h5
GHzf orthe"impo rta
ntdevic
es"iswort
hc onsi
der
ingtoo.

Access Points choice and placement

Wheni tc omestochoosi
ngAc ce
ssP oi
nt s(APs)forindoo rwir
ele
ssthere
ar
eessential
ly2a r
chi
tect
uralchoic
es:c ontr
olle
rba s
eda nd" fatcl
ie
nts".
Fatcl
ientsarest
and-a
loneAPst hathav ealltheinte
lli
genceo nboar
dt o
manage a Wi Fi network ( c
hoosing S S
IDs ,e ncr
y pti
on me t
ho d,
ro
uti
ng /s
wi t
chi
ngetc.
).$ec o
ntroll
er-base
ds olut
iono nt heotherhand
hasAPst hati
mplementt hemi ni
ma lf unct
ionali
tytoo 1erawi rel
ess
se
rvi
cea longwithac ent
ralcontrol
le
rt hatisc ommo nf ora l
lAPsa ta
l
ocat
ion.
226 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$ec entr
alcontrol
lerals
oha sal
ltheintel
li
genceandallt
raNcfr
omt he
APsdi
rect
edtoi t.
$ec hoicebetweeno neo fthetwoa rchi
tec
ture
sisat ra
de-o
1between
cos
t,e
a s
eo fma nag
e mentands c
ala
bili
ty
.Ing ener
alonecansayt
hatthe
morecomplexthee nvir
onmentandt helar
gerthesiz
ethemo r
eat
tra
cti
ve
i
tbecomestorunac ontr
oll
er-
base
ds ol
utio
n.

AccessPoint
ss houlding enera lbepl a
cedi nthea reaswit
hahi ghdensity
ofusers,thesignalwi l
lpro bably" le
ak"s uNc i
e ntlyt oal
soservethele s
s
densea r
eas.Unf ortunat
el
yt heo vera
llpe rfo
rma nceo fthes ys
tem wi l
l
mo st
lybede t
ermi nedb ythec l
ients
,no ttheAPs ,sot hepl
acementoft he
APs,whi l
eimpo rtant,cano nlydos omuc hfo rt hepe r
for
ma nceoft he
overa
llsyst
em.Ot he rradi
os ourcesintheWi Fiba ndshaveav erystr
o ng
inWuenceo nt hepe r
for
ma nc eo ftheWi Fine two rk,soi ng ene
ral
,i f
possi
bletheAPss ho ul
d,asmuc ha spossi
ble,bei sol
atedfr
omo t
herradio
sourc
es,byusingwa lls
,cei
ling sandpe oplea s"shields".

Inordertoimpro v
epe rfor
ma ncei
ti spossi
bletouseext
ernala nte
nna s
.
Omnidi r
ect
ionalantennasarethemo s
tcommo nl
yusedandt heyprovide
ac o
v e
rag
ea re
ar oughlyc i
rcul
araround theAP .In mos
ti ndoo rcases
,
however
,APswi llbe i nsta
ll
edo n walls,ceil
i
ngs,orc olumns ,and
omnidir
ect
ionalant
enna sareabadcho i
ce,ifyoulookatwhe r
et heradio
wavesar
egoing,andwhe r
etheuser
sa r
e.

Sof o
rt hes
ec a
sesinwhichtheAPi snotatthecentr
eo ftheareatobe
cover
ed, direc
ti
onala nte
nnasa r
ea na lte
rnat
iv
e.S o me ho t
elsand
confe
renceha l
ls,forexample,pl
acesmalldir
ect
ionala nt
ennasatthe
corner
so flar
ge,o penareasoro ve
rhe
adt o provi
dea " canopy"or
"umb r
ella
"ofs i
gnalcov
erag
einlar
gespac
es.Keepinmi ndthatthemany
reWec
ti
o nstypical
l
ye ncounte
redina ni ndoorenvir
o nmentma keit
diNculttotrytofull
ycontr
olaspec
i0ccov
erage
.

Acces
sP oi
ntscanbemo unte
do nthec ei
li
ng,onthewal
lsorinfurni
ture
,
eac
hwi thdi1erentchar
acte
ris
ti
cs.Ceil
ingmo unti
nggiv
esag oodblank
et
cove
rage,wallmo unti
ngo f
tengetstheAPsc l
ose
rtotheusersandAPs
undertabl
eso rchair
sorwi t
hinfurni
turecanusethenatur
alis
olat
ionto
cr
eatesmallcel
lswithli
ttl
einte
rfer
encefrom nei
ghbo
uri
ngAPs ,butthe
re
mightbec oncernsaboutthepo ssi
bili
tyo fharmf
ule 1e
ctsfrom the
ra
diati
onemi t
ted.
 12. INDOOR INSTALLATION 227

Las
tl
y,forr e
all
yde mandinghighperf
orma
nc enetwor
ks,APswit
hsmart
ada
pti
vea ntennatechnol
o g
ymi ghtbeano pt
ion.$e ycomeatapric
e,
buto1ert hea dv
antageofa da
pti
ngtheradiosig
naltotheloc
ati
onsof
use
rsdynami cal
ly-t heywilldir
ectt
heradiowa ve
stowhe r
etheyare
nee
ded,ate a
chpo i
ntint i
me .

SSID a n d Network Architecture

I
ndoo
rne t
wo r
ksar
el i
kel
yt ose
rve many conc
urr
entuse
rs.Larg
er
c
omple
xesli
keauniv
ers
it
yc a
mpustypi
cal
l
yc ons
is
tofmanybuil
dings
,
e
achwit
hthei
rowni
ndoornet
wor
k,andoutdo
ornetwor
ksi
nbetwee
n.

Itistheref
oreimpo rtanttoma keag o
o dplanforyo urS SIDs .
No tetha ttheS S ID de 0nest hebr o a
dcastdo maino n La yer2o fthe
netwo r
k.S SI
D pla nningne edstopl ayto g
etherwithy ourLa yer3ne twork
archit
ecture
.Ify o
uwo uldlikeus e
rstor oams eamless
lya c r
ossy ourwho l
e
wirel
essne t
wo rka rea
,wi thino rev enbe yondo nebui l
di ng,thena llAPs
shouldo 1ert he s ame S SI
D,f o re xample" Uni versit
yWi rel
ess
",o r
"eduroam"f orauni v
e r
sitythatwa ntstopa rti
ci
pateint heg lobalroaming
servi
cethateduroamo 1e rs
.
Ho wever,userswhos taywi thino neS SI
D wi l
lno treq uir
eo rrequesta
new DHCPl ease
,s oy ouwi l
lha vet oa c
como dateallus erswithinONE
Lay e
r3s ubnet.
Foral a r
gec ampus ,thismi ghtr e
q ui
real a
rgeWa tsubne tfora l
lwi re
les
s
users.
$i si sat rade-o1s ituatio
n -y ouc ane i
therha vehug es ubnetswith
seamlessroaming,o ramo r
ema nageablesubnetarchi
tecturewi thseparat
e
SSIDss ucha s"Library","LectureHa l
l","Cafete
ria
",...

Post Installation
No wt hattheinfrast
ruct
urei sinplaceitisimpo rtanttoma kesuret hat
ever
ythingwo rksa sexpect
e dandr emainsli
ketha t.$i sc anbedo nei n
theformo fasit
es urvey
,me asuri
ngs i
gnalst
rengthsa ndt hroughput.But
inthee ndt hema i
nr easo
nt oi nst
allawi r
el
e s
sne t
wo rkist oservet he
user
so fit,solis
teningtous erscomplai
ntsori s
suesi sequall
yi mpor t
ant.
Dema nd c onst
antlyc hangesa nd so doest hes tate-of
-the-a rt
.I ti s
importantt okeepupt oda t
ewi thus e
rrequi
reme nt sandma t
cht hatt o
pla
nne dupg ra
deso fthetechnologyyoua r
edeploying .
228 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

Althoug
h Wi Fitechno
log
y wasde
si
gne
df orloc
alar
ea net
wo r
ks,it
s
i
mpa cti n dev
elo
ping count
ri
esi
s more dr
amat
ici
nl o
ng-dis
tanc
e
appli
cat
ions
.

Inde v
elopedcountr
ies,0breo pt
icca
bleso 1er
inglargeba ndwidthshave
beeninstal
le
ds at
isf
yingt hec ommunic
a t
ion needso fmo stcit
ies.$e
penetr
ati
ono fopti
cal0breint hedev
elopi
ngwo r
ldisno tnearl
ya sgrea
t
and nowhe r
e neare nought oc ov
ert hene eds.And t hec os
to fit
s
expans
iono f
tendoesno tme e
tt heROI( Re t
urno nInve s
tment)g oal
sof
tel
coswithi
nar e
asonableperiodofti
me .Wi rel
esstechno l
ogies
,o nthe
othe
rha nd,havebeenmuc hmo res
ucce
s s
fulinde v
elopingc ountr
iesand
thepo t
enti
alforincreasi
ngt hepenetr
ation usi
ngwi r
elessnetworksis
enormous.

Tel
coshaveinst
all
edtra
dit
iona
lmi c
rowavera
dioli
nksinmo stc
ountr
ie
s.
$i sisama t
uretec
hnolo
gyt hato1er
shighr e
li
abi
li
tyanda v
ail
abi
li
ty
rea
chi
ng99.999%.Ho wever
,thes
esyst
emscostmanythous
andsofdol
la
rs
andrequi
respeci
al
lyt
rai
nedperso
nnelfori
nst
all
at
ion.

Satel
li
tesy s
temshavepr o
ve dwellsuit
edf orbroadca
sttraNcli
k eTV and
cert
aino therappl
icat
ions.Ho wever,sate
ll
itesolut
ionsaresti
llexpe
nsi
ve
forbidire
cti
onaltr
aNc ,whi l
eWi Fiisq ui
tecoste1ecti
veinoutdoorpoi
nt
topo intne t
wo r
ksa swe l
la sint ypicala c
cessnetworkswhe r
eaBa s
e
Stat
ion( BS)isserv
ingma nyClients/
CPEs( pointtomul ti
poi
nt).Inthi
s
chapterwewi l
lbeconc e
nt r
ati
ngo nt heo ut
doo rl
ong -di
st
ancepo i
ntto
pointlinks.

Twos igni0canthurdlesha dt obeo verc

o mebe f
orea ppl
yingWi Fitolong
dis
tance:P owerbudg etlimitat
ionsandt i
minglimitati
ons.$er emai
ning
l
imitationsforusingWi Fioverlongdi s
tancesarether e
qui r
ementforthe
exi
stenceo fradi
ol i
neo fsightbetweent heendpoint
sa ndt hevulner
abil
it
y
tointerfer
encei ntheunl icense
dba nd.$e0r stli
mi ta
ti
o nc a
no fte
nbe
addresse
db ytaki
nga dvantageoft heter
r a
inelev
ations,orb yusi
ngt ower
s
toov erc
o meo b
stac
lessucha sthec urv
a t
ureoft hee ar
tha ndtopr ovi
de
Fres
ne lzonec l
eara
nce.
 13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 229

Fori ndo ora ppli

c ati
ons,l i
neo fs ightisno trequire
ds incethes tationsa r
e
veryc loset ogethe randmo sto bstacl
e scanbec l
earedb yr e
We ctionso n
wa l
ls,c ei
ling,e tc.Butf orl ongdi s
tancea ppli
c a
tions,lineo fs i
g htis
absolutel
yc ri
tic
a l
.$es econdl imi ta
ti
o ni sles
spr onouncedi nr ur a
la r
e a
s
andc anbea ll
eviatedb ymi grati
ngt othel es
scrowde d5GHzba nd.
$epo we rbudg e tiss
uec anbeha ndle db yusinghi ghg ai
na nte nnasa nd
powe rfula ndhi ghlys ensit
iver adiosa tt
acheddi re
c t
lyt othea nt ennat o
avoidRFc ablelo s
s.$et i
mingl imi t
ationha stodowi ththeme diaa cces
s
techniques. Wi Fi us esa r andom a ccess me t
hod t o s ha r
et he
communi ca t
ionsme dium. $i sma kesi tsubjectt oc ol
li
sions ,whi ch
canno tbe de t
ec tedo v erthe a i
r,t heref
oret he t r
ansmi t
terr el
ieso n
recei
v i
nga na ckno wledgme ntfo rev e
rys ucce
ssf
ullyreceive
df rame .
If
,a ft
e ra s peci0eda mo unto ft ime ,c al
le
dt he " ACKtime ou t
",t he
ackno wledg eframei sno trec
e i
ved,t het r
ansmitte
rwi llres
endt hef rame .
Sincet het ransmi tte
rwi llnots endane wf ra
meunt i
ltheACK f o rthe
previouso neha sbe e
nr ec ei
ved,theACKt i
meoutmus tbek eptsho rt.
$i swo r
k swe l
li nt heo rig
ina ls c
e nari
oi ntendedf o
rWi Fi( indoor
netwo rks)
,i n whi cht hepr o
pa gatio
nt imeo f33. 3 mic r
oseco ndspe r
kil
o me tr
ei sne g
ligible,butbr eaksdo wnf o
rlinkso veraf e
wk i
lome tres.

Al t
ho ug hma nyWi Fide vicesdono tha vepr ovi
sionsf ormo difyingthe
ACKt ime out,ne we requipme ntme antf oro utdoora ppl i
cati
ons( orthird
pa rty0r mwa rel ik
eOpe nWRT)wi llg i
vey out hispo s
sibi
lit
y,o ftenb y
me anso fad is
tance0eldi nt heGUI( Gr aphicalUs erI nter
f a
ce).
Cha ngingt hispa rameterwi l
la l
lowf orar easo
na blet hroughput ,whi ch
wi l
la ny way de cr
ease pro porti
onallyt ot he distanc e
.$e c o ntenti
o n
wi ndo ws lot-timea ls
one e
dst obei ncreasedt oa daptt ol ongerdistances
.
Ot he rma nuf act
urersha vec ho s
ent omo vef r
o mr ando ma cces
st oTi me
Di visi
onMu ltipl
eAc ce
ss(TDMA)i nstead.TDMAdi videsa cc
esstoag iv
e n
cha nne lintomul t
ipl
et imes l
ots,anda s
signst heseslo t
st oe achno deo n
thene t
wo rk.Ea c
h no de t ransmitso nlyi ni tsa ssigneds l
ot,t hereby
avo idi
ngc olli
sions.Inapo intt opo i
ntl i
nkt hispr ovidesag r
eata dvantage
sinc eACKsa reno tne ededbe c
ausee achstationt a
k esturnsa ttransmi t
ti
ng
andr eceiving.
Whi let hisme thodi smuc hmo ree Nc i
ent,i tisno tc o mpliantwi tht he
Wi Fistanda rd,s oseveralma nufacturerso1e rita sa no ptionalpr oprie
tary
pro tocol,a longsidethes tanda r
dWi Fi.Wi MAXa ndpr opr i
etar
ypr oto
co l
s
(suc ha sMi k ro
tikNs treme ,o rUbi quitiNe two rksAi rMAX)us eTDMA
toa voi
dt heseACKt i
mi ngi ss
ues.
230 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$e802. 11standar
dde 0ne st her ec
eive
rse nsi
ti
vit
ya sther ecei
veds i
gnal
l
evelrequire
dt oguarant
e eaBER( BitErrorRate)bel
ow10 .m5

$isde terminesthea mo unto fe nergyperbi trequi

redt oo v
ercomet he
ambientno iseplust heno is
eg e ner
atedb yther ec
eiveri ts
elf
.Ast he
numbe ro fbit
s/s
econdt ransmi t
tedincreas
es,mo rerece
iverpo we rwillbe
nee
de dt o pro v
ide the s ame e nergy perbi t.$e refor
et he receiv
er
se
nsiti
vit
yde crea
sesa sthet ransmi t
terrat
ei ncre
ases
,sot oma intai
nt he
sa
me s i
gnal/
no i
ser ati
oa st he di st
ancei ncr
ease
st he t hroughput
di
mi ni
she s
,or,alt
ernati
vely,forlong e
rdistancesonesho uldc hooselower
dat
ar atestoc ompe nsa
tef o rther educti
ono fthesignals tre
ng t
hwi th
di
stance.

What is needed for a long distance link?

$erearefoura s
pectst
hatnee
dtobeco
nsi
der
edtoa daptWiFidev
ice
st o
l
ongdis
tance:incre
aset
heradi
odyna
micra
nge;i
ncre
a s
etheante
nnagain;
de
cre
asethea ntennacabl
eloss
;andmakeprov
isi
onsf ort
hethes i
gnal
pr
opaga
tiontime.

Fi
gur
eOI1:Po
weri
ndBm v
sdi
st
anc
einar
adi
oli
nk(
Powe
rbu
dge
t)
.

$eg
raphaboveshowsthepo
werl
evela
teac
hpointi
nawi
re
les
sli
nk.
$et
rans
mit
terpr
o v
ide
ssomeamountofpo
wer.
 13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 231

As ma l
lamountisl
ostinattenuat
ion betwe
e nthetra
nsmit
terandthe
ant
ennai ntheRFc abl
eo rwa vegui
de.$ea nt
ennathenfocuse
sthe
power,prov
idi
ngag ai
n.Att hispo i
nt,thepo werisatthema xi
mum
poss
ibleval
uefortheli
nk.$i sva l
uei scall
edtheEI RP (
Equiva
lent
Is
otr
o pi
c Radi
ate
dP ower
)s i
nc eitc orre
spondstot he po
we rthata
tr
ansmitt
erwoul
dhavetoemitiftheantennahadnog ai
n.

Betweent
het r
ans
mitti
ngandr e
cei
vi
nga nt
enna
stherearefreespa
cea
nd
envi
ronmenta
llos
ses
,whic
hi ncre
asewit
ht hedi
sta
nc ebetweenthel
i
nk
endpoi
nts
.$er ec
eivi
ngantennaprov
idessomea ddit
ionalgai
n.$e n
ther
eisas malla
mo unto
fl ossbet
weentherece
ivingantennaandthe
rec
eiv
ingradi
o.

Iftherece
ivedamountofe nergyatthefarendisg reat
erthantherec
eiv
e
sensi
ti
vit
yo ftheradi
o,thel inkispo s
si
ble.Increas
ingthet r
ans
missi
on
powercanle a
dtoviol
ati
onso fthere
g ul
at
o r
yframe workofthecountr
y.
Incre
asi
ngt heante
nnag ai
ni sb yfa
rt hemo ste 1ec
tiv
ewa ytoi mprov
e
range.Ma k
es uretha
tther adiotobee mplo
y e
dha sconnect
orsforan
exter
nalantenna(somede v
iceshavea ne mbe ddedo ro t
herwis
eno n
removabl
ea nte
nna)
.

Dec
reas
ingl
ossi
na nte
nnacabl
esiss
ti
llanimpo
rtantis
sue,andthemo s
t
r
adi
calwaytoatt
ai
ni tistoplac
etheradi
oouts
ide,dir
ectl
yatt
ache
dt o
t
heante
nna,empl
oy i
ngawe at
her
proofbox
.Oft
ent hi
slendstopower
ing
t
heradi
ousi
ngPoE( Powerove
rEther
net)
.

Impro
vingthere
cei
vers
ens
it
iv
it
yimpli
eschoo
singamodelwi
thbett
er
per
for
ma nc
e,orset
tl
efo
rlowertr
ans
miss
ions
pe e
dswhe
rese
nsi
ti
vi
tyis
hig
her
.

Alt
houg
hhighg ai
nant
enna
scanbeexpens
ive
,inmanyco
unt
ri
eso
necan
0ndsat
el
li
teante
nnast
hatar
enolong
e rbe
inguse
da ndc
anbemodi
0ed
fo
rtheWiFibands.

In ape r
fectwor l
d,wewo ul
dus ethehighes
tgainantennaswi t
ht he
l
oude s
ta nd mosts ensi
ti
ver adi
ospo s
si
ble
.Butanumbe ro fprac
ti
c a
l
consi
dera
tionsma ket hi
si mpo s
si
ble
.Ampli0er
sintr
oduc
ea na ddi
ti
onal
pointoffai
lur
e,ina ddit
iontheymightvio
lat
ema x
imum po werpermit
ted
bylocalr
e g
ulat
ionsa ndaddno is
einrec
epti
on,sot
heyshouldbea voi
ded.
232 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Highpowe
rtransmit
ter
sareav
ail
abl
efrom ma
nymanufa
cture
rsthato1e
r
upto1W o fo ut
putpowerwhic
hc oul
dbeusedi
nst
eado fampli
0er
sin
tho
seco
untr
ieswherethi
sisl
egal
.

Ing e
neral
,itisbet t
ertousehi ghg a
ina nt
ennasthanhi g
ht r
a nsmit
ter
power.Great
erantennagainwillhel
pbo thintransmis
sio
na ndre c
epti
on
making a doublei mpactint hel i
nk budget
.I twi l
la l
soca useless
int
erf
ere
nc etootherus e
rsandr ec
eiv
el es
sinte
rfer
encefromo therusers
andlimitmulti
pathe 1ec
tsButahi g
ha nte
nnag a
ini mpli
esaveryna r
row
beamwidth,whic
hme anstha
tspeci
alal
ignmenttechniq
uesarere
q uir
ed.

Antenna alignment
Fors hortdi stance s,whe nt he c orr
e s
po nding ant enna i sv is
ible
,t he
antennaa lignme ntpr ocedurer educest o po inti
ng t hea nte
nnai nt he
direc
tiono fthec orresponde nt,bo thi ntheho riz
ontalpl ane(azimuth)a nd
int hev erticalpl a ne( elevation).$i ss houlds uNc et oestabli
sht he
conne cti
on.Onc et hec onne ctioni sa t
taineda0nea djust
me ntc an be
ma deb yre adingt heRS SL( Re ceiv
erS ignalS tre
ngthLe vel
)int hel o
c al
radio.$i sv aluei spr ov i
de db yt heus eri nter
face,a nd cana l
so be
obtainedf rom pr og ra
msl ik e ne t
st
u mbler.$e pr o cedurec o
nsis
tso f
mo vingt hea ntennai nt heho r i
zontalplanei ns ma lls t
epswhi l
er e
ading
theRS SL.Dono tt oucht hea ntennawhe nr eadi
ng ,sinc eyourbo dywi l
l
a1ectt heme asur eme nt.Onc es ati
s0edt hatama xi
mum v al
uei sobtai
ne d,
thepr ocedur eisr epe atedint hev ert
icalplane,mo vingt hea ntenna0r s
tup
andt he ndo wnunt ilama ximum v alueo fr e
c ei
vedpo we riso bta
ined,a t
whichpo intt hebo ltsthats ecuret heantennaa reti
ghte ned.$i sisal
ltha t
isnee dedt oa im ac l
ientde vicea tanAc cessP oi
nto rBa seStatio
n.Ify ou
haveapo intt opo intl i
nk ,thes amepr ocedures houldber e
pea t
eda tthe
othere ndo fthel ink .

Forlongdis
tancesandwhe ntheo therendo ft
helinkisno tvi
si
ble,some
ext
raste
psarerequir
ed.Fir
st,theho r
izonta
ldir
ect
ion(be a
ri
ng)toa i
mt he
ant
ennamus tbeo bta
inedfromt hec oo
rdinat
esofthee ndpoints
.$e na
compassisusedtode te
rminet hedirec
tioninwhicht heantennashould
beaimed.
Keepinmi ndt hatingeneralther
ei sadi 1er
enc
ebe tweenthema g
neti
c
bear
ingme a
suredb ythec ompa s
sa ndt hegeo
gra
ph i
calbeari
ngo bta
ined
fr
omt hecoordi
natesoftheendpo intsorfrom ama p
.
 13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 233

$i sdi
1er
enceisca
ll
edthema gne
ti
cdec
li
nat
ion,itcanbev e
rysi
gni
0cant
insomeplac
esandmustbea c
count
edfort
opr o perl
yaimtheant
enna.
Fig
.OI2s howsthe10di1er
encebet
weenthema gneti
cnort
hshownb y
thecompas
sa ndthegeogra
phica
lortrueno r
thi ndi
cat
edb yt
hebrass
pla
te.

Fi
gur
eOI2:Di
>er
enc
ebet
weenMa g
net
ica
ndGeog
rap
hic
alNo
rtha
tEl
Ba
ul,Vene
zue
lai
n2006.

Ke e
pi nmi ndt hati r
ona ndo therma gne ti
cme tal
swi lla1e ctt her eading
ofthec ompa ss,sos t
aya wayf romt hosewhe nma kingt heme asurement.
Ifthea ntennai stobemo unte dina ns te e
lt ower,itmi ghtbei mpo ssi
ble
tog eta nac curat
er eadi
ngne arit.Instead,o nemus twa lka wa yac er
tain
dist
anc e,uset hec ompasstode ter
mi net hedi r
ecti
ont hea nt ennamus tbe
aime da ndt he ntryt olocates omee a
sil
yr ecognisa
bleo bje ctt hatc anbe
useda sar eferencef orpointingt hea ntennaa tlate
r.S i
nc et hebe a
mwi dth
ofahi ghlydi re
cti
vea nte
nnami ghtbej ustaf ewde grees
,afterpo i
nt i
ngwi th
thec ompasswene edtodos o me0nea djustme ntforthepr ope ra i
mi ngo fthe
antennab yme as
uringthestr
e ngtho fthere cei
ve dsig
nal.
Unfo rt
unatelytheRS SLindicat
e db ythera di
os of
twarewillo nlywo rkafte
ra
properpa ckethasbe ensati
sfact
o ri
lyreceiv
e da ndde coded,a ndt hiswillonly
happenwhe nt heantennaiswe llaimed.
Sowene eda ni nstr
ume ntt ha tcanr ev ealt hestrengtho ft her e
ceived
sig
na lindepende ntlyfro
mt hemo dulati
ont hatitmi ghtha ve.
234 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$einst
rumentnee
de dfo
rthi
sta
skistheSpec
trum Anal
yser
.
$ereareag r
eatvari
et
yo fs
pect
rum anal
yse
rso nthema r
ket,so
meof
t
hemc o
sti
ngthousandsofdol
la
rs,butifwea reonlyinte
rest
edint
he
WiFiba
ndswec a
n ma kedowithsomei ne
xpensi
vesolut
ionsli
ket
he
f
oll
owi
ng:

"RFEx pl
ore
r"o 1ersinexpens i
vedevi
cesfo
rs eve
ralfr
equencybands
.
$e" RFEx plor
ermo del2.4G"c ost
s120$f rom
htt
p:/
/www.seee
dstudio.com/ depot
/-
p-924.html?
cPath=174
andisas tanda l
oneuni tt hatcan meas
ur esig
nalsfrom 2.4to2. 485
GHz ,wit
has e
nsiti
vityo f- 105dBm.I tha sanS MAc onne
ctorforthe
ant
ennaandt her
eforeiswe llsuit
edforant
e nnaal
ignme nt
.

"WiS
py"isaspect
rum anal
yse
rinaUS Bdong l
ethata
tta
chestoal
apt
op.
Youwil
lneedthemo delswit
hS MARPc onnect
or,t
hereisonef
or2.4
GHzmo dera
tel
ypric
eda ndanot
hero
net ha
tc ove
rsbot
ht he2.
4andthe
5GHzba ndsso
ldfor600$atwww.meta
geek.ne
t.

"
Ubiqui
tiNetwor
ks",www.ubnt
.c
om,us
edt
ose
llUS
Bdo
ngl
espe
ctr
um
a
nal
yser
sfor2.
4GHza t70$.

Unf ortuna t
e l
yt heys eem t o ha ve di scontinue dt his producta fte
r
inco r
po ra
tingt hes pe ctr
um a nal
yse rc a
pa bilit
yi nt heirM s eri
esr a
dios
.
Sowhe nus ingt heser adio sy ouc ant ak ea dvant ageo ft hei
r" air
View"
ali
g nme ntt oo l
.I n pr i
nc ipleo neo ft hesei nexpe ns i
ver adi
o slikethe
"Bul l
e tM"whi chc ome swi thaN Ma l
ec onnect orc ana l
sobeus edto
ali
g na nte
nna sfo ro therr adiosinbo tht he2. 4a nd5GHzba nds.
Unf ortuna t
e l
yt hedi gital
lymo dul at
eds ig naltransmi ttedb yWi Firadio
sis
notwe l
lsui t
e df o ra ntennaa l
ignme nt,s i
nc eitspo we ri
ss pre
a do v
erthe
20MHzba ndwi dth.Fo ra ntennaa l
ignme ntas ing lefre
q uencywi t
ha
sta
bl eo utputpo we ri srequi r
ed.
$i st ypeo fs ignali spr oduc edb yami cro waves igna lgenerat
o r
,butthey
areq uitee xpe nsive.
$e" RFEx plorermo del2. 4G"i nco r
po ratesa2. 4GHzs ignalgenera
tor,
butt hema x i
mum o utputpo we ro f1dBm i sno twe l
ls uit
edf orlong
distancea nte nnapo inti
ng .Inst
ea d,we ha ver epur posed dev i
cescall
ed
"videos ende r s
",me antf ort rans mitting v ideos ignals
,whi cha ctas
powe r f
ulmi crowa ves inglef r
e q
ue ncys igna lsourceswhe nnomo dul
ati
onis
appl i
ed.
 13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 235

$e yarea v
ail
abl
ef orbo t
hthe2.4GHza nd the5GHzba ndswit
h
out
putpo werupt o33dBm.Fo rourpur pos
esitisnece
ssa
ryt obuya
modelwithanantennaconnec
tor
,sothatwec anatt
achourowna nt
enna.
$e r
ea r
ema nyvendorstocho
osefr
om,s eeforinst
ance
:
htt
p:/
/www.li
ghti
nthebox
.com/
Popul
ar/Wi0_Video_Tra
nsmit
ter
.html

Asanexampl
eo flongdistanceli
nkusi
ngmo di
0edWi Fide
vic
es,wecan
ment
ionane xpe
rimentpe rfo
rmedinApr i
l2005inVe nez
uelabet
ween
Pi
codelAgui
la(8.83274638N,70 .
83074570
W,4100m elev
ati
on)and
ElBa
ul(8.
957667N,68. 297528W,155m ele
vat
ion)
.

UsingtheRadi
oMo bi
les
oftware,we0ndt hatthedist
ancetoElBa uli
s
280k m,theaz
imuthi
s97
,t hea nte
nnaelev
ati
ona ngl
eis-2.0,a
ndthe
pla
cea twhic
ht hebe
ami sc l
osesttothegroundha ppensat246k m,
whe r
eitc l
ear
s1.7time
st he 0rstFr
e s
nelzo ne a
tt he 2.412 GHz
fr
equency
.

Fi
g.OI3s
howst
heo
utputo
fthepr
ogr
am:

Fi
gureOI3:Pr
oCl
eofa280kmp at
hoverwhic
hst
and
a r
dWi Fig
earwit
h
OpenWRTCrmwarewhi
chal
lo
wsfortheACKti
meo
utincr
eas
ewasuse
dto
t
rans
fe
rClesa
tabo
ut65kb/
sinApr
il2006betwe
enPi
codelAgu
ilaa
ndElBa u
l
i
nVenezuel
a.
236 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Noti
cethatthee art
hc urv
atur
eisq uiteappar
ent,and waso ve
rco
me
bec
aus
eoneo fthesta
tio
nswasat4100m a l
ti
tudeandtheotherat
155m.Frequencywa s2412MHz ,outputpower100mW,a nte
nnagain
ar
ound30dBi .S t
rea
mingv i
deowassucces
sful
lytra
nsmit
teddespi
tethe
l
imit
edbandwidth.

Ay e arl ate rt hee xpe ri

me ntwa sr epeatedwi tht hes a
meWi Fig earbut
withc omme rcial32dBia ntenna sa tbo the ndsa nds imilarr es
ultswe re
obtaine d.$e n,a no thertypeo f0rmwa rede vel
o pedb yt heTI ERg roupa t
UC Be r
k eley Uni v e
rsi
tyt hati mpl eme nts TDD ( Time Di v i
si
on
Dupl ex ing)wa st r
iedwhi chs ho wedar ema rkablebi di
r e
cti
o nalthroughput
of6Mbi t/swi ths tandard802. 11bha rdwa r
e.
Mo ving t he r emo tes i
tet o a 1400 m hi gh hi l
lc all
ed Pl ati
ll
on
(9.88905350 N,6 7.50552400 W) ,pr ovi
de da3 80k mt estbedo verwhi c
h
thee x pe r
ime ntwa sa gai
ns uccessf
ullyr epeateda sde scr
ibe dint heCa s
e
Studie ss ectioni nt hisbo ok .
$i sc an bei llustr
a te
db yus i
nga no n- l
inev ersiono fRa dio Mo bil
e,
avai
labl ea tht t
p: /
/www. cpl us.
org /
rmw/ r
mo nli
ne .
html ,whi chi ssimplerto
use,a ltho ug hi tha ss omel i
mi t
a t
iona sc o mpa r
e dwi tht hedo wnl oadabl
e
vers
io n.Onemus tr egist
eri nt hes i
te,e nterthec oo r
dinateso fthepo ints
overwhi cht her adiolinkha st obee stabli
shed,t hepo werv aluesforthe
radi
o sa ndt hea ntenna sg ainsa ndhe i
ght ,andt hes oft
wa r
ewi l
lfetchthe
rel
evante le vati
onda tarequi re
dt ope rformt hes i
mul ationo fthelink.
Ke e
pi nmi ndt hato nlyradi oa mateursf r
e quencya res uppo rt
edi nthewe b
vers
io n,s o2. 3GHzs houl dbeus edi nsteado f2.4GHZ,butt her es
ults
areclo see no ug ha ndwhe rev ali
da t
edb ythee xpe r
ime nto nt he0e l
d.
InFi gur eOI4wes howt heo utputo ftheRa dioMo bi
leo n-linef o
rt his
experime ntt hatc anber eplicat
e db yther e a
dera sa ne xerci
se.

Fi
gur
eOI4:Pr
oCl
eofa380kmt es
tat2.
4GHzp e
rf
orme
dinAp
rila
nd
Aug
ust2007,Ve
nez
uel
a.
 13. OUTDOOR INSTALL 237

Noti
cetha
ttheea
rthcurva
tur
eisevenmorenot
ic
eabl
eov
erthe380km
pat
h,butt
hehei
ghtoftheendpoi
ntsco
mbinedwit
hWatl
andinbet
wee
n
al
l
owsforampl
ecle
ara
nc eoft
he0r
stFre
sne
lzone
.

Fi
gur
eOI5s ho
wst
henume
ri
calv
alue
soft
heRa
dio Mo
bil
eon-
li
ne
si
mul
ati
on:

Fi
gur
eOI5:Re
sul
tsoft
heRad
ioMobi
leo
n-l
ines
imula
tio
nfo
rth
e380k
m
l
inkbe
twe
enAg
uil
aandPlat
il
lo
n.
238 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

14. OFF-GRID POWER

Solar P o w e r
$i scha pte
rpr ovi
desanintroducti
ont os ta
ndalonephotovolt
ai
csy st
ems.
Standal
o nes y
ste
mswo r
kwi t
ho utconnecti
o ntoane s
tabl
ishedpowe rgri
d.
$i scha pterprese
ntsthebasi
cc onceptso fthegener
atio
na nds t
ora g
eo f
pho t
ovoltai
cs ol
arenergy
.Wewi l
lals
opr ovideame thodf ordes
igninga
sol
a rsy s
tem wi thlimite
da c ces
st oi nformat
iona nd r e
sourc
es.$i s
chaptero nl
ydi s
cusse
ssola
rsystemsf orthedirec
tproducti
o nofele
c tr
ici
ty
(photovolta
icsolarenerg
y).$e r
ma lsol
a renerg
ys ys
temsa rebeyondt he
scopeo fthischapte
r.

S
ola
rEne
rgy
A pho tovo ltaicsy st
e mi sba sedo nt hea bilityo fpho tovolt
a i
cpa ne lsto
conve r
ts unr adiationdi rectl
yi ntoe lectri
c ale nergy
.$et ot
ala mo unto f
sol
are ner gyt ha tlightsag i
vena r
eai sk no wna sirradianc e(G)a ndi tis
me asuredi nwa ttspe rs quareme tre( W/ m2) .$ei nsta ntaneousv aluesa r
e
norma ll
ya ve r
agedo verape riodo ft ime ,s oi tisc ommo nt ot al
ka bout
tot
a lirr
adi anc epe rho ur,da yo rmo nth.$ea mo unto fi r
radianc ethat
arr
ivesa tt hes urfaceo ft heEa rthv ariesduet ona t
ur alwe a
therv ariat
ions
and de pe ndso nt hel oc at
ion.$e reforei ti sne cessaryt o wo rk wi th
st
atisti
calda taba s
e do nt he" s
o l
arhi story"o fapa rti
c ularpl a
c e
.Fo rma ny
are
a sitcanbedi Nc ulttoa cquirede tail
edi nf o rmation,s owewi l
lne edt o
wo rkwi t
ha ppr oxima teva l
uesint hisc ase.
Af ewo rg anisati
o nspr o ducema pst ha ti nc ludea vera g
ev a
lueso fda il
y
globalirr
a dia t
ionf ordi 1erentr egi
ons .$e sev a l
uesa rek no wna spe aks un
hour sorPS Hs .Y ouc anus et hePS Hv aluef oryo urr eg i
ont os impl if
y
yourc al
cul ations.Oneuni tof" peaks unho urs "c or
res pondst oar a di
a t
ion
of1000Wa ttspe rsq uareme trefort hedur atio no fa nho ur.Ifana re
aha s
4PS H pe rda yi nt hewo rs
to fthemo nths,i tme answec ane xpectada il
y
ir
radiati
ono f4000Wh/ m2.Lo wr eso l
utionPS H ma ps/calcul
ationt ool
s
are a vai
la ble f r om a numbe r o f o nline s ources s uc h a s
:
htt
p: //
www. wunde rground. com/ c
alculators/so lar.
html
Formo rede tai
ledi nfo r
ma ti
o n,c onsultal o c a
ls olare nergyv endo ro r
weathers tation.
Airpo r
tsno r ma l
lyr ecordme teorologicaldat ai nc l
udingi nsolat
ion.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 239

Wha
tabo
utwi
ndpo
wer
?
Itispo s
siblet ous eawi ndg eneratori npl aceo fs olarpa ne l
swhe na n
autono mo us sy ste
m i sbe i
ng de si
g nedf o ri ns t
allati
o no n a hi l
lo r
mo unta i
n.Tobee 1e ct
ive,t hea veragewi nds pee do verthey ea rshouldbe
atl ea
st3t o4me tr
espe rs ec
o nd,a ndt hewi ndg e
ne rat
ors ho uldbe6
me tre
shi ghe rt
ha no thero bjectswi thinadi stanceo f100me tres.
Al ocationf ara wayf ro
mt hec oastus uall
yl ackss uNc ientwi nde ne rg
yt o
suppo rtawi ndpo wereds ystem.
Ge nerall
ys peaking,pho to vo l
taics ystemsa r
emo rer elia
blet han wind
gene r
ators
,a ss unlig
hti smo rea va i
lablet hanc ons i
stentwi ndi n mo s
t
places.Ont heo therha nd,wi ndg ene r
atorsa rea blet oc harg eba tt
eri
es
evena tnig ht,a slonga sthe reiss uNc i
entwi nd.I ti so fc o
ursepo ss
ibl
et o
usewi ndi nc onjuncti
onwi t
hs o l
arpo wertohe lpc o vert i
me swhe nthere
ise xtendedc loud c over,o rwhe nt herei si ns uNc i
entwi nd.I nt he
Hig hlandsa ndI s
landso fS cot
landt hereisapr ojectt hatus esbo ths ol
ar
andwi ndpo we rgenerati
o n.S eet hef oll
owi ngl inkf ormo r
ei nforma t
ion:
http:/
/www. wireles
swhitespa ce.
org/pr ojec
ts/wind -0re newa bl
e-ene rgy-
basestati
on.aspx
Formo s
tl o ca
tionsho we v er,thec osto fag o odwi ndg ene ratorisno t
justi
0edb yt heme ag
rea mo unto fpo weritwi lla ddt ot heov eral
lsyste
m.
$i sc hapterwi l
lthereforef ocuso nt heus eo fs olarpa ne l
sfo rg enera
ting
ele
c tr
icit
y.

Photovoltaic system components

Aba si
cpho t ovoltai
cs y
stemc onsis
tso ffo
urma i
nc ompo nents:solarpane l
,
batte
ry,regulator,andl oad.
$epa nelisg e
ne rat
inge l
ectr
ici
ty.$eba tt
eryst or
ese l
ectrica
le nergy.$e
regul
atorpr o t
ectstheba tter
ya gains
te xces
sivec har
g eanddi scharge.$e
l
o adreferstoa nyde vic
et hatrequir
e selec
tri
calpo we r
.I tisimpo rtantt o
remembe rt hats olarpanelsandba t
teri
esproduc edi re
ctc urrent( DC) .If
ther angeo fo pe r
atio
na lvo l
ta
g eo fy oure quipme ntdo esno t0tt he
volta
ges uppl i
edb yyourba tte
ry,itwi l
lals
obene cessaryt oinc l
udes ome
typeo fc onv erter
.I ft hee quipmentt haty ou wa ntt o po we rus e
sa
di1ere
ntDC v o l
tagetha ntheo nes uppli
edb yt heba ttery,youwi l
lnee d
touseaDC/ DCc onver
ter.Ifsomeo fyoure quipme ntre quir
esACpo we r
,
youwi llneedt ous eaDC/ ACc onverter
,alsok nowna sani nverter
.Ev ery
elect
ri
calsystems houlda l
soincorporatevari
ouss af
etyde vi
cesint hee vent
thatsome t
hi ngg oeswr ong.
240 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$esedevi
cesi
ncl
udeprope
rwi r
ing,ci
rcui
tbr
eak
ers
,sur
gepr
ote
cto
rs,
f
use
s,g
roundro
ds,l
ig
hti
ngarr
est
ors,e
tc.

$es
ola
rpa
nel
$es ola
rpa neli
sc omposedofs o
larcel
lsthatcol
lectsola
rr adia
tio
na nd
t
ransf
ormi tintoelec
tric
alenergy
.$i spa r
to fthes ys
temi ss ometi
me s
r
efer
redtoasas ol
armo duleorpho t
ovol
tai
cgener
a tor
.
S
olarpanela r
rayscanbema deb yc o
nnecti
ngas etofpa ne l
sins e
ries
a
nd/orparal
lelino r
dertopr o
videthenecess
arye ner
gyf orag ivenload.
$ee le
ctr
ic
a lcur
rentsuppli
edbyas ola
rpanelvari
e sproport
ionall
ytothe
s
olarra
diat
ion.$i swillvar
yaccordi
ngtoc l
imati
cc ondi
tions,thehouro f
t
heda y
,andt heti
meo fthey e
ar.

Fi
gur
eOGP1:As
ol
arp
ane
l
Seve
ralte
chnologiesar
eus edinthema nufa
ctureofsola
rc e
ll
s.
$emo stcommo niscryst
all
inesi
li
con,andc anbee i
thermo no
crys
tal
li
ne
orpolyc
rys
tal
li
ne .Amo rphoussil
ico
nc anbec heaperbutisle
sseNcie
ntat
c
o nve
rti
ngso l
are nerg
yt oe l
ect
ri
cit
y.Wi thar educedli
feexpect
ancyand
a6t o8% t ransformat
ione Nc i
ency
,a morphoussili
conistypi
call
yused
f
orlowpo were q
ui pment,suchasportabl
ecalc
ulato
rs.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 241

News o
lart
echnolo
gie
s,s
uchassi
li
conri
bbonandthi
n0lm pho
tovo
lta
ics
,
ar
ec urr
ent
ly underdevel
opment
.$e s
et e
chno
logi
espromis
e hig
her
eNci
enci
esbutarenotye
twidel
yavai
la
ble
.

$eba
tte
ry
$e ba t
ter
ys t
oresthe energy producedb ythe panelstha tisnot
immediat
el
yc onsumedb ytheload.$i ssto
redenergycanthenbeus ed
duri
ngpe r
iodso flowsolarirra
diat
ion.$eba t
ter
yc ompone ntisal
so
somet
imesc a
ll
edt hea
ccumul a
tor
.Ba tt
eri
ess
toreel
ect
ric
it
yint hefor
mo f
chemic
ale ner
gy.$emo stc ommo nt ypeofba t
teri
esusedi nsola
r
appl
ic
ati
ons a re ma i
ntenance-
fre
e l ea
d-ac
id batter
ies
,a lso c a
ll
ed

Fi
gur
eOGP2:A200Ahlea
d-ac
idba
tte
ry.eneg
ativ
eter
minalwa
s
br
oke
ndu
etowei
ghto
nthete
rmi
nalsdur
ingt
rans
por
tat
io
n.

As
ide f
rom stori
ng e nergy,sea
ledlead-ac
id batt
eri
esa l
soservetwo
i
mport
antfunct
ions:
$e ya reabletoprov
idea nins
tanta
neouspowersuper
ior
tothato fthearr
ayofpa ne
ls.$isinst
anta
neouspoweris
neededt os t
arts
omea ppli
ance
s,sucha sthemotorofa
re
frig
eratororapump .
$e yde ter
mi net
heoperati
ngvolta
geofy o
urinst
al
lat
ion.
242 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Forasmallpowe
rinsta
ll
ati
onandwhe r
espa
c econst
rai
ntsarei
mporta
nt,
ot
herty
pesofbat
ter
ies(s
uchasNiCd,NiMh,o rLi-
ion)canbeuse
d.
$e s
etypesofbatt
eri
esneedas pe
cia
li
sedcharge
r/r
egul
atorandcannot
di
rec
tl
yrepla
cele
ad-a
c i
dbatt
eri
es
.

$er
egul
at
or
$er egula
tor( ormo reformally
,thesolarpo werchargeregulat
or)a s
sures
thatt he ba tt
e ryi s wo r
k i
ng ina ppropriat
ec ondit
ions.I ta voids
overchargi
ng o ro verdi
schargi
ng theba tt
ery,bo tho fwhi cha rev ery
detri
me ntaltot helif
eo ft heba t
ter
y.Toe ns
urepr operc ha
rg i
nga nd
dis
cha rg
ingo ft hebatte
ry,theregul
atorma intai
nsk nowledgeoft hestate
ofc harge(SoC)o fthebatter
y.$eS oCi se s
timatedba s
edo nt heactual
volt
a geoftheba t
ter
y.
Byme asur
ingt heba t
ter
yv olt
ageandbe ingpr ogra
mme dwi t
hthet ypeo f
sto
ra getec
hno logyus e
db ytheb at
ter
y,there gul
atorwillknowt heprecise
pointswhe retheba tt
erywo uldbeoverchar
ge do rexces
siv
elydis
cha r
ged.

Fi
gur
eOGP3:A30Amps
ol
arc
har
gec
ont
rol
l
er
$er eg
ulat
o rcanincl
udeothe
rfeature
sthataddval
uabl
einf
ormat
ionand
s
ecuri
tyc ontr
olt ot he e
qui
pme nt.$e s
ef e
atur
esincl
udeamme t
ers
,
v
oltmete
rs,me asure
me ntofa mpe r
e-hour
,t i
mers
,a l
ar
ms,e t
c.Whi l
e
c
onvenie
nt,no neofthesef
eat
uresarerequi
redforaworki
ngphoto
vol
tai
c
s
yste
m.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 243

$ec
onv
ert
er
$ee le
ctr
ic
itypr o
v i
dedb yt hepanelarra
ya ndba t
teryi sDC a ta0x ed
volta
ge.$ev olt
agepr ovidedmightno tma t
chwha tisr equir
edb yyour
l
o ad.A direct/
al
ternat
ing ( DC/AC)c onvert
er,al
sok nown a sinver
ter
,
convert
stheDC c urr
entf romy ourbatte
ri
esintoAC.$i sc omesatthe
priceoflos
ings omee ne r
g yduri
ngt heconver
sio
n.I fne ce
ssary
,youc an
als
ous ec onvert
erstoo btai
n DC a tv ol
tag
el ev
elo thert hanwha tis
suppli
edbyt hebatter
ies.DC/ DCc onvert
ersal
soloseso mee ner
gyduring
thec onve
rsion.Fo ro pti
ma loperat
ion,yous houl
d de s
igny oursol
a r
-
powe r
edsyste
ms ot hattheg ene
rate
dDCv olta
gema tchestheload.

Fi
gur
eOGP4:An800Wa
ttDC/
ACc
onv
ert
er(
powe
rinv
ert
er
)

$el
oad
$el oadi stheeq ui
pme ntthatc o
ns umesthepo wergener
atedbyy our
energysystem.
$e l oad ma yi ncl
ude wirel
essc o
mmuni cat
ionse q
uipment,r o
uters
,
wo rks
tati
ons,lamps,TVs ets
,VS ATmo dems,et
c.
Althoughi tis no t poss
iblet o pr e
cis
elyc a
lcul
atet he exa
ctt ot
al
consumpt i
o nofy ourequipment,i tisvita
ltobea bletoma k
eag o
o d
est
ima te
.
Int histypeo fsyst
emi tisabsolut
e l
yne ce
ssa
ryt ouseeNcientandlow
powe requipmentt oavoi
dwa st
inge nergy
.
244 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Put
ti
ngi
tal
lto
get
her
$ec ompl et
ephotovo
ltai
cs yst
emincorporatesallofthe
sec o
mpo nents
.
$es ol
arpa nel
sge
nera
tepo werwhensolarene r
gyisavai
la
ble.
$er e
gulat
o rens
ure
st hemo steNcie
nto perat
iono fthepa nel
sa nd
pre
ventsdama g
etothebatter
ies.$eba tt
eryba nkstor
escol
lect
ede ne
rgy
fo
rlat
erus e
.
Convert
ersa nd inve
rter
sa dapt t
he storede ner
gyt o ma tcht he
re
quir
eme ntsofyo
urload.Finall
y,t
heloadco nsumesthesto
rede ne
rgyto
dowo r
k.

Whe
na l
loft
hec o
mpo ne
ntsar
einbal
anc
eanda
repr
ope
rl
yma
int
ai
ned,
t
hes
yst
em wi
lls
uppor
tits
el
ffo
ryea
rs.

Fi
gur
eOGP5:As
ol
ari
nst
al
la
tio
nwi
thDCa
ndACl
oad
s

Wewil
lnowexaminee
achofthei
ndiv
idua
lco
mpo
nent
soft
he
pho
tov
olt
ai
csy
stemingre
ate
rdeta
il
.

The solar panel

Anindivi
dualso
larpanelismadeofma nysol
arc
ell
s.
$ec el
lsareel
ectri
cal
l
yc onnec
tedtoprovi
deapart
icul
arval
ueofcur
rent
andvol
tage
.
$ei ndivi
dualcell
sa r
epr ope
rl
ye ncaps
ula
tedtopr o
videi
sol
at
ionand
prot
ect
ionfrom humidit
ya ndcor
ros
ion.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 245

$e r
ea r
edi 1e rentt ype so fmo dul esa vai
lableont hema r
ket,de pending
ont hepo we rde ma ndso fy oura ppl i
cati
on.$emo s
tc ommo nmo dule
s
arec ompo sedo f32o r36s ol
arc ellso fcrystal
li
nes i
lic
o n.$e sec el
lsa r
e
allofe quals ize,wi redi ns eri
es,a nde ncapsulat
edbe tweeng l
assandpl as
ti
c
ma ter
ia l
,usingapo ly me rr es
in( EVA)a sat hermalinsulator.
$es ur f
acea reao ft hemo duleist ypical
lyb et
we e
n0. 1a nd0. 5m2.S ola
r
pane l
sus uallyha vet woe l
e c
tri
calc o ntacts
,o nepo si
tiveando nene gative.
So mepa nelsa lsoi nc ludee xt
rac o ntactstoa llowthei nstall
ati
o no fb ypas
s
diodesa crossi ndi vidua lc ell
s.
By pas
sdi ode spr o tectt hepa ne la gainstaphe nome nonk no wna s hot
-
spo t
s.Aho t -spo to cc urswhe ns omeo fthec ell
sarei ns hadowwhi lethe
restoft hepa ne lisi nf ullsun.Ra the rthanpr oduci
nge nergy,shadedc e
ll
s
beha v
ea sal o adt ha tdi ssi
patese ne rgy.Int hissit
uation,s hadedc ell
sc an
seeas igni0ca nti nc reasei nt empe ra t
ur e(about85t o100 C.)
By pas
sdi ode swi llpr eventho t -spotso ns hadedc ell
s,butr educet he
ma ximum v o l
ta geo ft hepa nel.$e ys houldo nlybeus edwhe ns hadingis
una voidable.I tisamuc hbe tterso lutiontoe xpo s
ethee nti
repa neltof ull
sunwhe nev erpo ssi
bl e.
246 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

i
rr
adi
anc
e,a
ndt
hev
olt
age(
V)c
hang
eswi
tht
het
emp
era
tur
e.

$ee l
ect
ri
calperforma
nceofas o
larmo dul
eisrepr
ese
ntedbyt
heIV
c
har
act
eri
sti
cc ur
ve,whic
hre
pre
sent
sthecurre
nttha
tispro
vide
dba
sedo
n
t
hevol
tag
eg ener
atedfo
race
rta
insol
arra
diati
on.

$ec urvere
pres
entsa
llthepo ss
ibl
eval
uesofvolt
age
-cur
rent
.
$ec urvesdependont woma infact
ors:t
het e
mperat
ureandt hesol
ar
ra
diat
ionrec
eive
db ythec e
lls
.
Foragivensol
arcel
larea,thecurr
entgener
ate
disdir
ect
lypropo
rtio
nalt
o
sol
arir
radi
ance(G),whilethevo l
ta
gereduce
ssli
ght
lywithanincrea
seof
te
mpe r
atur
e.

Agoodre
gul
atorwil
ltrytoma x
imis
etheamounto
fenerg
ythatapane
l
pr
ovi
desb
ytrac
kingthepointt
hatpr
o v
ide
smaxi
mum power(
VxI )
.$e
maxi
mum po
werc o
rre
spondstothekne
eoftheI
Vcurv
e.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 247

S
ola
rPa
nelPa
rame
ter
s
$ema
inpa
rame
ter
stha
tcha
rac
ter
is
eapho
tov
olt
ai
cpa
nela
re:

1. Sho r
tCi rcui
tCur r
ent(ISC)
:thema xi
mum c urr
entpr ovi
dedb y
thepa nelwhe ntheconnector
sa reshortci
rcuit
ed.
2. Ope nCi rcui
tVo lt
age(VOC):thema x
imum v olt
agethatthepa nel
provideswhe nt heterminal
sa reno tconnectedtoa nylo ad( an
openc ir
cuit
).$i sv al
uei sno rmall
y22V f orpanelsthata re
goingt owo r
ki n12Vs yst
ems,a ndisdir
ectlyproport
ionaltot he
numb erofcell
sconnecte
di nseries
.
3. Ma ximum P owe rP o
int (Pmax):the pointwhe r
et he po wer
suppliedbyt hepanelisatmax imum,whe rePmax=I ma
x xV ma
x.

$ema x
imum po we rpoi
nto fapa ne
lisme a
suredinWa tt
s(W)o rpe
ak
Wa t
ts(Wp).Itisimpo r
tantno tt
of org
e tthatinno r
ma lcondi
ti
onst
he
panelwi
llnotworka tpeakc o
ndit
ions,asthev ol
tageo
fo per
ati
onis0x
ed
bythelo
a dorther e
gula
tor.Typi
calval
ueso fVmaxandI xs
ma houldbeabit
smal
lert
ha ntheIS
C and VOC.

1. FillFacto
r( FF):t her e
lati
o nbetweent hema x
imum po werthat
thepa nelcana c t
ua l
lypr ovi
dea ndt heproductIS
C .V OC.$i s
givesyoua ni de ao ftheq ual
it
yo fthepanelbec aus
ei tisan
indica
tionoft het ypeo fIVc harac
teris
ti
ccurve.$ec lo
serFFi s
to 1,t hemo repo werapa nelc an provi
de.Co mmo nv a
lues
usuall
ya r
ebe t
we en0. 7a nd0.8.
2. ENc ie
nc y():t her ati
obe tweent hema xi
mum e l
e ctr
ic
alpo wer
thatthepa nelc ang i
vet othel oa
da ndthepo wero ftheso l
ar
radia
tion(pl)incidento nt hepanel.$i sisnormal
lya round10-
12%, de pending o n t he t y
pe o fc el
ls( mo nocrys
tal
l
ine,
po l
ycr
ystal
li
ne,a mo rphouso rthi
n0l m) .

Cons
ide
ri
ngthede
0nit
ionsofpointo
fmaxi
mum po wera
ndt
he0l
lfa
cto
r
wese
ethat
:
=Pmax/PL =FF.I
SC.VOC /PL

$ev al
ueso fIC,
S VOC,I xa
Pma ndVPmax a
reprovi
dedbythemanuf
act
ure
r
and r
efe
rt os t
andar
dc ondit
ionso
fme as
ure
mentwithirr
adi
anc
eG =
1000W/ m2,atsea
-le
vel
,foratempe
ratur
eo fc
ell
sofTc=25C.
248 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$epa nelpa ra
me terval
ueschangeforothercondit
ionso fi
rradi
ancea nd
temper
ature.Ma nufact
ure
rswi l
lsometi
me sincl
udeg raphsort a
ble
swi th
val
uesforc ondit
ionsdi1ere
ntf r
omt hes t
andard.Yous houldcheckt he
perf
ormancev al
uesa tt
hepaneltempera
turesthatar
elikelytoma t
chy our
part
ic
ularinsta
lla
ti
o n.
Bea waret hattwo pa ne
lsc a
n ha vethes ameWp butv erydi1e r
ent
behavi
ourindi 1er
ento per
ati
ngc ondi
ti
ons.Whe na cquir
ingapa nel
,itis
import
antt ov eri
fy,ifposs
ibl
e,thattheirparameter
s( atlea
st,ISC and
VOC)ma tc
ht hev a
luespromise
db ythema nufac
ture
r.

Pa
nelpa
rame
ter
sfo
rsy
ste
msi
zi
ng
Toc a
lculatethenumbe rofpanel
srequi
r edtocoveragi
venload,youjus
t
ne e
dt ok nowt hec ur
rentandvolta
gea tt hepoi
ntofma x
imum po wer
:
IPmaxandVPmax.
Yo usho ul
da lwa y
sbea waretha
tthepa nelisnotgoi
ngtope r
form unde
r
perfectc o
nditionsastheloadorregula
tions ys
temisnotal
waysg o
ingto
wo rka tthepo intofma xi
mum po wero fthepanel
.Youshoul
da ss
umea
l
o ssofe Nc i
encyo f5% inyourcal
cul
ati
o nst oc
ompensa
tefo
rthis.

I
nte
rco
nne
cti
ono
fpa
nel
s
As olarpa nelarra
yi sac oll
ect
iono fsol
arpa nel
st hata reelec
tri
cal
l
y
int
erconnectedandi nst
al
ledo nsometypeo fsupports t
ructur
e.Us i
nga
sol
arpa nelarr
aya l
l
owsy outogener
ategrea
tervolt
agea ndc urr
entthanis
poss
iblewi t
has ingl
es ol
arpanel
.$epa nelsar
ei nt
erconne c
tedinsucha
wayt hatthev ol
tagegenera
tedisclos
eto( butgrea
tert han)thelevelof
vol
tageo fthebatter
ies
,andthatthecurr
entgenerat
edi ssuNc i
enttofee
d
theequipme ntandtoc har
gethebatt
eri
es
.

Connec
ti
ng sol
ar panelsi nseri
esi ncre
a s
est he ge
ner
ate
dv ol
ta
ge.
Connec
ti
ngpanel
sinpa r
all
eli
ncre
asesthecurre
nt.
$enumbe rofpa
nelsusedshoul
dbei ncre
aseduntilt
heamounto
fpower
ge
nera
tedsl
ig
htl
yexceedsthedemandso fyourloa
d.

Iti
sveryimport
antthatal
lofthepa ne
lsi
ny ourar
rayar
easidenti
calas
pos
si
ble
.I na na r
ray
,y oushould usepanel
so fthesamebrand a nd
cha
rac
teri
st
icsbec
auseanydi 1e
renceint he
iroper
ati
ngc o
ndit
ionswi l
l
hav
eabi gimpac
to nthehea
lt
ha ndpe r
for
manceofyours
yste
m.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 249

Evenpane
lstha
thaveide
nti
calper
for
manc
erati
ngswil
lus
ual
lydis
pla
y
so
mev a
ria
nceinthe
irc
har
act
eri
st
ic
sduetomanuf
act
uri
ngpr
oce
sse
s.

$e a ctualo pera
ti
ng c har
acte
ris
ti
cso ftwo panelsfro
m t he sa
me
manufactur
ercanv ar
yb yasmuc has10%.
Whene v
e rposs
ibl
e,itisagoodi de
atotestt
herea
l-worl
dperfo
rmanceof
i
ndivi
dua lpanel
stov e
rif
ytheiropera
ti
ngchar
act
eri
sti
csbef
oreas
sembl
ing
t
hemi ntoa narra
y.

Fig
ureOGP8:Int
er
conne
ct
ionofpane
lsinp
a r
al
le
l.evo
lt
agere
mai
ns
c
ons
ta
ntwhil
eth
ecur
rentdup
li
cat
es
.(Photo
:Fant
sua
mFoundat
io
n,Nig
eri
a)

Ho
wtoc
hoo
seag
oodpa
nel
Oneo bvi
ousme tr
ictous ewhens hoppi
ngforsolarpanelsi
st ocompa r
e
thera
ti
oo ftheno minalpeakpo wer(Wp)totheprice
.$i swillgi
vey oua
roughideao ft hec o
stpe rWa ttfordi1er
entpa nel
s.Butt herea r
ea
numberofothe rconsi
derat
ionstok e
epinminda swell
.
Ifyouaregoingt oinst
allsol
arpanelsingeo
g r
aphica
lar e
aswhe r
es o
il
ing
(fr
om dust
,s and,o rgrit
)wi l
llik
elybeapr oblem,c onsi
derpurchas
ing
panel
swithal owa Nnityforsoi
lrete
ntio
n.
250 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$e sepanelsa r
ema deo fma t
eri
alsthatincre
asethelike
li
hoodt ha
tt he
panelwil
lbea utomati
call
yc l
eanedb ywindandr ai
n.
Alwayscheckt heme chanica
lc o
nstructi
ono feachpanel
.Ve r
if
yt ha
tt he
gl
assishardeneda ndt hea l
uminum f ra
mei srobustandwe l
lbuilt
.$e
sol
arc e
ll
sinsidethepa nelcanl a
stf ormo r
ethan20y e
ars
,buttheya re
ver
yf ra
gil
ea ndt hepa nelmus tpro t
ectthemf r
om me chani
calhaza
rds.
Lookf o
rthema nufa
cturer'
squali
tyg uar
anteeinter
mso fexpec
tedpo wer
outputandme c
hanica
lc onst
ruct
ion.

Final
l
y,besuret
hatt
hema nuf
act
urerprov
idesnotonl
yt henominalpeak
powero fthepanel(Wp)buta lsothev ari
at
iono ft hepowerwi th
ir
radi
ati
onandtemper
ature
.$isispart
ic
ular
lyimport
antwhe npanel
sare
usedina r
ray
s,asva
ri
atio
nsintheo per
ati
ngpa r
amete
rsc anhaveabi g
impactonthequal
it
yo fpowergener
ate
da ndtheusefulli
fet
imeo fthe
panel
s.

The battery
$eba tter
y ho stsac e
rtainr ev e
rsibl
ec he mica
lr eactio nt hats tor
es
ele
ctr
icalenergyt hatc anl aterber e t
rie
v edwhe nne eded.El ectr
icale ne r
gy
istra
nsforme di nt oc he micale nergywhe nt heba t
te r
yi sbe i
ngc harg e
d,
and ther everseha ppe nswhe nt heba tter
yi sdischarged.A ba t
teryi s
for
me db yas eto fe le
me ntsorc ellsarrangedi ns er
ies.Lea d-aci
dba tteri
es
consi
sto ft wos ubme rgedl eade lec
trode sina ne l
e c
trolyticso l
ut iono f
waterands ulphur ica cid.A po t
entialdi 1erenceo fa bout2v o lt
st a k
es
plac
ebe tweent hee lectr
o des,depe ndingo nthei nst
antaneo usv alueo fthe
charg
es t
a t
eo ft heba t
tery.
$emo stc ommo n ba tteri
esi n pho t
o volt
aics ola
ra pplicati
onsha vea
nominalv oltageo f12o r24v olts.A 12V ba t
ter
yt herefo r
ec o ntains6
cel
lsinseri
e s
.
$eba t
te r
ys erv est woi mpo rt
antpur po sesinapho tovoltaicsy st
e m:t o
provi
dee le
c t
ricale ne r
gyt ot hes ystem whe ne nerg
yi sno ts uppliedb yt he
arr
ayo fs ol
arpa nels,a ndt os to r
ee x c
e s
se ne rg
yg eneratedb ythepa nel
s
whenevert hate ne rgye xceedst hel oad.$eba tt
erye xperiencesac yc l
ica
l
proces
so fcha r
g i
nga nddi s
cha r
g i
ng ,depe ndingo nthepr ese nceo ra bsence
ofsunli
ght.
Dur i
ngt heho ur st hatt hereiss un,t hea rrayo fpane l
spro duc e
se l
ectrica
l
energ
y.$ee nergyt hatisno tco nsume di mme diat
elyisuse dt oc harget he
batt
ery.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 251

Duri
ngtheho ur
so fabsenceofsun,a nyde mando fe
lec
tri
cale
nergyis
s
uppli
edbythebatt
ery,ther
ebydisc
hargingit
.
$esecyc
lesofchar
gea nddischa
rgeo c
c urwheneve
rtheener
gyproduced
bythepanel
sdo e
sno tma tchthee nergyrequi
re
dt osuppor
ttheload.
Whentherei
ssuNcientsuna ndtheloa
di sli
ght,t
hebatt
eri
eswil
lchar
ge.

Ob v
iousl
y,t
heba t
ter
ie
swi l
ldischargeatni
ghtwhenev
eranyamountof
powerisreq
uire
d.$eba t
ter
ieswillals
odis
char
gewhentheir
radi
anc
eis
ins
uNc i
enttoc ov
erther e
q ui
re
me ntso ft
heload(duetothena t
ura
l
var
iat
ionofcli
matol
ogi
calcondit
ions,cl
ouds
,dust
,et
c.
)

Iftheba t
ter
ydo e
sno tstor
ee noughe nergyt ome e
tthede manddur ing
peri
odswi t
houtsun,thesyst
em wi l
lbee xhauste
da ndwillbeunava i
la
ble
forconsumpti
on.Ont heo t
herha nd,overs
izingthesys
tem(b yaddingfar
too ma ny panel
sa nd batt
erie
s)i se xpensiveand ineNcient
.Whe n
desi
gningas ta
nd-al
ones y
ste
m wene e
dt or ea
chac ompromi s
ebe tween
thecostofcomponentsandthea vai
labi
li
tyo fpowerfro
mt hesyste
m.

Onewa yt o do t hisi st oesti

ma t
et her e
quir
ed numbe ro fda y
so f
auto
no my.Int hec aseo fat el
ecommuni c
ati
onss y
stem,thenumbe rof
dayso fauto
no myde pe ndso nitscri
ti
calfunct
ionwi t
hiny ournetwork
desi
gn.Ifthee quipme nti sgoi
ngt oserveasarepeat
erandi spartofthe
backbone ofy our ne twork
,y ou wil
ll i
kely want to de s
igny our
photovol
tai
csystem wi tha nautonomyo fupto5-7da ys.
On t heo t
herha nd,i ft hesol
ars ys
temi sres
ponsibl
ef o
rapr ovi
ding
ener
g ytoc l
ie
nte q uipme nty oucanpr oba
blyreducenumbe ro fdaysof
auto
no myt otwoo rt hree.I
na rea
swi t
hl owirra
diance,t
hisva l
uema y
needt obeincreasede venmo r
e.Inanyc as
e,youwi l
lalwayshaveto0nd
theproperbal
anc ebe tweenc os
tandr el
ia
bil
ity
.

Ty
peso
fba
tte
ri
es
Ma nydi 1erentbatte
ryt ec
hno l
og i
esexis
t,anda reintende
df oruseina
varie
tyo fdi1erentapplica
ti
o ns.$emo s
ts ui
tablety
pef orphotovo
ltai
c
appli
cationsisthesta
tionar
yba tter
y,desi
gnedtoha vea0x edloc
ati
ona nd
f
o rs c
e nari
oswhe rethepo werc onsumptionismo reo rle
ssi r
reg
ular
.
"Stat
ionary"ba tt
eri
esca naccommo dat
ede epdi s
char
g ecycl
es
,butt hey
areno tdesi
gnedt oproducehi g
hc urre
ntsinbri
e fper
iodsofti
me .
Stati
ona r
yba tt
eri
escanus eane lectr
oly
tethatisalka
li
ne( s
ucha sNickel
-
Ca dmium)o raci
dic(s
uc hasLe ad-Aci
d).
252 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Sta
ti
onarybatt
erie
sbasedonNi cke
l-Cadmium ar
erecommendedforthe
ir
hig
hr el
ia
bil
it
yandr e
sist
ancewheneverpos
sibl
e.
Unfort
unatel
y,theytend to bemuc h mo r
ee xpe
nsi
veand diNcultt
o
obta
inthanseal
edlea
d-acidbatt
eri
es
.
Inma nycase
swhe nitisdiNcul
tto0ndl ocal
,goodandcheapsta
ti
onar
y
bat
ter
ies(importi
ngba t
teri
esisno tchea
p),y o
uwi l
lbef or
cedt ouse
bat
ter
iestar
get
edtothea utomobi
lema r
ket
.

Us
ingc
arba
tte
ri
es
Automobil
ebatteri
esarenotwe l
lsui
tedforpho t
ovo
lta
icapplic
ati
onsa s
theyaredesi
gne dtoprovi
deas ubsta
nti
alcurre
ntforjustfews eco
nds
(whensta
rti
ngt henengi
ne)rat
herthansust
aini
ngalowc urre
ntf o
rlo ng
peri
odo ftime.$i sdesi
gnc ha
ract
eri
st
ico fcarbatt
eri
es( al
soc a
lled
tra
cti
on bat
ter
ies)resul
tsin as hor
tene
de 1e
cti
velif
e when us e
di n
photov
olt
ai
cs y
stems.Tract
ionbat
teri
escanbeus e
dins mallappl
ica
tions
wherelowc osti sthemo stimporta
ntc onsi
der
ati
on,o rwhe no ther
batt
eri
esar
eno tavai
la
ble.

Traction batter
iesa rede signedf orv e
hiclesa nd e le
ctri
cwhe elbarr
ows.
$e yarec heapertha nstatio
na rybatte
ri
esa ndc a
ns e r
veinapho tov
olt
a i
c
instal
lat
ion,a lthoug ht heyr e
q ui
rev er
yf requentma int
e na nce.$e se
batteri
essho uldne verbede epl
ydi sc
harged,be causedo i
ngs owi l
lgreat
ly
reducet heira bil
it
yt o ho l
d ac har
ge.A t r
uckba tt
erys ho ul d notbe
discharg
edt omo r
et han70% o fitstot
a lcapacity
.$i sme anst hatyo u
cano nlyus eama ximum o f30% o falead-aci
dba t
tery'
sno mi na lcapac
ity
befo r
eitmus tber echarged.
Youc a
ne x t
endt hel i
feo fal ead-aci
dba tt
e r
yb yus ingdisti
lledwa ter
.By
usingade nsime t
ero rhy drome te
r,youc anme a s
uret hede nsityo fthe
battery'
selectr
o l
yte.At ypicalbatter
yhass peci0cg r
avityof1. 28.
Addi ngdisti
lledwa terandl owe r
ingthede nsit
yt o1. 2canhe lpr educethe
ano de'
sco rr
o s
ion,a tac osto freduci
ngtheo ver
allcapacit
yo ft heba t
tery
.
Ify oua djustt hede nsityo fba tte
rye l
ectrolyt
e,y oumus tus edi st
il
led
wa ter
,astapwa te
ro rwe llwa te
rwi l
lperma nentl
yda ma getheba ttery
.

S
tat
eso
fcha
rge
$er
ea r
etwospe
cials
tat
esofcha
rgetha
tc a
ntakepl
acedur
ingthec
ycl
ic
c
har
geanddis
cha
rgeofthebat
ter
y.$e yshoul
dbothbeavo
idedinor
der
t
opre
ser
vetheus
efull
if
eofthebat
ter
y.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 253

1. 1.Ov ercharge
Ov e rc
harget akespl a
cewhe nthebatter
ya r
rivesattheli
mitofitscapaci
ty.
I
fe nergyi sappliedt oaba t
ter
ybe yonditspointofma xi
mum c harge,t
he
el
e ctrol
ytebe ginst obreakdown.
$i spr o
duc e
sbubbl eso foxygenandhy drogen,inapr oce
ssiskno wna s
gasi0cati
o n.$i sresult
si n alosso fwa te
r,o xi
dati
ono nt hepo sit
ive
el
e ctrode,a ndine xt
remec a
ses
,ada ngerofexplosi
on.
Ont heo therha nd,thepr es
enceo fgasa vo
idsthes t
rati
0cat
iono fthe
acid.Af ters everalc ont
inuousc y
clesofc hargeand disc
harge,thea ci
d
t
e ndst oc oncent r
ateits
elfatthebottomo ftheba tt
erythere
byr educi
ng
t
hee 1ecti
v eca pacit
y.$epr oces
so fg a
si0cat
iona gi
tat
esthee l
ectrol
yt
e
anda voi
dss t
rati0cat
ion.

Aga i
n,iti sne c
ess
a r
yt o 0nd ac ompromise bet
we e
nt hea dv
anta
g e
s
(a
v oi
dinge l
ect
rol
ytestr
a t
i0ca
ti
o n)andthedisadv
a nt
ages(l
osingwaterand
producti
ono fhydrogen).Ones ol
uti
oni stoa l
low as l
ighto ve
rcha
rge
conditi
one ve
rysoo ft
en.Onet ypi
calmethodistoall
owav olta
geof2.35
to2.4Vo l
t sf
o rea
che l
e mento fthebat
teryever
yf e
wda ys,a t25
C.$e
re
g ul
atorshouldensur
eape riodicandcontro
ll
edo ve
rchar
ges.

2.Overdis
charg
e
Inthesamewa yt hatt
hereisauppe rl
imit,ther
eisals
oal owerl
imitt
oa
batt
ery
'ss t
ateo fc ha
rge.Dischar
ging beyond thatli
mitwi l
lres
ultin
dete
rio
rati
ono ft he batt
ery
.Whe nt he e1ecti
ve bat
terysupplyis
exhaus
ted,theregulat
orpreventsanymo r
ee ner
gyf r
om beingext
rac
ted
fr
o mtheba tt
ery.Whe nthevo l
tag
eo ftheba tt
eryreac
hestheminimum
l
imito f1.85Vo ltspercel
lat25 C,ther egul
atordisc
onnect
stheload
fr
o mtheba t
ter
y.

Ifthedischar
geo ftheba t
ter
yi sveryde e
pa nd thebatt
eryremai
ns
dis
char
gedf oral ongtime,threee1ec
tst a
k epla
ce:thefor
ma t
ionof
cr
ysta
ll
ise
ds ul
phateo ntheba t
ter
yplates,theloos
eni
ngo fthea c
ti
ve
mater
ialonthebatter
yplate
,andplatebuckli
ng.$epr oce
ssoffor
ming
st
ablesulphat
ec r
ystal
sisc al
l
ed hards ul
phati
on.$i sispa r
ti
cul
arl
y
negat
iv
ea sitgene
rate
sbigcryst
al
sthatdono ttakepar
tinanychemica
l
re
acti
ona ndcanma keyourbat
ter
yunusable.
254 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Ba
tte
ryPa
rame
ter
s
$ema
inpa
rame
ter
stha
tcha
rac
ter
is
eaba
tte
rya
re:

No
mina
lVo
lta
ge,VNBat:t
hemo
stc
ommo
nva
luebe
ing12V.

No minalCa paci
ty,CNBat:thema xi
mum a mounto fenergythat
canbee xtrac
tedf rom af ull
ycha rgedba t
tery
.Itisexpre
ssedinAmpe re-
hours(Ah)o rWa tt-hours(Wh).
$ea mo unto fene r
g ythatcanbeo btai
nedfrom abatt
erydependsont he
ti
mei nwhi c
ht hee xtr
acti
onpr oc es
stakesplace
.Di s
chargi
ngaba t
tery
overal ongpe r
iodwi llyiel
dmo ree ner
gyc omparedtodi s
charg
ingt he
sameba t
teryo v
eras hortperi
od.$ec a
pacit
yo faba t
teryisthere
fore
spec
i0eda tdi1e
re ntdi sc
hargi
ngt ime s
.Fo rphoto
volt
aicappli
cat
ions
,this
ti
mes houldbelo nge rthan100ho urs(C100).

Ma ximum De ptho fDischar

ge,Do Dmax:$ede ptho fdi
scharge
isthea mo unto fenerg
ye xtra
ctedfrom abatt
eryinas i
ngle
dis
c hargec y
cle,expres
seda sape r
centa
ge.$el i
feexpect
ancyofaba tt
ery
depe ndso nho w deeplyiti sdis
chargedineachc ycl
e.$ema nuf
acturer
shoul dprovideg r
aphst ha
tr el
at
ethenumbe ro fcharge
-dis
char
gecyclest
o
thel if
eo ftheba ttery
.Asag e
neralruleyousho ul
da voi
ddischa
rginga
deepc ycl
e ba tte
ry be yond 50%.Tr act
ion batte
rie
ss houl
do nly be
dis
c hargedb yaslitt
leas30%.

Usef
ulCapaci
ty,CUBat:I
tistherea
l(asinusabl
e)capa
c i
tyofa
bat
ter
y.Itisequaltot hepr oduc
to ftheno minalca
paci
tya nd t
he
maximum DoD.Fo rexample ,ast
ati
onar
yba t
ter
yo fnominalcapac
it
y
(C100)of120Ahandde pt
ho fdi
sc
hargeof70% hasausef
ulcapac
it
yo f
(120x0.
7)=84Ah.

Me
asur
ingt
hes
tat
eofc
har
geo
ftheba
tte
ry
Aseal
edlead-a
cidbatte
ryo f12V providesdi
1ere
ntv ol
ta
g e
sde pe
nding
o
ni t
ss ta
teo fchar
ge.Whe nt hebat
teryisful
lyc harge
di na no pen
c
ir
cui
t,theoutputvol
tageisabout12.
8V.
$eo ut
putv ol
tag
elowe r
sq ui
cklyto12.6V whenl oadsareatta
ched.As
t
heba t
ter
yi sprovi
dingco ns
tantcur
rentduri
ngo pera
ti
on,t heba t
ter
y
v
olt
agereducesli
near
lyfrom 12. 6t
o11. 6V dependingo nthes t
ateo f
c
harg
e.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 255

Asea
ledl
ead-a
cidbatt
eri
espr
ovide
s95% ofit
senergywit
hinthisvo
lta
ge
r
ange
.Ifwema kethebroadas
sumpti
onthatafull
yloadedbatt
eryhasa
v
olt
ageof12.
6Vwhe n"f
ull
"and11.6Vwhe n" e
mpty",wecane s
ti
ma t
e
t
hatabat
ter
yhasdisc
harg
ed70% whenitre
achesavolt
ageof11.9V.

$es
eval
uesar
eo nl
yarougha
ppr
oxi
ma t
ionsi
ncet
heyde
pendo
nthel
if
e
a
ndqua
li
tyofthebat
ter
y,t
het
emper
atur
e,et
c.

State of Charge 12V Battery Voltage Volts per Cell

100% 12.7 2.12
90% 12.5 2.08
80% 12.42 2.07
70% 12.32 2.05
60% 12.2 2.03
50% 12.06 2.01
40% 11.9 1.98
30% 11.75 1.96
20% 11.58 1.93
10% 11.31 1.89

Accordi
ngtothist
able
,andc o
nside
ringt
hatatruc
kbat
ter
yshouldnotbe
disc
harge
dmo r
ethan20% t o30%,wec an det
ermi
nethattheusef
ul
capaci
tyofa170Aht ruckbat
ter
yis34Ah( 20%)to51Ah(30%) .Us
ing
thesamet a
ble
,we0ndt ha
twes houldpr
ogramthere
gula
tortoprev
ent
thebatt
eryfr
om di
scharg
ingbel
ow12. 3V.

Ba
tte
rya
ndr
egul
at
orpr
ote
cti
on
$e rmo ma gnet
icc irc
uitbre
akerso ronet imef use
smus tbeus e
dt o
protec
tt he ba t
terie
sa nd the insta
ll
at
ionf rom s hortc ircui
ta nd
malfuncti
o ns.$e rea ret
wot ypeso ff
uses
:s l
ow blow,andq ui
c kbl
o w.
Slo
wbl o
wf use
ssho ul
dbeuse dwithinduct
iveorc a
paci
ti
v eloadswherea
hig
hc ur
rentc ano ccuratpowerup .Sl
ow blowfuseswillall
ow ahi gher
curre
ntt hant hei
rr ati
ngtopa s
sforas hor
tt i
me.Qui ckbl o
wf useswi l
l
imme dia
telyblowi fthecur
rentWowingthroughthemi shigherthantheir
rat
ing.
256 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$er e
gulat
o risconnect
edtot hebatt
eryandt heloads,sotwodi 1e
rent
kindsofprotect
ionneedtobec onsi
dere
d.
Onef usesho uld beplace
db etweentheba tt
erya nd ther e
gula
tor
,t o
prote
cttheba t
ter
yf r
oms hort
-cir
cui
tincaseofregul
atorfai
lur
e.
As econd fuseisne ede
dt o prote
ctther eg
ulat
o rfrome x
cess
iveload
curre
nt.
$i sseco
ndf useisnormall
yintegr
ate
dintotheregula
torits
elf
.

FigureOGP9:Ab att
eryba nko f3600Ah ,cu r
rent
srea
chlev
elsof45A
duri
ngc har
ging
Ev er
yf usei sr at
edwi t
h ama ximum c urrenta nd ama xi
mum us a
ble
voltage.$ema xi
mum c urrento fthefusesho ul
dbe20% bi ggerthanthe
ma ximum c ur
rente x
pected.Ev eni ftheba t
te r
ie
sc ar
ryal owv olt
age
,a
shortc i
rcuitcanleadtoav eryhighc urr
entwhi chc aneas
il
yre a
chsevera
l
hundr eda mpe r
es.
Largec urrentscanc aus
e0r e,dama gethee quipme ntandba tt
eri
es,and
po s
sibl
yc auseelect
ri
cs hockt oahuma nb ody.Ifaf us
ebr eaks
,nev e
r
replaceaf usewithawi reo rahi gherrat
edf use.Fir
stdete
rminethec a
use
oft hepr oblem,t henreplacet hef us
ewi tha notheronewhi chha sthe
samec ha r
acteri
st
ics.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 257

Temperature effects
$e amb i
ent te
mper
atur
e ha
sse
ver
ali
mpo
rta
nt e
1ec
tso
n t
he
c
har
act
eri
st
icso
fabat
ter
y:

$eno minalcapacit
yo faba tte
ry(thatthema nufa
c t
urerusual
ly
give
sfo r25C)i ncr
easeswitht emper
aturea tther a
teo fabout
1%/
C.Buti fthetempe r
atureistoohigh,thechemicalreact
ion
thattakespla
c eint heba t
teryaccel
er
a t
es,whichc anc ausethe
sametypeo fox i
dat
iont hattake
splaceduringo ve
rcharg
ing.$i s
willob v
ious
lyr e
duc ethe lif
ee x
pecta
ncyo fa ba tt
ery.$i s
probl
emc a
nb ecompe nsa
tedpa r
tia
ll
yi ncarbatte
riesbyus i
nga
l
o w densi
tyo fdissol
ution( aspeci
0cg rav
ityo f1.25whe nt he
batt
eryistot
allychar
g e
d).

Ast het emper

atureisr e
duced,t heus e
full i
feo ft heba t
tery
incr
eases
.Butifthet emperat
ureistool ow,your unt hether i
sk
offreezi
ngthee l
ect
rolyt
e.$ef reez
ingtempe r
aturede pendso n
thede nsi
tyofthesoluti
on,whi chisa l
sor e
lat
edt ot hestat
eo f
chargeofthebat
tery
.$el owerthede ns
it
y,theg r
eatertheris
ko f
fre
ezi
ng .Inare
aso flowt empe r
atur
es,yo ushoulda voi
dde eply
dis
chargingt
heba t
ter
ies(t
hatis,Do Dma xise1ectiv
elyreduced.
)

$et empe r
atureals
oc hang e
st her el
at
ionbe twe e
nv ol
ta
g eand
char
g e
.I tisprefe
rabletous ear eg
ulat
orwhi cha djust
st helow
volt
age di s
connecta nd r econnect pa r
a me t
ersa ccor
ding to
temperature
.$et empe r
atures ensoroft her egulat
ors houldbe
0xedtot heba t
ter
yusingtapeo rsomeo thers i
mpl eme thod.
In hota r
easitisi mportantt ok eept heba t
te r
ie
sa sc oolas
poss
ible.$eba t
teri
esmus tbes tore
di nas hadeda reaandne ve
r
getdirectsunli
ght.It'
sals
ode s
irabl
et opl acetheba t
teri
eso na
smallsuppo r
ttoa l
lowa i
rt oWo w undert he m,t husincreas
ethe
cool
ing.

Ho
wtoc
hoo
seag
oodba
tte
ry
Choos
ingag oo
dbatte
rycanbever
ycha
lle
ngi
ng.
Hig
hca pa
cit
ybatt
eri
esar
eheav
y,bul
kyandex
pensi
vet
oimpo
rt.
258 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

A2 00Ahba tt
erywei
ghsar
ound50kg(120pounds)anditc
annotbe
t
ranspo
rte
dashandlugga
ge.
I
fy ouwantl
o ng-
li
fe(a
sin>5y e
ars
)andmaint
enancefr
eeba
tte
ri
esbe
r
eadytopaythepri
ce.

Agood bat
teryshoul
da lwa
ysc omewi t
hi t
st e
chnic
alspec
i0cat
ions
,
i
ncl
udi
ngthec a
paci
tyatdi1e
rentdisc
har
gerat
es(C20,C100)
,o pe
rat
ing
t
emper
atur
e,cut
-o1vol
tagepoi
nts,andre
quir
ementsf
orchar
ger
s.

$eba t
teri
esmus tbefre
eo fcra
cks,l
iqui
ds pil
l
ageoranysignofdama ge
,
andba t
teryte
rmina l
sshoul
dbef re
eo fco
rrosi
on.
Asl a
bo ra
torytestsarene ce
ssa
ryt oo btai
nc omplet
eda t
aa bo
utr eal
capac
ityanda g
ing ,e
xpectlot
soflowq ual
it
yba tt
eri
es(
incl
udingfakes
)in
t
hel ocalmarke
ts.At ypi
calpri
ce(notinc
ludingtra
nspor
tandi mporttax
)
i
s$ 3-4US D perAhf or12Vl ead-ac
idbatt
erie
s.

Li
fee
xpe
cta
ncyv
ers
usnumbe
rofc
ycl
es
Batt
eri
esaret heo nlyc omponento fa so l
ars y
stem t hatshould be
amorti
se
do ve
ras hortperi
odandr e
gular
lyrepl
aced.
Youcanincre
asetheus ef
ulli
fet
imeo fabatter
yb yreducingthede pt
ho f
dis
char
gepe rc yc
le.Ev e
n deepc yc
leba t
teri
eswi l
lha vea ni ncre
ased
bat
ter
ylif
eifthenumbe rofdeepdischar
ge(>30%)c ycl
esisreduced.
Ifyoucomplet
e l
ydischar
getheba t
teryeve
ryda y
,y ouwi l
ltypica
ll
yne ed
tochangeitaft
erlessthanoney ea
r.Ifyouus eonly1/3o fthecapaci
ty
thebatt
ery
,itc anlastmo rethan3y e
ars
.I tcan bec heapertobuya
bat
ter
ywi t
h3t imesthecapaci
tytha
nt ochangetheba t
teryeveryyear
.

The charge regulator

$ec har
g eregulato
ri sa lsok nown a sac harg
ec ont r
o l
ler
,av olt
age
regulat
or,ac harge-dis
c har
gec ontro
ll
ero rac ha
rge-
di s
chargea nd load
controll
er
.$er egulat
o rsit
sbetweenthea rrayofpanels,theba tt
eri
es,and
youre quipmento rloads.
Reme mbe rthatthev oltageofaba tt
ery,alt
ho ughalwaysc lo
set o2Vpe r
cel
l,v ar
iesaccor
dingt oi tssta
teo fcharge.Bymo nit
oringt hev ol
tageof
theba tt
ery,t
her e
g ul
atorpr e
ventsoverc
ha rgi
ngo rover
di s
charging.
Reg ul
atorsusedins olara ppli
cati
onssho ul
dbec onnectedi ns e
ries
:they
dis
c onnectthearrayofpa nelsfr
o mtheba t
ter
yt oavoido ver
cha r
ging,and
theydi s
connecttheba tt
e r
yfromt heloadt oav o
ido v
erdischarg
ing.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 259

$ec onne c
tio
na nddi sc
o nnecti
oni sdo neb yme ansofs wit
che swhic h
can beo ftwot y pes
:e l
ec t
rome chanical(rel
ays
)o rs ol
ids ta
te( bi
polar
tra
ns i
stor,MOS FET) .Regulatorssho ul
dne verbeconnectedinpa rall
el.
Ino rde rt oprotecttheba t
teryf romg asi
0cat
ion,thes witc
ho penst he
chargingc irc
uitwhe nt hev o l
ta
g eint heba tt
eryreachesitshighv ol
tage
dis
c onnec t(HVD)o rcut-o 1setpo int.$el owv olt
agedisconnect( LVD)
preventst heba tt
eryf r
omo ver
discha r
gingb ydisco
nnectingo rs heddi
ng
thel oad.To pr eventc ontinuousc onnecti
onsa nd disconnecti
o nsthe
regulatorwi l
lno tc o
nne c
tba c
kt hel oadsunt i
ltheba t
teryreachesal ow
rec
o nne c
tv olt
age( LRV).

Ty
pic
alv
alue
sfo
ra12Vl
ead-
aci
dba
tte
rya
re:

Voltage Point Voltage

LVD 11.5
LRV 12.6
Constant Voltage Regulated 14.3
Equalisation 14.6
HVD 15.5

$emo stmo dernregula

torsarea l
soablet oaut
o mati
cal
lydisc
onnectt
he
panelsduringthenighttoa voi
ddi s
chargingoftheba t
ter
y.
$e yc ana ls
ope ri
odical
l
yo verchar
g etheba t
ter
yt oimproveitsli
fe
,and
theyma yus eame c
ha ni
smk nowna spulsewidthmo dulat
ion(PWM)t o
preventexces
sivegas
sing.
Ast hepe akpo werope r
ati
ngpo i
nto fthea r
rayo fpanel
swillvar
ywith
tempe ra
tur
ea nd so l
ari l
lumina t
ion, new r e
g ul
ator
sa rec apa
bleof
constantl
yt r
ackingthema ximum po i
nto fpowe rofthesol
ararra
y.$is
fea
tureisk nowna sma xi
mum po werpointtra
cking(MPPT) .

Re
gul
at
orPa
rame
ter
s
Whens e
lec
ti
ngar eg
ulat
orforyoursyst
em,youshoul
da tl
eas
tk nowthe
ope
rat
ingvol
tageandthemax i
mum curre
nttha
ttheregul
at
orcanhandle
.
$eo per
ati
ngvolt
agewil
lbe12,24,o r48V.$ema x
imum curr
entmust
be20% bigg
ertha
nt hecur
rentpro
videdbythearr
ayofpanel
sconnec
ted
tot
heregul
ator
.
260 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Ot
herf
eat
ure
sandda
tao
fint
ere
sti
ncl
ude
:
Speci
0cv al
uesforL VD,LRVa ndHVD.
Supportfortempera t
urecompe nsati
o n.$ev olt
agethati ndi c
ates
thesta
teo fcharg
eo ftheba t
ter
yv ar
ieswitht emperat
ure.Fo rthat
reas
on s ome r egulat
orsa rea blet o me asuret he ba t
ter
y
temperat
urea nd co r
rec
tt hedi 1erentc ut-
o 1a nd reconne cti
on
val
ues.
Inst
rumentatio
na nd g a
ug e
s.$e mo stc ommo ninstr ume nts
me a
surethev ol
tag
eo fthepa nel
sa ndba tter
ies
,thes t
ateo fc harge
(SoC)o rDe ptho fDi scharge( DoD) .S omer egulat
orsi ncl
ude
speci
alalarmst oi ndic
atet hatt hepa nelso rloadsha v ebe e
n
dis
connected,LVD o rHVD ha sbe e
nr eached,etc.

Converters
$eregul
ato
rprov
idesDCpo we
rataspe
ci0cvo
lta
ge.
Conv
erte
rsand i
nvert
ersa
reusedtoadjus
tthev o
lta
get
oma
tcht
he
r
equi
re
me nt
sofyourl
oad.

DC/
DCCo
nve
rte
rs
DC/ DCc onverter
st ransfor
m ac ont
inuo usvo lt
agetoano the
rc o
nti
nuo us
vol
tageo fadi 1e r
entv a
lue.$e r
ea r
et woc onvers
ionme thodswhichc an
beus e
dt oa daptt hev ol
tagef r
o mt heba t
teri
es:li
nearc onver
si
ona nd
swit
ching c onversion.Linearc onvers
ionl owe r
st he voltag
ef rom t he
batt
eri
esb yc onv e
rtinge xces
se nergytohe at
.$i sme t
hodi sverysimple
butisobv i
ouslyine Ncient.Switchingco nvers
iong ener
all
yus esamag neti
c
compone nttot e mpo raril
ystoret heene rgya ndt r
ansf
o r
mi ttoano t
her
vol
tage
.$er es
ultingv ol
tagec an beg re
a t
er,lessthan,o rtheinv ers
e
(neg
ati
v e
)o ft he i nputv o
ltage. $e e Nciencyo fa l inearregula
tor
decr
easesa st hedi 1e re
nc ebetwe ent hei nputv olt
agea nd theo utput
vol
tageincreases.Fo re xample,ifwewa ntt oc onver
tfrom 12V t o6V,
theli
nearregulatorwi llhaveane Nc i
enc yo fonly50%.
As t
andards witchingr egula
torha sane Nc i
enc yofatlea
st80%.

DC/
ACCo
nve
rte
rorI
nve
rte
r
Inve
rte
rsar
eus e
d wheny
oure q
uipmentreq
uire
sAC po we
r.I
nve
rte
rs
chopandinver
ttheDC c
urre
nttog e
nera
teas qua
rewavet
hati
slat
er
0lt
ere
dt oappr
oxi
mateas
inewaveande l
imina
teundes
ir
edhar
monic
s.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 261

Ve ryfe winv e
r t
ersa ctuallysupplyapur es i
newa veaso ut put.Mo s
tmo dels
availableo nt hema rk etpr oducewha ti sk no wna s"mo di 0eds i
newa ve",
ast heirv ol
tageo utputi sno tapur esinuso i
d.Whe ni tc ome st oeNc i
ency,
mo di0e ds i
newa vei nv e
rtersperform bettert hanpur es i
nus o
idalinver
ters
.
Bea wa rethatno ta llthee q ui
pme ntwi lla cceptamo di0e ds i
newa vea s
voltagei nput.Mo s
tc ommo nly,somel ase rpr i
nterswi llno two rkwi tha
mo di0e ds inewa vei nv erte
r.Mo tor
swi llwo rk,butt he yma yc onsume
mo repo we rthani ft heya r
ef edwi thapur esinewa ve .I na ddit
ion,DC
po wers uppl i
est endt owa rm upmo re,a nda udioa mpl i0er
sc ane mita
buz zi
ngs ound.
Asidef romt het ypeo fwa vef
o rm,so mei mpo rta
ntf ea tureso finvert
ers
include :
Relia
bili
tyi nt hepr esenceo fs urge s
.I nver
tersha vet wopo wer
rati
ng s:o nef orc ont inuo uspo we r
,andahi gherratingf orpe akpo wer.
$e ya rec apableo fpr o vi
dingt hepe akpo we rforav erys hortamo unto f
time ,a swhe ns tart
ingamo tor.$ei nverters houlda l
sobea bletosa f
el
y
interrupti tse
lf( withac i
rcuitbr e
akero rf use)int hee ve
nto fas hort
circuit,ori ft
her eq uestedpo weristoohi gh.

Convers
ioneNciency.Inver
ter
sar
emo s
te Nc
ientwhenprovi
ding
50% to90% o fthei
rcontinuouspowerra
ti
ng.
Yous houlds el
ectani nv e
rte
rt hatmo s
tc l
ose
ly matc
hesy o
url oad
re
quir
eme nts
.
$ema nufac
ture
rusual
l
ypr ovi
destheper
for
manceoftheinv
ert
erat70%
ofit
sno minalpower
.

Bat
ter
yc harg
ing.Many inver
ter
sa l
soi nc
orpo
rat
et heinver
se
f
uncti
on:thepo ss
ibi
li
tyofc har
ging ba
tte
ri
esi nthepr e
senceofa n
a
lt
ernat
ives
ourceofcurr
ent(g
rid,gene
rat
or,et
c).$istypeofinve
rte
ris
k
nowna sacharge
r/i
nver
ter
.

Auto
ma ti
cf al
l-
ove
r.Some i
nve
rte
rscans wit
chaut
omati
cal
l
y
be
twee
ndi 1ere
nts o
urcesofpo
wer(
gri
d,gene
rat
or,so
lar
)de
pendi
ngon
whati
savai
labl
e.

Whenusi
ngtel
ecommuni
cat
ionequi
pment,iti
sbe s
ttoavoi
dtheuseo
f
DC/AC c
onver
ter
sand fe
edt he
m dire
ctl
yf r
o m aDC s our
ce.Mos
t
co
mmunica
ti
onsequi
pmentca
na c
ceptawiderangeofi
nputvol
ta
ge.
262 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Equipment or load
I
tshouldbeo bv
iousthataspo werreq
uireme ntsi
ncrease
,thee x
penseof
t
hepho t
ovolt
aicsyst
ema l
soincr
ease
s.Itisthe r
efo
recr i
ti
caltomatchthe
s
iz
eo ft
hesy s
tema scl
o se
lyaspo s
si
bletothee xpect
edload.
Whende s
igningthesy s
temyo umust0r s
tma keareal
isti
ce s
ti
mateofthe
maxi
mum c onsumption.
Oncetheinstal
lat
ioni si
npl ac
e,theestabl
ishedma ximum c ons
umption
mustberes
pe ct
edino rdert
oa voi
dfreque
ntpo werfai
lure
s.

Ho
meAppl
i
anc
es
$eus eo fphotovo
ltai
cs olare ne rgyisno trec omme nde dforhe at-e
xchang e
a
ppli
cat
ions(ele
ctr
icalhe a
ting ,re f
riger
a t
ors,to as
ters,e t
c.).Whene v
e rpossi
ble,
e
nergyshoul
dbeus eds pari
ng lyus i
ngl owpo wera ppliances.
Herea reso mepo intst ok e epi n mi nd whe nc ho osi
ng a ppropriate
eq
uipme ntforusewi t
has o l
a rs yste
m:
$epho tov oltaics ol
are ne r
g yi ssuitablef orill
umi nati
o n.
Int hisc a
s e,theus eo fha l
og enl i
ghtbul bso rWuo res
ce nt
lampsi sma nda tory.Al tho ug ht he sel ampsa r
e mo re
expensive,t he yha vemuc hbe ttere ne rgye Nciencyt ha n
incande s
ce ntl ightbul bs.LED l ampsa r
ea l
so ag oo d
choicea sthe ya reverye Nc ienta nda refedwi thDC.
I tispo ssi
bl et ous epho to voltai
cpo we rfora ppl
iancest hat
requirel owa nd c onstantc onsumpt ion( asi nat ypical
case,t heTV) .S ma ll
ert elevisi
o nsus el es
spo wert ha n
lar
ge rt el
ev i
sio ns.Al soc o nsidert ha tabl ack-and-whi te
TVc onsume sa boutha lfthepo we ro fac olourTV.
Pho tovolt
a ics o larene r
g yi sno tr eco mme nde df ora ny
applicati
ont ha tt ransf
o rmse ne rgyi nto he a
t( therma l
energy).Us eso larhe at
ingo rbut anea sa na l
t e
rnative.
Co nventiona la ut oma t
icwa shingma c hineswi l
lwo rk,but
yous ho ulda vo i
dt heus eo fa nywa shingpr ogramst ha t
incl
udec ent ri
fug alwa te
rhe ati
ng .
I fyo umus tus ear efri
gera t
o rs
,i tsho uldc onsumea sli
ttle
powe ra spo ssible.$e rea res pec i
ali
se dr e
frige
ra t
orst hat
wo rko nDC,a lthought heirc onsumpt ionc anbeq uite
high( around1000Wh/ da y).
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 263

$ee s
ti
matio
nofto
talcons
umpti
onisafundament
als
tepi
nsi
zi
ngyour
s
ola
rsyst
em.Herei
sat abl
ethatgi
vesyouag e
ner
ali
deaoft
hepo
we r
c
onsumpti
ontha
tyo
uc a
ne xpe
ctf
rom di
1er
entappl
i
anc
es.

Equipment Consumption (Watts)

Portable Computer 30-50
Low Power Lamp 6-10
Router with one radio 4-10
VSAT modem 15-30
PC without LCD 20-30
PC with LCD 200-300
16 port Network switch 6-8

Wi
re
les
ste
lec
ommuni
cat
ionse
qui
pme
nt
Savingpo werbyc hoosi
ngt herightg ears avesal oto fmo ne ya ndt rouble.
Fore xample,alongdi st
ancelinkdo e
sn' tne cess
arilyne edas trong
ampl i
0e rt
hatdrawsal oto fpowe r
.
AWi -Fic ar
dwi thg oodr ec
eive
rs ensitivitya ndaFr esnelz onet hatisat
l
e a
st60% c l
earwi l
lwo rk bettertha na na mpl i
0er,a nd s av epo wer
consumpt ionaswe l
l.
Awe l
lk nowns a
yingo fradioama teursa ppl i
eshe re,too :thebe stampl i
0er
isag ooda nte
nna.Furtherme asurestor educ epo we rco nsumpt i
o ninc l
ude
thrott
li
ngt heCPU s peed,r e
ducingt ransmi tpowe rt ot hemi ni mum v al
ue
thatisne ces
sar
yt opro vi
deas t
ab l
el i
nk ,inc r
easingt hel eng tho fbe acon
int
e rv
als,andswitchi
ngt hes y
stemo 1dur ingt i
me sitisno tne ede d.
Mo sta utonomouss olars ys
temswo rka t12o r24v ol
ts.Pr e f
erably
,a
wirele
ssde vi
cethatrunso nDC v olt
ages ho uldbeus ed,o peratinga tthe
12Vo ltsthatmo s
tleada ci
dba tt
eriespr ov i
de .
Transformingthev ol
tagepr o
videdb yt heb atter
yt oAC o rus ingav olt
age
atthei nputo fthea c
cesspo i
ntdi 1erentf romt hev ol
tageo ft heba tt
ery
willcauseunne c
essar
ye nergyloss.Ar out ero raccesspo i
ntt hata ccepts8-
20Vo ltsDCi spe rf
ect
.
Mo stche apAc c
essPo i
ntsha veas witche dmo dev olt
a ger egulatori ns
ide
and wi llwo r
kt hroughs uch av oltager ang ewi t
ho utmo di0c at
iono r
becomi ngho t(evenifthede vic
ewa ss hippe dwi tha5o r12Vo l
tpo wer
supply).
264 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

WARNI NG:Ope ra
tingy o
urAc c
essPointwit
hapo wersupplyotherthan
theonepr ovi
dedbyy o
urma nufac
ture
rwi l
lcer
tai
nlyvoida nywarranty
,
andma ycausedamag etoyoure quipment.Whil
ethefol
lowingtechnique
wil
ltypic
all
ywo r
ka sdescri
bed,reme mbertha
tshoul
dy o
ua ttemptit,you
dosoa tyourownrisk.

Ope ny ourAc cessPo inta ndl o okne art heDCi nputf o rtwor elati
velybi g
capac i
tor sa nd a ni nduc tor( afe r
ritet o roi
d wi thc o ppe rwi r
ewr appe d
aroundi t).I fthe ya r
epr esentt hent hede viceha sas wi tche dmo dei nput,
andt hema ximum i nputv ol
t agesho uldbes ome whatbe lowt hev o l
tage
printedo nt hec apa cit
o rs.Us ua l
lyther atingo fthe sec apac i
t orsi s16o r25
volts
.
Bea wa r
et hata nunr e gulatedpo we rsuppl yha sar ipplea ndma yfe eda
muc h hi ghe rv oltagei nt oy ourAc ces
sPo i
ntt hant het y picalv o l
tage
printedo ni tma ys ug gest.S o,c onne cti
nga nunr e
gul at
e dpo we rsuppl y
with24Vo l
tstoade vic
ewi th25Vo lt-
ca pacit
o rsi sno tag o odi de a.
Ofc o urse ,ope ni ngy o urde vi
c ewi l
lv oida nye xist i
ngwa rra nty .Dono ttry
too pe ratea nAc cessPo inta thi ghe rv oltageifi tdo esn'tha veas wit c
he d
mo der egul a
tor.I twi llg etho t,ma lfunc t
io n,orbur n.
Eq uipme ntba se do nt r aditi
o nalI ntelx 86CPUsa repo we rhung r yi n
compa ri
s onwi thRI SC-ba seda r
chitecturesa sARM o rMI PS .
Oneo fthebo a rdswi t
hl o we s
tpo werc ons umpt io nsist heS o ekrisplatform
thatus esa n AMD El anS C520pr ocesso r.Ano the ra l
terna tiv et oAMD
(ElanS C o r Ge o de S C1100)i st he us eo fe quipme ntwi th MI PS
proce s
so rs.MI PSpr ocessorsha veabe tterpe rfo r
ma nc et ha na n AMD
Ge odea tt hepr ic eo fc onsumi ngbe twe e
n20- 30% o fmo ree ne r
g y.
$ea mo unto fpo werr eq uir
e db ywi relesseq uipme ntde pe ndsno to nly
ont hea rchitec turebuto nt henumbe ro fne two r kint erf
a ces,r a di
o s
,t ype
ofme mo ry/stora gea ndt ra Nc .
Asag ene ralr ule,awi relessbo ardo flowc ons umpt i
o nc o ns ume s2t o3
W,a nda200mW r adioc ardc onsume sa smuc ha s3W.Hi ghpo wer
cards( suc ha st he400mW Ubi qui ti
)c o nsumea round6W.Ar epeating
sta
t i
onwi tht wor adiosc a nr angebe twe en8a nd10W.

Alt
houghthes t
andardIEEE 802.
11incor
porat
esapo wersav
ingmode
(PS
)me chani
sm,itsbene
0tisnotasgoodasyoumi g
htho pe
.$ema in
mechani
smf o
re ner
gysavi
ngistoall
owsta
tio
nstope r
iodi
cal
l
yputthei
r
wir
ele
sscar
dsto" s
le
ep"bymeansofatimi
ngcirc
uit
.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 265

Whe nt hewire
les
sc ardwa k e
supi tve r
i0esifabe ac
one x
ist
s,indic
ati
ng
pendingtraNc.$ee ne r
gys av
ingt herefor
eo nl
yt a
k e
splac
eo nthec l
ient
si
de,a stheacces
spo inta l
wa y
sne edstor emaina waketosendbe acons
ands tor
etraNcfort hec li
ents.Po wersavingmo dema ybeincompa t
ible
betweenimplementati
o nsfrom di 1erentma nufac
turer
s,whic
hc anc ause
unsta
blewi r
el
essconnections.Itisne a
rlyalwaysbestt
oleav
epo wersavi
ng
mo dedi s
abl
edo na lle quipme nt,a sthedi Nculti
escrea
ted willli
kely
outweightheme a
grea mo untofs avedpo wer.

S
ele
cti
ngt
hev
olt
age
Mo stlowpo werst
and-al
onesyst
emsuse12Vba tt
erypowerasthatisthe
mo stcommo no pe
rat
ionalvol
ta
geinseal
edlead-a
cidbat
ter
ies
.
Whe nde s
igningawi r
eles
scommuni c
ati
ons yst
emy ouneedtot a
k einto
conside
rat
iont hemo s
te Nci
entvolt
ageo foper
ati
ono fyourequi
pme nt.
Whi letheinputvolt
agec a
na cce
ptawi derangeo fva
lue
s,youne edt o
ensuretha
ttheo ve
ral
lpowerconsumpti
ono fthesys
temisminimal
.

Wi
ri
ng
An impo
r t
antc ompo nento ft heinstal
la
ti
oni sthewiri
ng,aspr oper
wir
ingwil
le ns
uree Ncie
nte ne r
gyt r
ansfe
r.Someg oo dpr
act
ice
sthaty o
u
sho
uldconsi
derinclude:
Us eas cre
wt of as
tenthec abl
et othebatt
eryte
rmi na
l.
Lo oseconnectionswillwast
epo wer
.
S pr
e a
dVa se
lineo rmi ner
aljel
lyont hebat
ter
yter
mi nal
s.
Co rrode
dc o nnect
ions havea n incr
eas
edr es
is
tance,
result
inginlos s
.

Wi
res
iz
eisno
rma
ll
ygi
veni
nAme
ri
canWi
reGa
uge(
AWG)
.

Duringy o urc alc

ulat
ionsy ouwi llneedtoc onv er
tbe tween AWG a nd
mm2 t oe sti
ma t
ec abl
er es
ist
ance.Fo rexample,anAWG #6c abl
eha sa
dia
me tero f4.11mm a ndc anha ndleupto55A.
Ac o nver
s i
onc hart
,i nc
luding ane s
ti
ma teo fr es
ist
ancea nd curre
nt
car
ryingc apacit
y,isavail
abl
ei nAppe ndixD:Ca blesS i
zes.Keepinmi nd
tha
tt hec urre
ntc arr
yingc a
pa c
it
yc ana l
sov a
ryde pendingo nthetypeo f
ins
ulatio
na nda ppli
cati
on.Whe nindo ubt,consultthema nufact
ure
rf o
r
mo r
ei nformation.
266 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Orientation of the panels

Mo stoft hee nergyc omingf romt hes una rri
ve sinas trai
ghtl i
ne.$e
sol
ar mo dul e willc aptur e mo ree nergyi fi tis f
a ci
ngt he sun,
perpendi
cul artothes t
r a
ig htlinebetwe e
nt hepo si
ti
ono fthei nsta
ll
ati
o n
andt hesun.Ofc o
urse,t hes un'sposit
ionisc o nst
antl
yc hangingr e
lat
ive
tothee ar
t h,sowene edt o0nda no ptimalpo sit
ionforo urpa nels
.$e
ori
entati
ono fthepa nelsisde te r
minedb ytwoa ngles
,thea zimu t
haa nd
theincli
nationo rele
v a
tion .$ea zi
mut hist hea nglethatme a s
uresthe
deviat
ionwi threspecttot hes o uthintheno r
the r
nhe misphere,andwi th
res
pecttot heno rt
hi nt hes outher
nhe mi
s phere.$ei ncli
nationist he
anglefor
me dbyt hesurfaceo ft hemo dulea
ndt heho r
izontalplane.

Az
imut
h
Yous houl
dha vethemo dul etur nedto
wa rdstheterr
e str
ia
le quator(f
acing
southint heno rt
hern he misphe r
e,andno r
thi nt hes outhern)sot hat
duringthedayt hepanelc at
che sthegreates
tpo s
sibl
ea mo unto fradi
ati
o n
(a=0o) .I
tisveryimpo rtantt hatnopa rtofthepa nelsaree verinshade!
Studytheelementsthatsurroundt hepa nelar
ray(tre
e s
,buildings,wal
ls,
otherpanel
s,et
c.)tobes uretha ttheywi l
lnotcastas hadowo nthepane l
s
atanyt i
meo fthedayo ry ear
.I tisac
ceptabl
et oturnt hepane l
s
20t o
wa r
dsthee a
stort hewe stifneeded(a=20 ).

I
ncl
ina
ti
on
Onc eyou have0x
edt hea z
imuth,t hepa r
ame t
erthatisk eyinour
cal
cula
ti
onsisthei
ncl
inati
ono fthepa nel
,whichwewi llexpre
ssa
sthe
angl
ebe t
a().$ema xi
mum he ightthatthesunr e
ache
se v
e r
ydaywill
var
y,wi t
hthema x
imum o nt heda yo fthes umme rsol
st
iceand t
he
minimum ontheda
yoft hewinte
rs o
lst
ice
.

Idea
ll
y,thepanel
ss houl
dt r
ackthi
sv a
ri
ati
on,butthisi susua
llynot
poss
ibleforc os
tr eas
ons
.I ni ns
tall
ati
ons wi
tht el
eco mmunica
ti
ons
equi
pme nti
tisnormaltoi
nsta
llt
hepa nel
sata0xedincl
inati
on.Inmo s
t
tel
ecommunic
ati
onss c
enar
iosthe energ
y demandso ft he s
yst
em are
const
antthr
oughouttheyear
.Provi
dingf o
rsuNcie
ntpo we rdur
ingthe
"worstmont
h"willworkwel
lfort
her e
stoftheye
ar.

$ev a
lueofs ho
uld ma
ximi
set
her
ati
o be
twe
ent
heo
1era
nd t
he
de
mandfore
ner
gy.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 267

Fori nstal
l
ati
ons wit
hc onsi
ste
nt( or nea
rl
yc onsi
st
ent)cons
umpti
on
thr
oug houttheyea
r,iti
spref
era
blet
oo pti
misethei
nsta
ll
ati
ontoca
ptur
e
thema xi
mum r a
diat
iondur
ing"thewinte
r"mo nt
hs.
Yous houldusetheabsol
uteval
ueo fthelat
it
udeoftheplace(
angl
eF)
incr
easedby10(=|F|+10 ).

Forinst
all
at
ionswi t
hlesscons
umptionduringthewinte
r,t
hev al
ueoft
he
l
a t
it
udeo ftheplacecanbeus e
da sthes o
larpaneli
ncl
inat
ion.$isway
thesys
temiso pti
misedfort
hemo nthsofspri
nga ndaut
umn( =|F| )
.
Forinsta
ll
atio
nst hatareonlyuse
ddur ingsumme r,youshouldus
ethe
absol
uteval
ueo fthelat
it
udeoftheplac
e( ang
leF)decre
ase
db y
10(=|F|-10 ).

$ei ncl
inat
iono fthepa nels houldne v
e rbel essthan15toa vo
idt he
acc
umulati
ono fdus tand/orhumi dityont hepanel
.Ina re
aswheres now
andiceo c
cur,itisv e
ryi mpo rta
ntt opr otectthepanelsandtoi ncli
ne
t
hema tana ngl
eo f65o rgreater
.
I
ftherei
sac o
nsider
ableincreaseinconsumpt i
ondur i
ngthesumme r,you
mightconsi
dera rr
angi
ngf o
rt wo0x edi nclinat
ions
,o neposi
ti
onfo rthe
monthsofsumme randano t
he rforthemo nthsofwinter
.
$i swouldr e
quirespeci
a lsupportstruc
t uresandar eg
ula
rs c
hedulefor
chang
ingthepo s
iti
ono fthepa nels
.

How to size your photovoltaic system

Whenchoos
ingequi
pmenttomeetyo
urpo
werne
eds
,yo
uwi
llne
edt
o
de
ter
minet
hefol
l
owing,atami
nimum:

$enumbe randt ypeofsol

arpanelsrequi
re
dt ocaptur
ee noug
h
s
o l
are
ne r
gytos upporty
ourload.
$emi ni
mum c a
paci
tyo ft
heba t
tery.$eba t
ter
ywi l
lne e
dto
s
toreenoughe nergytoprov
idepowe ratnightandthroug
hda ys
wit
hlittl
es un,a nd wil
lde t
erminey ournumbe ro fda y
so f
aut
onomy.

$ec ha
rac
ter
is
ti
csofallot
herc
ompone
nts(
ther
egul
at
or,wir
ing
,
e
tc.
)neededtos uppo
r tt
heamountofpowergener
ate
da nd
s
tor
ed.
268 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Syst
em s izi
ng calc
ulat
ions ar
ei mpo rta
nt,be c
ause unles
st he s ys
tem
compo nentsarebal
anced,energ
y( a
ndul ti
matel
y,mo ney)iswasted.Fo r
example,ifwei nstal
lmo resolarpa nel
st o pr
oducemo reenergy,t he
bat
terie
ss hould hav
ee noughc a paci
tyt ostor
et hea ddit
ionale nergy
produced.Ifthebanko fbatte
rie
si stoos malla
ndt heloadisno tus i
ng
thee nergyasi tisg e
ne r
ate
d,t hene nergymus tbet hrown a wa y
.A
reg
ulatorofas ma l
le
ra mperag
et hanne eded,orones i
ng l
ecablet hatis
toos ma l
l,canb eac auseo ff ai
lur
e( ore ve
n 0r e)and rende rt he
ins
tal
lati
onunus a
ble.

Ne verfo r
g ettha tthea bili
tyo ft hepho tovolt
aice nergyt oproduc eand
sto
ree l
e c
tricale nergyi sl imited.Ac cidental
lyl ea
v i
ngo n al i
ghtbul b
duringt heda yc ane asilydr ai
ny ourr eserv
e sbeforeni ghtt
ime,atwhi ch
pointnoa ddi t
ionalpo we rwillbea v
a i
lable.
$ea v a
ila
bi li
tyo f"fuel"f orpho tovo l
taicsystems( i
.e.s ol
arradia
tion)c an
bedi Nc ul
tt opredict
.I nf act,i
ti sne verpo s
sibletobea bsol
utel
ys urethat
astanda lones yst
emi sg oingt obea blet opr ovi
det hene cess
aryene r
gya t
any pa rticular mo me nt.S ol
ars ystems a r
e de signedf ora c er
tain
consump t
io n,andi ft heus ere xceedst hepl annedl imi t
sthepr ovis
iono f
energywi llfail
.$ede signme t
ho dt hatwepr oposec onsis
tsofcons i
dering
thee nergyr equir
eme nts,a ndba sedo nt hemt oca l
culateas yst
e mt hat
wo r
k sfort hema xi
mum a mo unto ftimes oi tisasreli
a bl
ea sposs
ible.
Ofc o urse
,i fmo r
epa ne lsandba tteri
esa reinstal
led,mo reenergywi l
lbe
abletobec o l
lect
eda nds tor
ed.
$i sinc re
a seofr el
ia
bi l
itywi llal
soha vea ninc r
easeinc o
st.

Ins omepho t
ovo l
tai
cinstal
la
tions( sucha sthepr ovisi
ono fe ner
gyf or
tel
ecommuni cat
ionse quipmento n ane t
wo r
k ba c
kbo ne)ther el
ia
bil
ity
fact
orismo reimpo rt
antthatthec o s
t.
Inac l
ie
ntinstal
lati
on,lowc ostisl i
kel
yt obet hemo s
timpo r
tantfact
o r
.
Findi
ngaba l
anceb etweenc osta nd reli
abil
i
tyi sno tae a
syt as
k,but
wha t
every ours i
tuat
ion,y ous ho uld bea bl
et o de t
erminewha titi s
expecte
df ro
my ourdesig
nc hoices,anda twhatpr i
ce.
$eme t
ho dwewi l
lusef o
rs i
zingt hes ys
temi skno wna stheme th
odo f
thewo rs
tmo nth.Wes implyc al
c ula
tet hedime ns
ionso fthes t
andal
o ne
syst
ems oi twillwo r
ki nthemo nthinwhi cht hede mandf orenergyis
great
estwithrespecttothea v
ailablesol
a rener
gy.Itisthewo rs
tmo ntho f
theye a
r,asthismo nthwi l
lhav et helarge
strati
oo fde mandede ner
gyt o
avai
labl
ee nerg
y.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 269

Usingt hisme t
ho d,reli
ab il
it
yi sta k
eni ntoc onsiderat
ionb y0x ingt he
ma xi
mum numbe rofda ysthatt hes ys
temc anwo r
kwi t
houtr ecei
ving
sol
arr adiat
ion( tha
ti s,whe na llc onsumpt i
oni sma des ol
elya tt he
expenseo ft hee nerg
ys toredi nt heba t
tery.
)$i si sk nown a st he
ma xi
mu m numb erofda yso faut
ono my( N),a ndcanbet houghto fa sthe
numbe ro fco nsecuti
vec loudyda y swhe nt hepa nelsdono tcoll
ecta ny
si
gni0cantamo unto fene r
g y.
Whe nc ho os
ingN,i tisnecess
arytok nowt he
cl
imatol
o gyoft heplace,a swe l
last heeconomi cands oci
alrele
vanceo fthe
i
nstal
lat
ion.
Wi l
litbeusedt oill
umina t
eho uses
,aho s
pita
l,af a
ctory,foraradiolink,or
fo
rs omeo t
hera ppl
ica
tion?Re membe rt hata sN i ncreas
es,sodo esthe
i
nv es
tme ntine quipme nta ndma intenance.

Itisa l
soi mpo rt
anttoe valuatea l
lpo s
si
b l
elogi
st
icscostso fequipme nt
repla
ceme nt.
Itisno tthes ametoc hangeadi scha r
gedbatt
eryfroma ni nst
all
atio
ni n
themi ddleo fac it
yv ers
uso nea tt hetopo fatele
communi ca
ti
o nto wer
thatissever
a lhoursorda yso fwa l
k ingdist
ance
.Fixi
ngt hev al
ueo fN i s
no tane asyt a
ska stherearema nyf a
ctor
sinvol
ved,andma nyo ft hem
cannotbee val
uatedeasil
y.Yo urexpe ri
encewil
lplayanimpo rt
antr o
lei n
thisparto ft hes ys
tems i
zing.Onec ommo nl
yus edv aluef orc r
iti
cal
tel
ecommuni cat
ionseq ui
pme nti sN = 5 ,where
asf orlo wc ostc l
ient
equipme ntitispossi
bletoreduc ethea utonomytoN =3.

I
nAppe ndixE:Sol
arDimensi
oning,weha v
ei ncl
udedse
ver
altabl
est
hat
wil
lfa
cil
it
atethec
oll
ect
ionofr
e q
uireddat
af orsi
zi
ngthesys
tem.$er e
st
ofthi
schapte
rwil
lexpl
aini
nde tai
lwhatinfo
r mat
ionyounee
dt ocol
l
ect
andexpl
ai
nho wtousethemethodofthe"wo rs
tmo nt
h".

Data to collect
Lat
itud eo fthei ns
tal
lat
ion.Re membe rto us ea po si
tiv
es igni nt he
nort
he rnhe mis
phe r
eandne g
ati
veintheso uth.
Sol
arr adiat
iond a
ta.Fortheme thodo ft
he" wors
tmo nth"itiseno ught o
knowj usttwe l
vev a
lues
,o neforever
ymo nt h.$et we
lvenumbe rsa rethe
mont hlyaveragevalue
so fdail
yg l
obalir
radiati
ono ntheho ri
zontalplane,
Gdm(0),ink Wh/ m2 perday.$emo nthl
yv alueisthesum ofthev aluesof
gl
obali rra
diat
ionf orever
yda yo fthemo nt h,div
idedb ythenumbe rof
dayso fthemo nth.
270 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

I
fyo
uha
vet
heda
tai
nJo
ule
s(J
),y
ouc
ana
ppl
ythef
oll
owi
ngc
onv
ers
ion:

1J=2.
78Y10-7 k
Wh

$ei rr
adiati
onda t
aGdm(0)o fmanypl ace
so ftheworldisgather
edin
t
able
sandda tabas
es.
Y
o ushouldche ckforthi
sinf
ormati
onf r
o m aweat
hers
tati
onclo
set oyo
ur
i
mpleme nt
a t
ions i
te,butdono tbesurpri
sedifyoucannot0ndt hedat
a
i
ne l
ect
ronicfo rmat
.
I
tisag oodi deatoa s
kc ompani
esthatinst
allphot
ovo
lta
icsys
temsi nt
he
r
egio
n,a stheirexperi
enc
ec a
nbeo fgreatval
ue.

Dono tco nf
use" s
unho ur
s"withthenumberof" pe
aksunho ur
s".
$enumbe ro fpe a
ks unho urshasnothi
ngt odowi ththenumbe rof
hour
swit houtclouds,butrefe
rstotheamountofdail
yirr
adiat
ion.
Adayo f5ho ursofs unwithoutcl
oudsdoesnotneces
sar
il
yha v
ea l
lthos
e
hour
swit hthes una tit
szenit
h.
Apeaks unho uri sano rmali
sedval
ueofsol
arradia
ti
ono f1000W/ m2 a
t
25de
gC.S owhe nwer efe
rto5pe aksunho ur
s,thi
simplie
sada il
ysol
ar
ra
dia
ti
o no f5000W/ m2.

Electrical characteristics of system components

$ee l
ectr
icalc har
acter
is
ti
csofthecompo nentsofyoursys
tems houl
dbe
provi
de db yt hema nuf
act
urer
.Iti sadvis
ableto makey ouro uro wn
me as
urementst oc heckfora ny devi
at
ionf ro
m t he nominalv a
lue s
.
Unfortunate
ly,de v
iati
onfrom pro
misedvaluesca
nbel ar
geands houl
dbe
expect
ed.
$e searethemi ni
mum v al
uesthatyouneedtogathe
rbefor
es t
arti
ngyo ur
sy
s t
ems iz
ing:

Pa
nel
s
Yo
une e
dtoknowthevol
tag
eVPmax andthec
urr
entI xa
Pma tt
hepo
into
f
maxi
mum po
weri
nstanda
rdcondi
ti
o ns.

Bat
teries
Nomi nalcapaci
ty(f
or100hour
sdi
scha
rge)CNBat ,o
per
ati
onalvol
ta
g e
VNBat ,and ei
the
rthemaxi
mum de
ptho fdi
schargeDoDmax orus
eful
ca
pa ci
tyCUBat.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 271

Y
oua l
soneedtok nowthet
ypeo fba
tte
rythatyoupla
nt ous
e,whet
her
s
eal
edlea
d-aci
d,gel
,AGM,mo di0edt
rac
ti
one t
c.
$et y
peo fbat
ter
yisimpor
tantwhendeci
dingthecut-
o1point
sinthe
r
egul
at
or.

Regul
at
or
You needtok nowt he no
mina
lvo
lta
ge VNReg,a
nd t
he ma
ximum
ope
rat
iona
lcur
rentI
max
Reg.

DC/ ACCo nve

rte
r/I
nve
rte
r
I
fy oua r
ego i
ngtouseaconverter,youne
edtokno
wt heno
mi na
lvol
ta
ge
VNConv,i
nst
antane
ouspowerPIConv a
ndperf
orma
nceat70% ofmaxi
mum
l
oadH70.

Equi pme ntorload

Itisne cess
a r
ytok nowt henomi nalv ol
ta
geVNC a ndtheno minalpower
ofo pe r
ati
onPCf orever
ypieceo feq ui
pmentpo we r
edb ythesys
tem.
Ino rdert ok nowt het ot
ale nergyt hato uri nst
all
ati
oni sg oi
ng t
o
consume ,itisa l
soveryimporta
ntt oc onsi
dert hea v
eragetimeeachloa
d
willbeus ed.
Isitc onsta
nt?Orwi lli
tbeusedda i
ly,wee
kly,mo nthlyorannuall
y?
Co nsidera nyc hangesi
nt heus ag
et hatmi ghti mpactt heamo untof
energ yneeded(seaso
nalusag
e,trainingorscho o
lpe ri
ods,etc.
).

Othervar
iabl
es
Asi
defromt heel
ect
ri
calc
har
act
eri
st
ic
softhecompone
ntsa ndloa
d,itis
nece
ssa
rytodeci
deontwomo r
epiec
esofi
nfo
rmati
onbefo
rebe i
ngabl
et o
si
zeaphotovol
ta
icsy
ste
m.
$e s
etwode ci
si
onsar
ethere
qui
rednumberofday
sofautonomyandt he
oper
ati
onalvol
ta
geofthes
yst
em.

N,numbe ro fdaysofaut
onomy
Youne edtode c
ideo nav alueforN t hatwil
lbal
anceme teoro
logi
cal
condi
tionswiththet y
peo finst
al
lati
ona ndover
al
lcos
ts
.I tisimpossi
ble
togiveac oncret
ev al
ueofN t hatisv a
li
dforeve
ryi
nstal
lati
on,butt he
nextta
blegivessomerecomme ndedv a
lues
.
Taket hes
ev a
luesa sa roug ha pproxi
mati
on,and consult wit
ha n
exper
ie
nc e
dde si
gnertoreac
ha0na ldeci
si
on.
272 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Available Sunlight Domestic Installation Critical Installation

Very Cloudy 5 10
Variable 4 8
Sunny 3 6

VN,no minalvol
tageo ftheinsta
lla
tio
n
$ec o
mpo nentso fy ours ys
tem ne edto bec hosent oo peratea ta
nomi nalvol
tageVN.$i svolt
agei susual
ly12o r24Vo lt
sf o rsma l
l
sys
tems,a nd ifthet otalpo wero fc o
nsumptions urpa s
ses3 k W,t he
volt
agewi l
lbe48V.$es ele
cti
ono fVN isnota r
bit
rary,a ndde pendso n
thea va
ila
bil
it
yo fe quipme nt
.I fthee q
uipmenta l
lowsi t
,tryt o0xt he
nomi nalvol
ta
g eto12o r24V.Ma nywi re
les
sc ommuni cat
ionsbo ards
acce
ptawi der a
ng eofinputv ol
tageandc a
nbeus edwi thoutac o nver
ter.
Ifyoune edtopo wers ever
altypeso fequi
pme ntthatwo rkatdi 1erent
nomi nalvol
ta
g e
s,c a
lculatethev ol
tagethatminimisest heo v
era l
lpo wer
consumptionincludi
ngt helossesforpowerc o
nv e
rsio
ni nDC/ DC a nd
DC/ ACc onvert
ers.

Procedure of calculation
$erea
ret
hreema
ins
tepst
hatne
edt
obef
oll
owe
dtoc
alc
ula
tet
hepr
ope
r
s
iz
eofasy
ste
m:

1.Ca l
cul
atethea vai
lables ol
are ne
rgy( t
heo1er)
.Ba s
edo nsta
ti
st
ica
l
dataofsol
arradiat
ion,a ndt heo r
ie
ntati
onando pt
imalinc
li
nat
ionof
thesol
arpanel
s,wec anc a l
culat
ethesola
renerg
ya v
ail
abl
e.
$ee sti
ma t
iono fsolare nergyavai
la
bleisdoneinmo nthl
yint
erv
als
,
reduc
ingthes t
atis
ti
ca lda t
at o12v alues
.$i sest
imati
onisag ood
compromisebetweenpr ecis
iona ndsi
mpl i
ci
ty
.

2.Es t
imatet herequi
rede l
ect
ricalenergy( t
hedema nd) .Reco
rdt he
powe rconsumptionchar
act
eristi
csofthee qui
pmentc ho s
enaswellas
esti
ma t
edus age
.
$e nc alc
ulatetheel
ect
rica
le nergyrequi
redo namo nthlybas
is
.Y ou
shouldc onsiderthe expect
ed W uct
ua t
ions of us
ag e due tot he
vari
atio
nsbe tweenwint
erands umme r
,ther ai
nyperi
o d/dr ysea
son,
school/v acat
ionperi
ods,etc
.$er e
sultwillbe12v a
luesofenergy
dema nd,onef o
reachmo ntho ftheyea
r.
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 273

3.Ca l
cul
atet
heidealsyst
ems ize(theres
ult
).
Withthedatafro
mt hewo r
stmo nt
h,whentherel
ati
onbe t
weenthe
so
lar demandede nergya nd t he ener
gya vai
la
blei sg r
eat
est
,we
ca
lcul
ate
:
$ec ur
rentt hatthea rr
ayo fpanel
sne edstopr ov
ide
,
whic
hwi l
ldeter
mi netheminimum numbe rofpanel
s.
$e ne cess
arye nergys t
orag
ec apaci
tyt oc overthe
mini
mum numbe ro fda y
so fa ut
onomy ,which wil
l
det
erminether e
q uir
ednumbe rofbat
ter
ies.
$er equir
ede le
ctric
alchara
cte
ris
ti
csoftheregul
ato
r.
$el engtha ndt hene ces
sar
ys e
cti
onso fcable
sforthe
el
ect
ri
c a
lc o
nne c
tions.

Re
qui
re
dcur
renti
nthewo
rstmo
nth
Foreac
h monthyouneedtoc al
cul
atetheval
ueo fIm,whi
chist he
maxi
mum dai
lycurr
enttha
ta na r
rayofpanel
so per
ati
ngatno
mi nal
vo
lta
geofVN nee
dstoprovi
de,inada ywit
hai rra
dia
ti
onofGdm for
month"m"
,forpa
nel
swit
hani nc
li
nati
onofdegre
es.

$eI m(
WORS TMONTH)wi l
lbethel ar
gestval
ueofIm, a
ndthesyste
m
si
zingi sbas
edo nt hedataofthatworstmo nth.
$ec al
cul
ati
o nso fGdm()f orac e
rtain placecan bema debase
do n
Gdm( 0) us ing c omputer s oftware s uch a s PVS YST
(http://
www.pv s
yst.c
om/)orPVS OL(http:
//www.sol
ar
desig
n.co
.uk/
).
Duet oloss
esi nther e
gula
tora ndbatteri
es
,a ndduet othefac
tthatthe
pane l
sdono ta lwayswo r
ka tthepointo fma xi
mum po wer
,therequir
ed
currentImMAX i
sc a
lcul
ate
da s
:

I
mMAX =1.
21I
m(WORS
TMONTH)

Oncey o
uha vedeter
mi nedthewo rs
tmo nt
h,theval
ueofI mMAX,andthe
t
ota
le ner
gythatyour equir
eETOTAL(
WORS TMONTH)y o
uc a nproc
eed
t
othe0na lca l
cul
at
ions.ETOTAL i
sthesum ofallDC andAC l oads
,in
Wat
ts.Toc a
lcul
ateETOTAL s
eeAppendixE:S
ola
rDi mens
ioni
ng .

Numb
ero
fpa
nel
s
Bycomb
ini
ngs
olarpa
nel
sins
eri
esa
ndpa
ral
l
el,wec
ano
bta
int
hede
si
re
d
vo
lta
gea
ndcur
rent
.
274 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Whe npa nel

sareconnec
tedinser
ies
,thetot
alvol
ta
geisequaltothesum
ofthei ndivi
dualvolt
agesofe a
ch module,whi
lethec ur
rentr e
mains
unchanged.Whe nconnect
ingpanel
sinparal
le
l,t
hecurr
entsaresumme d
tog
etherwhilethevol
tag
er e
mainsuncha
nged.
Iti
sv er
yi mporta
nt,tousepanel
sofnearl
yident
ica
lcha
racte
ris
ti
cswhe n
bui
ldinga narr
ay.

Y
oushouldtryt
oa cq
uirepane
lswi
thVPmax ab
itbi
gge
rtha
ntheno
mina
l
v
olt
ageofthesy
ste
m( 12,24or48V).

Re membe rt hatyoune e
dt oprovideaf ewvolt
smo r
et ha
nt henominal
vo l
ta
geo ft heba t
ter
yino rdertoc hargeit.I
fitisnotpo ss
ibl
et o0nda
singl
epa nelt hatsa
ti
s0esyourr e
qui re
me nt
s,youne edtoc onnects
eve
r a
l
pa ne
lsinseriestoreac
hy ourdesi
redv olt
age.
$enumbe ro fpa
nelsinseri
esNpsi sequaltotheno minalvolt
ageofthe
syste
m dividedb ythevolt
ageo fas ingl
epa ne
l,roundedupt othenear
e s
t
intege
r.

Nps=VN /VPmax

Ino r
dertoc alcul
atethenumbe rofpanel
sinpar
al
lel(Npp)
,youneedt
o
di
videtheI mMAX bythecur
rentofasingl
epane
latthepointofma
ximum
powerIpma
x,roun de
d uptothe ne
are
stint
ege
r.

Npp=I
mMAX /I
Pma
x

$et ot
alnumberofpane
lsisther
esul
tofmulti
ply
ingthenumbe
rof
pane
lsi
nserie
s(t
ose
tthevol
tag
e)bythenumbe
rofpa ne
lsi
npar
al
le
l(t
o
se
tthecur
rent
).

NTOTAL =Nps*Npp

Ca
pac
it
yoft
heba
tte
ryo
rac
cumul
at
or
$eba tte
rydete
rminestheovera
llvol
ta
g eoft
hesyst
ema ndne e
dst
ohave
enoughcapaci
tytoprovideener
gytot heloa
dwhe nthereisnote
noug
h
sol
arradi
ati
on.
Toe s
ti
ma tethecapa
c i
tyo fourba t
ter
y,we0r stca
lcul
atethere
qui
re
d
ener
gyc a
paci
tyofoursyste
m( nece
ssa
ryc a
pac
ity
,CNEC) .
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 275

$enece
ssa
rycapa
cit
ydepe
ndsontheener
g yava
il
abl
edur
ingt
he"
wor
st
mo
nth"andthede
sir
ednumbe
rofdaysofauto
nomy(N).

CNEC (
Ah)
=ETOTAL(
WORS
TMONTH)
(Wh
)/VN(
V)*N

$eno mi
nalcapac
ityofthebatt
eryCNOM ne
edst
obebi
gge
rtha
nthe
CNEC a
swecannotful
lydi
scha
rgeabat
ter
y.

Tocal
cul
at
et hesi
zeoft
hebat
ter
ywene e
dtoco
nsi
dert
hema
ximum
de
pthofdi
schar
ge(Do
D)tha
tthebat
ter
yal
l
ows
:

CNOM(
Ah)=CNEC(
Ah)/Do
DMAX

Inordertoc al
cul
atethenumberofbatt
eri
esi ns
eri
es(
Nbs)
,wediv
idet
he
nominalvoltageo
fo urins
tal
l
ati
on(VN)byt henomina
lvol
tag
eofasi
ngl
e
bat
tery(VNBat)
:
Nbs=VN /VNBat

Re
gul
at
or
Onei mportantwarni
ng:alwaysus ereg
ulat
orsi nser
ie
s,neverinpa r
al
lel
.
Ify ourregulat
ordo e
sno tsuppo r
tthec ur
rentr e
quir
edb yy oursys
tem,
youwi llneedtobuyane wr egulat
orwithalargerworki
ngc urre
nt.
Fors ecur
it
yr eas
ons,are
gulat
o rneedstobea bl
et ooper
a t
ewi t
hac urr
ent
Ima
x ga
Re tle
ast20% g r
eat
erthant hemaximum intensi
tythatisprov
ide
db y
thear r
ayofpa nel
s:
Ima
x g=1
Re .
2NppIPMax

DC/
ACI
nve
rte
r
$et o
talenergyneededfortheAC e qui
pmenti sca
lcul
atedincl
udi
nga l
l
t
helos
sesthatarei
ntroduce
db ytheDC/ ACc onver
terorinve
rter
.
Whenc hoosi
nga ni nve
rte
r,kee
pi nmindt hattheperf
o r
ma nceofthe
i
nve
rterva
riesacco
rdingtotheamo untofre
questedpower.
Aninver
terhasbett
erpe r
for
mancec har
act
eri
sti
cswhe nopera
tingcl
oseto
i
tsr
atedpowe r
.

Usi
ng a 1500 Wa
tti
nve
rte
rto po
wera 25 Wa
ttl
oadi
sex
tre
mel
y
i
neNci
ent
.
276 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Inorde
rt oavoi
dthiswa s
tede
nerg
y,itisi
mport
anttoc
onsi
dernott
he
pea
kpo werofally
o urequi
pment
,butthepea
kpo we
roftheequi
pme
nt
tha
tisexpe
cte
dtoo pera
tesi
mult
aneo
usly
.

Cables
Onc ey ouk nowt henumbe rsofpa nel
sa nd ba tt
erie
s,a nd type of
regul
ator
sa ndinverte
rsthaty ouwa ntt ouse,itisne ces
sarytoc al
cul
ate
thel e
ngtha nd t he thi
cknesso ft he cable
sne ede
dt oc onnec
tt he
compo nentstog
ether.
$el e
ngthde pendso nthel o
c a
ti
ono fy o
urt heinsta
llat
ion.Y oushould
trytomi nimis
ethel e
ng t
ho fthecablesbetweenther e
g ul
ator,panel
s,a
nd
batte
ri
es.Us i
ngsho r
tcable
swi l
lminimi selos
tpowe randc ablecost
s.
$et hicknes
sc ho s
eni sba s
e dont hel engtho ft hec ablea nd the
ma xi
mum c urr
entitmus tcarr
y.

$egoa
list
omi ni
misev
olt
agedro
ps.
I
nor
dertoc
alc
ulat
ethet
hic
knessSoft
hec
abl
eiti
sne
ces
sar
ytok
now:

thema ximum curr

entI MC t
hatisgoi
ngt oci
rcul
a t
ei nthe
cable
.I nt hecaseo fthepa nel
-bat
ter
ys ubsys
tem,i tis
ImMAX c
alc
u l
at
ed for e
v e
ry m o
n t
h. In theb a
tter
y -
load
subsyste
mi tdependso nt hewa yt hatthel oadsa re
conne ct
ed;
thev olt
agedrop( Va-
Vb)t hatwec onsi
deraccepta
blei n
thec abl
e.$ev ol
tagedr opthatresul
tsfr
oma ddinga l
l
possi
bleindivi
dualdropsisexpress
edasape rcento fthe
nomi nalvolt
ageoftheinsta
ll
ati
on.

Ty
pic
alma
ximum v
alue
sar
e:

Component Voltage Drop (%of VN)

Panel Array -> Battery 1,00%
Battery -> Converter 1,00%
Main Line 3,00%
Main Line (Illumination) 3,00%
Main Line (Equipment) 5,00%
 14. OFF-GRID POWER 277

Ty
pic
ala
cce
pta
blev
olt
agedr
opsi
nca
ble
s

$es
ect
iono
fthec
abl
eisde
ter
mine
dbyOhm'
sLa
w:

S
(mm2)=r
(Zmm2/
m)L(
m)I
mMAX(
A)/(
Va-
Vb)
(V)

wher
eSist
hesec
ti
on,risr
esi
st
iv
it
y(int
ri
nsicpr
ope
rtyo
fthema
ter
ia
l:f
or
co
pper
,0.
01286bmm /
2
m)
,andLthele
ngth.

Si
scho
sent
aki
ngi
ntoc
ons
ide
rat
iont
hec
abl
esa
vai
l
abl
eint
hema
rke
t.

Yousho
uldchooset heimmedia
tel
ys uperi
orsectiontotheo nethati
s
obt
ai
nedfr
omt hefo rmul
a.Fo
rsecuri
tyr e
asonstherear
esomemi nimum
va
lue
s,forthecablet hatco
nne c
tsthepa nelsa nd bat
ter
y,thisisa
mini
mum of6mm .Fo
2
rt
heothersec
tions
,themi nimum i
s4mm .2

Cost of a solar installation

Whilesol
arener
gyit
sel
fisfr
ee,t
hee
qui
pme
ntne
ede
dtot
urni
tint
o
us
efule
lec
tri
cene
rgyi
snot.

Y
ouno to nlyneedt obuye quipmenttotrans f
ormt hesol
arenergyin
e
lec
tri
ci
tya nds t
oreitf o
ruse,buty oumusta l
sorepla
ceandma inta
in
v
ari
ousc o
mpo nentsofthesy
s t
em.
$epr obl
emo fequipmentreplac
ementisofteno ver
loo
ked,andas ol
ar
s
yst
emi ssometi
me simplementedwit
houtapro permaint
enancepl
an.
I
no rdertoc al
culat
et herealcostofyouri nstal
l
ati
on,wei ncl
udea n
i
l
lust
rat
iveexample.
$e0r s
tthingtodoi ti
st oc
a l
cula
tet
heinit
ia
l inves
tmentcost
s.

Description Number Unit Cost Subtotal

60W Solar Panel 4 $300 $1,200
(about $4/W)
30A Regulator 1 $100 $100
Wiring (metres) 25 $1/metre $25z
50 Ah Deep Cycle
Batteries 6 $150 $900
Total $2,225
278 PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

$ec al
cula
tio
no ftheinve
stmentc o
stisrel
ati
velyeas
yoncet
hes
yst
em
hasbee
ndime nsio
ned.
Youjustnee
dt oaddthepricefo
re achpiec
ee quipme
ntandt
hel
abour
co
sttoinst
al
la ndwiretheequi
pme nttog
ethe
r.

Forsi
mplic
ity
,wedono ti
ncludethecos
tsoftr
ans
portandins
tal
l
ati
on
butyo
us houl
dno tov
erl
ookthem.
To0gureo uthow muchas ys
tem wi
llr
eal
lycos
ttoo per
atewemus t
es
ti
matehowl ongeachpar
twi l
llas
tandhowofte
ny oumustre
pla
ceit.
Inac
counti
ngterminol
ogythi
sisknownasamor
ti
sat
io
n.

Ourne
wta
blewi
lll
ookl
ik
ethi
s:

Description Number Unit Subtotal Lifetime(yrs) Yearly

Cost Cost
60W Solar 4 $300 $1,200 20 $60
Panel
30A Regulator 1 $100 $100 5 $20
Wiring (metres) 25 $1/ $25 10 $2.50
metre
50Ah Deep 6 $150 $900 5 $180
cycle batteries
Total $2,225 Annual Cost $262.50

Asy o
use
e,onc
et he0r
sti
nve
stme
ntha
sbe
endo
ne,a
nannua
lco
sto
f
$262.
50i
sex
pect
ed.

$eannua
lcosti
sanest
imati
onoft
hereq
uire
dcapit
alpe
ryeart
orepl
ace
t
hes
yst
emc o
mpo ne
ntsonc
etheyr
eac
htheendofthei
ruse
full
if
e.
MAINTENANCE, MONITORING
AND SUSTAINABILITY
280 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

15. MAINTENANCE AND

TROUBLESHOOTING

Introduction
Ho wy ouestabl
isht hes uppo rtinfr
ast
ruc tur
ef ory ourne t
worki sas
importantaswha ttypeo fe quipmenty o
uus e.Unlik
ewi re
dc onnect
ions
,
probl
emswi thawi re
le s
sne t
wo rka r
eo f
teni nvi
sibl
e,andcanr eq
uiremo r
e
ski
llandmo ret i
met odi a
g nosea ndreme dy.Inter
fer
ence,wind,andne w
physi
calo bs
tructi
onsc a
nc auseal ong-running networkt ofail
.$i s
chapt
erde ta
il
sas er
ieso fs tr
ategie
stohe lpy oubuildat e
amt hatcan
supportyourne t
worke 1ecti
v el
y.
Wea l
so descr
ibes omes tandardt r
oublesho o
ting t
echniquesthathave
prove
ns ucce
ssfuli
nso lvi
ngpr oblemsinne two rksi
ng ener
al
.

Building your team

Ev eryv il
lage
,c ompa nyo rfamilyha sindivi
dualswhoa reintri
guedb y
techno logy
.
$e ya retheo nesfounds pli
ci
ngt hetelevi
si
onc able
,re-wi r
ingabr oken
televis
iono rwe ldingane w piecet oabi cyc
le.$e sepe oplewilltake
i
nt erestiny ourne t
wo rka ndwa ntt olearnasmuc ha boutita sposs
ible
.
$o ug hthe s
epe oplea reinval
uabl eresource
s,yo umus ta v
o i
di mpart
ing
allo fthespecial
i
sedk no wledgeo fwi r
eles
snetwo r
kingtoo nlyoneperson.
Ify ouro nlyspeci
alis
tlo s
esinter
esto r0ndsbe t
terpayi
ngwo rksomewhere
else,theytakethek no wledgewitht hem whe ntheyg o.
$e rema yalsobema nya mbiti
o usy ounga dul
tswhowi l
lbei nt
eres
ted
andha vethet i
met ol i
sten,help
,a ndl earnaboutthene t
wo rk.
Ag ain,theya reveryhe l
pfulandwi lllea
rnq uickl
y,butt heprojec
tteam
mus tfocust hei
ra tt
ent i
ono nt ho sewhoa r
ebe stplace
dt os upportthe
ne tworkint hecomi ngmo nthsandy ear
s.
Yo unga dultsandt eena ger
swi l
lg oo 1t ouni ve
rsit
yo r0nde mploy
me nt
takingt hei
rk nowledgea nds ki
ll
sa boutthene tworkwiththe m.

$eseyoungs
tersmayal
sohavel
it
tl
einWue
nceinthecommuni
ty
,whe
re
a
no l
derindi
vidua
lisli
kel
ytobemo r
ewell
-kno
wna ndle
ssi
mpul
si
ve
r
ega
rdi
ngma ki
ngdeci
si
onstha
ta1e
ctthene
tworkasawhol
e.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 281

Eve nt houg ht hesei ndividualsmi ghtha velesstimet olearna ndmi ght

appe artobel essintereste
d,t heirinv o lveme ntandpr o pereduc ati
o na bout
thes yste
mc a
nbec r
itic
a l
.
$e re
fo r
e,ak e
ys trategyi nbui ldi
ngas uppo r
tt ea
mi stoba la
nc ea ndt o
distri
butet hek nowl edgea mo ngt ho set ha tarebe s
tpl acedt os uppo rtthe
netwo rkf orthel ongt e
rm.
Yous houldi nvol
v ey oungpe opl e
,buta longs
idet hemi nvolveami xo f
mo re ma turec ontri
but ors
.Fi nd pe ople who a rec ommi tt
e dt ot he
communi ty,whoha ver ootsint hec o mmuni t
y,whoa remo tivatedt olearn
and t each.A c o
mpl ement ar
ys tr
a tegyi st o divi
deup t hedut iesa nd
func t
ions,a ndt odo cume nta llme tho dologya ndpr ocedures.Int hiswa y,
peo pl
ec anbet r
ainede asil
y,a nds ub stitutedwi thli
ttlee1o rt
.
On o nepr oj
ectt het ra
iningt eams elected abr ighty ounguni versit
y
gradua tewhoha dr eturnedt ohi sv ill
ag e.Hewa sv e
rymo ti
va te
da nd
l
e arnedq ui ckly
.S oonhewa sa ne xpe rti nI Tandne tworkings kill
sa swe l
l
ast hel ocalne two rk.Hewa sa blet ode alwi t
hma nydi 1e rentpr oblems,
from 0x ingaPC t or ewiri
ngEt he rne tc able
.Unf ortunately,twomo nths
aftert hepr oje
ctl aunchhewa so 1e redag over
nme ntj oba nd l ef
tt he
communi ty.
Eve nabe tte
rs al
a r
yc ouldno tk eephi m,s i
nc ethepr ospec to fas t
able
gov er
nme ntj ob wa st ooa ppe al
ing .Al lo ft hek no wledg ea bo utt he
netwo rka ndho wt os uppo rtitl eftwi thhi m.$et rai
ningt e
a m ha dt o
returna ndbe gint het rai
ninga g ai
n,t hist i
mewi t
hl ocalpe oplewhowe r
e
kno wnt ober ema i
ningi nt hev ill
age .Al thought hisretr
a i
ningt o okmuc h
l
o ng e
r,t hec ommuni tyc ouldb ea ssur edt hatt hek no wledg ea nd s k
ill
s
wo uldr ema inint hev i
ll
agef oral ong e rtime .

Itiso f
tenbestto0ndal oc
a lpart
ne ro r
g a
nisat
ionoralocalmanager
,a nd
wo r
kwi t
ht hemt o0ndt her i
ghtt echnicaltea
m.Va l
ues,hist
ory
,lo cal
polit
ics,and ma ny o t
he rf act
orswi l
lbe i mpor
tanttot hem,whi le
remainingc ompl etelyunf athoma blet o peoplewhoa reno tfromt ha t
communi t
y.$ebe stapproa chist oc oachy ourloc
alpart
ner,prov
iding
them wi t
hs oundc rit
eri
a,ma kes uret hattheyunders
tandthatcri
teria,
and s et0rm bo unda ri
es.S uch bo unda r
iesshouldincl
uder ul
esa bout
nepotisma ndpa tro nage,cons i
deri
ng ,ofc ours
e,yourownl o
calsi
tuati
o n.
Itma ybei mpo ssibletos ayt haty ouc a
nno thir
ek i
n,butitisbe stt o
provideame a
nso fc hec
k sandba lances.
Whe reac andidat ei skin,t her
es ho uldbec l
earcri
te
ri
aa nd as e
c ond
authorit
yinde cidingupo nthe i
rca ndidacy.
282 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Iti sa lsoi mpo rtantt ha tt hel o calpa rtne ri sg ivena ut ho ri

tya ndi sno t
unde rmi ne db ythepr ojecto rga nisers,thusc ompr omi singt he ira bili
tyt o
ma na ge.$e ywi llbebe sta blet oj udg ewhowi l
lwo rkbe stwitht he m.
Ift he ya rewe l
le duc at
e di nt hi spr oc e
ss,t he nyo urr equi reme ntss ho uldbe
satis0e d. Tr oubl e
s ho otinga nds uppo rto fte chnolo gyisa na bstracta rt.
$e0r stt imey oul o oka ta na bs tr
a ctpa inting,itma yj us tloo kt oy oulike
ab unc ho fra ndo m pa ints pl att
e rs
.Af t
e rre Wecti
ngo nt hec o mpo siti
onf or
at ime ,y ou ma yc omet oa ppr eciatet hewo rka sawho le,a nd t he
inv isiblec ohe r
enc ebe c ome sv eryr eal.
$ene ophy tel oo kinga tawi rel
e s
sne two rkma ys eet hea nte nna sa nd
wi resa ndc omput ers,buti tc ant ak eawhi l
ef ort hemt oa ppr e ci
atet he
po into ft he i
nv isiblene two r
k .I nr ur ala reas
,i tc ano ftent a keahug e
l
e apo funde rstandi ngbe forel oca l
swi lla pprecia t
ea ni nv is
ibl ene t
wo rk
tha ti ss impl ydr o ppe di nt ot he irv ill
ag e.$e refore,apha s
e da ppr oac his
ne ede dt oe a sepe o plei ntos uppo rti
ngt echno logys y s
te ms .Ag ain,t hebe s
t
me t ho di si nv olv
e me nt.
Onc et hepa rti
cipa nt sa rec ho sena ndc ommi ttedt ot hepr oject,i nvolve
the ma smuc ha spo ssi
bl e.Le tthe m" drive ".Giv et hemt hec ablec ri
mpe r
ork e ybo arda nds ho wt he m ho wt odot hewo rk .Ev eni fy oudono tha ve
timet oe x plaine v eryde taila nde veni fi twi lltakel ong er,the yne edt obe
invo lv edphy sica
llya nds eeno to nlywha tha sbe endo ne,butho wmuc h
wo rkwa sdo ne .
$es cienti0cme tho di st aug hti nma nys c ho ol
sa nduni ve rs
ities.
Ma nype o plel ear na bo uti tb yt het imet heyr eachhi g h-scho o lscience
class.S impl yput ,a ns we r
sa rea chieveda ndpr o blemss olvedb yt akinga
seto fpo ssibili
ties,t he ns lowl ye limi natingt hemt hroug hbi na ryt estsunt i
l
yo ua rele ftwi tho neo ro nl yaf ewpo ssi
bi l
ities
.
Wi t ht ho sepo ssi
bi liti
e sinmi nd,y ouc o mpl e t
ethee xpe ri
me nt.
Yo ut he nt estt os e ei ft hee xper i
me nty i
eldss o met hings i
mi l
a rt ot he
expe c tedr esult.Ifi tdi dno t,y our e-calculatey oure x
pe ct
e dre sulta ndt ry
aga in.A y oungpe rsony ou mi ghtbet hinkingo fe mpl o yingi ny our
pro jec tma yha vebe e ni ntro duc edt ot hec oncept,butl ike l
ywi llno tha ve
hadt heo ppo rtuni tyt ot roubl e s
ho o tco mpl e xpro blems .
Ev eni ft he ya ref ami liarwi tht hes cienti0cme tho d,t he ymi ghtno tt hink
toa ppl yi tt or e so l
vingr ealpr obl ems .$i sme tho di sv erye 1ecti
v e
,
altho ug ht ime c ons umi ng .I tc an be s ped up b y ma king l ogi
c a
l
assumpt ions .Fo re xampl e,i fal o ng -
runni nga cc es
spo ints udde nlys tops
wo rk inga f t
eras to rm,y o umi ghts uspe ctapo we rsuppl yr elatedpr oblem
andt huss kipmo s to ft hepr o cedur e.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 283

Peoplec ha r
ged wi ths uppo r
t i
ng tec hno l
ogys hould bet aughtho wt o
tro
ub lesho otusingt hi
sme tho d,asthe rewi l
lbet i
me swhe nthepr oblemi s
neitherk no wnno revident .S i
mpl ede cis
iontreeso rWo wc hartsca nbe
ma det hatt es
tv aria
bles,andt hene l
imi na t
ionofthev ariablestoisolatethe
problemc anbes ug ge
sted.
Ofc ourse,thesec hart
ss houl dno tbef oll
owedbl i
ndly.
Itiso ftene asie
rt ot eacht hisme tho dus i
ngano nt echno l
ogica
lpr o bl
em
0rst.Fo re xampl e,ha v ey ours tude ntde v
elop a pr o bl
em r e s
oluti
o n
procedur eo ns o mething s implea nd f amili
ar,likea ba tter
y po we red
tel
ev i
sion.S tartb ys a
b otagingt het elevisi
on.Givet he m aba t
teryt hatis
notc ha r
g ed.Di sconnectt hea eria
l.I nsertabr okenfus e.Testthes tudent,
ma kingi tc l
eart hateachpr oblem wi llsho wspeci
0cs y mpt oms,a ndpo int
thewa ya st oho wt opr oce e
d.Onc et heyha v
e0x edt het e l
evi
sion,ha ve
thema pplyt hispr oceduret oamo rec o mpli
cate
dpr obl em.I nane twork,
youc anc ha ngea nIPa ddr ess
,s witcho rdama gec ables,uset hewr ong
SSID,o ro r
ientt hea ntennai nthewr ongdirect
ion.I tisimpo r t
antt hat
theyde velo pame thodo l
og ya ndpr oc eduretoresol
vet he seproblems .

Proper troubleshooting techniques

Not ro
ubles
hoot
ingme t
hodol
ogycancompl
etel
yc o
verallpro
blemsy ou
wil
lencount
erwhenwo rki
ngwit
hwi r
el
es
snetworks
.Buto f
te
n,proble
ms
comedo wnt ooneo fafewcommo nmist
akes
.He rear
eaf e
ws imple
poi
ntstok e
epinmi ndthatc
ang e
tyourtr
ouble
shoot
inge1ortworking
intheri
ghtdir
ect
ion.

Do n'
tpa nic
.Ify ouaretroubles
hootingas yste
m,i tme a
nstha
tit
waswo r
kingato netime,pr obabl
yv eryrecentl
y.Befor
ejumping
inandma ki
ngc hange
s,surveythescenea nda s
sessexac
tl
ywhatis
broken.Ifyouha vehistori
callogso rsta
tist
icstowo rkfro
m,a l
l
the bette
r.I fo t
hers we r
e using itbe forei ts t
art
ed hav
ing
problems,askthemt ohelpy oub yhavingthe mtellyouwhatwas
happeningbe foreitstoppedwo rki
ng.Bet horough,butdo n'
t
ma keitsoundlikeyouarea cc
usingthemo fbreaki
ngit.
$e yma yha vei mportantinfo r
ma ti
ont hatwi llhelpyou 0x
thi
ng sandy ouwa ntthemt obeo ny ours i
de.Bes uretocol
lec
t
inf
o r
ma ti
on0r st
,s oyouc anma kea ninformedde cis
ionbef
o r
e
ma ki
ngc hanges
.
284 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Ma k
eaba ckup.$i sapplie
sbe for
ey o
uno t
icepro ble
ms ,aswell
asa fte
r.Ifyouma keac omplica
tedsoftwarechanget oas yst
em,
hav i
ngaba ck up me a
nst haty ouc a
nq uic
k l
yr e
sto r
eitt othe
previouss et
tingsa nd s t
arta gai
n.Whe nt roubl
e shoot
ing ver
y
compl expr oblems,ha vi
ngac on0gurati
o nthat sort
-ofwo r
ks
canbemuc hbe t
terthanha vingame ssthatdo e
sntwo rkatall
(andt hatyouc anteasi
lyrest
orefrom me mo r
y).
Ev eninabr o kencon0g urat
ion,ma keaba ckupc opyo fthepart
s
oft hes y
ste
my ou willbec hangi
ng be f
orey out r
yt o make
signi0cantchang e
s.Ifyo urchang e
sresultinane ve nwo rs
estat
e
thanwhe nyo u0rststar
tedwo r
kingoni t,youwi l
la tle
asthavea
kno wns it
uati
o ntog oba ckto.

Isitpluggedin?$i ss te
pi sof
tenoverlooke
dunt ilma nyo t
her
avenuesareexplor
ed.Plugscanbea cc
idental
ly(orinte nti
o na
ll
y)
unpluggedv er
ye as
il
y.I sthelea
dc onne c
tedtoag oo dpo wer
source
?I stheotherendc onnec
tedtoy ourde v
ice?Ist hepo wer
l
ighto n?Itma ysounds il
ly
,buty o
uwi l
lfeeleve
ns il
lieri fyou
spendal o
to ftimec hecki
ngouta na nte
nnaf ee
dl ineo nlyto
real
is
et hattheAPwa sunplugge
dt hee nti
retime.Tr ustme ,it
happensmo reoft
entha nmo s
tofuswo uldcaretoadmi t.

Wha twa sthel a

stthi
ngc hanged?Ifyoua r
etheo nl
ypersonwi th
acc
e s
stot hes ys
tem,whati sthel a
stchangey oumade
?I fothers
havea c
cesstoi t,whatisthel astchangetheyma deandwhe n?
Whe n wa st he las
tt i
me t he syst
em wo rked?Ofte
n,s y
stem
changes ha v
e uni nte
nde d co nse
quencest hat may no t be
i
mme di
a t
elyno t
ice
d.Ro l
lba c
kt hatchangeands e
ewha te1ectit
hasont hepro bl
em.

Looka t date/
ti
me s
tampso n 0les.Ev e
ry 0leo n a mo dern
comput ersyst
em hasada te& t i
mea s
soci
at
edwi t
hi ts
ho wing
whe ni twa screa
tedo rlas
tc hanged.On apr operl
yr unning
sys
tem,mo stofthes y
ste
m 0leswi l
lhavedate/
ti
me s
tampsfrom
mo nthso revenyearsago
.Ifthes y
stemo rnet
workwa srunning
0neunt ilanhouro rsoago,0leswhichhaveatimest
ampwi thin
thepa stfew minute
stoa nho uragoc oul
dpr ov
ideclue
sa bout
wha tchanged.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 285

$ek no wn g ood.$i si deaa ppliest o ha rdware

,a swe l
la s
sof
tware.Ak no wng o
o disa nyc ompo nentt hatyouc anr e
pla cein
acompl exsyst
e mt ov eri
fyt hatit
sc ount
e rpartisingo od,wo r
king
condit
ion.Fo rex a
mpl e,y ouma ycarryat e
stedEt hernetca bl
ei n
atoolk it
.Ify ous uspectpr oblemswi thac ableint he0e ld,y ou
cane a
sil
ys wapo utt hes uspectcablewi tht hek nowng ooda nd
seeifthingsi mpr ove.$i sismu chf astera nd les
se rror-prone
thanre-cri
mpi ngac able
,a ndi mme diat
e lytellsyouift hec hange
0xesthepr oblem.Li kewise ,youma ya l
sopa ckaba ck upba t
tery
,
ante
nnac able,o raCD- ROM wi t
hak no wng oodco n0gur a
tion
forthes ys
tem.Whe n0x ingc omplicat
e dpr o bl
ems,s avi
ngy our
wo r
ka tag i
venpo intlet
sy oureturntoi ta sak nowng ood,e ven
i
fthepr obl
emi sno ty e
tc ompl e
telysolv
e d.

De t e
rminewha ts til
lwo rk s.$i swi llhe lpy ou" putaf ence
aro und thepr o ble
m" .Whi l
ec ompl e
xs yst
emsl ik
ea wi reles
s
ne tworkc anb ema deupo fma nydi 1erentc ompo nent
s,i tis
l
ik elythatthepr oblemi so nlywi thav e r
ys mallnumbe rofthe m.
If,fore x
ampl e,some bo dyi nal a bco mplainstheycan'taccessthe
Inte r
net,checkt os eei fo thersi nthes amel abaree xper
iencing
the s ame pr oblem.I st he r
ec onnectivi
tyi na not herlabo r
elsewhe r
eint hebui lding ?I fthepr oble
mi sjustwitho neuse ror
wi thinoner oom,y ouwo ul dwa ntt oc oncentrat
eyoure 1ortso n
thee qui
pme nti nj ustt hato nes pace.Ift heo uta
gewe r
emo re
wi despre
ad,pe rhapsl o
o kinga tt heeq uipme ntwherey ourout si
de
conne cti
onsc omei ni smo rea ppropriat
e .

Donoha r
m.I fyo udon'tful
lyunde r
sta
ndho was ystem works
,
don'tbea f
raidt oc al
lina ne xper
t.Ify oua r
eno ts ur
ei fa
part
icul
archang ewi lldamagea not
herpa r
to fthesy s
tem,then
ei
ther0ndso me onewi t
hmo r
eex pe
ri
encetohe l
py ouo rdev
isea
wayt otes
ty ourc hangewithoutdo i
ngda mage.Put
tingape nny
inplaceofaf usema ysolv
et heimme di
ateproble
m,buti tma y
al
soburndo wnt hebui l
ding.

Yourt
roub
lesho
oti
ngtea
m wil
lneedtohavegoodt
roubl
es
hoot
ingskil
l
s,
butmaynotbec ompe
tente
noug
ht ocon0gur
earoute
rfro
msc r
atc
ho r
cr
impapieceofLMR-400.
286 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Itiso fte
nmuc hmo r
ee Nci
enttoha veanumbe rofba ckupc ompo nents
on-ha nd,andt rai
ny o
urt e
amt obea bl
et oswapo utt heentirebroken
part.$i scouldme a nhavi
nga naccesspointorrout
erpr e-c
on0g ure
da nd
sit
ti
ngi naloc k
edc abi
net,pla
inl
yl abel
ledands t
oredwi thba c
kupc ables
andpo wersuppl i
es
.Y ourteamc ans wapo utthefai
le
dc ompo nent,and
eit
he rs e
ndt hebr okenpa r
ttoa ne x
pertforrepai
r,o ra r
ranget oha ve
anothe rbac
kups entin.
Assumi ngtha ttheba ck
upsa r
ek epts e
cureanda rereplace
dwhe nus ed,
thi
sc ans av
eal oto fti
mef oreve
ryone.

Common network problems

Nowwewil
lta
kealo
oka
tso
mec
ommo
nne
two
rkpr
obl
emst
haty
oua
re
al
mos
tce
rta
int
ofa
ce.

Of
ten,connec
ti
vit
y pr
oble
msc ome f
rom f
ai
le
dco
mpo
nent
s,a
dve
rse
we
athe
r,o
rs i
mplemis
con0gur
ati
on.

Onceyournetwo
rki sconne
cte
dt ot
heInte
rne
to ro
pene
dupt othe
ge
ner
alpubli
c,cons
ider
ablethr
eat
swil
lcomefromthenetwo
rk us
ers
t
hemse
lves
.

$e s
ethr
eat
scanrangef
romt hebeni
gntotheout
rig
htma l
evol
ent
,but
al
lwil
lhav
eimpactonyournetwo
rkifiti
snotpr
oper
lycon0gur
ed.$is
se
cti
onlo
oksatso
mec ommo nproble
msfoundonceyournet
workisin
use
.

Lo
cal
l
yho
ste
dwe
bsi
te
s
I
fauniversi
tyho s
tsit
swe bsi
teloc
all
y,v
isi
tor
stothewebsi
tefr
omo ut
side
t
hecampusa ndt heresto fthewo r
ldwil
lcompetewiththeuniv
ers
it
y '
s
s
ta1forInt
ernetbandwidth.
$isincludesa utomate
da c
c e
ssfrom sea
rchengine
st hatper
iodi
cal
ly
s
pide
ry o
ure nt
iresit
e.

Onesol
utio
nt othi
sproblemistouses
plitDNSa ndmirr
ori
ng.
Theunivers
it
ymi rr
o r
sac opy o
fi t
swe bsi
te
st o aser
verat,say
,a
Eur
opeanhosti
ngc ompany,andusesspl
itDNSt odi
re
ctalluse
rsfr
om
out
si
det heuniver
si
tyne two
rkt othemi rr
orsite
,whil
eus e
rso nthe
uni
ver
si
tynetworkacce
ssthesamesi
tel
o c
all
y.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 287

Fig
ureMT1:I nExampl
e1,allweb
sit
etra
Mcc o
mi ngfro
mt heI
nte
rnetmust
t
rave
rsetheVSAT.InExa
mp l
e2,thepubl
icwebsi
teishost
edonafas
tEu r
opea
n
se
rvi
ce,whil
eac o
pyisk
eptonaninte
rnalse
rve
rforv e
ryfa
stl
oca
lacce
ss.is
improve
stheVSATconne
cti
onandreduce
sloa
dt imesf
orwebsi
teuser
s.

Ope
npr
oxi
es
Apr oxyserve
rs ho ul
dbec o n0gur
e dtoa c c
epto nlyconnect
ionsfr
omt he
unive
rsi
tyne t
wor k,no tfro
mt herestoft heI nte
rnet.
$i sisbecausepe oplee l
sewhe r
ewi l
lc onne ctandus eopenpr oxi
esfora
vari
et
yo fr ea
sons,s ucha st oa voidpay ingf orinte
rnati
onalbandwidth.
$ewa yt ocon0g urethisde pendso nthepr oxyserv
ery ouareusi
ng.Fo r
example,youc a
ns pecifytheI Pa ddres
sr a
ng eofthec ampusnetworkin
yoursquid.c
onf0l ea stheo nlynetwo r
kt hatc anuseSquid.
Alte
rnati
vely
,ify ourpr ox
ys er
verliesbe hindabo r
der0r e
wa l
l
,y oucan
con0gurethe0re wa l
ltoo nlya l
lowi nte
rna lho s
tstoconnecttotheprox y
port.
288 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Ope
nre
layho
sts
An inc o
rrectl
yc o n0gured mailserv
erwi l
lbef ound byuns c
rupul
ous
peopleont heI nt
ernet,andbeus edasar e
layhosttosendbulkema i
land
spam.
$e ydot hist ohi det hetrues our
ceo fthespam,a nd av
oidg e
tti
ng
caught.Tot es
tf orano penrela
yho st
,thefol
lowingtes
ts houl
dbec a
rri
ed
outo ny ourma i
ls e
rver(oront heSMTPs er
verthatactsasarel
ayho s
t
onthepe rimetero fthecampusne t
wo r
k).Usetel
nettoo penaconnect
ion
topo r
t25o fthese r
verinquest
ion.

t
el
netma
il
.u
zz.
ac.
zz25

$en,i
faninte
rac
ti
vecommand-
li
neconv
ers
ati
onca
nta
kepl
ace(
for
e
xampl
e,a
sfo
ll
ows)
,thes
erv
eri
sanope
nrel
ayhost
:

MAI LFROM:s pa
mme r
@wa s
te.
co
m
250OK-ma i
lfr
om
RCPTTO:i nnoce
nt@uni
vers
it
y.
ac.
zz
250OK-rcpttospa
mme r
@wa s
te.
co
m

I
nst
ead,t
her
epl
yaf
te
rthe0r
stMAI
LFROM s
houl
dbes
ome
thi
ngl
ik
e:

550Re
lay
ingi
spr
ohi
bit
ed.

Anonli
net
est
eri
savai
la
bleatsi
te
ssuc
ha s
ht
tp:
//
www.mai
lr
ada
r.
com/openr
ela
y/orht
tp:
//
www.
che
cko
r.c
om/

Sincebulke mail
er
sha v
ea utomate
d met
hodsto0ndsuc
hopenrel
ay
ho s
ts
,a ninsti
tut
ionthatdo e
sno tpro
tec
titsmai
lsy
ste
msisal
most
guarant
eedtobefoundanda buse
d.

Con0g
uringthema i
lse
rvernottobea no penrel
aycons
ist
sofspec
if
yi
ng
t
henetworksandhost
sthatareall
owedtor e
laymailt
hroug
ht he
mi nthe
MTA( eg
.,Sendmai
l,Pos
t0x,Exim,orExchange)
.
$iswil
llik
elybetheIPaddressr
angeofthecampusnetwork.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 289

P
eer
-to-
pee
rne
two
rki
ng
Bandwidtha bus ethroughpe e
r-to-peer(P2P)0l e-
shari
ngpr ogramsc anbe
preve
ntedi nt hefoll
owingwa y.
Ma keitimpo ssibl
etoi nst
al
lne wpr og r
amso nc ampusc omput ers.Byno t
giv
ingregularus ersadminis
trati
vea cces
stoPC wo rkst
ations,itisposs
ible
to preve
ntt he instal
lat
iono fba ndwidth hung rya pplicat
ions.Ma ny
ins
tit
uti
onsa lsos t
andardi
seo nade sk
topbui ld,whe ret heyins t
al
lt he
requi
redo peratingsystemo no nePC.$e ytheni nst
allallthene ces
sary
appli
cat
ionso ni t
,andc on0guret heseina no pti
ma lway.$ePC i salso
con0guredinawa ythatpreventsusersfro
mi ns t
all
ingne wa ppli
cati
ons.A
dis
ki mageo ft hisPC isthenc l
o nedtoa llot
he rPCsus ings of
twa r
esuc h
asPa r
ti
tionI ma g
e( seehttp:
//www. parti
ma g
e.org/)orDr iveIma gePr o
(se
eht t
p:/
/www. powerquest
.com/ )
.

Fromt i
met otime,us er
sma ys uc
ceedininst
al
lingnews o
ftwar
eo r
other
wis
eda mag
ingt hesoftwareo nthecompute
r( caus
ingitt ohang
ofte
n,forexa
mpl
e).Whe nt hishappens
,anadmini
stra
torcansimplyput
thedis
ki mag
eback,causi
ngt heoperat
ings
yst
ema ndallsof
twareonthe
computertobee
xactl
ya ss
pe c
i0ed.

Pr
ogr
amst
hati
nst
al
lthe
mse
lve
s(f
romt
heI
nte
rne
t)
$e r
ear
eprogr
amsthata
utoma
ti
c a
ll
yins
tal
lthemse
lvesandthenk
eepon
us
ingba
ndwidt
h.
So
mepr og
ramsarespywar
e,whichkee
ps endi
ngi nfor
ma t
iona
bouta
us
er'
sbr
owsi
nghabi
tstoacompanysomewher
eo nt
heI nte
rnet
.

$eseprogr a
msa r
epr e
venta
blet osomee xt
entbyus e
re duc
ati
ona nd
l
ocki
ngdo wnPCst oprev
entadmi nis
tr
ati
veacce
ssfornormaluser
s.In
ot
hercas
es,ther
ear
es of
twar
esoluti
onsto0nda ndremovethes
eprobl
em
pr
ogra
ms,s uchasSpyc
hecke
r(http:
//www.s
pychec
ker
.co
m/ )
.

Wi
ndo
wsupda
tes
Micr
o s
oftWi ndowso per
ati
ngsystemsas
sumet ha tac o
mputerwi t
ha
LAN c onnec
tion hasag oodl i
nk totheInterne t
,a nd a
utoma t
ic
all
y
downloadss
ecuri
typatche
s,bug0x e
sandfeat
uree nhancementsfr
o mthe
Micr
o s
oftWe bsit
e.$i scanconsumema s
si
veamo untsofbandwidt
ho n
anexpensi
veInte
rnetl
ink.
290 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$et
wopo
ssi
bl
eappr
oac
hest
othi
spr
obl
ema
re:

Disa
bleWi ndowsupdate
sonal
lwo r
kst
ati
onPCs.$es e
curi
ty
updat
esareveryimport
antf
ors
erv
ers
,butwhet
herwor
kst
ati
ons
inapr o
tect
edpr i
vat
enetwo
rks
ucha sacampusne
twor
kne ed
the
mi sdebat
able
.

Ins
tal
laS of
twareUpda t
eS erve
r.$i sisaf re
epr ogramf r
om
Micros
oftthate nablesyout o do wnloada l
lt heupda te
sf r
om
Micros
oftover
nighto ntoal oca
ls er
veranddist r
ibutet heupdat
es
tocli
entwo r
ksta
tionsf r
omt here.Int hi
swa y,Wi ndo wsupda t
es
neednotusea nyba ndwidtho ntheI nte
rnetli
nkdur i
ngtheda y
.
Unfort
unatel
y,allclientPCsne edt obec on0g uredt ous ethe
Sof
twareUpda t
eS e
rv e
rforthistoha v
ea ne1ec t.
Ifyouha v
eaWe xi
bl eDNSs erver
,y ouc a
na l
soc o n0gureitto
ans
werr eq
uestsforwi ndowsupdate.
mi cr
osof
t.
co ma nddi re
ctthe
updat
ertoy o
urupda t
es e
rve
r.$i siso nl
yag oo do ptionforla
rge
net
wo r
ks,butcansa veuntol
da mo untsofInternetba ndwidth.

Pr
ogr
amst
hata
ssumeahi
ghba
ndwi
dthl
ink
Ina ddit
iont o Wi ndo wsupda tes,ma nyo the rprogra msa nd s ervi
ces
assume t hatba ndwi dthi s no t a pr oblem,a nd t he r
eforec onsume
bandwi dthforreasonst heus ermi ghtno tpr edict.Fore x ampl e,anti-
v i
rus
pac k
a ge
s( sucha s No rton Ant iVi r
us) pe r
io dical
l
y upda tet hems el
ves
automa ti
cal
lya nddi r
e ctlyfromt heI nternet.I tisbe tt
e rift heseupda tes
aredi s
tri
butedfrom al oc alserv
er.
Ot herpr ogr
ams ,sucha stheRe alNe t
wo rksv ideopl ay er
,a ut oma t
ical
ly
downl oadupda tesanda dverti
seme nts,a swe lla suplo adus agepa t
terns
backt oas iteo nt he I nt
er net.I nno cuo us look ing a ppl e
ts( l
ike
Ko nfabula
torandDa s hbo ar
dwi dg ets)c ontinua ll
ypo llI nternetho stsfor
upda tedinf
o r
ma tio
n.$e sec anbel owba ndwi dthreque sts(likewe ather
orne wsupda t
e s
),o rv eryhi ghba ndwi dthr equests(suc ha swe bcams )
.
$e s
ea ppli
cat
ionsma yne edt obet hr ottl
edo rbl ockeda ltogether.
$el at
estv er
sionso fWi ndo wsa nd Ma c OS X a l
so ha veat ime
synchronisa
tions ervi
c e.$i sk e epst he c omput erc lo c
ka cc
urateb y
conne ct
ingtot imes erverso ntheI nterne t.Iti smo reeNc ientt oinstal
la
l
o caltimes er
vera nddi st
ributea cc uratet imef romt he re,rathert hant o
ti
eupt heInter
ne tli
nkwi ththeser eq uests.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 291

Wo
rmsa
ndv
irus
es
Wo r
msa nd vir
usesc ang enerat
ee normousa mo untso ftraNc.I tis
ther
efo
ree sse
nti
alt hata nti
-vir
uspr ot
ecti
oni si nst
all
edo na l
lPCs .
Furt
hermo r
e,usereducati
ona boutexec
utingattachmentsandr e
sponding
tounso l
ic
it
ede ma i
lise s
senti
a l
.Inf a
ct,itshouldbeapo l
icythatno
workst
ati
ono rserv
ershouldrununus edserv
ices.
APC s houldnotha veshare
sunl e
ssiti
sa0l eserver;a
ndas e r
vershould
notrununne c
essa
rys e
rvic
eseither
.
Forexample,Windo wsandUni xse
rver
stypica
llyrunawe bs er
verser
vice
bydefault
.$i sshouldbedi sabl
edifthatser
verha sadi1erentfunct
ion;
thefe
we rser
vic
esac omputerruns,thele
ssthereistoexplo
it.

Ema
ilf
orwa
rdi
ngl
oops
Occa
si
onal
l
y,asi
ngl
euse
rma k
ingami s
tak
ec a
nc aus
eapro
ble
m.Fo r
ex
ample
,ause
rwhos
euni
ver
si
tyac
counti
scon0gur
edtofo
rwa
rdallma
il
t
oherYahooa
cco
unt
.

$eus ergoesonho li
da y
.Allema i
lssenttohe rinhe rabsenceares
ti
ll
fo
rwardedtoherYahooa cco
unt,whichcang r
owt oo nl
y2MB.
Whe ntheYahooa c
countbe c
ome sf
ull,itst
art
sbo unci
ngt heemail
sba
ck
totheuni v
ers
it
ya ccount,whichimme di
atel
yf orwar
dsi tbackt ot
he
Yahooacco
unt.
Ane mai
lloopisfor
me dt ha
tmi g
htsendhundr edso ft
housandsofemai
ls
backandfort
h,gener
atingma s
si
vetraNca ndcrashingmailser
vers
.

$e r
earefeatur
esofmailser
verprogr
amst ha
tca
nr e
cogni
seloops
.$e s
e
sho
uldbetur ne
donb ydefa
ult.
Admini
str
atorsmustal
sotakecar
ethatthe
ydono tt
urnthi
sfeat
ureo1by
mist
ake
,ori nst
al
lanS MTPf orwar
derthatmodi
0esmailhea
dersins
uch
awaythatthema i
lse
rverdoesnotr
ecogni
sethemai
lloo
p .

La
rgedo
wnl
oads
Ause
rma ys t
artseve
ralsi
mult
ane
ousdownl
oads
,o rdownloa
dlar
ge0les
s
uchas650MBI S
Oi ma ge
s.
I
nthi
swa y
,as i
ngleusercanus
eupmostoft
heba ndwi
dth.
$esolut
ionstothiskindofpr
obl
emlieint
rai
ning,okinedownl
oadi
ng,
a
ndmo ni
tori
ng.
292 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Oki
nedo
wnl
oadi
ngc
anbei
mpl
eme
nte
dina
tle
astt
wowa
ys:

AttheUni vers
ityo fMo ra
tuwa,as ystem wa simpl eme ntedusing
URL r edi
recti
o n.Us er
sa c
cessing f tp:
/ / URLs a res erv
eda
dir
ect
orylist
ingi nwhiche ach0l eha stwol inks:onef o
rno rmal
downloadi
ng,a ndt heo therforo kinedo wnlo a
ding.I ftheoki ne
l
inkissele
cted,t hespeci
0e d0lei sq ueuedf orlaterdo wnloada nd
theuserno t
i0edb ye mailwhe nt hedo wnloa disc ompl et
e.$e
sys
temk eepsac a c
heo frecentl
ydo wnlo a
ded0l es,andr et
rieve
s
such0lesi
mme di at
el
ywhe nr eque s
teda gain.$edo wnl oadq ueue
issor
tedby0l es ize
.$e r e
for
e,sma l
l0l esaredo wnloade d0rst.As
someba ndwidthi sa l
locat
edt ot hiss yste
me ven dur ingpe ak
hours
,us ersr eq ues
ti
ng s mall0l esma yr ecei
vet hem wi thin
minutes
,some t
ime sevenfast
ert hana no nli
nedo wnlo ad.

Ano therappro
achwo ul
dbet ocre
ateawebinte
rfac
ewhe reuse
rs
entertheURLo ft
he0l ethe
ywa nttodownload.$isi sthe
n
downl oadedover
nig
htus i
ngac ronjoborschedule
dta s
k.$i s
syst
em wo uldonlywo r
kforuse
rswhoarenotimpati
ent,andare
familia
rwi t
hwha t0lesiz
eswouldbeprobl
ematicfordownload
duringthewo rki
ngday.

S
endi
ngl
ar
ge0l
es
Whenusersneedtotransf
erla
rge0l
est
oc o
lla
bo r
ato
rsels
ewhe
reonthe
I
nte
rne
t,theyshoul
dbes hownhowtosc
heduletheuplo
ad.InWindo
ws,
anupl
oadtoar emoteFTPs er
verca
nbedo neusinganFTPs c
ri
pt0le
,
whi
chisatext0l
econta
iningFTPcommands
.

Us
erss
endi
nge
acho
the
r0l
es
Usersoftenneedt os ende acho t
herlarg
e0l es
.Itisawa steofbandwidth
tosendt hes
ev i
at heI nte
rnetifthereci
pientisl
ocal.A0l eshares hould
bec reatedont hel oc a
lWi ndows/Samba /
Ma cwe bs erver
,whe r
ea
userc anputt hel arg e0leforot herstoa cces
s.
Alt
ernative
ly
,awe bf r
o nt-
endc anbeus edf o
ralocalwe bserve
rtoa cc
ept
alarge0lea ndpla ceitinado wnl
o a
da rea.Aft
erupl o
a dingittothewe b
ser
ver,theuserreceivesaURLf orthe0le.
Hec ant hengivet hatURLt ohislocalorinter
nati
o nalco l
la
borat
ors,and
whent heyacces
st hatURLt heycando wnloadit.
 15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 293

$isiswhatt
heUniver
si
tyofBris
tolhasdonewitht
heirFLUFFsyst
em.
$eUni ve
rsi
tyo1er
saf aci
li
tyfort heuplo
ado flar
ge0les(FLUFF)
a
vai
la
blefr
om ht
tp:
//
www. br
is.
ac.
uk /
it-
ser
vic
es/
appl
ic
ations
/Eu>/

$e r
ea r
eals
ot oo
lslikeSpar
kleShar
e(h t
tp:
//
sp
ark
les
har
e.o
rg/
)a ndLipS
y nc
(
http
s:
//
git
hub.
com/p
hilcr
yer
/l
ip
sync
)whi cha r
eOpe nS o
urcepa cka
gesthat
y
ouc anins
tal
landsetupyoursel
ftodomuc hthesamethi
ng .
$e r
ea r
eals
one wonl i
nefr
eeservi
cessuchasGo o
gleDrivewhichcanbe
s
etupfor0l
eshari
nga ndcommo nediti
ng.

Co nsiderusingrsync( http:
//r
sync.s
amba.
org/
)forthos
euserswhone e
dt o
sende acho t
herthes ame /si
mila
rl a
rge0l
esonaregul
arbasi
s.
$eRs yncpr otoc
o lisas ynchronis
ati
onrat
herthanas t
rai
ghtfo
rwar
d0l e
t
ra nsferprot
o c
o l
.
Ra therthans i
mplys endinga0l efromstar
ttoend,itche
ckswithanrsync
servero nthede s
ti
na t
ionho sttoseeift
he0lebei
ngsental
rea
dye xi
st
s.
Ifitdo es
,bo t
hs idesc ompa r
et hei
rcopi
esandthes e
ndertransmi
tsover
onlyt hedi1erencestot hedest
inati
on.

Forexample,ifa10MBda t
abaseofr
ese
archdat
aonlyha
s23KBo fne
w
dat
av s
.thelas
tvers
ion,
onlythe23KBo fchang
eswi
llbet
ransmi
tte
d.
RsynccanalsousetheSSH pro
toco
l,pr
ovidi
ngasec
uretr
anspor
tla
yerf
or
sy
nca c
tions
.

Trouble tracking and reporting

Tr
oubl
eshoo ti
ngiso nlyo neha lfofthetasko fpr obl
em-s
olv
ingo na
wi
rel
es
sne t
wo rk.
Onceapr oble
m ha sbeendia
g nosedand0xed,itneedstobedocumente
d
i
nap er
ma nentwa ysothatotherswhowo r
ko nthene t
wo r
keit
herno
wo r
i
nthefuture,wil
lbea bl
etole
a rnfromthei
nc i
dent.

Kee
pingarec
ordofpr
oble
msa ndinci
dent
stha
toc
curi
sals
oagoo
dwa yto
t
rac
ka nd 0xlong
-te
rm pro
blemst ha
tma yocc
ur,s
ay,onc
eever
yf e
w
monthsbutf
oll
owade0ni
tepatt
ern.

Yo
ucanal
sore
ducet
hec
omple
xit
ya ndfr
ustr
ati
ono ftr
oubl
esho
oti
nga
pr
obl
emi
fyoukee
pal
ogo
fev
erychangemadetothenet
work.
294 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$eLo g
booki
swher
eyouandyourte
am wri
tedowneve
rycha
ngemadeto
as
yst
em,al
ongwi
ththeda
teandti
methechangewasmade
.Fore
xample
:

23Jul
y10:
15AM Change
dd e
fau
ltr
out
eonho
stal
phafr
om123.
45.
67.
89t
o
123.
56.
78.
1bec
auseu
p s
tr
eamISPmove
dourg
ate
way.

Asy ournet
workg rows
,c onsi
derinstal
li
ngat ro
uble-
tr
ack
ingsys
teml ik
e
JI
RA o rBugzi
ll
at ohe l
pbe t
terke e
pt r
ackofwhoi swo r
kingonwha t
proble
ma ndwha thappeneddur i
ngt hatwork.$isprovi
desahis
toryo f
wha twaswork
edo nandho wi twa s0xedanda l
soprov
idesano r
derl
y
methodforass
igningtas
k sandhe lpi
ngt opre
ventthi
ngsli
ketwope opl
e
st
eppingoneac
ho ther'
swo rkwhiletheybotht
ryto0xthesameprobl
em.

Troubl
e-t
ic
keti
ngs ys
temsar
eas ub
jectthatwoul
d0 l
lanent
ir
esepar
ate
book,sowewi llonlymenti
onthem bri
eWyheretomakeyouawar
eo f
the
m.$e ycana l
sobequit
ecomple
xt osetup
,sofors
impl
enet
wo r
ks,a
l
o g
b oo
kwilldo.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 295

16. NETWORK MONITORING

Introduction
Networkmo nit
ori
ngistheus eo flogg
inga ndanaly
sistool
stoaccurat
el
y
det
erminetra NcWows,util
i
s a
tion,ando therperf
ormanceindic
ator
so na
net
wo rk.Goo dmonitori
ngtoolsgiveyoub ot
hha r
dnumbe rsandgraphi
cal
aggr
egaterepres
enta
ti
o nsofthes t
ateoft henetwork.$i shel
psy outo
vi
suali
sepre
c is
el
ywha tishappening,soy ouknowwhe readjus
tmentsmay
beneeded.
$e setool
sca nhel
pyo uans
we rcrit
icalquest
ions
,suc
ha s:

Wha tarethemo stpopularservi

cesusedo nthenet
wo r
k?
Whoa r
ethehe av i
estnetworkus ers
?
Wha totherwirelesschannelsareinuseinmya r
ea?
Areus er
si ns
tallingwi rel
essa cc
e s
spo int
so n mypr iva
tewired
network?
Atwha tti
meo ftheda yisthene tworkmo stut
il
is
ed?
Wha tsi
tesdoy o urusersfre
q ue
nt ?
Istheamo unto finboundo ro utboundt ra
Ncc l
osetotheavai
l
able
networkcapacity?
Aret her
ei ndica t
ionso fa n unus ualnetworksit
uati
o nthatis
consumingba ndwi dtho rcausi
ngo therprobl
ems?
IsourInterne
tS e rvi
cePr o
vider(ISP)pro v
idi
ngthelevelofs
ervi
ce
thatwea r
epay i
ngf or?

$isshoul
dbea nswer
edint er
mso fav
ail
abl
eba
ndwi
dth,pa
cke
tlo
ss,
l
ate
ncy
,andove
ral
lavai
la
bil
it
y.
Andper
hapst
hemo sti
mport
antque
sti
onofal
l:

Dot
heo
bse
rve
dtr
aNcpa
tte
rns0to
ure
xpe
cta
ti
ons
?

Moni
tor
ingandme
tri
cst
oolsa
revi
ta
ll
yimpor
tantpr
ogra
mst ohav
eon
ha
ndtoc he
ckont
hehea
lthofyo
urnetwo
rkanddiag
nose/
tr
oubl
es
hoo
t
pr
obl
ems.
296 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$r oughoutpr e
v i
ouschapt
e r
sinthi
sbookwe 'v
eme ntionedorg i
venbrie
f
ex
a mpleso fusingcerta
int ool
sforspec
i0ct a
skslikec on0gura
ti
ona nd
se
tup ,tr
o ubl
eshooti
ng,g a
theri
ngstat
ist
ic
sa nd me tr
icsda t
aa boutthe
heal
tho fy o
urne t
wo r
k,etc.$issect
iondis
cusse
ss o
meo ftheseto
olsina
mo r
ede tail
edma nner.Itshouldbeno t
edt hatthisisb ynome ansan
exhaust
ivelis
tofallt
hetoolsava
il
abl
eforwire
da ndwi r
eles
snetwo r
ks.

I
tisals
oimpo rt
anttorea
li
sethatdi
agnos
ti
candmo ni
tor
ingt
ool
schange
j
ustli
keallothers
oft
wareandha r
dwaredoes
.St
ayi
ngupt odat
eont he
l
at
estver
si
o ns
,bugsinexi
sti
ngversi
ons
,newtool
sinthe0el
d,et
c.c
anbe
a
na l
mo s
tfull
-ti
mejobinit
sel
f.

Forthisbook,whe r
ewe '
vefoundthatac ert
aintoolisnolong
erbe i
ng
act
ivel
yma i
nta
inedb e
tweenthepre
viousedit
ionandthisone
,wehavelef
t
itoutofthi
stext
.$et o
olsdis
cus
sedinthissec
ti
ona r
ea l
lbei
ngcur
rentl
y
devel
opedaso fthi
swr i
ti
ng,butitislef
ta sane x
erc
isetother
eaderto
det
e r
mineifapar
t i
cul
artool
issui
ta
bleforthei
rsi
tuat
ion.

Network monitoring example

Le
t'
slooka
tho w at
ypi
cals
yst
ema
dmi
nis
tr
ato
rca
nma
keg
oodus
eof
ne
twor
kmonit
ori
ngto
ols
.

Ane
1ec
ti
vene
two
rkmo
nit
ori
nge
xampl
e
Forthepurpo s
esofexampl e,l
et'
sassumet hatwearei
nchargeofanet
work
tha
tha sbeenr unningfo rthreemo nths.Itconsi
st
sof50c ompute
rsand
thr
eeserv
e r
s:ema i
l,web,andpr oxyservers
.
Whileiniti
allythingsa r
eg o
ingwe ll
,usersbegintoc ompl
ainofslow
net
wo r
ks peedsanda nincreas
eins pame mails
.
Astimeg oeso n,comput erperfo
rma nceslowstoac r
awl(eve
nwhe nnot
usi
ngthene twork)
,c a
usingc onsi
derabl
efrustr
ati
oninyouruse
rs.

Withf requentcompla
int
sa ndv e
ryl owc ompute
rusage,t
heBo a
rdis
ques
tioningtheneedfo
rsomuc hnetworkhardwar
e.
$eBo arda l
sowantsevi
dencetha
tt hebandwidt
htheyarepay
ingfori
s
act
uall
ybe ingus
ed.
Ast hene tworkadminis
tr
ator
,y o
ua r
eo nt herece
ivi
ngend ofthes
e
complaints
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 297

Howc a
ny ou di
agnos
et he s
udden dr
opi n net
wor
ka nd co
mputer
pe
rfo
rmanc
eandal
sojus
ti
fythenet
workhardwa
reandba
ndwidt
hcost
s?

Mo
nit
ori
ngt
heLAN (
loc
alt
raNc
)
Togetanide
ao fex
act
lywhati
scaus
ingt
hes
lowdown,y
ousho
uldbegi
n
bylo
o k
ingattraNcont helo
calLAN.$erearese
ver
ala
dvant
age
sto
moni
tori
ngloc
altr
aNc:

1.Tr
oubleshooti
ngisgr
eat
lysi
mpl i
0ed.Vi
rus
escanbedet
ect
edand
el
i
mi nat
e d.
2.Malic
ioususersc
anbedet
ecte
da nddeal
twi
th.
3.Networkha r
dwarea
ndreso
urcescanbej
ust
i0e
dwithr
eals
tat
is
ti
cs
.

Assumet ha ta
llofthes wit
chessupportt
heS i
mpl eNetworkMa nag e
me nt
Protoco
l( S NMP).S NMP i sana ppl
ic
ati
on-l
ayerprotocoldesi
g nedt o
fac
ili
tat
et he ex
chang eo fma nagementinformati
on be t
ween ne t
wo rk
devic
es.
Bya s
signinganI Pa ddres
stoe a
c hswit
ch,youareabletomo nit
o rallt
he
int
erfac
eso nthatswitch,obse
rvingtheenti
renetwor
kf r
o m as
inglepo i
nt.
$i sismuc heasi
erthane nabl
ingS NMPo na l
lcomputersi
nane two r
k.

Byusi
ngafreetoolsucha sMRTG,ht tp:
//
oss.
oet
ike
r.
ch/
mrtg
/,youcan
moni
toreac
h po r
to nt hes wit
chand pre
sentdatagra
phi
cal
ly
,asa n
ag
gre
gat
eave
rageoverti
me .
$eg r
aphsa
rea c
cess
ibl
efromt hewe
b ,s
oy o
ua rea
bletovi
ewthegra
phs
f
romanymachineatanyt
ime .

Wi thMRTG mo nit
o r
inginpl
ace,itbecomesobvi
oust ha
tt heint
ernal
LAN i sswa
mpe dwithf armor
etraNct hant
heI nt
ernetconnect
ioncan
support
,eve
nwhe nt helabi
sunoccupi
ed.$isisapre t
tycl
earindic
ati
on
thatso
meo fthecomput e
rsa
rei
nfe
stedwithanet
wo r
kv i
rus.

Af
terinst
all
inggoodant
i-
vi
rusanda nt
i-
spy
waresof
twar
eo nalloft
he
machi
nes,t
heinter
nal
LAN tr
aNcset
tl
esdowntoexpe
cte
dleve
ls
.
$ema c
hinesrunmuchmo r
equic
kly
,spame mai
lsar
ereduc
ed,andt
he
us
ers'
mo ra
lequic
klyi
mpr
oves
.
298 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Mo
nit
ori
ngt
heWAN(
ext
erna
ltr
aNc
)
Inaddit
iontowa t
chi
ngthetr
aNcont heint
ernalLAN,youne
edto
demonst
rat
etha
tthebandwi
dththeo
rga
nis
ati
oni spay
ingf
ori
sac
tua
ll
y
whatthe
yarege
tti
ngfr
omthei
rISP
.

Youcanac hi
evet
hisbymo nito
ringexte
r nalt
raNc .
Ext
ernaltraNcisg e
nerall
yc l
assi
0eda sa ny
things e
ntoveraWi
deArea
Network(WAN) .Any t
hingrece
ivedfrom( orsentto)ane
twor
kot
hert
han
yo
urinternalLAN al
soqua l
i0e
sa sext
ernaltr
aNc .
$ea dvantage
sofmo ni
tori
nge xter
nalt
r aNcinclude:

Int
ernetbandwidthco s
tsa
rejusti
0edbys howingac
tualus
age,a
ndwhether
tha
tusageagree
swi thyourISP'sbandwidthchar
ges
.
Futurec a
paci
ty ne edsaree sti
ma t
edb y watc
hing usa
get r
endsand
pre
dict
inglikel
yg rowthpatt
erns.Intr
udersfr
o mtheInte
rnetar
edet
ecte
d
and0lter
edbeforetheycancauseproble
ms .

Moni
tori
ngthist
raNcise
asi
lydo newit
htheuseofMRTG o nanSNMP
e
nabl
eddevic
e ,s
uchasarouter
.I fy
ourrout
erdoesnotsuppor
tSNMP ,
t
henyoucana ddaswi
tchbetweenyourrout
erandyourISPconne
cti
on,
a
ndmo ni
torthepor
ttr
aNcjustasyouwouldwit
haninte
rnalLAN.

Detecting network outages

Wi thmo nito ri
ngt oolsinplace,youno wha veana ccurateme a
s ure
me ntof
ho wmuc hba ndwi dt htheo rg
anisa
tioni susing.
$i sme asure ments houldagreewithyo urI SP'
sb andwidthc harges.
Itc ana l
soi ndica tethea ctualthroughputo fyo urc o
nne cti
oni fyoua r
e
usingc loset oy o
ura vail
ablecapaci
tyatpe a
kt i
me s.
A" Watt op"g raphi saf ai
rlyclea
rindica ti
ont hatyoua r
eo per
a ti
ngatf ul
l
capa cit
y.
$ef oll
owi ng0 g ureNM 1s howsW atto psinp eako utboundt raNcint he
mi ddleo fev eryda ye xceptSunday.
Iti sc lea
rt haty o urc urr
entI nte
rnetc onnecti
o niso v
eruti
li
se datpe ak
time s,causingne t wo r
kl ag
.
Afte rpresent i
ngt hisinformationtot heBo ard,y o
uc a nma keapl a
nf or
furthe ro ptimisingy oure xist
ingc onne cti
on( byupg radingy o
urpr oxy
servera ndus i
ngo thertechniquesinthisb oo k
)a nde st
ima t
eho ws oony ou
will needt oupg ra dey ourconne c
ti
ont ok e
epupwi ththede ma nd.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 299

$isisal
soa
ne xc
ell
entti
met or
evi
ewyouropera
ti
onalpol
ic
ywi t
hthe
Bo
ard,a
nddi
scus
swaystobri
ngac
tua
lus
agei
nlinewit
hthatpol
ic
y.

Fi
gur
eNM 1:Ag
rap
hwi
tha"
Eatt
op"i
son
eind
ica
tio
nofo
ver
uti
li
sa
tio
n.

Lat
e rinthewe e
k,your eceiveane me
rgencyphonec allinthee ve
ning.
Appa r
entl
y,noo neint helabcanbrowsethewebo rsende mail
.Your ush
tothelabandha st
il
yrebo o
tthepr o
xyser
ver,wi
thnor esul
ts.Br
o wsi
nga nd
emaila r
es t
il
lb ro
ken.Y out henreboo
tt heroute
r,butt hereissti
llno
suc
c es
s.Youc ont
inuee l
iminati
ngtheposs
iblef
aultare
a sonebyo neunt i
l
your e
ali
sethatthenetwo r
ks wit
chiso1-al oos
epo wercableistobla
me .
Aft
e rappl
yingpowe r
,thene t
wo r
kcomestolif
eagai
n.

Howcanyoutroubl
eshootsuchanouta
gewi
tho
utsuc
ht i
meconsuming
t
ri
ala
nderro
r?Isitpossi
bletobenot
i0e
dofout
age
sasthe
yoc
cur,rat
her
t
hanwai
ti
ngforausertocomplai
n?

One wa y to do t hi
si st o use a pr o g
ram s uc
h a s Nagio
s
(htt
p:/
/www.nagio
s.o
rg/)thatcont
inual
lypoll
snetworkdevi
cesandno t
i0e
s
youo fouta
ges.Nagioswillrepor
to ntheavail
abi
li
tyofv a
ri
o usma c
hine
s
ands er
vic
es,andwi l
la le
rty outoma c
hinesthathaveg onedo wn.In
addit
iontodispl
ayi
ngt henetworkstat
usgraphi
call
yonawe bpa ge,i
twill
send noti
0cat
ionsviaS MS o rema i
l,al
erti
ng youi mme dia
tel
y when
probl
emsa r
is
e.
300 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Wi t
hg o odmo nit
o r
ingtool
si npl a
ce,youwillbea bletojusti
fyt hecostof
equipme ntandba ndwidthb ye1ecti
vel
ydemo nstrati
nghowi tisbe i
ngused
bytheo r
ganisati
on.
Youa reno ti
0e dautoma t
ica
llywhe nproble
msa r
ise
,andy ouha vehist
orica
l
sta
ti
sticso fho wt hene t
wo rkde vic
esareperforming .Youc anc hec
kt he
curr
e ntpe rf
o r
ma ncea ga
instt hishis
tor
yt o0 ndunus ua
lbe haviour
,a nd
heado 1pr oblemsbe f
o r
ethe ybe comecrit
ic
a l
.Whe npro blemsdoc ome
up,itissimpl etode t
erminet hesourc
eandna tureofthepr oblem. Yourjob
iseasi
er,theBo ardissati
s0ed,a ndyouruse
rsaremuc hhappier.

Monitoring your network

Ma nagingane tworkwi t
houtmo ni
tori
ngissimil
art odrivi
ngav ehicl
e
withoutas peedometerorafuelgauge.
Ho w doy o uk now howf a
styoua r
eg oi
ng?Isthecarconsumingf uelas
eNc i
entlyaspr omis
edb ythede al
ers
?Ifyoudoa ne ngi
neo ve
rhaulsevera
l
mo nthslater
,isthecaranyfas
terormo reeNcie
ntthanitwasbe f
ore
?
Similar
ly,howc anyoupa yfora ne l
ect
ri
cit
yo rwaterbil
lwithoutseeing
yourmo nt
hlyus ag
efrom ame t
er?
Youmus thavea naccountofyo urnetworkbandwidthuti
li
sati
onino r
der
tojusti
fyt hec os
to fse
rvic
esandha r
dwarepurchas
es,andtoa cco
untf or
usagetrends.

$erea
res
eve
ralb
ene
0tst
oimpl
eme
nti
ngag
oodmo
nit
ori
ngs
yst
emf
or
y
ourne
two
rk:

Networkbudg e
tandr esour
cesar
ejust
i0e
d.Goodmo nit
ori
ngtool
s
ca
nde monstrat
ewi thoutado ubttha
tthenetwor
ki nf
ras
tr
uctur
e
(
bandwidth,hardware,andsoft
ware)i
ssuit
abl
eandabletohandl
e
t
her e
quir
eme ntsofnetwo r
kusers
.

Networ
ki ntr
uder
sa redete
cte
da nd 0l
te
red.Bywatc
hingyour
net
worktraNc,y o
uc an det
ectatt
ack
ersandpre
ventacc
essto
cr
it
ica
lint
ernals
erv
ersandser
vic
es.

Networkvir
use
sa r
ee as
ilydet
ect
ed.Yo
uc a
n bea le
rte
dtot he
pre
senceofnetwor
kv ir
uses
,andt a
keappropr
ia
tea ct
ionbe
fore
the
yc o
nsumeInte
rnetbandwi
dthandde
stabi
li
seyournet
work
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 301

Troubl
es
hooti
ngofnetwo
rkpro bl
emsisgr
eat
lysi
mpl
i0ed.Rat
her
tha
na t
tempti
ng"tr
ia
landerr
or"todebugnetwo
rkprobl
ems,you
can beins
tant
lynoti
0edo fspeci
0cproble
ms.Somek indsof
probl
emscaneve
nberepai
re
da utomat
ic
all
y.

Net
workperf
ormanc
ec anbehighl
yo pti
mised.Withoute
1ect
iv
e
moni
tor
ing
,itisi
mposs
iblet
o0netuney ourdevi
cesandpr
oto
cols
t
oachi
evet
hebe s
tpos
si
bleper
for
ma nc
e .

Capa
cit
y planni
ng is muc h eas
ie
r. Wit
h soli
d his
tor
ic
al
pe
rfo
rmancereco
rds,you do no
tha v
eto" gue
ss"ho
w muc h
ba
ndwidthy
ouwillnee
dasy o
urnet
workgr
ows.

Prope
rnetwor
kusag
eca
nb eenf
orc
ed.Whenbandwi
dthisas
car
ce
re
sourc
e,theonl
ywaytobefai
rtoal
luser
sistoens
uretha
tthe
net
wo r
kisbei
nguse
dfo
rit
sinte
ndedpur
pose
.

Fort
unate
ly
,ne twork mo nito
ring doesnotne e
dto be ane xpe
nsi
ve
undert
aki
ng.$e r
ea rema nyf r
eelyava
il
abl
eo pensour
cetool
sthatwil
l
showyouexac
tl
ywha tishappeningonyournetworki
nconsi
der
abl
edetai
l.
$i sse
cti
onwillhelpy ouidenti
fyma nyinv
aluabl
etool
sandhowb es
tto
usethe
m.

$ede
dic
ate
dmo
nit
ori
ngs
erv
er
Whi lemo nitori
ngs ervi
cesc anbeaddedt oa nex i
sti
ngne tworkserv
er,iti
s
oft
e ndesir a
blet ode di
cateo nema chi
ne( ormo re,ifnec e
ssa
ry)tonetwo r
k
mo nitor
ing .S omea pplic
ations(s
ucha sntopht tp:
//www. ntop.
org/
)requir
e
consider
a bler e
sourcestor un,part
ic
ularlyonabus yne two r
k.
Butmo s
tl og gi
nga ndmo nitori
ngpr o
gramsha vemo destRAM a ndstorag
e
require
me nts,typi
callywi thli
ttl
eCPU po werre q
uired.S i
nceopens ourc
e
operati
ngs ystems( sucha sLinuxo rBS D)ma k ev e
r yeNc i
entus eo f
hardwa r
er esources,t hi
sma ke
si tpo s
sibl
et o buil
d av eryc apabl
e
mo nitor
ings erverfromr ecycl
edPC pa rt
s.$e reisus ual
lynone e dto
purchaseabr andne ws er
v ertore
legat
et omo nit
o r
ingdut i
es.
$ee xcept i
ont othisruleisinv e
rylargeinsta
ll
ations.
Ify ourne two r
ki nc l
udesmo rethan af e w hundr e
d no des
,o rify ou
consumemo rethan50Mbpso fInt
e r
netbandwi dth,youwi l
lli
kelyneedto
spl
itupmo nitori
ngdut iesb e
tweenaf e
wde di
catedma chines.
302 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$i sdepe ndsl ar
ge l
yo ne xactl
ywha ty ouwa ntt omo nitor.Ifyo ua re
att
emptingt oaccountf ora llservi
cesaccessedpe rMAC a ddress
,thiswi l
l
consumec o nsi
derabl
ymo rer esource
sthans impl yme asuringne t
wo r
kWo ws
onas witchpo rt
.Butf ort hema j
ori
tyo fins ta
llat
ions,as inglededicated
mo ni
tori
ngma chi
nei sus ua l
lye nough.Whi lec onsolidati
ngmo nitori
ng
ser
vice
st oas ingl
ema chinewi l
lstr
eamlinea dmi nis
trat
io na ndupgrades,it
cana l
soe nsurebe tt
ero ng oi
ngmo nitori
ng .Fore xampl e,i fyoui nstal
l
mo ni
tori
ngs er
vice
so nawe bserver
,andt hatwe bs er
verde ve l
opsproblems,
thenyourne t
wo r
kma yno tbemo ni
toredunt ilthepr oblemi sres
olved.To
ane t
worka dministr
ator,theda tacoll
ecteda boutne two rkpe rf
ormanc eis
nearl
yasimpo rt
anta sthene t
wo rkits
elf
.Y ourmo nit
orings houldber obust
andpr otectedfroms e
rviceo utage
sa swe l
la spo s
si
ble.Wi thoutnetwo rk
sta
tis
ti
cs,yo ua r
ee1e ct
ivelyb li
ndt oproblemswi ththene two rk.

Whe
redo
est
hes
erv
er0ti
nyo
urne
two
rk?
Ifyouareo nlyintere
ste
dinc olle
c t
ingnetworkWows ta
ti
st
icsfro
m ar out
er
,
youcandot hisfr
o mjustabouta nywhe r
eontheLAN.
$i sprovide ssimplef ee
dba cka boutut il
isa
tion,butc annotgive
youc ompr ehe nsivedetail
sa boutus a
gepa t
terns.
FigureNM 2be lowshowsat y picalMRTG g ra
phg eneratedfrom
theInterne trout er
.Whi let hei nbounda ndout boundut il
isa
tion
areclear
,t he r
ei snode tai
la boutwhi chcomput ers
,use r
s,or
protocolsa reusingba ndwi dth.

Fi
gur
eNM 2:Pol
li
ngtheedg
erout
ercansho
wyo
utheove
ral
lne
twork
ut
il
is
at
io
n,buty
oucannotbr
eakth
ed a
tadownf
urt
heri
ntomac
hine
s,
se
rvi
ce
s,anduse
rs
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 303

Formo rede tai

l,thede dica
ted mo nit
o ri
ngs e
rv ermus tha v
ea cc
essto
every
thingt hatneedstobewa tched.
Typical
ly,thisme a
nsitmus thavea cce
sst othee ntirene t
wo rk
.
Tomo nitoraWAN c onne c
ti
on,s ucha stheI nternetlinkt oyo urISP
,the
mo nit
orings erv
ermus tbea bl
et os e
et het ra
Ncpa ssingthroug htheedge
route
r.Tomo ni
toraLAN,t hemo ni
torings er
veri stypica
llyco nnec
tedto
a mo nitorpo r
to nt hes witc
h.I fmul tiples witchesa re us e
di na n
inst
all
ati
o n,themo nit
ori
ngs erverma yne edac o nne ct
iont oallofthem.
$a tc onne cti
onc ane i
t herbe a phy si
ca lcable,o rify ourne t
work
switc
hess uppo r
tit
,aVLAN s peci0cal
lyc on0guredf ormo nit
oringtraNc.

Fi
gur
eNM 3:Us
eth
emo
nito
rporto
ny o
urs
wit
chtoo
bse
rvet
raMcc
ros
si
ng
alloft
henet
workp
ort
s.

Ifmo ni
tor portfunc
tionali
tyi s nota v
ail
ableony our s
witc
h,t he
mo nit
oringse
rvermaybei nst
all
edbe t
weeny o
urinte
rnalLAN andthe
Int
e r
net.Whilethi
swillwo rk,itintr
oducesas i
ngl
epo i
ntoffail
urefor
thene t
wo r
k,asthenetwo r
kwi llf
a i
lifthemo ni
tor
ingserve
rdevel
opsa
proble
m.I ti
sa l
soapotenti
alperfo
rma nc
ebo t
tle
neck,i
ftheserv
ercannot
keepupwi ththedemandso fthenetwork.
304 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Fi
gur
eNM 4:Byi
nser
ti
nganet
wor
kmoni
torb
etwe
ent
heLAN a
ndy
our
I
nter
netc
onnec
ti
on,y
ouca
nob
ser
veal
lnet
wor
ktr
aMc.

A be
tte
rsol
uti
onistous eas i
mpl
enet
workhub(no
taswit
ch)whi
ch
c
onnect
sthemo ni
tor
ingma chi
net
otheint
erna
lLAN,e
xte
rnalr
out
er
,
a
ndthemo ni
tor
ingma c
hine
.

Whilethi
sdo e
ss t
il
li nt
roduceanaddi
ti
onalpointo ffai
lur
et ot
he
net
work(s
incetheenti
rene t
workwil
lbeunrea
chableifthehubdie
s),
hubsar
egene
ral
lycons
ider
edt obemuc
hmo rer
eli
abletha
nr o
uter
s.

$e
yar
eal
sov
erye
asi
lyr
epl
ace
dsho
uldt
heyf
ai
l.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 305

Fi
gur
eNM 5:I
fyours
wit
chdoesno
tp r
ovid
emo ni
to
rp o
rtfu
ncti
onal
it
y,y
ou
c
anins
er
tanet
workhubbet
weenyourInt
erne
trout
erandtheLAN,and
c
onne
ctth
emo ni
to
ringser
vert
othehub.

Onceyo
urmo
nit
ori
ngs
erv
eri
sinpl
ace
,yo
uar
ere
adyt
ost
artc
oll
ect
ing
da
ta.

Wha
ttomo
nit
or
Itisposs
ibl
etoplo
tjustaboutanyne tworkeventa
ndwa t
chi
tsvalueona
graphoverti
me.
Sinceeverynet
workiss l
ig
htlydi 1er
e nt
,y ouwil
lhavetodecidewha t
i
nf or
ma t
ionisimport
a ntino rdertog aug
et heperf
orma
nceo fyour
network.
He rearesomeimpo r
tantindi
c at
o r
st hatma nynet
workadministr
ato
rs
willty
pical
l
ytra
ck.
306 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Wi
rel
es
sst
ati
st
ics
Re ce
ive
ds i
gnalandno is
efromallbac
kbonenode
s
Numbe rofas
socia
tedstat
ions
De te
ctedadj
acentnetworksandchannel
s
Ex ce
ssi
veret
ransmis
sions
Ra di
oda t
arat
e ,i
fusingautomat
icrat
escal
ing
S
wit
chs
tat
is
ti
c s
Bandwi dt
husag
epe rswit
chpor
t
Bandwi dt
husag
ebro k
e ndownbypr
oto
col
Bandwi dt
husag
ebro k
endo wnbyMACa ddr
ess
Broadcast
sasaperc
entageoft
ota
lpa
cket
s
Packetlos
sande
rro
rr a
te
I
nte
r ne
tstat
is
tics
I nte
rnetba ndwidthus ebyhostandprot
ocol
Pr oxyserverc ac
hehi ts
To p100s it
esa cce
sse
d
DNSr equests
Numbe rofinbo unde mai
ls/spa
me mail
s/emai
lbounces
Out bo unde ma i
lq ueuesi
ze
Av ail
abili
tyo fcrit
ica
lserv
ice
s(webserv
ers
,emai
lse
rve
rs,et
c.
).
Pi ngtime sandpa cketlos
srat
estoyourISP
S tat
uso fba c
k ups
S
yst
em he
alt
hstatist
ics
Me moryus age
S wap0leus age
Pr oce
ssco unt/z o
mbi eproce
sse
s
S yst
eml oa d
Uni nte
rrupt i
blePo we
rS uppl
y(UPS)v
olt
ageandl
oad
Te mperature,fanspeed,andsys
temvo
lta
ges
Di skSMARTs t
atus
RAI Da rrays t
atus

Yo
us houl
d uset hi
slis
ta sasugg
est
ionofwheret
o begi
n.Asyo
ur
ne
twork mature
s,you wil
lli
kel
y0nd newk e
yindi
cat
orsofne
twor
k
pe
rfo
rmance,andy o
ushoul
dofcour
set
rackt
hos
easwe
ll
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 307

$e rearema nyf r
eel
ya va i
labl
et oolstha twil
lshowy oua smuc hdetai
las
youlikeaboutwha tisha ppeningo ny o urnetwork
.
Yous houldc onsi
dermo nitori
ngt hea v
ail
abil
it
yo fa nyr e
sourc
ewhe re
unavai
labi
li
tywo uldadve rs
elya 1e
c tyo urnetworkusers.
Don'tf or
gettomo nitort hemo nito
r ingma chi
nei t
self,fore x
ampleits
CPU us agea nd dis
ks pace,i no rdert or ece
iveadva ncewa rningifit
bec
o meso verl
o a
dedo rf ault
y.A mo nitor
ing ma c
hinet hatisl o
wo n
re
sourcescana 1ec
tyo ura bil
it
yt omo nitort
hene tworke 1ecti
vel
y.

Types of monitoring tools

Wewi
llno
wlo
oka
tse
ver
aldi
1er
entc
las
seso
fmo
nit
ori
ngt
ool
s.
1. Networkdete
ctio
nto
olsli
st
enfo
rthebea
conss
entbywi
re
les
sacc
ess
poi
nts,anddispl
ayi
nfor
mati
onsuc
ha st
henet
wo r
kname,r
ece
ive
d
si
gnalst
reng
th,andc
hannel
.

2. Spotcheckt o
olsaredesi
gnedfortro
uble
shooti
nga nd no
rmal
lyrun
i
nter
acti
velyf
orshortper
iodsoft
ime.Apro g
rams uchaspingmaybe
cons
idere
da nact
ivespo
tcheckto
o l
,si
nceitgene
rate
str
aNcb ypol
li
ng
aparti
cul
arma c
hine.

3. Pass
ivespotchecktool
sincl
udeprot
ocola
naly
ser
s,whic
hinspecteve
ry
packe
to nt henetwor
ka ndprovi
decompl
etedet
aila
boutanyne t
work
conver
sati
on( i
ncl
udi
ng sourc
ea nd des
ti
nat
iona ddr
ess
es, pr
otoc
ol
inf
ormation,andevenappl
ica
ti
ondata
).

4. Tre
ndingtool
spe
rfor
m una
tte
ndedmo
nit
ori
ngo
verl
ongpe
ri
ods
,and
ty
pica
llypl
ott
her
esul
tsonagra
ph.

5. $roughputte
sti
ngtoo
lst
el
lyout
hea
ctua
lba
ndwi
dtha
vai
la
ble
be
twee
nt wopoi
ntso
nanet
work
.

6. Real
timemo nit
oringtool
sperfo
rms imil
armo ni
tori
ng,butno t
if
y
adminis
tr
ato
rsi mme di
at
el
yi fthey detec
t a probl
em.I nt
rusi
on
det
ecti
ontoolswa t
chforundes
ira
bleorunexpect
ednetworktra
Nc ,
and takea ppr
o pri
ateact
ion( typi
cal
l
y de nyi
ng acce
ssa nd/o
r
noti
fyi
ngane t
wo rkadmi
nis
tra
tor
).
308 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Network detection
$es i
mples
twi r
ele
ssmo ni
tor
ing t
ool
ss i
mplypr o
videal is
to fa v
ail
abl
e
net
wor
ks,al
ongwithbas
icinf
ormati
on(suc
ha ssi
gnalst
rengt
ha ndchannel
).
$e yl
etyouq ui
ckl
ydetectnear
bynetworksandde t
ermineifthe
ya rein
ra
ngeorar
ecausi
ngint
erf
ere
nce.

$ebui
lt
-i
ncl
ie
nt.
Allmo derno perat
ing sys
temspr ovi
de bui
lt-
ins uppor
tf or wir
eles
s
net
wo rk i
ng. $ist ypic
all
yi ncl
udesthe abil
it
yt os ca
nf ora vai
l
able
net
wo r
k s
,all
owingt heus ertoc hoos
eane t
wo r
kf rom al i
st
.Whi l
e
vi
rtuall
ya llwirel
essdevic
esa r
eg uar
ante
edt ohaveas i
mplescanning
ut
il
it y
,functi
onali
tycanv a
rywidel
ybe t
weenimplementat
ions
.$e seto
o l
s
ar
et ypical
lyonlyusefulforcon0gur
ingac omputerinaho meo roNc e
se
tting.
$e yt endtoprovideli
ttl
einfor
matio
na par
tfro
m ne t
worknamesandt he
ava
ilabl
es i
gnaltothea c
ces
spo i
ntcurr
entl
yinuse.

Ne t
s t
umb l
er
(http:
//www. wi r
eles
sdefence.
org/Cont e
nts/
Ne tst
umbl er
Ma in.
htm) .$i sis
themo s
tpo pul arto olforde t
e c
ti
ngwi rel
essne t
wo rksusingMi c
rosof
t
Wi ndo ws.Itsuppo r
tsav ar
ie
tyo fwir e
les
sc ards
,andi sv e
rye a
sytous e
.It
willde tecto pena nd e nc
rypted netwo r
k s
,butc anno tdetectclos
ed
wirelessne t
wo rks.Ita ls
of eat
uresas i
gna l
/noi
seme te
rt hatplotsradio
receiv
e rdataa sag rapho ve
rt i
me .Italsointegr
ateswithav ar
ie
tyo fGPS
devices,forloggingpr e
c i
selocat
iona nds i
gnalstre
ngthi nfor
ma t
ion.
$i sma kesNe ts
tumbl eraha ndytoo ltoha v
ef oraninfo r
ma lsi
tesurve
y.
Ma cstumbl e
r( http:
//www. ma c
stumbl e
r.
com/ ).Whileno tdir
ectl
yrela
tedto
theNe ts
tumbler,Ma cstumblerprovi
de smuc ho fthes a
mef uncti
onali
tybut
fortheMa cOSXpl a
t f
orm.Itwo rk
swi thallAppleAirportcar
ds.

Spot check tools

Whatdoy oudowhe
nt henet
workbre
aks
?Ifyouca
ntacce
ssawebpage
oremai
lserve
r,a
ndcli
c ki
ngthere
loa
dbutto
ndo e
snt0xtheprobl
em,
t
henyou
llnee
dtobeabletoi
sol
at
etheex
actl
oca
ti
ono fthepr
obl
em.

$eseto
olswi
llhe
lpy
out
ode
ter
minej
ustwhe
reac
onne
cti
onpr
obl
em
e
xis
ts
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 309

$i ss
ecti
onissi
mplyanint
roduc
ti
ontocommonlyus e
dtrouble
shoot
ing
too
ls.
Formo r
edisc
uss
ionofcommo nnetwo
rkpro
ble
msa ndho wt odia
gnose
the
m,s e
ethechapt
erc
all
edMa i
nte
nancea
ndTroubl
eshoot
ing.

pi
ng
J
usta
bouteve
ryo pe
rat
ingsyst
em(incl
udi
ngWi ndows,MacOSX,andof
c
ours
eLinuxa nd BSD)i ncl
udesav er
si
ono fthepinguti
li
ty
.Itus
es
I
CMPpa cket
st oatt
emptt ocont
actaspeci
0edho s
t,andt
el
lsyouho
w
l
ongitt
ake
stog etare
sponse.

Knowi
ngwha ttopingisjustasimpo
r t
antasknowinghowtoping
.If
yo
u0ndt hatyouc annotconnec
ttoapa r
ti
cul
arservi
cei
ny o
urwe b
br
owse
r(s
ay,htt
p:/
/yahoo
.com/)
,youcoul
dt r
ytopingit
:

$p
ingy
aho
o.c
om

PI
NGy
aho
o.c
om(
66.
94.
234.
13)
:56d
atab
yte
s

64by
te
sfro
m 66.94.
234.
13:i
cmp
_se
q=0t
tl
=57t
ime
=29.
375ms
64by
te
sfro
m 66.94.
234.
13:i
cmp
_se
q=1t
tl
=56t
ime
=35.
467ms
64by
tesf
rom 66.
94.
234.
13:i
cmp
_se
q=2t
tl
=56t
ime
=34.
158ms
^C

-
--y
aho
o.c
omp
ings
ta
tis
ti
cs-
--

3p
ack
etst
rans
mit
te
d,3p
ack
etsr
ec
ei
ved
,0% p
ack
etl
os
s

r
oun
d-t
ri
pmi
n/a
vg/
max
/s
tdd
ev=29.
375/
33.
000/
35.
467/
2.618ms

Hitcontr
ol-
Cwhe nyo uare0nis
hedc o
ll
ect
ingdata.
Ifpacket
st akea l o
ng t ime toc ome back
,t heremay be network
conge
sti
on.
Ifret
urnpingpa ck
etsha v
ea nunus ua
ll
yl o
w TimeToLi v
e( TTL),yo u
ma yhaverouti
ngpr oble
msbe twee
ny ourma chi
nea ndt
her e
mo teend.
Butwhatifthepingdo es
n
tr e
turnanydataatall
?
Ifyouarepingi
ngana mei ns
teadofanI Paddress
,youmayber unning
i
ntoDNSpr obl
ems .
310 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Tr
yping
inganIPaddr
esso
ntheInte
rne
t.I
fyouc
an
tre
achi
t,i
t
sag
ood
i
deat
oseeify
ouca
npingyourde
faul
trout
er:

$p
ing69.
90.
235.
230

PI
NG69.
90.
235.
230(
69.
90.
235.
230)
:56d
atab
yte
s

64by
te
sfr
om 69.
90.
235.
230:i
cmp
_se
q=0t
tl
=126t
ime
=12.
991ms
64by
te
sfr
om 69.
90.
235.
230:i
cmp
_se
q=1t
tl
=126t
ime
=14.
869ms
64by
te
sfr
om 69.
90.
235.
230:i
cmp
_se
q=2t
tl
=126t
ime
=13.
897ms
^C

-
--216.
231.
38.
1pi
ngs
ta
tis
ti
cs-
--

3p
ack
etst
rans
mit
te
d,3p
ack
etsr
ec
ei
ved
,0% p
ack
etl
os
s

r
oun
d-t
ri
pmi
n/a
vg/
max
/s
tdd
ev=12.
991/
13.
919/
14.
869/
0.767ms

Ifyoucan
tpingyourdefa
ultrout
er,t
henc hanc
esareyouwo n
tbea bleto
gettotheInter
netei
ther
.Ifyo
uc an
teve
npi ngotherI
Pa ddres
sesony our
l
o c
alLAN,t heni t

st i
met oc hecky ourc o
nnecti
on.Ify our
eus ing
Ether
net,i
sitplugge
din?Ifyour
eusi
ngwi re
les
s,ar
eyouc onnec
tedt othe
properwir
ele
ssnetwork
,andisitinrang
e?

Whi l
ei tisg enerallya c
curat
et oa ssumet hatama c
hinet hatdo e
sno t
respondt oapi ngi sli
kelytobedo wno rcuto 1f romt hene t
workt hisis
nota lways100% t hec as
e.
Partic
ul a
rlyo naWAN o rtheI nt
e r
ne tits
elf,itisals
opo s
si
blethats ome
router/0re
wa l
lbe twe eny ouandt het arge
tho st
(eventhet arg
etitsel
f )is
blockingpi ngs.Ify ou0ndama chinei sno trespondingt opings,t ry
ano t
he rwe l
l-kno wns e
rvic
elikessho rht tp
.
Ify ouc anr eacht het arg
etthroughe itheroft heseservi
cestheny o
uk now
thema chinei supa nds implybloc k
ingpi ngs.I tisal
sowo rthno t
ingt hat
di1erents ystemst reatpingdi1erently
.$ec las
sicUNI Xpi ngut i
li
tyse nds
anI CMP ECHO pr ot
ocolpa ckett ot het arg
etho st.Somene two rk
dev i
ceswi llrespondt oapi nga utoma ti
call
yr eg a
rdle
sso fwhetherICMP
isb ei
ngbl oc ke
df ur therupthepr otocolstack.
$i scana lsobemi sle
adingbe causei tcani ndicateaho s
ti supwhe n
actuall
ya l
lt hat'srea l
lygoingoni sthatt heNI C( Ne t
wo rkInter
faceCa rd)
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 311

i
spoweredandt hema c
hineits
el
fisno tact
ual
lyupa ndrunni
ng.Aswe
s
tat
eda bove,it'
salwaysg oodt oc heckc onnec
tiv
it
y with mult
iple
met
hods.Networkdebuggi
ngwi t
hpingi sabito fa
na rt
,butiti
suseful
t
olear
n.S i
nceyo uwil
llikel
y0ndpi ngo njus
ta boutanymachineyou
wi
llwor
ko n,it

sag oodideatole
arnhowt ouseitwell
.

t
rac
ero
utea
ndmt
r
htt
p:/
/www.bitwi
zar
d.nl
/mt
r/
Aswithping,t r
ace
rout
eisfoundo nmo
stoper
ati
ngsys
tems(it

sc a
ll
ed
tr
acer
tinso mev er
si
onsofMi cr
oso
ftWi
ndows)
.Byrunningtr
acer
oute
,
youcan0ndt heloc
ati
onofpr o
ble
msbet
weenyourcompute
ra ndany
poi
nto nt
heI nte
rnet
:

$t
rac
ero
ute-
ngo
ogl
e.
co
m

t
rac
ero
utet
ogo
ogl
e.
co
m(72.
14.
207.
99)
,64h
opsma
x,40b
ytep
ack
ets

110.
15.
6.14.
322ms1.
763ms1.
731ms

2216.
231.
38.
136.
187ms14.
648ms13.
561ms

369.
17.
83.
23314.
197ms13.
256ms13.
267ms

469.
17.
83.
15032.
478ms29.
545ms27.
494ms

5198.
32.
176.
3140.
788ms28.
160ms28.
115ms

666.
249.
94.
1428.
601ms29.
913ms28.
811ms

7172.
16.
236.
82328.
809ms2528.
944ms2428.
719ms

8***

$e-ns wit
cht el
lstr
acer
o ut
eno ttobotherresol
vingnamesinDNS ,and
make
sthet racer unmo req ui
ckl
y.Y o
uc a
ns eet hata
tho psev
en,the
r
oundtriptimes hoot
supt omo r
ethant wos e
c o
nds,whil
epacke
tsse
em
t
obediscar
de dathope i
ght.
$ismightindica
teapr oble
ma tthatpointinthene t
work
.
I
fthi
spa r
to fthene t
worki sinyourc ontr
ol,itmightbewo r
thst
art
ing
yo
urtro
ub l
eshoot
inge1o rtt
he r
e.
312 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

My Tr a
ceRoute(mtr)i sa ha
ndy pr
ogra
m t ha
tc ombinesping and
t
race
routeintoas i
ngletoo
l.Byrunni
ngmt r
,y ouc a
ng etano ng
oing
av
erag
eo flat
encya nd pa
cketlo
ssto as i
ngle host
,inst
eado fthe
mome nt
arysnaps
hotthatpi
ngandtr
ace
rout
eprovi
de .

Myt
rac
ero
ute[
v0.
69]

t
es
la
.ro
b.s
wn(
0.0.
0.0)(
tos
=0x
0ps
iz
e=64b
itp
atS
unJ
an820:
01:
262006)

Ke
ys
:He
lpDi
sp
laymo
deRe
st
arts
ta
tis
ti
csOr
dero
fCe
ldsq
uit

Packets Pings
Host Loss% Snt Last Avg Best Wrst StDev
1. gremlin.rob.swn 0.0% 4 1.9 2.0 1.7 2.6 0.4

2. er1.sea1.speakeasy.net 0.0% 4 15.5 14.0 12.7 15.5 1.3

3. 220.ge-0-1-0.cr2.sea1. 0.0% 4 11.0 11.7 10.7 14.0 1.6

Speakeasy.net
4. fe-0-3-0.cr2.sfo1. 0.0% 4 36.0 34.7 28.7 38.1 4.1
speakeasy.net
5. bas1-m.pao.yahoo.com 0.0% 4 27.9 29.6 27.9 33.0 2.4

6. so-1-1-0.pat1.dce. 0.0% 4 89.7 91.0 89.7 93.0 1.4

yahoo.com
7. ae1.p400.msr1.dcn. 0.0% 4 91.2 93.1 90.8 99.2 4.1
yahoo.com
8. ge5-2.bas1-m.dcn. 0.0% 4 89.3 91.0 89.3 93.4 1.9
yahoo.com
9.w2.rc.vip.dcn.yahoo.com 0.0% 3 91.2 93.1 90.8 99.2 4.1

$eda t
awil
lbec ontinuous
lyupdat
edandavera
gedovert
ime.
Aswit
hping,yous ho ul
dhitcont
rol
-C whenyo uar
e0nis
hedl o
okingat
t
hedata
.Notethatyo umusthaverootpr
ivi
le
gestorunmtr.
Whil
ethes
etoolswillnotreve
alpr
eci
sel
ywhatiswrongwit
ht henetwor
k,
t
heyc a
ng iv
ey o
ue no
ughi nf
ormati
ont ok now whe
ret oc onti
nue
t
roub
les
hoot
ing.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 313

Protocol analysers
Ne t
wo rk pr
otocolanaly
sers pro
vide a g re
at dealo f det
ai
la bout
info
rma t
ion Wowing t
hrough a network,b yall
owing youtoi nspe
ct
indi
vidualpacke
ts.Forwirednetworks,y o
uc aninspe
ctpa c
ketsatthe
data-
link la
yero ra bov
e .For wi re
les
s networks
,y ouc ani nspe
ct
info
rma t
iona l
lthewa ydo wn toi ndiv
idual802.
11 fra
me s
.He reare
seve
ralpopula
r(andfre
e)networkprotocolana
lys
ers
:

Ki
sme
t
http://www. k i
sme twir
ele
ss.
ne t
/
Ki s
me ti sa po we rf
ulwi rel
esspr otocola nalyserforma ny platforms
includingLi nux,Ma cOSX,a nde v
ent hee mbe ddedOpe nWRT Li nux
distri
but i
on.I two rkswitha nywi rel
esscardtha tsupportspassi
vemo nit
or
mo de .Ina ddi t
iont obasicnetwo rkdetect
ion,Ki smetwi l
lpa ss
ive
lyloga l
l
802. 11f ra
me st odi s
ko rtot hene tworki ns tandardPCAPf ormat,for
l
a te
ra nalysi
swi t
ht ool
slikeWi res
hark.Ki sme ta l
sofeaturesassocia
ted
cli
enti nforma ti
on,AP ha rdware0ng e
rpri
nt i
ng ,Ne ts
tumbl erdetecti
on,
andGPSi nte g
ration.Sinceitisapa ss
ivene two rkmo nitor,itcane ven
detec t cl
osedwi rel
essne tworksb ya nalysi
ng t ra
Ncs entb ywi r
eles
s
cli
ent s
.Y ouc anr unKi s
me to ns eve
ralma chinesa tonce,andha vethem
allrepo rtove rthene tworkba c
kt oac entraluserinterf
ace.$i sallowsfor
wi r
elessmo nitori
ngo ve
ral ar
gea r
ea,sucha sauni versi
tyo rc or
po ra
te
campus .SinceKi sme tusesther adiocard'
spa ssi
v emo nit
ormo de,itdoes
alloft hiswi thoutt r
ansmitt
inga nyda t
a.
Ki s
me ti sani nvaluabletoolfordiagnosi
ngwi r
elessnetworkpr obl
ems .

Ki
sMAC
htt
p:/
/ki
smac-ng.org
Excl
usi
vel
yf ortheMa cOSX pl at
for
m,Ki s
MAC do e
smuc ho fwhat
Kis
me tcando ,butwi t
has l
ic
kMa cOSX g r
aphica
linte
rfa
ce.Itisa
pas
si
vescannerthatwil
llogdat
atodiskinPCAPf ormatco
mpa ti
bl
ewith
Wires
hark.I
tsuppo r
tspas
siv
es c
anni
ngwithAir
portExt
remecardsaswel
l
asavari
et
yo fUS Bwi r
el
essada
pter
s.

t
cpdump
htt
p:/
/www.
tc
pdump
.org
/
tc
pdumpisacommand-
li
net
oolf
ormo
nit
ori
ngne
two
rkt
raNc
.
314 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Itdo esno tha veallthebe llsandwhi stl

esofwi resharkbuti tdoesuse
fewerr es
ources.Tcpdumpc anc apturea nddi s
playa llnetworkprotocol
info
r mati
ondo wnt ot helinklayer.Itc anshowa l
lo fthepacketheader
s
andda t
arecei
v e
d,o rjustthepa cket
st hatma t
chpa rti
cularcri
te
ria.
Packetscapturedwi tht cpdumpc anb eloadedi ntowi re
sharkforvisual
analysi
sandf urtherdiagnostic
s.$i si sveryusefulifyouwi shtomo nito
r
ani nterf
aceo nar emo tes ys
tema nd br ingthe0l eba c
kt oy ourlocal
ma chinefora naly
sis.$et cpdumpt oolisavail
ablea sas t
andardtoolin
Unixde riv
ativ
e s(Linux,BS D,a ndMa cOSX) .$e reisals
oaWi ndows
portc al
le
dWi nDumpa vai
labl
ea thttp://
www. winpcap .
org/
windump /

Wi
re
sha
rk
htt
p:/
/www.wi
re
shar
k.or
g/
Former
lyknownasEther
eal
,Wi
re
sha
rki
saf
reene
two
rkpr
oto
cola
nal
yse
r
fo
rUni xa
ndWi ndows.

Fi
g ureNM 6:Wi r
es
h ar
k(for
merlyEthe
real
)isapowerf
ulnetworkpro
toc
ol
ana l
ys
ertha
tcanshowy ouasmu c
hd et
ailasy
oulikeaboutanypacke
t.
Wireshar
ka l
lowsyout oe xa
mi nedatafr o
m al iv
ene tworko rfr
oma
ca
pture0leo ndisk
,a ndinter
acti
vel
ybrows eandsortthec a
pture
dda t
a.
Bot
hs umma r
ya nd detai
ledinformati
oni sa v
ail
abl
ef ore a
ch packet
,
i
ncludingtheful
lheaderanddatapo r
ti
ons.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 315

Wir
e s
harkhassev
eralpowe
rfulfe
atur
es,i
ncl
udingari
ch di
spl
ay0l
te
r
l
anguageand t
hea bi
li
tytov i
ewt herec
ons
truct
eds
tr
eamo faTCP
s
ess
ion.

Itcanbeda unti
ngt ousefor0rs
ttimeus ersorthos
et hatar
eno tfa
mili
ar
withtheOS Ilay
e r
s.
Itistypi
cal
lyusedt ois
olat
eanda nal
ys especi
0ctraNct oorf ro
ma nI P
addre
ss,butitcanbea l
sousedasag e
ne ralpurpos
efault0ndingtool
.For
example,ama chi
nei nfe
cted wit
h a ne twork wormo rviruscan be
i
denti0edbyl o
ok i
ngforthema chi
net hatissendi
ngo utthesamesortof
TCP/ IPpacket
stolarg
eg r
oupso fI
Pa ddresse
s.

Trending tools
Tr
endingtool
sareus e
dt oseehowy ourne t
worki susedo v
eral o
ng
per
iodo fti
me.$e ywo rkbype r
iodic
all
y mo ni
tori
ng yournetwork
ac
ti
vit
y,anddis
pla
yingas ummaryinahuma n-
readabl
eform( s
uchasa
gr
aph).Tr
endi
ngtoolscol
l
ectdat
aaswellasanal
yseandrepor
to ni
t.

Be
lowar
esomeex
ample
soft
rendingtoo
ls.S
omeo ft
hem ne
edtobeus
ed
i
nconj
unct
ionwi
the
achot
her
,a sthe
yarenots
tand-
al
oneprog
rams
.

MRTG
htt
p:/
/os
s.
o et
ike
r.
ch/mrt
g/
$eMul t
iRo ute
rTraNcGraphe
r(MRTG)mo nito
rsthet r
aNcloadon
net
wo r
klinksusi
ngS NMP.MRTG gene
rat
esgr
a phsthatprovi
deavi
sual
re
pres
enta
tiono finbound a
nd out
bound t
raNc . $e s
ea retypi
cal
l
y
di
spla
yedo nawe bpage
.

MRTG canbeal
it
tl
econf
usi
ngtosetup,es
pec
ial
lyi
fyouarenotfa
mili
ar
wi
thS NMP.Buto ncei
ti sinst
al
led,MRTG r equi
resv i
rt
ual
ly no
mai
nte
nance
,unl
es
sy o
uchangesomethi
ngo nthesyst
emt hati
sbeing
moni
tor
ed(s
ucha
sitsI
Paddre
ss)
.
316 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

g
rap
her
.

RRDt
ool
RRD i sshortforRoundRobinDa ta
base
.RRD i sadatabasethatst
ores
inf
orma t
ioni n averycompactwa ythatdoesno texpand overti
me .
RRDt oolref
e r
stoas ui
teoft o
olsthatal
lo
wy out ocreat
ea ndmo dify
RRD da t
abases
,aswella
sgenera
teusef
ulgra
phstoprese
ntt hedata
.
Iti
sus edtok eeptra
ckoftime-se
ri
esdata(s
ucha snetworkbandwidth,
machiner o
omt empe
rat
ure
,o rser
verloa
da ve
rag
e)a ndcandi spl
aythat
dat
aa sana v
e r
ageove
rti
me .

Notet hatRRDt o
olitsel
fdoe sno tconta
ctnetwor
kde vic
estoretri
eve
dat
a.Itisme re
lyada t
abasema ni
pulat
iontool
.
Youc a
nus easimplewr a
ppers c
ri
pt(typi
cal
lyinshel
lorP e
rl
)todot hat
workfo ryou.RRDt oolisal
sous e
db yma nyful
lfea
ture
df r
ont-
endsthat
pre
senty ouwi t
haf r
iendl
ywe binte
rfac
eforcon0gurat
ionanddispla
y.
RRD g raphsgiveyoumo r
econtroloverdis
pla
yo pt
ionsandthenumbe r
ofit
emsa vail
abl
eo nag ra
pha scomparedtoMRTG.

Fi
gur
eNM 8:RRDt
oolg
ive
syoual
oto
fEe
xib
il
it
yinh
owy
ourc
ol
le
ct
ed
ne
twor
kd a
tamayb
edi
spl
aye
d.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 317

RRDtoo
lisincl
udedi
nv i
rt
ual
lyal
lmo de
rnLinuxdi
st
ri
but
ions
,andc
an
bedo
wnloadedfr
om ht
tp:
//o
ss.
oet
ike
r.
ch/r
rdt
ool/

nt
op
Forhi st
oric
altraNc a na
lys
isa nd us age
,y ou willcert
ainly wa ntto
inves
ti
gatentop.
$i spr o
g r
am buildsa de t
ail
edr eal
- t
imer epor
to fo bse
rv e
d ne twor
k
tra
Nc ,displ
ayediny ourwe b bro wser.I
ti nte
grat
eswi t
hr r
dtool,and
ma ke
sg r
aphsandc ha
rtsvis
uall
yde pic
tingho wthenetworkisbeingus e
d.
Onv erybusynetwo r
ks,ntopcanus eal otofCPU a nddisks pace
,buti t
give
sy o
ue xte
nsi
veinsi
ghtintoho wy ournetworkisbei
nguse d.Itrunson
Linux,BSD,Ma cOSX,a ndWi ndo ws .

S
omeo
fit
smo
reus
efulf
eat
ure
sinc
lude
:

Tr
aNcdispl
ayc
an be s
ort
edb
yva
ri
ousc
ri
te
ri
a(s
our
ce,de
sti
nat
ion,
pr
oto
col
,MACaddr
ess
,et
c.)
.

Tr
aNcs
tat
is
ti
csg
roupe
dbypr
oto
cola
ndpo
rtnumbe
r.

AnI Ptr
aNcma tr
ixwhichs howsconnect
ionsbet
weenma chine
sNetwork
Wowsforroute
rso rswitchestha
ts uppor
tt heNe t
Flo
w pr ot
oco
lHo s
t
oper
ati
ng sy
ste
m i dent
i0cati
on,P2P t ra
Nc ,ident
i0ca
ti
o n,nume r
ous
gra
phic
alcha
rts
,Perl
,PHP ,andPythonAPI .

ntopisa v
a i
lablefrom htt
p:/
/www.nt
op.
org/a nd i
savai
la
bleformo s
t
oper
ati
ngsy st
ems .
Iti
softenincludedinma nyofthepopul
arLinuxdis
tri
but
ions
,inc
ludi
ng
RedHat,De bi
a n,andUbuntu.

Whi
leitcanbelef
trunni
ngt
ocol
le
cthis
tor
ic
alda
ta,ntopc
anbef
ai
rl
y
CPU i
nte
nsi
ve,de
pendi
ngont
hea
mo unto
ftraNco
bserv
ed.

Ifyouar
egoi
ngt
or unitfo
rlo
ngperi
odsy
ous
houl
dmo
nit
ort
heCPU
uti
li
sa
ti
onoft
hemonit
ori
ngmachi
ne.
318 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Fi
gur
eNM 9:nt
opdi
spl
aysawe
alt
hofi
nfor
mati
onabouth
owy
ourne
two
rk
isu
til
is
edbyv
ario
usc
li
ent
sandse
rve
rs
.

$ema indis
adv
ant
ageofnto
pi st
hati
tdo esnotpro
videins
tant
ane
ous
i
nfo
rmati
on,onl
ylo
ng-t
ermtot
al
sandaver
ages.
$isc a
n makeitdiNcul
tto useto di
agnosea probl
em thatst
art
s
s
uddenl
y.

Ca
cti
htt
p:/
/www.ca
cti
.ne
t/
Cact
iisafr
ont-e
ndf o
rRRDt
ool
.Itst
ore
sal
loft
hene
ces
sar
yinf
orma
ti
on
tocr
eateg
raphsi
naMy S
QLdat
abas
e.$efro
nt-
endi
swri
tte
ninPHP.

Cact
ido e
sthewo rkofmaint
aini
nggraphs
,dataso
urce
s,andha
ndl
esthe
ac
tualdataga
theri
ng.
$e r
ei ssupportforSNMP de vi
ces
,and cust
oms cr
ipt
scaneas
il
ybe
wri
tt
ent opollv
irt
uall
yanyconce
iva
blenet
wo r
kevent
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 319

Fig
ureNM 10:Ca
ctic
anmanaget
hepo
ll
ingofyo
urnetwor
kd e
vic
es
,and
c
anbuil
dve
rycompl
exandi
nfo
rmat
ivev
is
uali
sa
tio
nsofnet
workbeha
vio
ur.

Cact
ic a
n be somewhatc o
nfusing toc on0gure
,butonceyou wor
k
t
hroughthedo c
ume nt
ati
ona nd e x
amples
,i tcanyi
el
dv e
ryimpr
ess
ive
gr
aphs.
$e r
earehundre
dso fte
mplatesforvar
ioussyste
msava
il
abl
eontheca
cti
webs
it
e,andthecodeisunderrapiddev
elopme nt
.

Ne
tFl
ow
Ne
tFl
owisaprot
ocolf
orcoll
ect
ingI
Ptr
aNci
nfo
rma
ti
oni
nve
nte
dby
Ci
sc
o.Fr
omtheCi
scowebs
it
e:

CiscoIOS Ne tFlowe Ncientl

y provi
desa k eysetofserv
ice
sf o
rI P
appli
cat
ions,includi
ngne tworkt ra
Nca ccounti
ng,us
age
-bas
edne t
work
bil
li
ng, netwo r
k pl anni
ng,s ec
urit
y, Denialo fSer
vic
e mo ni
tori
ng
capabi
li
ti
es,andne tworkmo nit
o r
ing.
Ne t
Flow pr ovi
de sv al
uabl
ei nfor
ma t
ion about ne
twork use
rsa nd
appli
cat
ions,peakus a
getime s
,andt r
aNcrouting
.
320 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Ciscor outer
scang ene rat
eNe tFlowinformati
o nwhi chi sav ail
ablefrom
ther outerint hef ormo fUDP pa cke
ts.Ne tFlowi sa ls
ol essCPU-
int
e nsiveo n Ciscor o uter
st han using SNMP .I ta lso prov i
desmo re
granul arinfor
ma t
iont hanS NMP ,le
tti
ngy oug etamo rede t
a i
ledpicture
ofpo rta ndpr ot
ocolus a
ge.$i sinf
o r
ma t
ioni sc o
llect
edb yaNe t
Flow
col
le ctorthatst
oresandpr es
entsthedataasana ggregateovert i
me .
Bya nalysi
ngWo w data,o nec a
nbui l
dapi ctur
eo ftraNcWo wa ndt raNc
volumei nane t
wo rko ronac onnecti
on.$e rear eseveralc omme rci
al
andf re
eNe t
Flowc ol
lectorsavail
abl
e.Ntopiso nef r
e etooltha tcanac tas
aNe tFlowc oll
ect
ora ndpr obe.AnotherisFlowc( seeb e
low) .Itcana lso
bede si
rabletouseNe tWo wa saspotchecktool,b yjustlooki
nga taq uick
snaps hoto fda ta during a ne tworkc r
isi
s.$i nk o fNe t
Fl owa sa n
alt
erna ti
vet oS NMP f orCi sco devi
ces
.Fo rmo rei nforma ti
ona bo ut
Ne tFlow,s e
ehttp:
//en.wikipedia.
org/
wiki/
Ne t
Wo w.

Fl
owc
htt
p://
netaca
d.ki
ev.
ua/Wowc/.Flowci sano pensourceNetFl
owc ol
lec
tor
(se
eNe tFl
owa bove)
.Itisli
ghtwe i
ghtande as
ytoc on0gur
e.Flo
wcus e
sa
My SQLda taba
set ostor
ea ggreg
atedt r
aNci nf
ormati
on.$e re
for
e,itis
poss
ibl
et ogener
ateyourownr e
portsfr
omt hedatausi
ngS QL,orusethe
incl
udedr e
portgener
ators
.$ebui l
t-inrepor
tgenerat
orspro
ducereport
s
inHTML,pl ai
ntexto ragraphi
calformat.

Fi
gur
eNM 11:At
ypi
calE
owc
har
tge
ner
ate
dbyFl
owc
.

$elar
geg
apinda
tapro
babl
yindi
cat
esanet
workout
age
.Tr
endi
ngtoo
ls
t
ypi
cal
l
ywi
llno
tnot
if
yyouofout
age
s,butmer
el
ylo
gtheocc
urr
ence
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 321

Tobenot
i0e
dwhenne
two
rkpr
obl
emso
ccur
,us
ear
eal
ti
memo
nit
ori
ng
to
ols
uchasNag
ios
.

S
mok
ePi
ng
htt
p://
o s
s.
o e
ti
k er
.ch/smo ke
ping/. Smo ke
Ping i s a de lux
e lat
ency
measurementt oolwr i
tteninP e
rl
.
Itcanme asure,storea nddispl
ayla
tency,l
atenc
ydist
ribut
ionandpa
cket
l
o s
sallonas ingl
eg r
aph.
Smo kePi
ng us est he RRDt o o
lforda tas t
ora
ge,and c a
n drawver
y
i
nforma t
ivegraphst hatpres
entuptot heminuteinf
ormati
ono nt
hest
ate
ofyourne t
wo rkc onnecti
on.

I
ti sver
yus e
fultorunSmo ke
Pingonaho stwit
hgoodconnec
ti
vi
tyto
yourenti
rene t
wor
k.Ov e
rtime,tr
endsarere
vea
ledt
hatcanpoi
nttoall
s
ortsofnetworkpr
oblems
.
Co mbi
nedwi thMRTG o rCact
i,y
ouc a
no bs
erv
ethee1e
cttha
tnetwo
rk
co
ng es
ti
onha sonpack
etlos
sandla
tenc
y.

S
mo k
ePingca
no pti
onal
l
ysenda l
er
tswhencert
aincondi
ti
onsaremet,
s
uchaswhenexc
ess
ivepa
cke
tlossi
sse
eno nali
nkforanext
ende
dperi
od
o
fti
me .Anex
ampleofSmoke
Pinginact
ioni
sshowninFig
ureNM 12.

Fi
gur
eNM 12:S
mok
ePi
ngca
ns i
mult
aneo
usl
ydis
pl
ayp
ack
etl
os
sandl
at
enc
y
s
pre
adsinasi
ngl
egrap
h.
322 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Et
her
Ape
http:/
/et
her
ape .
sourc
eforge
.net/
EtherApedispla
ysag r
aphicalr
eprese
ntationo fnetworktra
Nc.Ho stsand
l
ink schanges i
zedependingo nt heamo unto ftra
Ncs entandr ec
eived.
$ec olo
urschang et
or epr
e s
entthepro t
oc olmo s
tused.Aswithwiresha
r k
andt cpdump ,datac a
nbec apture
d" o1t hewi r
e"from alivenetwor k
connecti
ono rr e
a dfrom at cpdumpc apture0le.Ether
Apedo es
n'tshow
quiteasmuchde t
ailasntop,butitsr
esourcerequir
ementsar
emuc hli
ghter
.

i
ptr
af
htt
p://
iptraf
.s
eul.
org/
IPTrafisal i
ghtweig
htbutpo werf
ulLAN mo nit
or.Ithasa n ncur
ses
int
erfa
cea ndrunsi nac ommands hel
l.I
PTr a
ftak
esamo me nttome as
ure
obse
r v
edt r
aNc,a nd then di
spla
ysv ar
iousnetworkstat
is
tic
si ncl
uding
TCPa ndUDPc onnecti
ons,I
CMPa ndOS PFinfo
rmatio
n,t r
aNcWo ws,
IPc hecksum err
o r
s,andmo r
e.Itisas impletousepr og
ramt hatuses
minima lsys
temr es
ources
.Whi l
eitdoesno tkee
phistor
ic
aldata,iti
svery
usef
ulfo rdis
play
ingani nst
ant
aneoususagerepor
t.

Fi
gur
eNM 13:i
ptr
af'
sst
ati
st
ic
alb
rea
kdo
wno
ftr
aMcb
ypo
rt.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 323

Ar
gus
ht
tp:/
/qosi
ent
.c
om/arg
us/
.
Ar
g ussta
ndsforAudi
tRecordGener
ati
onandUt
il
is
ati
onSys
tem.Arg
us
i
salsothenameofthemytho
log
ica
lGreekg
odwhohadhundr
edsofe
yes.

Fromt heAr g
u swe bs
ite
:
Argusg ene ratesWo wstati
sti
cssuc hasc o
nne cti
vit
y,capaci
ty,demand,l os
s,
dela
y,a ndj i
ttero nape rtransact
ionba s
is
.Ar g
usc anbeus edt oa nal
yse
and r e
po rto nt hec ontentso fpa c
ketc a
pt ure0leso ritc a
nr un asa
continuo usmo nitor,examiningda tafrom al iveinter
face
;g ener
a t
inga n
auditlogo fallthene t
wo rkac t
ivit
yseenint hepa cke
tstre
am.
Argusc a nbede ployedt omo nit
orindivi
dua lend- s
yst
ems ,ora ne nt
ire
ente
rpr i
se sne two rka ct
ivit
y.Asac onti
nuo usmo nit
or,Ar g
uspr ovi
des
bothpus ha ndpul lda t
aha ndlingmo dels
,t oa l
low Wexi
blestrat
egiesfor
col
lecti
ng ne two rka uditda ta
.Ar g
usda tac l
ient
ss upporta r angeo f
operati
ons ,s ucha ss or
ting,a ggre
gati
on,a rchivalandr eporti
ng.Ar gus
consist
so ftwopa rt
s:ama s
terc ol
le
ctorthatr e
adspa c
ketsfrom ane twork
devi
c e,a ndac l
ientt hatconne ct
st othema ste
ra nddi s
playstheus age
st
ati
stics.Ar gusr unsonBS D,Li nux,andmo stotherUNI Xs y
stems.

Ne
Tra
Met
htt
p:/
/www. c
aida
.org/
tool
s/
me as
urement/net
ramet/
NeTraMetisanotherpopul
arWowa na
lysi
stool
.Lik eArgus
,
NeTraMetc onsi
stsoft wopa r
ts:ac olle
ctorthatg at
her
sstat
ist
ic
sv ia
SNMP ,andama nage
rthatspec
i0eswhichWowss houldbewatc
hed.
Flowsarespeci
0edusingasimplepr o
grammingl anguag
ethatde0nesthe
addre
sse
sus edo ne i
therend,a nd cani ncl
udeEt herne
t,IP
,pr ot
ocol
i
nformati
on,o ro the
ri de
nti0e
rs.Ne TraMetrunso n DOS and mo s
t
UNI Xsyst
ems,incl
udingLinuxa ndBS D.

Throughput testing
Howfastcanthenet
workgo?
Whatistheac
tualus
abl
ecapaci
tyofaparti
cul
arnetwor
klink?
Yo
uc a
ng e
tav e
rygoodes
timateofyourthr
oughputca
pacit
ybyWo o
ding
t
heli
nkwi tht
raNcandme asur
ingho
wl ongittak
estotr
ansf
erthedat
a.
324 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

a
lwa
ysg
ivey
oua
nac
cur
atep
ict
ureo
fne
two
rkp
erf
orma
nce
.

Whi l
etherearewebpa gesa
vai
lablethatwillper
for
m a s
peedtesti
ny our
browse
r(suchashttp:
//www.
dsl
reports
.c
o m/st
estorhtt
p://s
peedte
st.
net
/),
thes
et e
stsareincr
e a
si
nglyina
c cura
tea sy ougetfurtherfromt hetes
ting
sourc
e.Evenwo rs
e,theydono ta l
l
owy o utotes
tthes peedo fagive
nlink,
butonlythespeedo fyourl
inktoapa rt
icula
rsit
eo nt heInter
net.
He r
ea r
eaf ewt o
olsthatwil
lallowy outope rf
ormt hroughputtest
ingo n
yourownne tworks.

t
tcp
Now astandar
dpa r
tofmo stUni
x-l
ikes
y s
tems,tt
cpisasi
mplene
two
rk
pe
rfo
rmanc ete
sti
ngtoo
l.
Oneinst
anceisrunoneit
hersi
deofthel
inkyo uwanttot
est
.
$e0r s
tno derunsi
nrece
ivemode,a
ndtheo thert
rans
mit
s:

node
_a$t tc
p-r-s
node
_b$t tc
p-t-snode_a
tt
cp-
t:buEen=8192,nbuf=2048,a
li
gn=16384/
0,p
o r
t=5001tc
p->no
de_a
tt
cp-
t:so
c k
et
tt
cp-
t:connec
t
tt
cp-
t:16777216b y
tesin249.14r
eals
eco
nds=65.76KB/se
c+++
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 325

t
tc
p-t
:2048I/Ocal
ls
,ms e
c/
cal
l=124.57,c
all
s/
se
c=8.22
t
tc
p-t
:0.0u
ser0.
2sy
s4:09re
al0% 0i
+0d0ma xr
ss0+0p
f7533+0c
sw

Af t
erc ol
le
cti
ngda t
ai no nedi r
ecti
on,y oushouldreve r
sethetransmitand
receivepart
nerstot estthel i
nki ntheo therdir
e c
tion.Itcant e
stUDPa s
we l
la sTCPs tr
e ams,a ndc ana lt
erv ari
ousTCPpa r
ametersandbu1e r
l
e ngthstog i
vet hene t
wo rkag oodwo r
kout.Itc a ne v
en useaus er
-
supplieddatastr
e ami nsteado fsendi
ngr andom da ta.Reme mberthatthe
speedr ea
doutisi nk il
ob yte
s,notk i
lobit
s.Mul t
iplyther es
ultby8t o0nd
t
hes peedink i
lobitspers econd.$eo nlyrealdis
adv anta
getot tc
pisthat
i
tha sn
tbeende velopedi ny ear
s.Fortunat
ely
,t hec odeha sbeenr e
lea
sed
i
nt hepublicdoma ina ndi sfre
elyava
ilable
.Likepi nga ndtrace
route,t
tcp
i
sf ounda sas t
anda rdtoo lonma nysy s
tems.

i
per
f
htt
p:/
/i
perf
.source
forg
e.net
/.Muc hlik
et t
cp,i
per
fisacommandl i
netool
fo
re s
ti
ma t
ingt hethr
oughputo fane tworkc
onnec
ti
on.I
tsupport
smany
ofthesa
mef e
ature
sast t
cp,butusesa c
li
ent
andse
rve
rmo de
lins
tea
d
ofarec
eiv
ea ndtra
nsmitpair
.
Toruniperf,l
aunchas er
verono nesideandacl
ie
ntontheother
:

node_a$i perf-s
node_b$i perf-cno de_a
---
---
----
-----
------
----
-------
---
--
--
----
--
-----
----
---
---
Clie
ntc onnecti
ngt ono d e_a,TCPp ort5001
TCPwi ndo ws ize
:16. 0KBy t
e(de
fault
)
---
---
----
-----
------
----
-------
---
--
--
----
--
-----
----
---
---
[5]local10. 15.6.1p ort1212c o
nnectedwi t
h10. 15.6.
23p or
t5001
[ID]I nter
v al Tr ansfer Bandwi dt
h
[5]0.0 -
11. 3sec768KBy tes 558Kb i
ts
/se
c
$es ervers i
dewi llco nti
nuet olis
tena nda c
ceptc l
ientconnecti
onson
port5001unt ily ouhi tc ont
rol
-Ct ok il
lit.$i sca nma keithandywhen
runningmul ti
plet estrunsf r
om av ari
e t
yo floc
a t
ions.
$ebi ggestdi 1erencebe t
weenttcpa ndi perfisthatiper
fisunde ract
iv
e
developme nt,a ndha sma nynewf eature
s( i
ncludingI Pv
6s upport
).$i s
ma kesita g oodc ho icea sa perfo r
ma ncet oolwhe n buil
ding new
networks.
326 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

bi
ng
http://f
go uget.
fr
ee.
fr/
bing/indx -e
n.shtml
Ra t
he rtha nWo o
dac o
nne cti
o nwi thdataa nds eeho wl ongt het r
ansf
er
takestoc o mplet
e,bi
nga t
tempt st oe s
ti
ma tethea vail
abl
et hroughputo fa
point-to-pointconnect
ionb ya nalysi
ngr o
undt ri
pt imesf orvari
ouss i
zed
ICMPpa c ket
s.Whileitisno talwaysasa ccuratea saWo odtest,itcan
provideag oodest
imatewitho uttransmit
ti
ngal argenumbe rofbytes.
Sincebi ngwo rksusi
ngs tanda rdI CMP e chor equest
s,itc ane st
ima t
e
avail
ableba ndwidthwithoutt hene edtor unas pecia
lclientont heo t
her
end,a ndc ane ve
na tt
emptt oe st
ima t
ethet hr
o ughputo flinkso utsi
de
yourne t
wo rk.Si
nceitusesre l
ati
velylit
tl
eba ndwi dth,bingc angivey o
ua
roughi deao fnetworkperforma ncewi t
houtr unningupt hechargesthata
Wo odtestwo uldcert
ai
nlyinc ur.

Realtime tools and intrusion detection

Itisdes
irabl
eto0ndo utwhe n peopl
ea r
etryi
ngtobr ea
kintoyour
net
work,orwhens omepar
to fthenet
wo r
khasfai
le
d.
Beca
usenos yst
ema dmi
nis
tr
a t
orc a
n bemo nit
ori
ngane twor
ka l
lthe
ti
me,ther
ea r
eprogramst
hatc o
nsta
ntlymonit
orthest
atuso
fthenet
work
andcansendale
rtswhennotabl
ee v
entsocc
ur.

$ef
oll
owi
nga
res
omeo
pens
our
cet
ool
stha
tca
nhe
lppe
rfo
rmt
hist
ask
.

S
nor
t
Snort(ht
tp:
//www.snor
t.
org/
)isapacke
tsni1era
ndlogge
rwhichcanbe
usedasalig
htweightnet
workint
rus
iondet
ecti
onsy
ste
m.
Itfea
ture
srule-
basedlog
gingandcanperf
orm pro
tocola
nal
ysi
s,c
onte
nt
sea
rchi
ng,andpa c
k e
tma t
chi
ng.

Itcanbeus edtode t
ectav ari
et
yo fatt
acksandpr obes,suchass t
eal
th
ports ca
ns,CGIa ttack
s,SMB pr obes
,OS0ng e
r pri
ntinga t
tempts,and
ma nyo t
herkindso fanomaloustra
Ncpa t
terns.
Sno r
tha sareal
-timea l
ertcapabi
li
tythatcanno t
ifya dmi ni
st
rat
orsabout
problemsa st
heyo ccurwithav ar
iet
yofme thods.
Insta
lli
nga ndrunningS nortisnottri
vi
al,andde pendingo nthea mount
ofne tworktr
aNc ,willl
ikel
yr e
quir
eade dic
a t
edmo ni
toringmachinewith
consider
ableres
ources.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 327

Fort
unately
,S nortisv er
y welldoc
umente
da nd ha sa st
rong use
r
communi ty
.
By impl e
me nt
ing a compre
hensi
veSnor
tr ul
es e
t,y oucani de
ntif
y
unexpecte
d behavi
ourt ha
two ul
do t
her
wisemy s
ter
ious
lyeatup y o
ur
Inte
rnetbandwidt
h.
See http:/
/s
nort.
org
/docs/fora nexte
nsi
vel i
sto finst
al
la
tiona nd
con0gurat
ionreso
urces
.

Apa
che
:mo
d_s
ecur
it
y
Mo dSecur
ity(htt
p://
www. modsec
urit
y.
org/)isano pensour
ceintr
usi
on
dete
cti
o nandpr e
venti
one ngi
neforweba ppl
ic
a t
ions.
$i skindofsecuri
tytoolisal
soknowna sawe bapplic
ati
on0rewal
l.
Mo dSecur
ityi ncr
eas
es we ba ppli
cat
ions ecuri
tyb y prote
cti
ng web
appli
cati
onsfr
omk nowna ndunknowna tt
ack
s.
Itcan beus e
do nitso wn,ora samo dul
ei nt heApachewebs e
rve
r
(htt
p://www.apache.
org/).

$e rearesev
era
lsour c
esforupdatedmo d_sec
ur i
tyr ul
est hathelpprotec
t
againstthela
tes
tsecurit
ye x
ploi
ts.
One e xce
ll
ent res
ourcei s Go t
Ro ot
, which ma intai
ns a hug ea nd
fre
q uentl
yupdatedreposi
toryofrules
:
http://
www. a
tomicorp.
com/wiki/
index.
php/Atomi c
_Mo dSecuri
ty_Rules
We ba ppli
cat
ionsecuri
tyisimportanti
nde f
endinga g a
instatta
c k
so nyour
webs e
rver
,whichco ul
dr es
ultinthethef
to fvaluableo rpersonaldat
a,or
int heserve
rbeingus edtolauncha t
tac
kso rsends pamt oo t
herInter
net
users.Aswe l
la sbe i
ng da magi
ng tot heI nterneta sa who l
e,such
int
r usi
onscanseri
ous l
yreduceyouravai
labl
eba ndwidth.

Na
gio
s
Na gi
os(http:/
/na g
ios.
org/)isapr ogramt hatmo nit
orsho st
sa ndse r
vice
s
ony ournetwo r
k ,noti
fyingyouimme dia
telywhe npr obl
emsa rise
.
I
tc ansendno t
i0cati
onsv iaemail,SMS ,o rbyrunningas cr
ipt,andwi l
l
s
e ndno t
i0cati
onst other e
leva
ntpe rs
o no rg r
oupde pendi
ngo nthena t
ure
oft hepr o
blem.Na giosr unso n Linuxo rBS D,a nd providesawe b
i
nt e
rfac
et os how up- to-t
he-minutes yst
e ms tat
us.Na gi
o si sextensi
ble,
andc anmo nit
o rthes tat
uso fvirt
ua l
lya nyne tworke v
e nt.Itperforms
checksbyr unnings mallscri
ptsatregularinterv
als,andche cksther e
sult
s
agai
nstane xpectedresponse.
328 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$i sc anyie
ldmuc hmo r
esophist
ic
atedchec
k stha
nas i
mplenetwor
k
probe.Forexampl
e,pingmayt e
llyouthatama chi
neisup,andnmap
mayr epor
tthataTCPpo rtr
espondstoreq
uest
s,butNagi
oscanac
tua
ll
y
re
trie
veawe b pa
geo rma k
eada taba
sereques
t,and v
eri
fytha
tthe
re
sponseisnotanerr
or.

Fi
gur
eNM 15:Na
gio
ske
epsyo
uinfo
rmedthemome
ntane
two
rkf
aul
tor
s
erv
iceo
utag
eocc
urs.

Nagi
oscane v
enno ti
fyyouwhe nba ndwi
dthusag
e,pa c
ketlos
s,machine
r
oomt e
mpe ra
ture
,o rothernetworkheal
thindi
cat
o rcro
sse
sapa r
ticul
ar
t
hres
hol
d.
$iscang i
vey o
ua dvancewarningo fnet
workproble
ms,ofte
na l
lowing
yo
utorespondtothepr o
blem befo
reuser
shaveachancetocompla
in.

Za
bbi
x
Zab bi
x( http:/
/www.za
bbix.
org/
)i sa
no pensour
cer eal
ti
memo ni
tori
ng
to
o lthati ssomethi
ngo fahy bri
dbe t
we e
nCa ct
ia ndNa gio
s.Itusesa
SQLda t
a baseforda
tastorag
e,hasit
so wng r
aphrenderi
ngpa cka
ge,and
perf
o r
msa l
lo fthefunct
ionsyouwo uldexpe
ctfrom amo der
nr e
alt
ime
mo nit
or( sucha sS NMP po ll
ing and ins
tant noti
0cat
iono fe rr
or
condit
ions).Zabbixi
sr e
lea
sedundertheGNU Ge neralPubl
icLice
nse.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 329

Other useful tools

$erearethousandsoffr
eenet
work moni
tor
ing t
ool
sthat0llv
ery
s
pec
ial
i
sedneeds.Herea
reafe
wofourfa
vour
it
estha
tdon'
tqui
te0ti
nto
t
heabovec
ate
g o
r i
es
.

ng
rep
Ng re
p provi
desmo sto fGNU g r
ep'spa t
tern matching f
e a
tures
,but
appli
esthemt onetworktraNc.Itcur r
entl
yr ecog
nisesIPv4a ndI Pv6,
TCP ,UDP ,ICMP ,IGMP ,PPP,S LI
P ,FDDI ,To ken Ring,a nd muc h
mo re
.Asitma ke
sextensi
veuseofregula
re xpre
ssi
onma tc
hes,itisatool
suit
edtoa dv
ancedusersorthos
ethatha veag oodk nowledgeo freg
ular
expres
si
ons.Youdon'
tne ce
ssa
ri
lyneedt obear ege
xe xpertt
obea bl
et o
ma kebas
icuseofngrep.Forex
ample,tov i
ewa llpac
k e
tsthatcontai
nt he
str
ingGET( pres
umablyHTTPr e
quests)
,trythi
s:

#ng
rep-
qGET

Pat
ternmatc
hescanbecons
tra
inedfur
thertomatc
hpa r
ti
cula
rprotoc
ols
,
port
s,orot
hercri
te
ri
ausi
ngBPF0l t
ers
.$i sist
he0lt
erla
nguageuse
db y
commo npac
k e
tsni
Nngtool
s,suchastc
pdumpa ndsnoop.
Tov i
ewGET
orPOS Tst
ringss
entt
odest
ina
tio
npo r
t80,usethi
scommandl i
ne:

#ng
rep-
q'GET|
POS
T'p
ort80

Byusi
ngngre
pcre
ati
vel
y,y
ouca
ndete
ctanyt
hingfr
omv i
rusact
ivi
tyt
o
spa
memail
.Youc
andownloa
dngr
epa
thtt
p:/
/ngre
p.s
our
cef
org
e.ne
t/.

nma
p/Ze
nma
p
nma pisane tworkdi agnosti
ct oo
lfo rshowingthes tat
ea nda va
ila
bil
ityof
networ
kpo rtsonane t
wo r
ki nter
fac
e.A c ommo nusei stos canane twork
hostonaTCP/ IPne tworkf orwhatpo rt
sa r
eo pe
n,t hereb
ya ll
owingo neto
crea
tea" map"o fthene two r
ks e
rvi
cesthatthema chi
nep r
ovides
.$enma p
tooldoesthi
sb ys endings peci
al
lycraft
edpa cket
stoat arge
tne t
wo rkho s
t
andnotici
ngt heres
po nse(
s).Forexample,awe bserve
rwi thano penpo rt80
butnor unningwe bs erverwillres
ponddi 1ere
ntlytoa nnma ppr obethan
onethatnoto nl
yha sthepo rtopenbutisr unni
nght t
pd.
Simil
arl
y,youwi llgetadi 1e r
entresponsetoapo r
tt hatissimplyshuto 1
vs.onethatisopeno naho s
tbutblo ckedb ya0rewa ll
.
330 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Ov ert ime,nma p hase vol

v e
df rom being a si
mple po r
t-sc
annert o
some thi
ngt hatcande tec
tOSv ers
ions,net
workdrive
rs,thetypeo fNI C
hardwa rebeingus edb yani nte
rfac
e,driv
erv e
rsi
ons,etc
.I nadditi
ont o
sca
nni ngindi v
idualma chi
nes,itc a
na ls
os c
ane nt
irenetworkso fhosts
.
$i sdo esme ant hatnma pi
spo tenti
al
lyals
ous e
fulbyma li
cio
usne twork
usersa sawa yto" s
copeout "as ys
tem befor
ea t
tack
ingi t
.Likema ny
dia
g no s
ti
ct o ol
s,nma pc a
n be us e
df org oodo ri l
la nd ne twork
admi nis
tra
torswo ulddowe lltob eawareofbothsides
.$enma pt o
olis
rel
easedunde rtheGPL l ic
ensea ndt helat
estver
sionca nbef ounda t
htt
p://www.nma p.
o r
g.

Ze
nma
p
Zenmapi sacro
ss-
pla
tf
orm GUIfo
rnmapwhichrunsunde
rLinux
,
Windows,MacOS X,BS D,et
c.a
nd c
an bedownl
oade
dfromthe
nmap.
orgsi
tea
swell
.

ne
tca
t
Somewhatbet
we e
nnma pandt c
pdump,ne tc
atisanothe
rdiagnost
ictool
fo
rpo k
ingandpr oddi
nga tpor
tsandc onnec
tionsonane t
wo rk
.Ittake
s
i
tsnamef r
omt heUNI Xc at(
1)util
it
y,whichs i
mplyrea
dso utwha t
eve
r
0l
ey oua skitto.S i
mi l
arl
y,netc
atr e
adsa nd writ
esdataa cr
ossany
ar
bit
rar
yTCPo rUDPpo rt
.$ene tcatuti
li
tyisnotapacketanal
yse
rbut
worksonthedat
a(payl
oad)cont
aine
di nthepackets
.
Forexa
mple,hereishowt orunav e
rys i
mple1-li
ne,1-t
imewe bserve
r
wit
hne t
cat
:

{e
cho-
ne"
HTTP/
1.0200OK\
r\n\
r\n"
;ca
tso
me.
Cl
e;}|nc-
l8080
$e0l es o
me.Cl
ewi llbes enttot he0r s
thostthatconnect
stopo rt8080
onthesyste
mr unningne tcat.
$e- lcomma ndtellsne t
catto" l
ist
en"o nport8080a ndwaitunti
litget
s
aconnecti
on.
Onceitdo es
,itst
o psblocking,readsthedatao1t hepipeands e
ndsitto
thecl
ientconnect
edo npo rt8080 .So meo t
hergo o
de xample
so fnetca
t
usag
eca nbefoundi nt heWi kipediaentr
yfornetcat
:
htt
ps:
//se
cure.
wiki
me di
a.or
g /
wik i
pedia
/en/wiki
/Netca
t#Examples
Youcando wnloa
dt helat
estversi
o nofne t
catfr
om
htt
p:/
/nc110.s
ourc
e forg
e .
net/
Iti
savail
abl
eunde raP e r
mi s
si
veFr eeSoftwar
eLicense
.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 331

What is normal?
Ifyoua relo
okingf orade0niti
veanswerastowhaty ourtr
aNcpatte
rns
shouldlooklik
e ,youa r
eg oi
ngt obedisa
ppoint
ed.$e r
eisnoabsol
ute
rig
hta nswertot hisquest
ion,butgive
ns omewo r
ky oucandete
rmine
wha tisnormalf oryournetwork.Whileever
ye nv
ironmentisdi
1erent
,
someo fthefactorsthatcani nWue
ncethea ppea
ranceo fyourtra
Nc
patt
ernsare:

$ec apaci
tyofyourInternetco nnect
ion
$enumbe rofuse
rsthathavea c c
esstothene t
work
$es oci
alpoli
cy(bytechargi
ng ,quotas,honoursy
ste
m,etc
.)
.
$enumbe r
,types
,andl e
v e
lo fs e
rvic
eso 1er
ed
$e he al
tho fthe ne twork( prese
nc eo fv i
rus
es,exc
ess
ive
br
oadcast
s,routi
ngl oops,o pene ma ilrel
ays,deni
alofserv
ice
at
tac
ks,etc
.).
$ec ompetenceofyourco mput erusers
$el ocat
iona nd con0gurati
o no fc ontrolst
ruc
ture
s(0re
wall
s,
pr
oxys e
rver
s,cac
hes,ands oo n)

$isisnotade 0ni
ti
velis
t,butshouldg i
veyouanide
aofho
w awi
de
r
angeoffa
cto
rscana1ectyourbandwidthpat
ter
ns.
Wit
hthisinmind,l
et'
slookatthetopicofba
sel
ine
s.

Establishing a baseline
Sincee ve
rye nvir
o nme ntisdi 1erent,youne edt ode t
ermi nefo
ry ourse
lf
wha tyourt r
aNcpa t
ter
nsl o
o klikeunde rno r
ma lsi
tuati
o ns.$isisus e
ful
becauseita ll
owsy o
ut oi dentifyc hangeso verti
me ,e it
hersuddeno r
gradual.$e sec ha ngesma yi nt urni ndic
ateapr obl
em,o rapo tenti
al
futureproblem,wi thy ournet work.
Fore xample,suppo sethatyo urne tworkg r
indst oaha l
t,andy ouareno t
sureo fthec ause.F ort
unately,y ou havede cidedt ok eep ag r
aph o f
broadcast
sa sape rc
entageo ft heo v
eral
lne tworkt r
aNc .Ifthisg ra
ph
showsas uddeni nc r
easeinthea mo untofbr oadca
sttraNc ,itmayme an
thatyourne tworkha sbe eninfectedwi t
hav i
rus.
Wi thouta nideao fwha tis" norma l
"f o
ry ourne t
wo rk( abase
li
ne),you
wo uldno tb ea b
let os eetha tthenumbe ro fbr oa
dcastsha dincr
eased,
332 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

onl
ythatitwasr
elat
iv
elyhigh,whic
hma ynotindi
cat
eapr o
ble
m.
Bas
eli
neg ra
phsand0g ure
sa real
souse
fulwhe nanal
ysi
ngthee1ect
so f
cha
ngesma detothene t
work.Itisof
te
nv er
yus e
fultoexper
imentwit
h
suc
hc hangesbyt ryi
ng di1ere
ntpossi
blevalue
s.Kno wi
ng whatthe
bas
eli
nelooksli
kewi l
lshowy ouwhet
heryourc ha
ngeshaveimprov
ed
matt
ers
,orma dethem wors
e.

Fi
gur
eNM 16:Bycol
l
ect
ingda
taove
ralongp
eri
odofti
me,youc
anpred
ict
t
hegr
owt
ho fy
ournet
workandmakec
hang
esbe
for
eprob
lemsd
eve
lo
p.

InFi gureNM 16,wec a ns e

et hee 1ecto fthei mplementati
ono fdelay
poolso nI nternetuti
li
sat
iona roundt hepe ri
odo fMa y.
Ifwedi dno tkeepag r
apho fthelineut il
is
ation,wewo uldneverknow
wha tthee 1e ctofthechang eoverthel ongterm wa s.
Whe nwa t
chingat ot
alt r
aNcg r
apha ft
erma kingc hanges,don'
ta ss
ume
thatjustbe causetheg r
aphdo esno tc hangeradical
lythatyoure1ortswere
wa s
ted.Y o umi ghtha v
er emo vedfrivoloususagef romy ourlineo nl
yto
havei treplacedb ygenuinelegit
imatet raNc.
Youc o ul
dt henc ombinet hisbasel
inewi t
ho thers
,s aythet o
p 100s it
es
acces
sedo rt hea ver
ageutil
isat
ionbyy ourtopt wentyusers
,t odet
ermineif
habit
sha ves implychanged.Aswewi l
ls e
el a
ter
,MRTG,RRDt oo
l,andCa c
ti
areexcell
entt ool
sy oucanuset okeepaba se
li
ne.

Fi
gur
eNM 17:et
raMct
re
nda
tAi
dwo
rl
dlo
gge
dov
eras
ing
led
ay.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 333

Fig
ur eNM 1 7s howst r
aNco na nAidworl
d0r e
wa l
loverape r
iodof24
hours.$e reisno t
hingappare
ntlywrongwit
ht hi
sg ra
ph,butuserswere
compl a
ini
nga boutslowInter
netacc
ess
.
Fig
ur eNM 18s howsthattheuploadbandwidthuse( bl
ue)washigher
duringwo rki
ngho ursonthelastdaythanonpr e
viousda y
s.Aperio
do f
heavyupl oa
dus ag
es t
art
ede ve
rymo rni
nga t03:00,andwa sno r
ma l
ly
0nishedby09 :00,butonthelas
tdayitwassti
llr
unninga t16:
30.Furt
her
inv
e st
iga
tionreveal
edapr obl
em withthebackups of
tware,whi
chr a
na t
03:00e ve
ryday .

Fi
gureNM 18:esa
menet
workl
ogg
edove
ranent
ir
eweekr
eve
alsa
p
robl
em wi
thb
a c
kup
s,whi
chc
aus
edune
xpec
te
dcong
es
ti
onfo
rnet
workus
ers
.

Fig
ureNM 19s howsmeasur
ementsofla
tencyo nthesamec onne
cti
onas
measuredbyt heprogr
amc a
ll
edS mokePing.$epo si
tio
no ft
hedo t
s
showstheaver
a g
elat
ency
,whi l
ethegre
ys mo keindi
cate
sthedist
ri
buti
on
oflate
ncy( j
it
ter)
.$ec olourofthedo tsindicat
esthenumbe roflos
t
packet
s.$isg ra
pho v
erape r
iodoffourho ursdoesnothelptoident
if
y
whetherthe
reareanypro
blemsonthenetwo rk
.

Fi
gur
eNM 19:Fo
urh
our
sofj
it
te
randp
ack
etl
os
s.
334 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$ene xtg raph( F

igureNM 20)s howst hesameda taoverape r
iodof16
hours
.$i si ndicat
esthatt hev al
uesint hegrapha bov
ea reclos
etot he
normallev
e l(base
li
ne),butt hatther
ewe r
esigni0ca
ntincre
ase
sinl a
tency
atsev
e r
alt i
me sduringt hee ar
lymo rning,upt o30t i
me sthebasel
ine
val
ue.
$i sindic
a t
e sthatadditionalmo nit
oringsho uld beperf
ormed during
the
seperiodst oesta
blis
ht hec a
useo fthehighl at
encytoavoi
dpr obl
ems
suc
ha stheba ckupno tcompl et
inginthef ut
ure.

Fi
gur
eNM 20:Ah
igh
ers
pre
ado
fji
tt
eri
sre
vea
ledi
nth
e16h
ourl
og.
Fi
gur
eNM 21s howst
hatTuesdaywassig
ni0cant
lywor
sethanSunda
yor
Mondayforla
tenc
y,es
pec
ial
lyduringt
hee ar
lymorni
ngperi
od.
$ismightindi
cat
ethats
ome t
hinghaschangedonthenet
work.

r
epe
ti
ti
ono
finc
re
ase
dla
tenc
yandp
ack
etl
os
sint
hee
arl
ymo
rni
ngh
our
s.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 335

Ho
wdoIi
nte
rpr
ett
het
raNcg
raph?
Inaba s
icne two rkWo wg r a
ph( sucha stha tgeneratedb yt hene two rk
moni t
ortoolMRTG) ,theg ree
na r
eaindica
tesinbo undt ra
Nc ,whi l
et he
bl
ue l i
ne indicateso utbo und t ra
Nc .Inbo und t raNc ist r
aNc t hat
ori
ginat
esfroma no therne two r
k( typic
all
ytheI nternet)andi sa ddressed
toac omput eri nside yo urne t
wo rk.Out bound t raNc ist r
aNc t hat
ori
ginat
esfromy ourne t
wo r k,andi saddr
essedtoac o mputersome whe re
ont heInternet.De pendingo nwha tsorto fnetwo rkenvironme nty o u
have
,t heg r
a phwi l
lhe l
py o
uunde rst
andho wy o urne tworki sac t
ua l
ly
bei
ngus ed.F ore xampl e,mo nitori
ng ofs erver
sus ual
lyr evea
lsl arger
amountso fo utbo undt raNca st hes e
rver
sr es
pondt or eq
ue st
s( sucha s
se
ndingma i
lo rs ervi
ngwe bpa ges),whilemo nitoringc l
ientma chines
mightr e
vealhi ghera mo unt sofi nboundt r
a Nct ot hema chinesa sthe y
re
ceivedatafromt heservers.

Fi
gur
eNM 22:ec la
ssi
cnet
wo r
kE o
wg r
aph.eg re
enare
are
pre
se
nts
i
nbo
undtr
a Mc,wh il
ethebluel
inere
pre
sentsout
boundtraMc
.erepe
ati
ng
ar
csofoutb
ou ndtraMcsho
wwh e
nth enig
h t
lybac
kupsha
ver
un.
Tr
aNcpatt
ernswillvarywithwhatyoua remo ni
tori
ng.

Arouterwi
llnormall
ysho
wmo r
eincomingt
raNcthanoutg
oingt
raNcas
use
rsdownl
oadda t
afromtheInt
ernet
.
Ane xc
essofo ut
boundtraNcthatisno tt
rans
mitt
edbyy ournet
work
se
rver
sma yindic
ateapeer-
to-
peercl
ient
,unaut
hori
se
ds e
rver
,oreve
na
vi
rusononeo rmo r
eofyourcl
ie
nts.

$e r
earenos etme t
ricstha
tindi
cat
ewhatoutgo
ingt
raNctoinc
oming
t
raNcshoul
dl o
o kli
ke.
I
tisuptoyo utoe s
tabli
shabase
li
netounde
rst
andwhatno
rmalnet
work
t
raNcpatt
ernslookli
k eonyournet
work
.
336 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

De
tec
ti
ngne
two
rko
ver
loa
d
Fi
gur
eNM 23s
howst
raNco
nano
ver
loa
dedI
nte
rne
tco
nne
cti
on.

Fi
gur
eNM 23:Fl
at
-t
opp
edgr
aphsi
ndi
cat
eov
erl
oad
ingo
fav
ail
abl
e
b
andwid
th.

$emo stapparentsig
no fo ver
loa
dingistheWa
ttopso
nout
boundt r
aNc
duri
ngt hemiddleofe v
e r
yda y.
Fl
att opsma yi ndicat
eo verlo
ading,eveniftheyar
ewellbelo
wt he
maximum t he
oreti
calcapaci
tyofthelink.
Inthisc a
seitma yindicat
et hatyoua r
enotget
ti
ngasmuc
hba ndwidth
fr
omy o urser
vic
epr ovi
derasy ouexpect
.

Me
asur
ing95t
hpe
rce
nti
le
$e95t hpe rc
enti
leisawi delyusedma t
he mati
calca
lcul
ati
ont oev
alua
te
re
gula
rands usta
inedutil
isa
ti
o nofane t
wo rkpipe
.
It
sval
ues howsthehighes
tc onsumpti
ono ftra
Ncf orag i
venperi
od.
Calc
ulat
ingthe95t hpe r
centi
leme a
nstha t95% o ft
het i
met heus
ageis
bel
owac er
tai
namo unt,and5% o ftheti
meus ageisabovetha
tamount.
$e95t hpe rc
enti
leisag oodguidel
inetos ho
wba ndwidththa
tisact
ual
ly
use
da tl
east95% ofthet i
me .
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 337

Fi
gur
eNM 24:eh
ori
zont
all
ines
howst
he95t
hpe
rce
nti
lea
mou
nt.

MRTG a
ndCa ct
iwil
lca
lcul
atet
he95thpe
rce
nti
leforyou.
$isi
sas a
mpl egr
aphofa960k bpsco
nnect
ion.$e95t hpe
rce
nti
le
c
amet
o945k bpsaf
te
rdis
c a
rdi
ngthehi
ghe
st5% oftra
Nc .

Monitoring RAM and CPU usage

By de 0nit
ion,s e
rverspro vi
dec riti
cals ervi
cest hats houlda lwaysbe
avai
lable.
Ser
ver sre
cei
v ea ndr e
spondt oc l
ie
ntma chinere quest
s,providinga cce
ssto
ser
vicesthata r
et hewho l
epo i
nto fha vingane tworki nt he0r stplac
e.
$e refore
,s ervers mus t ha ve s uNc ient ha rdwarec apa bi
li
tiest o
acc
o mmo datet hewo rkload.
$i sme anstheymus thavea dequateRAM,s t
ora ge
,andpr o cessi
ngpo wer
toacco mmoda tethenumbe rofcli
e ntrequest
s.
Otherwi s
e,thes e
rverwilltakel ongertor e
spo nd,ori nt hewo rstcas
e,
maybei nca
pa bleo fres
pondinga ta l
l.Sinceha rdwareresourcesa re0nit
e,
i
tisimpo rta
ntt okeeptracko fhows y s
temr es
o urcesarebeingus ed.
Ifac oreser
ver( suchasapr oxyse
r verore mails e
rver)isove r
whe lmedb y
req
ue sts
,acc
e s
st imesbecomes low.
338 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$isi so f
tenperce
ive
db yusersasane t
wo rkprobl
em.$e rearesev
era
l
pr
og r
amst hatcanbeusedtomo nito
rresourcesonaserv
e r
.$es i
mples
t
methodo naWi ndowsmachinei stoaccesstheTaskMa nagerusi
ngthe
Ctr
lAl t+De lkey
s,andthenc l
icko ntheP erf
ormanc
eta b.OnaLi nux
orBS D box,y o
uc anty
petopi nat er
mina lwindo
w.Tok eephis
tor
ica
l
l
ogso fsuchperf
ormance
,MRTG o rRRDto olcanal
sobeus ed.

Fi
gur
eNM 25:RRDtoo
lcansho
wa r
bit
rar
ydata
,suc
hasme
mor
yandCPU
usa
ge,ex
pre
ss
edasanaver
ageo
vert
ime
.

Ma ilserver
srequi
rea dequat
es pace
,assomepe oplema ypref
ertol ea
ve
theirema i
lme s
sag
eso ntheserverfo
rlongperi
odso ft
ime.
$eme ss
agescanaccumulateand0lltheharddis
k,e s
peci
al
lyifquotasar
e
noti nuse.
Ift hedisko rparti
tion usedfo rmailst
orag
e0l lsup,thema ilserve
r
canno trece
ivema i
l.Ifthatdiskisals
ous e
db ythes ys
tem,a l
lkindsof
system proble
msma yo ccurast heopera
ti
ngs yst
emr unso utofs wap
spacea ndtemporar
ys t
orage.
Fil
es erve
rsneedtobemo nit
ored,eve
niftheyhavelar
gedisks
.
Use rswill0ndawa yto0l lanys i
zedis
kmo req uic
klythany o
umi g
ht
think.
 16. NETWORK MONITORING 339

Disk us agec an bee nforcedt hr oug ht heus eo fq uo t

as,o rb ys impl y
mo nitoringus a gea ndt ell
ingpe o plewhe ntheya reus i
ngt oomuc h.
Na giosc anno tifyy ouwhe ndi skus age,CPU ut i
lisat
ion,o ro the rsystem
res
o urcesc rossac rit
ic
a lthreshold.
Ifama chinebe co mesunr espons i
v eo rslow,a ndme asureme ntss ho wt hat
asy st
emr esour cei sbe i
nghe avi
lyus ed,thisma ybea ni ndi cat
io nt hata n
upgr a
dei sr eq uired.I fpr ocess
o rus agec onstantl
ye xceeds60% o ft he
tot
a l
,i tma ybet i
met oupg ra
det hepr ocess
o r
.S lows peedsc oul da lsobe
asar esulto fins uNc ientRAM.Bes uretoc heckt heo veral
lus ageo fCPU,
RAM,a nddi sks pacebe forede c
idi ngt oupg radeapa r
ticularc ompo nent.
As impl ewa yt oc heckwhe therama chineha sinsuNc ientRAM i st oloo k
attheha rddi skl ight.
Whe nt hel ighti so nc onstantly,i tusuallyme anst hatt hema chinei s
constantlys wa ppi nglargea mo unt so fdatatoa ndf romt hedi sk.
$i sisk no wna sthrashing,a ndi se xtre
me lyba dforpe rfor
ma nc e.
Itca nus ua l
lybe0x edb yi nvestiga t
ingwhi chpr ocessisus ingt hemo s
t
RAM,a ndk illingo rr econ0g uringt hatpr ocess
.F ail
ingt hat,t hes ystem
needsmo reRAM.Y ous houl da lwa ysde t
ermi newhe theriti smo rec o s
t
e1ectivet oupg radea ni ndiv i
dua lc ompo nento rpur chaseawho lene w
ma chine.S o mec omput ersa redi Nc ulto rimpo s
siblet oupg rade ,a ndi t
oft
e nc ostsmo ret or eplacei ndi vidualc ompo nent stha nt or epl acet he
entires yst
e m.S i
nc ethea vail
abilityo fpa rtsa nd s yste
msv arieswi dely
aroundt hewo rld,bes uretowe i
g ht hec osto fpa r
tsv s.who l
es yste
ms ,
incl
udi ngs hippi nga ndt a
xes,whe nde terminingt hec ostofupg rading .

Summary
Insumma ryinthischapterwe '
vet ri
edt ogiveyoua nins
ightintoho wt o
monitory ourne twor
ka nd c o
mput ing re
sourc
esc oste 1ecti
velyand
eNcie
ntl
y.We 'veintroducedma nyo fourf av
ouri
tet ool
st oa ss
istyou.
Manyo fthema retri
eda ndt e
ste
db yma nyne t
worko per
ators.
Hopeful
lyy ouha v
eunde r
st
o odt hei mporta
nceo fmo nit
oringtoe nable
yout o bothj ust
ify upgradeswhe n ne c
ess
aryt ot hos
ef unding the
upgra
des,pl
usmi nimisetheimpa cto fproble
msa stheyoccur.
$ee ndr es
ultisk ee
pingy ourne tworka ndc omputi
ngr es
o urc
eshe a
lthy
andk e
epinga l
lo fyourus ershappywi ththes e
rviceyoua r
epro vi
ding
the
m.
340 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Introduction
Achievi
nglong-
ter
ms ust
ai
nabil
it
yisper
ha psthemostdiNcul
tg oalwhen
desig
ningandopera
ti
ngwi r
ele
ssnet
work
s.$epr ohi
bit
iv
ec os
to fInt
ernet
connecti
vi
tyi n many countr
ie
s,part
icular
lythose who are he a
v i
ly
regul
atedbythegove
rnment,impos
esasub st
ant
ia
loperat
ingexpensethat
ma kesthe
senetwor
kssensi
ti
vetoecono
mi cWuct
uat
ionsandne cess
it
ates
innovat
iontoatt
ai
nv i
abi
li
ty.

S
ubst
ant
ia
l progr
essin the useo f wir
el
es
s net
work
sf orr ur
al
c
ommunica
ti
onshasbeenacc
omplis
hedove
rthepa
stfewyea
rs,duei
n
l
ar
gepar
ttote
chnol
ogi
cal
brea
kthr
oughs
.

Long-dis
tanceli
nkshavebeenc onst
ruc
ted,hig
hba ndwidthdes
ignsare
poss
ibleands ec
uremeanstoa cc
e s
snetwork
sa r
ea va
il
able
.Inc ontr
ast
,
the
reha vebe e
nf ewe
rs ucce
sse
swi ththede vel
opmento fsus
taina
ble
busi
nessmo del
sforwi
re
lessnet
works,pa
rti
cul
arl
yforremotear
eas
.

Bas
edo ne x
peri
ence
sa nd obs
ervat
ionsofexi
st
ingnetworks
,aswe llas
knowl
edgefrome nt
repre
neuri
aldevel
opmentbes
tpract
ic
es,thi
sc ha
pter
wil
lfocuson docume nt
ing methodsforbui
lding s
ust
ai
nable wir
ele
ss
net
works.

Inthepa stdec ade

,thereha sbeentremendousg r
o wthinInter
netaccess
acr
ossthewo rld.Mo stci
tie
sno wha vewirel
es
so rDS Lnetworksand0bre
opt
icco nnecti
onst otheInternet
,whichisasubstanti
ali
mpr o
veme nt
.
Nevert
he le
ss,o uts
ideurbana rea
s,Inter
netac c
essiss t
il
laf ormidabl
e
chal
le
ng e.$e reislitt
lewi r
e dinfr
ast
ruct
urebe yond pri
nci
palc i
ti
esin
manyc o untr
ies.$e ref
ore,wi rel
es
srema i
nso neo fthefewc hoice
sf o
r
prov
idi
nga 1ordableI
nterneta c
ces
s.

$erea
renow pr
ovenmodelsfo
rr ur
alacc
essus
ingwire
les
s.$isbook
wa
swri
tt
enfo
rthos
ewis
hingtoconnectt
hei
rcommuniti
es
.
$emodel
sdes
cri
bedhe
rearesmal
leri
nscal
eandusea1orda
blede
si
gns
.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 341

Ouraimi stoprovi
deexa
mpleso fhowwi r
el
essnet
wor
kscanbede s
igned
toexpand sus
tai
nabl
ea cc
esswhe relar
getel
ecommuni
cat
ionso pe
rato
rs
hav
eno ty e
tinst
al
ledthe
irnetworksint
oa r
eastha
twoul
do the
rwis
eno t
beeconomical
l
yfeasi
bleb
ytradit
ionalmodel
s.

Two co
mmo n mis
conce
pti
onsmus tbe dis
pell
ed.Fir
st
,ma ny peo
ple
as
sumethatt
her
eisonepre
f e
rre
dbusi
nessmodeltha
twillwor
kine v
ery
communit
y,a
ndthekeytosucce
ssi
sto0ndthatonee
ureka
sol
uti
on.

In pra
ctice
,t hi
si snotthec a
se.Eachc o
mmuni t
y,town orvi
ll
ageis
di1er
ent.$e reisnopr e
scr
ibedmo delt
hatmeet
sthene e
dsofal
lareas
.
De s
pit
et hefactthats
omepl a
cesma ybesi
mila
rine cono
micte
rms,the
char
acte
rist
icsofas us
tai
nablebusi
nessmodelvar
yf r
omc ommunit
yt o
communi ty
.

Althougho nemo de
lmaywo rkinonev i
ll
age
,anot
hervi
ll
agenea
rbymay
notpo ss
essthesameneces
saryqual
it
ie
sforthismodelt
obes us
tai
nabl
e.
Int hi
sc i
rcumsta
nce,ot
herinnova
ti
vemo del
smustbec us
tomis
edto0t
thec o
ntextofthi
spart
ic
ula
rc ommunity
.

Anothe rmi s
conce
pt i
oni sthatsus
tai
nabil
it
yha sthesamede 0ni
tionforal
l
people.Althoughthistermg enera
ll
yme a
nsthatasyste
mi sbuilttopers
is
t
inde0nitel
y,thi
sc hapt
e rfocusesmoreo nthediscuss
iono ft heeconomic
conditi
o ns(0nancia
la ndma nage
ri
al)thano t
hera s
pect
so fsusta
inabi
li
ty
.
Also,ins t
eado ftheho r
izonbe i
ngi ndet
erminate
,itc entreso nat ime
peri
o do f0v eyearst hepe ri
odi nwhi c
ht hes
eI CT infrastr
uctur
ea nd
wire
lesst e
chnolog
iesaree x
pec t
edtobeus ef
ul.

$us,theterms ust
ai
nabil
it
ywil
lbeusedtoencaps
ula
teasy
s t
em des
igne
d
t
ope r
sis
tforapproxi
ma t
el
y0veyear
s.Aswee x
plai
nedea
rl
ierint
hebo ok,
wir
el
essnetwo r
k sinlocalco
mmuni t
ie
so ft
ens t
imul
at
et hegrowtho f
co
nnecti
vit
ya ndus ag
e,andtheins
tal
lat
ionof0brebegi
nstobe co
mea
r
eal
ity
.

Socrea
ti
ngas usta
inabl
emo delf
ory ourwi re
les
snetwor
kma yl
eadto
gr
owtho fo t
her network
sa nd inst
alla
tio
no fl o
ngerter
m gr
eat
er
ba
ndwidth0br
elinks.
Wire
les
swillthe
nl ikel
yconti
nuet oc o-habi
ta l
ongs
ide0br
einyour
ne
tworkasitg
rowsinsizea
ndreac
h.
342 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

When de
ter
mini
ng a
nd impl
ement
ing t
hebestmo delf
ora wi
re
les
s
ne
two
rk,se
ver
alk
eyfa
cto
rswil
lhe
lptoensur
eit
ssuc
cess
.

$isc
hapt
eri
sno
tme
antt
obeag
uidef
orma
nag
ings
ust
ai
nabl
ewi
re
les
s
ne
two
rks
.

Rat
her,t
hisisahow-
tog
uidese
ekingtopr
ese
nta na
ppr
oac
htha
twi
l
l
ena
bleyouto0ndthemode
ltha
tbest0tsy
ours
itua
ti
on.

$et oolsandinfor
mationco nta
inedwi t
hinthi
schapterwillhelppeopl
e
st
art
ing wire
les
sne t
wo r
k stoa skt her i
ghtq ues
ti
onsa nd g at
herthe
nec
essar
yda t
atode0net hemo stappropri
ateco
mpo nentsoft he
irmodel
.
Keepinmi ndthatdet
erminingthebe stmodelisnotas eq
ue nti
alpr
oces
s
whereeachste
pisfol
lowedunt i
lcompl e
ti
on.
Infa
c t
,theproce
ssi
song oi
nga nditera
tiv
e.

Alloft
hes t
epsar
einte
gra
ll
yc o
nnect
edtoe
acho
the
r,a
ndo
fte
nyo
uwi
ll
re
vis
its
tepss
ever
alti
mesasyoupro
gres
s.

Create a mission statement

Wha
tdoy
ouwa
ntt
oac
compl
is
hbys
ett
ingupy
ourne
two
rk?

I
tseemsli
keas impleques
ti
on.Ho wev
er,manywi r
el
es
snetworksare
i
nst
all
edwi
thoutacle
arvi
si
onofwhattheyar
edoingandwhattheyho
pe
t
oa cc
ompli
shint hefut
ure
.$e0r stst
epinvolv
esdocumenti
ngthis
v
isi
onwit
htheinputofyo
urenti
ret
eamo rst
a1.

Whati
sthepurposeofthewire
les
snetwo
rk?
Whodoesthenetworkseekt
os e
rve?
Whatdoesthene t
workdot oa ddr
esst
hec o
mmuni
ty
s
ne
edsa
ndt ocr
ea t
evalue?
Whata
retheprinci
ple
sthatgui
dethenetwo
rk?

Ag oodmi ssi
ons t
ate
mentexpre
ssesthepurpos
eo fyourne t
worki
na
conci
se,meani
ngfulwaywhi
leart
icul
at
ingyourvalue
sandservi
ces
.
Abovea l
l,yourmi ss
ionpr
ovidesav is
iono fthea s
pir
ati
onsfory
our
wire
les
snetwork.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 343

Iti
si mport
antt hatever
yt e
am me mberwo r
kingtobui l
dthewi r
el
ess
net
wo r
ki sincl
udedi nthepr oc
essofdevel
opingy ourmiss
ion,whic
h
hel
psc r
eat
ef ur
therbuy-i
n.I twi
llgar
nersupportandc ommit
me ntnot
onl
yf r
omy oursta1,butal
sofromcust
omers,part
nersanddonors
,whic
h
wil
lfurt
heryouro ve
ral
lobje
cti
ves
.

Inthedy namicwo rl
do ftechno logy
,thenee dsofc us
tomersandt hebe s
t
wayt osatis
fyt hosene e
dsc ha ngerapi
dly;therefor
e,thede ve
lopmento f
yourmissionisa no ngoi
ngpr o ce
ss.
Afte
rde 0ning t hei ni
ti
almi ssi
on withy ourt eam,y ou mustc onduct
res
ear
cht ode te r
minewhe t
he rt hi
s0r s
tc o
nc epti
oni salig
ned witht he
rea
li
ti
eso fy oure nv i
ronme nt.Ba se
do na na naly
sisoft he exte
rnal
envi
ronme ntandy ourinte
rna lcompe t
enci
es,yo umus tconst
antl
ymo dify
t
hemi ss
iont hrougho uttheli
fe -c
y c
leofthewi r
eles
snetwork.

Evaluate the demand for potential offerings

$ene x
ts t
epi n deri
vingy o
urbus i
nessmo delinvol
vesass
essi
ngt he
community
sdema nd f
o rthe net
wo r
k
spr oduct
sa nd ser
vic
es.First
,
i
denti
fytheindi
v i
duals
,g r
oupsando rg
anis
ati
onsint hecommunitythat
haveaneedforinformat
ionandwo uldbene
0tf r
omt hewir
ele
ssnetwork
s
o1eri
ngs
.Potent
ialuser
sc o
uldconsi
stofawidev ar
iet
yo fi
ndiv
idual
sand
org
anis
ati
onsthatincl
ude,butarenotli
mite
dt o:

Farme rs
a s
soc i
ati
onsandc ooper
ati
ves
Wo me nsgroups
Schoo l
sa nduni vers
it
ies
Businessesandl o
calentr
epre
neurs
He a
lthc li
nicsa ndhospit
als
Reli
g io
usg ro ups
Inte
rna ti
ona landl ocalnon-go
vernmenta
lor
gani
zat
ions(
NGOs
)
Locala ndna tionalgover
nmenta g
encie
s
Radios tati
ons
Orga nisa
tionsint hetouri
sti
ndustry

Onceyoues
tabli
shali
stofallt
hepo t
enti
aluse
rg r
oupso ft
henetwo
r k
,
you must det
ermi
ne thei
r needs fora c
cesstoi nf
ormat
ion and
co
mmunicat
ion.Oft
en,peo
pleconf
useser
vic
eswithneeds.
344 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Af arme rma yne edt og at he ri nforma tiono nma rke tpr ic e

sa ndc li
ma t
ic
condi tionst oi mpr o vehi sc ro py ielda nds ales.P e r
ha pst hewa yi nwhi ch
heg e tsthi si nforma t i
o ni st hro ug ht heI nterne t;ho we ve r
,t hef arme rc ould
als
or eceivet hisi nf orma tio nt hro ug hS MS o vera mo bil
epho ne o r
throug h Vo ic eo ve rI nt e rnet Pr o t
o co l( Vo IP).I ti si mpo rtant t o
di1ere ntiatebe twee n ne edsa nd s ervice sbe causet he rema ybev ari
o us
wa yst os atisfyt hef a rme r
sne e ds.Y ourwi relessne two rks houldl oo kf or
thebe stwa yt of ul0l lt hef arme rsne eds ,t hereb yc re atingv al
uea tt he
l
o we stc ostf o rtheus er.
Whe na sses s
ingt hene edso ft hec ommuni ty,iti simpo r
t antt o0g ur eo ut
whe ret hene two rkc a nbr ingt hemo stv a l
uet oi tsus ers.
Fori ns t
a nc e,i nt hes ma llt o wno fDo ue ntza ,Ma li,at elecent r
ema na ger
evalua t
e dt hepo tent i
a lbe ne 0tso fe st
a blishingawi r
e l
e ssne two rkt hr oug h
discussio nswi ths e ve rall o c alo rganis ations.Hei nt erv iewedo nel oc a
l
NGO t ha tdi scussedi tsne edt os endmo nthl yr epor t
st oi tshe adq ua r
ters
oNc ei nBa ma ko .Att ha tt ime ,the rewa snoI nt erneta cc essinDo ue ntza.
Ino rde rt oe ma ilac opyo ft her epo rt
,t heNGO s ento neo fitse mpl oyees
toMo ptio nc eamo nt h,r esultingi nt ra nspo rtationa ndl odgingc o sts
,a s
we l
la st heo ppo rtuni tyc os to fha vingt hee mp l
o yeeo uto ftheo Nc ef or
severalda yse a chmo nth.
Whe nt het elecentrema na ge rc alculate dt het otalmo nthl yc ostsi nc urred
byt heNGO,hewa sa blet o de mo ns t
ratet hev alueo fa nI nt ernet
conne c t
io nt hr oug hc osts av ing stot heo rgani sati
o n.
Assistanc ef ro mk eypa r
t ne rsma ya lsobene c essaryt os ec ures ustaina bil
ity
fory o urwi relessne two rk .Dur i
ngt hi spha se,y ous ho uldc o nne ctwi th
potent ialpa r
t nersa nde x plo remut ua l
lybe ne 0cialc ollabo ra t
ions.
Youc ane valuatet hede ma ndi ny ourc ommuni t
yb yc ontactingy o ur
potent ialc ust ome rsa nda sk i
ngq uestionsdi rec t
lyo rthr oug hs urve ys,f ocus
groups ,i nt erviewso rt ownha llme eting s.Co nduc ti
ngr e searc
ht hr ougha
reviewo fs tatist
icaldo cume nt ation,i ndus tryr epo rts,c ens uses,ma gaz i
ne s
,
news pa pe rsa ndo t
he rs e co nda ryda tas our ceswi l
la lsohe lpt og iv ey o
ua
betterpi c tureo fy ourl o cale nv ironme nt .
$eg o alo ft hi sda tac ollec tioni st oo bt ainat ho r
o ug hunde r s
tandi ngo f
thede ma ndf o rinfo rma tiona ndc o mmuni ca t
io ni ny ourc ommuni tys o
thatt hene two rkbe ingc rea te dr espo ndst ot ho sene eds .
Of ten,wi relessne t
wo rkst ha tdono ts uc ceedf o rgett hisk e ys t
e p.
Youre ntirene two rks ho uldb eba sedo nt hede ma ndi nt hec ommuni ty.
Ify ous etupawi re l
e ssne two rki nwhi cht hec ommuni tydo esno t0nd
valueo rc anno ta 1or di tss er vices,itwi llul t
ima t
e l
yf ail.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 345

Establish appropriate incentives

Often,t hereisl itt
lee cono mici ncentivef orsubsistence -
ba s
ede conomic
parti
c ipantstoa ccesstheI nterne t.
Ina ddi tion,t hec osto fa cquir i
ngac omput ero rmo biles ma rtpho ne,
l
e a
rni ngt ous ei t,andg etti
nga nI nternetc onnectionf arout weighsthe
econo mi cr et
ur nst hatitca npr ov ide.
$e reha srece ntlybe ens omede velopme nto fa pplicationst ha taddres
s
thi
sl a cko fi nc enti
ve,s ucha sma rketi nforma tions yst
ems ,q ual
it
y
sta
nda rdsi mpo se db yi mpo rtingc ountries,andc ommo dit
iese x
changes.
Interne taccessbe comesa no b viousa dv a
nt ageinsitua ti
onswhe rek nowing
theda y -
to-daypr i
ceso fpr oduc tsc an ma keas i
g ni0cantdi 1erencein
income .Establishinga ppro priatee cono mici ncenti
vesi spa ramo untt othe
successo ft hene two rk
.$ene two rkmus tpro vi
dee cono micv a l
uet oit
s
usersi nawa yt ha toutwe ighsitsc ost
s,ori tmus tbec heape no ug hthatit
s
cost
sa r
ema rgina la nd a 1orda blet oi tsus er
s.I tisc rucialtode si
gna
netwo rkwi thv i
ablee cono mi cus esandwi thc ostst hata relesst hanthe
econo mi cv al
uepr o v
idedb yit.
Addi tionally
,t oc rea
teapr ope ri ncentives t
ructure,y oumus ti nv ol
vethe
communi tyint hec reat
io no ft hene t
wo rkf romt hebe ginni ngo fthe
project,ma ki
ngs urethatt hisi nitiat
ivei sorganica ndno timpo s
e dfrom
theo ut si
de.
Tobe gin,y ous ho uldtryt oa nswe rt hefo l
lowingq ue sti
ons :

1.Wha teconomicv alue cant hi

sne two
rkg ener
ateforthe l
oca
l
eco
nomya ndforwho m?
2.Ho wmuc hperc
eivableecono
mi cval
uecanbeg e
nera
ted?
3.Canpresentimpedime nt
sbeo ver
cometoa l
l
owt heachi
eve
mentof
the
seeco
no micre
turns?

Bya nswer
ingthe s
equesti
ons,thene tworkwillbea bl
et oc l
earl
ya rti
cul
ate
it
sv al
ueproposit
ionforit
sus e
rs.Fo rexample,Byusingt hi
sne two r
kyou
canimpr o
veyo urma r
ginsonc ommo dit
ysalesby2%, o rInter
ne tacc
ess
willall
owy out osave$X inpho nec harg
esa ndtransporta
tionc ostsper
mo nth.
Y oumus t0gureoutho wy ournetwo rkcanimpr ovee Nc ie
ncie
s,
reducecost
s,orincre
asereve
nue sforthesecustomers.
Fo rexa
mple,ifprovi
dingma rketinformati
onf orthelocalma i
zeindustr
y,
thene t
worksho ul
dbel ocat
edne a rtowhe refarmersbringt hei
rc ropfor
sal
etome rcha
nt s.
346 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Yourne twork wo ul
dt henl i
kely needt ot ie-int
o ma rketinfor
ma ti
o n
sys
tems,providingdail
ypricesheets($1e ach),o rtermina l
stos e
ll
e r
sand
merchants($2/hr)
.Yournetworkmi g
hta l
sopr ov i
det heme ansforfarme r
s
toreada boutne wtechniq
uesa ndt obuyne w pr oducts.Y oumi ghtalso
provi
dewi reles
sc onnect
ionst o me rc
hantsa nd r entt hemt hin-cli
ent
ter
minalsforInter
netacces
s.
Ifthema rketwa ssma l
l
,y oumi ghtbea blet or educec ost
sb ylimiti
ng
acc
e s
stoi magesa ndo t
herbandwi dthintensives e
rvices
.Ag ain,kno wing
how muc hv al
uey ournetworkwi llcre
a t
ef ort heseme rchantswillall
o w
youtog augeho wmuc htheywi l
lbea bletoa 1ordf ory o
urs ervi
ces
.

Research the regulatory environment for wireless

$er e gulatorye nvironme ntf orwi rel
essne t
wo rksalsoa 1e ct
sthet y peo f
busine s
smo deltha tc anbei mpl eme nted.
Fir
s t
,r es ear
c h whe thera nyo rganisati
on ha sther ightt ous e2. 4GHz
fre
q uenc ieswi t
ho utal ic
ens e.
In mo sts ituati
o ns,2. 4GHzi sf reet ous ewo rl
dwi de;ho wev e
r,s o me
count ri
e srestri
ctwhoc ano perat
eane two rko rrequiree xpensivelice nses
todos o.
Soa ltho ughwi relessne t
wo rk smi ghtbel egalinac ount ry,theo pe r
ato ro f
ane t
wo rkmi ghtha vet oa cquireal ic
e nsetous e2. 4GHzf reque nc i
e s
,
whi chr e nde r
st hi sus agepr ohibitivef ora nyoneo t
he rt hane st
ablishe d
InternetS er
v i
cePr ov i
derswhoha v esuNc ie
ntc ashWo wt opa yt helice nse
fee
s .$i sr estr
ic tionma kesi tdi Nc ultf orsma llcommuni ti
est os ha rea
wirelessne two rkwi tho t
he rpo tentiall
yi nteres
tedpa rt
ieso ro rganisa
tio ns.
Othe rc o untriesa remo repe rmi s
sivewi thnos uc hrestric
tionso nwi re l
ess
netwo rks ,s ot he po ss
ibilit
yt os hareI nter
netc o nnec t
ivityi ns ma l
l
communi tiesisav iablesolution.
$el esso ni stodoy o
urr esearcha ttheo nse
t,ensuringy o urne tworkwi l
l
compl ywi tht hel a
wso ft hec ount rya ndl ocalc ommuni ty.Somepr oject
ma nag ersha v
ebe e
nf orcedt os hutdo wnt heirwi r
elessne twor kssimpl y
becaus et heywe r eunk nowi nglybr eakingt helaw.
Yous ho ulda lsoc he c
ki nt ot hel egalit
yo fVo iceo verI nternetPr oto col
(Vo I
P)s ervice
s.
Ins omec ountriest herea rec ompl icat
edr ule
ssur r
oundi ngVo IP
.$er ules
forVo IPs er v
icesa ndVo IPg atewa ysv aryal ots opl easec hecki ny o ur
ownc ount rywha tislegallya l
lowe d.Yo uc ans t
artb yc heckingwi k
ipe dia-
http://en.wik i
pe dia.org/wik i
/Vo i
ce_o ver_IP
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 347

Analyse the competition

$ene xtpha sei nt hee val
ua ti
o no fyourc ommuni tyi nvolvesa na nalysi
s
oft hewi re l
e ssne two rksc ompe ti
tion.Co mpe ti
torsi nc l
udeo rganis
ations
thatpr ovides imilarpr o ductsa nds ervi
ces( e.g.,ano the rwi r
elessInternet
Service pr o videro r WI SP) ,o rganis
ations v i
eweda ss ub s
tit
uteso r
alt
ernativest ot hepr oduc tsa nds e r
vicesy ourne t
wo rkpr ovides( e.
g .,a
cybercaf),a nd o rganisati
o nsde 0ne da sne we ntra ntst ot hewi reles
s
ma rket.
Onc ey o uha vei dent i
0e dy ourc ompe ti
to r
s,y ous ho uldr esearcht hem
thoroughly .Y o uc ano bt ai
ni nf orma ti
ona bouty ourc ompe t
itorsthroug h
theI nte
rne t,t el
epho nec a l
l
s,t he i
ra dvert
iseme ntsandma r
k et
ingma te
rials
,
surveyso ft he irc ustome rsa ndv isi
tstot heirs it
e.Cr eatea0l ef ore ach
compe tit
o r.$ec ompe titi
vei nf or
ma tiony oug at
he rc ani ncludeal i
sto f
servi
c e
s( inc ludingpr i
c ea nd q ualit
yi nforma tion),t he i
rt argetc li
e nts
,
custome rs ervicet echniq ues,r eputation,ma rketing,etc .
Bes uret oc ollecta nythi ngt hatwi l
lhe l
py oude termi neho wt opo s
ition
yourne two rki nt hec ommuni ty.
Itisi mpo r t
a ntt oe valua t
ey ourc ompe t
itionf orma nyr easons.Fi r
st,it
helpsy oude termi net hel evelo fma rketsaturation.Kno wingwha talr
e ady
exist
swi lla ll
o wy out ode termi neho wy ourne two r
kc a nc ontri
butev a l
ue
tot hec ommuni ty.Ina ddition,a nalys
ingt hec ompe t i
tionc ans timul at
e
innov a
tivei de asfo ry ours erviceo 1e ri
ngs.Ist hereso me thingt haty ouc an
dobe t
tert ha nt hec ompe ti
to rst oma k
ey ours ervi
ce smo ree 1ecti
vely0t
thene edso fthec ommuni ty?
Finally
,b ya na l
ysingy ourc o mpe t
itorsfromt hec usto me rs
po i
nto fv iew
andunde rstandi ngt he i
rs trengthsa ndwe akne ss
e s
,yo uc ande t
e r
mi ney our
compe tit
ivea dv antagesi nt hec o mmuni t
y.
Co mpe ti
tivea dva ntagesa r
et ho sewhi chc anno tbee as il
yr epli
catedb yt he
compe tit
io n.
Fore xampl e ,awi relessne two rkt hatc a
ne xcl
us i
velyo 1e raf asterInternet
conne ct
iont ha nac ompe ti
to risac ompe ti
tivea dvantag e.

Determine initial and recurring costs and pricing

Whe nyoua r
eplanningtosetupando per
ateyourwir
ele
ssnetwork
,you
mustde t
erminet her e
sour
cesneededtos t
artyourproje
cta nd t
he
re
curr
ing oper
ati
ng c o
sts
.S t
art
-up c
ostsincl
udee ve
ryt
hing yo
u must
purc
haset
os t
artyourwirel
es
snetwork
.
348 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$e see xpensesc anr ang ef r

omt he init
ialinve s
tme nty ou ma k ein
hardware,accesstot owe rsands oo npl usequipme ntf oraccesspo i
nts
,
hubs,switches,cable
s,so l
are q
uipme nt
,UPS ,et
c .tothec o s
tstor egi
ste
r
yourorganisa
tiona sale galent
ity
.
Recurri
ngc o
stsa rewha ty ou mus tpayt oc ont i
nuet oo perateyour
wirel
essnetwo rk
,i nc
ludingt hec os
to fInter
neta ccess
,t e
lephones,loans
,
el
ectri
cit
y,sal
a r
ies
,o Ncer ent
alfees
,e qui
pme ntma i
ntenancea ndr epai
rs
,
andr e
gularinvest
me ntst orepl
acema lf
unc t
ioni
ngo robsolet
ee quipment.
Everypieceo fequipme ntwi l
leventual
lybreakdo wno rbecomeo utdat
ed
atsomepo int,andy ous houldsetasi
dee xtr
amo ne yforthispurpose.

Ana dvisabl
ea ndv eryco mmo nme thodt ode alwitht hisistot akethe
priceo fthede v i
c eanddi v ideitb ythepe ri
o do ft i
mey oue s
timatethatit
willlast
.
$i spr ocessi sc al
led de preciati
on.He rei sa ne xample.An a ver
age
comput eriss uppo sedt ol a s
tf ortwot o0v ey ea
rs.Ifthei ni
tialcostto
purcha sethec o mput erwa s$1,000US D,a ndy ouwi l
lbea bletous ethe
comput erfor0v ey ear
s,y o ura nnualde prec i
ationwi l
lbe$200US D.I n
otherwo rds,y o uwi lllos e$16. 67US De ve
rymo nths othaty ouc an
eventuallyreplac ethisco mput er.Toma key ourpr ojectsust
ainabl
e,itisof
funda me ntalimpo rt
ancet ha ty ousa v
et hemo ne ytoc ompe nsat
ef orthe
depreciationo fe quipme nte a
chmo nth.
Ke ept heses avingsunt ily o u0na ll
yha v et os pendt hemf ore qui
pme nt
replaceme nt.S omec ount riesha vetaxl awst ha tdeterminethepe ri
odo f
depreciationf ordi 1ere
ntt y peso fdevic
es.
Ina nyc ase
,y ous houldt ryt obev eryr ealist
ica boutthel i
fe-cy
cleofa l
l
theimpl eme ntedg earandpl anf orthei
rde preciati
onc aref
ull
y.
Itisi mpo rtantt or esear
c ha lly ourstart-upc o s
tsina dvance,andma ke
real
isti
ce sti
ma tionso fyo urr ecurri
nge xpe nse s
.
Itisalwa ysbe t
te rtoo ver
- budg etforexpe nse sthant ounde r-
budg et
.

Witheverywir
el
esspr o
jec
t,therea real
wa y
sunfor
ese
enc os
ts,e s
peci
al
ly
dur
ingthe0rs
tyearofo pe
rat
ionsa syoulear
nhowt obett
erma nageyour
net
work.Foll
owing ,isano n-exhaust
iveli
stofcat
egori
esofc ost
sthat
yousho
uldincl
ude,bo t
hi nstar
t-uppha seandforyourrec
urringcost
s,
j
usttogiv
eyouani deaofhowt og etst
art
edo nc
alc
ula
tingyourc os
ts
:-
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 349

Categories of Costs
La
bo u
rco
st
s-
Che ckups( a
nalys
es)andconsult
anci
es
De velopme ntcost
sforprogr
ammi ng,te
sti
ng,i
ntegr
ati
onetc
.
Install
ati
o ncost
s
Re cr
uitingc os
ts
Trainingc ost
s(int
roducti
onando n-goi
ng)
Ha ndlingc ost
s/s alar
ie
sfore mplo
y e
esorf r
eel
ance
rs,i
ncl
udi
ng
y
ourself
Eq uipme ntma i
ntenancest
a1c os
ts
Softwa r
es upports
ta1c os
ts
Secur i
type rs
onnel

No
n-l
abo
urc os
ts-
Ac q uisi
tiona ndpr oduc ti
onc osts(f
o rha rdwa r
el i
kePCs ,VS AT,
r
adi ol i
nke qui pme nta nds oftware)
Anc il
larye quipme nt(e.g .
,s witches
,c ablesandc a
bling,ge
nerator
,
UPS ,etc.
)
Da tapr otec
tio na nds ecur i
ty
S t
a rt-up inv entory( cha i
rs,t ables
,l i
g hti
ng ,c urt
ains,ti
lesa nd
ca
rpe ting)
Pre mi sesc osts( new bui l
di ng,mo di0cation,a irc ondi
tio
ning,
el
ec t
r i
calwiringa ndbo xes,se c
ur i
tygril
ls)
Le ga lcosts
,s ucha sbus inessr e
gistr
ati
on
Initiall i
censec o s
ts( VS AT)
Initialma r
ke ti
ngc osts(Wy ers,st
ickers
,po sters,openingpart
y)
Ope ratingc o stsf orha rdwa rea nd o perating syst
e ms(Inte
rnet
ac
c ess,tele
pho ne ,e t
c.)
Re nto rleasi
ngr ates(fort owe rspacefo rexampl e)
De preciati
ono fha rdwa rea nde q ui
pme nt
Lic ensef ees
Co nsuma blesa ndo Nc es uppl i
es(e.g.
,da tame dia,paper
,binds,
cl
ips)
Ope rationalc oststoma intainda taprote c
tiona nds ecur
it
y
350 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Ins
urancepremiums
Cost
sf orener
gyandtoensurepowers
uppl
y
Loanpa yments
,capi
ta
lcost
sforpay
ingbac
kyo
urs
etupc
ost
s
Cost
sf oradver
ti
si
ng
Loca
lf ee
s
Lega
la nda c
count
ingser
vic
es

Toimpr
oveyourcha
ncesofs
ust
ai
nabi
li
ty
,iti
sge
ner
al
lybe
stt
oma
int
ai
n
thel
owe
stco
stst
ruct
uref
oryo
urnetwo
rk.

Ino the rwo r

ds ,k e
e pyourexpensesaslowa spossible.
Tak et imet ot horoughlyresea
rcha llofy ours uppl i
ers,pa rti
cul
arl
ythe
ISPs,a nds ho pa roundfo rt
hebe stdeal
sonq uali
tys er
vice.Onc eagai
n,be
certa
int hatwha ty ou purchas
ef r
om s uppli
ersc orres
po ndswi ththe
dema ndi nthec ommuni ty.
Beforei nstal
linga ne xpensi
veVS AT,ensuretherei sas uNc i
e ntnumberof
individua l
sa ndo r
g ani
sati
onsiny ourcommuni t
ywi l
l
inga nda bl
etopay
forus ingit.
De pendi ngupo nde mandf orinformati
ona cc
essa nda bil
ityt opay,an
alt
e r
na tiv
eme tho do fconnecti
vit
yma ybemo rea ppropria
te .Dono tbe
afr
a i
dt othinko utsi
dethebo xandbec re
ativewhe nde t
ermi ningthebes
t
soluti
o n.

Ke e
pingy ourc ostsdo wns houldno tbea tthec os tofq uali
ty.Be ca
use
l
o w-qua l
itye quipme nti smo relikel
yt o ma l
func ti
on,y ouc ould be
spendingmo reo nma intenanc einthelongr un.
$ea mo unto fmo neyy ouwi llspendtoma i
ntainy ourI CTi nfr
astruct
ure
ishardt og ue s
s.$el argera nd mo reco mplicat
e dy o uri nfr
astruct
ure
become s,themo re0na ncialandl abourres
o urc
esy oumus ta l
locat
ef orit
s
ma i
ntena nce.
Ma nyt ime sthi sre l
ati
oni sno tlinearbute xpone nti
al.I fy ouha vea
quali
typr oblem wi thy oure quipme ntonceitisr ol
ledo ut,i tcanc ostyou
ane no rmo usa mo unto fmo ne yto0xi t
.Co ncurrently,y ours al
eswi l
l
decrea
sebe c a
us ethee quipme ntisno tupandr unni ng .
$e rei sa ni ntere
s t
ing ex ampleo fa ma jorwi re l
essI nternetS e
rvi
ce
Provi
de r( WIS P)whoha dmo rethan3,000a ccesspo intsino per
ationfor
awhi l
e .Ho we ver
,t heWI SPne verma nagedt obr e
a k-evenbe ca
usei thad
tospendt oomuc hmo neytoma intai
nalltheacc e
sspo ints.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 351

Ina dditi
o n,t hec o mpa nyunde res
tima tedt hes ho r
tl i
fe-c
ycl
eo fs uch
devi
ces.ICTha r
dwa ret endst ogetc heape ra ndbe tterastimeg oeson.As
soona sthec ompa nyha dinv es
tedt i
mea ndmo neyt oinsta
llthev er
sion
ofexpens i
v e0rstg eneration802. 11ba cce sspo ints,thene w g
s t
andard
wascreated.
Ne wc ompe ti
tor
sde si
gne dbe tte
ra ndc he apera ccesspo i
ntsando 1ered
fas
terInterne taccessfo rles
smo ney.Fina llyt he0r stWI SPwa sfo r
cedt o
clo
sedo wnt heco mpa ny,althoughi twa sinitiall
yt hema rketlea
der.
Keepi n mi ndt her apida dv anceme nta nd c hang e
si nt ec
hno l
o gya nd
thi
nka bo utho wa ndwhe ni tma ybet i
mef ory out oreinves
tinne wer
andc he a
pe r( orbe tt
er)de v i
cestok eepy ouri nf
rastr
uctureco mpe t
iti
ve
andup- to-da t
e.Asme ntio
ne dbe for
e ,i
ti shi ghlyi mpo r
tantthaty ousave
enought obea bletodos o,whe nne ces
sary.
Onc ey ouha veide nti
0e da ndma ppe do uty ourc osts
,y ousho ul
da l
so
dete
rmi newha tandho wt oc hargefo ryo urs ervices
.$i si sacompl i
cated
and ti
me -
c onsumingpr oce
s stodoc orrectly.$e sek eyt i
pswi l
lassis
t
whenma kingpr ici
ngde cis
ions:

Calc
ulatethepric
esy ouchargesothatyo ucove
rallco
ststo
pro
videthese
rvi
ce,inc
ludi
nga l
lrec
urr
ingexpens
es
Examinethepri
cesofyourcompeti
tor
s.
Eval
uatewhatyourcust
omersarewil
li
nganda bl
etopayf
oryour
se
rvi
ces,andmakesureyourpri
cescor
res
pondwiththe
se

I
tisabs
olut
el
yesse
ntia
ltomakea0na nc
ialpl
anbe
for
eyo
ust
artt
o0nd
o
utifyo
urproj
ectcanbesus
tai
nab
le.

Secure the 2nancing

Oncey ouha vede t
erminedy ourinit
ialandr ecurr
ingc os
tsa ndc r
eated
your0na nci
alplan,youk nowho wmuc h0na ncingy ouwi l
lneedt oruna
succ
essf
ulwi r
eles
sne t
wo rk.
$ene xtstepistor e
searchands e
curet hea ppropri
ateamo unto fmo ney
tost
a r
tupa ndr uny ourwirel
essnetwork.
$emo stt r
aditi
onalme thodo fr
eceiv
ingf undingf orwirel
essnetworksis
thr
oughg r
antsgivenb ydonors.Ado norty pica
ll
ywi llc
o nt
r i
butefunding
and othe rtypeso fdo natio
nst oa no rgani
sati
ono rc onsort
ium o f
orga
nisat
ionst ohelpthem ma nag
epr oj
ectso rsupportcauses.
Becaus
et hisfundingisprovi
de di
nt hefo r
mo fg ra
ntsoro therdonati
ons,
352 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

i
tisnotexpec
tedt
ober e
pai
db ytheorganis
ati
onsi
mpl
eme
nti
ngt
he
wi
re
les
spr
ojec
tsorb
ythepr
oje
ct
sbe
ne0c
iar
ie
s .

Such do no rsi nc l
udel ar
gei nt er
na ti
onalo r
ga nisati
o nsl iket heUni ted
Na t
io ns( UN)a nd v ar
iouss pecial
is
ed UN a genc iesl iket he Uni te d
Na t
io ns De velo pme nt Pr o gram ( UNDP) a nd Uni ted Na ti
o ns
Educ ati
o na l
, S cient i
0c a nd Cul tural Or ganizati
o n ( UNES CO) .
Go v
e rnme nta g enc iest hatspe ciali
sei ninte r
nationa lde velopme nt,suc ha s
theUni tedS ta tesAg encyf o rI nternati
ona lDe vel
o pme nt( US AI D) ,the
Unite dKi ng do m sDe par
tme ntf o rInternationa lDe vel
o pme nt( DFI D) ,
and t heCa na dia nI nter
natio na lDe velopme ntAg enc y( CI DA) ,a rea lso
considereddo no rs.La rgef ounda t
ionsl i
k etheGa t
esFo unda t
io na ndt he
SorosFo unda tiona ndpr ivatec omme rcia
lc ompa niesa reo t
he rt y
pe so f
dono rs.
Typica l
ly
,r eceiv ingf undingi nv ol
ve sac ompe titiveo rano n-compe ti
tive
process.$eno n- co mpe ti
tivepr ocessismo reinfreq uent,s owewi l
lf o
c us
ont hec o mpe titive pr ocessa ta v ery highl evel.Mo stdo no rsha ve
compl icatedpr oc edur essurro undi ngt hedi str
ibut i
o no ff unding .Dur ing
thec o mpe t
itiveb id pr ocess,t hedo no rc rea
te sar equestf orpr o posal
(RFP)o rar e que stf o rappl icati
o n( RFA) ,whi chs oli
c i
tsv ari
o usno n-
governme ntalo rg anisati
ons,pr iv
a tec ompa niesa nd t heir partnerst o
submi tpr o po salso ut l
ini
ngt he irplansf orpr ojectswi thint hec onstraints
ofthedo no rso b jectivesandg uideli
nes.
Inre spons et ot hisRFPo rRFA,NGOsa ndo the ro rganisat
ionsc ompe te
thro
ug ht hes ub mi ttalo ftheirpr opo s
als
,whi cha ret hene va
luatedb ythe
dono rs ba sed o ns peci0c e s
tablis
hed c ri
teria. Fi na l
ly,t he do no r
organisations elec t
st hemo sta ppro pri
atea ndhi ghestr ank i
ngpr o posalt o
fundt hepr ojec t.
Some time s do no rsa lsos uppl yf unding t os uppo rta no rganisati
on
s
operations ,butt hist ypeo ff undi ngi smo reunus ualt hant hec ompe ti
tive
bidpr ocessf o ras pe ci0cpr oject.

Ano t
herwayo fac
cess
ingt hene cessar
yf undstos t
artand ma i
ntai
na
wirel
es
snetwo rkisthro ugh mi c
ro0nance,o rthepr ovi
si
ono floans
,
sav
ingsando therbas
ic0na nci
a lservi
cestot hewo r
ld
spo or
estpeople
.
Pionee
redi
nt he1970sb yorganis
a t
ionsli
k eACCI ON Inte
rnat
ionaland
Grame e
nBank,mi cr
ocredit
,aty peo fmicro0nanc
e,enabl
esentr
epreneur
s
torece
ivel
oansinsmallamo untso fmo neytostar
tups mal
lente
rpri
ses
.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 353

De spitethef actt hato f

tenindivi
dualslack ma ny oft hetradit
ional
qua l
i0cati
onsne ededt oo btai
nloansl i
kev er
i0abl
ec r
edit,col
lat
e r
alo r
steadye mployment,mi cro
credi
tprogramsha vebe e
nhi g
hlys uc
cessf
uli n
ma nyc ountri
es.
Ty pic
a l
ly
,thepr ocessinvol
vesanindi v
idualorag r
oupc ompleti
nga nd
submi tti
ngal oana ppl
ic
ati
oni ntheho peso fre
c e
ivi
ngal o
an,a ndt he
l
e nder,theindiv
idua lororga
nisa
ti
ont hatprovi
destheloan,givi
ngmo ne y
onc ondit
ionthatitisret
urnedwithintere
st.

$eus eo fmi croc r

edittofundwi rel
essnetworksdoe sposeo neconstrai
nt.
Usua l
ly,mi crocreditinvolvesv e
rys ma l
lsumso fmo ney.Unf ortunatel
y,
becausea l ar
g ea mounto fc a
pit
a lisne ededt o purchaset hei niti
al
equipme ntf orwi rel
es
sne two r
ks etup ,someti
me sami cr
o cr
editloani s
nots uNc i
ent.
Ho we v
e r
,thereha vebeenma nysuccessf
ulappli
cat
ionso fmi cr
o c
reditthat
havebr oug htte chnologytoc ommuni t
ies
.Ane xampl eincludesthes tory
ofvilla
g epho neo pera
tors
.$e seentrepre
neursusetheirmi cro
c r
editloans
topur chasemo bilephonesa ndpho nec r
edit
s.
$e yt henr entt heus eofthe i
rmo bil
epho nestoco mmuni tyme mbe rso n
ape r-cal
lba sisa nde arneno ughmo neytor e
payt heirdebta ndma kea
pro0tfo rthems elvesandthe irf
amilies.

Ano therme chanis

mf org ett
ingf undingt os t
artawi rele
ssne tworkis
angelf undi ng .Ang eli nvest
o r
sa r
eno rma l
ly we al
thy i ndivi
dua l
st hat
providec a pit
alforbus i
ne ssst
a r
t-upine xchangefo rahi g hrateo fret
urn
ont heiri nvestment.
Becauset hev e
nturesinwhi cht heyi nves
ta restartupsa nd,t heref
ore,
oft
enhi ghr i
sk,angelinve s
torstendt oexpectdi1erentt hingsina dditi
on
tothe i
rr e t
urn.
Ma nye x pe c
taBo ar
dpo siti
ona ndma ybear ol
eint heo rganisat
ion.
Somea ng el
swa ntt oha v eas takeint hec ompa ny,whi l
eo thersprefe
r
shar
e sint hec ompa nyt hatc anbee asi
lyredeema bl
ea tf acev al
ue,thus
providingac l
earexitfortheinv es
tor.
Topr otectt heirinves
tme nts,ang el
sfrequentl
ya s
kt hebus iness
esno tto
ma kec er tai
nk eyde c
isi
o nswi thouttheirapproval.Be causeo ft hehigh
ris
ki nvo lvedi nde vel
opingma rkets
,itiso ft
enc ha l
l
e ngingt o0nda ngel
investo
r st ohe l
ps et
upawi rel
essne t
wo rk
,butno timpo s
sible.
$ebe stwa yt o0ndpo te
ntialinves
torsisthroug hy ours o c
ialnetwo r
k
andt hro ug hresear
cho nline.
354 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the internal

situation
Ane two rkisonlya sgo odasthepeo plewhowo rka ndo per
ateit.
$et eamy ouputi npl ac
ec a
nme ant hedi 1e r
e ncebe t
weens ucces
sa nd
fai
lure.
$a tiswhyi tisi mpo rta
ntt oreWe cto ny o urt e
a msqua
li
0c at
ionsand
skil
ls,includi
ng t ho s
eo fsta1a nd v o lunteers,i nc o
mparisont ot he
compe tencie
sne ededf orawi r
ele
sspr oject.
Firs
t,ma k ealistofa l
lt hecompetenc i
e sne ede dt or unawi r
eles
spr oj
e c
t
successf
ull
y.Ca pacit
ya re
asshouldi ncludet echno logy,humanr esources
,
accounting,ma rketing,s a
les
,ne goti
a t
ion,l eg al
,a nd oper
ati
ons,a mo ng
others.After
wards,ide nti
fyloca
lreso urcest of ul0lltheseski
ll
s.Ma py our
teamsskillse
tst othec ompete
nciesne e ded,a ndi denti
fykeyg aps.One
toolo f
ten usedt oa ssis
twi t
ht hiss e l
f-evalua t
ioni sa na nalysi
so f
str
eng t
hs,we a
kne ss
es,o pport
unit
iesa ndt hreats,c al
ledS WOT.

Toc o nductthi
sa nal
ysi
s,speci
fyyourinternalstr
eng thsa ndwe ak
ness
e s
,
and e l
abora
te upont he exter
nalo pport
uniti
esa nd t hrea
tsi ny our
communi ty
.Itisimport
antt ober e
ali
st
icandho nesta boutwha tyoudo
wella ndwha tyouarela
cking.
Bes uretodisti
nguis
hbe t
we e
nwhe reyourorg a
nisat
ioni sa tt
hebe g
inni
ng
ofthise ndeav
ourfrom whereitcoul
dbei nt hefuture.Y ourst
rengt
hsand
weak nesse
sa l
lowy outoe v
aluat
ey ourc a
pa c
iti
esi nternall
ya nd bet
ter
unde rst
andwha tyourorga
nisati
oncando ,aswe l
la sit
sl i
mi t
s.

Byunders
tandi
ngy ourst
rengt
hsandweakness
esandc ompari
ngthemt o
tho
seofyourcompetit
ors
,youcandete
rmineyourcompe t
it
iveadva
nta
ges
i
nt hema rket
.Yo ucana ls
o not
ethea rea
swhe reyo ucani mprov
e.
Opport
unit
iesandthreat
sa r
eext
erna
l,whichenableyout oanal
ysere
al
worl
dconditi
onsandhowt hes
econdi
ti
onsinWuenc
ey o
urne t
wo r
k.

$ediagra
m on t hene x
tpa ge wi
llhe
lpy ouincre
ati
ngyourown
SWOTa nal
ysi
sfo
ry o
uro r
gani
sa
ti
on.
Besur
et or e
spond tothe ques
ti
onsaskedand l
is
ty ours
tre
ngt
hs,
wea
kne
sses
,oppor
tuni
tie
sandthre
atsi
nthespac
esde
si
gnat
ed.
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 355

Strengths Weaknesses
What do you do well? What could you improve?
What unique resources can you draw Where do you have fewer resources
on? What do others see as your than others?
strengths? What are others likely to see as
weaknesses?
Opportunities Threats
What good opportunities are open to What trends could harm you? What is
you? What trends could you take your competition doing?
advantage of? How can you turn your What threats do your weaknesses
strengths into opportunities? expose you to?

Putting it all together

Onc ey o uha veg athereda llo ft hei nfo rmation,y oua rer e
a dyt oput
everythi ngt og ethera nd de c i
deupo nt hebe stmo delf ort hewi rel
e s
s
netwo rki ny o urc ommuni ty.Ba sedo nt her esultso fy o
ure x terna land
int
erna la nalyse s,youmus tr e0ney ourmi ss
iona nds ervi
c eo1e ring s.All
ofthef actor st hatyo uresearchedi nt hepr ecedings te
psc omei ntopl ay
whe nde t
e rmi ningy ouro vera l
lstrategy.Iti sessentialtoe mpl oyamo del
thatc api tali
seso no pportuni ti
esa ndwo rk swi thi
nt hec onstr
aint so fthe
l
o c
ale nv ironme nt.
To do t his ,y ou mus to fte
n 0nd i nnova ti
ves olut
ions t oa ttain
sus
taina bi l
ity. By e x
ploring s everale xampl esa nd di sc
us sing t he
compo ne nt so ft hemo delsimpl eme nte
di nt ho seinstances,youwi llbe t
ter
unde rstandho wt oarri
vea ta na ppr opria
temo de l
.
Int hedi s
ta ntj ungleso ftheDe mo cr
ati
cRe publ ico fCo ng o,t herei sa
rur
a lho spitali nav il
lagecalledVa ngai nt hepr ov i
nc eofBa ndundu.I tis
sor emo t
et ha tpa ti
entst ravelf orwe ekst og ett hereo ft
ent hr ougha
comb i
na t
iono ft rav
elb yfoo tandb yr i
v e
r.
$i sv illage,f o undedb yBa pti
stmi ssi
ona ri
esi n 1904,ha sse r
v eda sa
hospita lfo rma nyy ears.
Alt
ho ug hi ti se xtr
eme lyre mo t
e ,iti sr enowne df orbe i
nga ne xc el
lent
fac
ili
tya ndha sha dt hes uppo rto fGe rma na ndAme ri
canmi ssiona r
ies
whoha vek eptt hisfacil
it
yi no pe r
a ti
on.
In2004,apr o jec
ts ponsoredb yUS AI De s
tablis
he dat ele
cent r
ei nt his
vil
l
a get o he lpi mpr ovee ducationi nt hisi solatedc ommuni ty;t his
Int
er ne tf a cil
ity wa sa lso he avil
y us edb yt he e ducatedc lassi nt he
communi tyt heho spit
al'
ss ta1.
356 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

$ec entr
eha dbe enag re
atboo ntothecommuni t
y,o1er
ingacce
sstothe
worl
d'sk nowledgea nd e ve
n pr ovi
ding consul
tat
ion with dist
ant
col
le
aguesinS witzer
land,FranceandCa nada
.
$ec entr
er equire
dne artot
alsubs
idi
sati
ontoope r
ateandc o
verit
scosts
,
andfundingwa stoe ndb y2006.
Alt
hought hecentrea ddedgrea
tv a
luetothecommuni ty
,itdi
dha v
esome
sho
rtcomings,pr i
ma ril
yt ec
hnical
,e conomi
c,a nd poli
ti
calis
suesthat
l
imite
di t
ss us
tai
na bi
lity
.

Ast
udywascommis
si
onedtoconsi
deropti
onsfo
ritsfutur
e.
Af
te
rrev
iewi
ngthec
entr
e
scos
ts t
ruct
ure
,itwasdete
rminedthati
tne
ede
d
t
ocuti
tscos
tsandl
ookforne
wwa y
stoincr
eas
eitsreve
nues.

$elarg
estexpe
nseswer
ee l
ect
ric
it
yandInt
erne
tacc
ess
;ther
efo
re,c
rea
ti
ve
mode
lsne e
dedt o beconst
ruct
edtoreducethetel
ece
ntr
e
sc os
tsand
pr
ovi
deacces
sinawa yt
hatwa ss
ust
ai
nab
le.

Fi
gur
eES1:S
har
edI
nte
rne
tov
erwi
re
le
ss
 17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY 357

Int hi
si ns t
a nce,at r
aditi
onalVS ATha dbe e
nus edf orconnecti
vity.
Ho we ver,t herewa sauni quewa yo fa ccommo da t
ingl oca
lc ommuni t
y
groupsl i
mi teda bil
itytopa yforI nter
ne tservices.Va ri
ousorganisat
ionsin
the c ommuni t
ys haredt hisI nterneta ccesst hrough al ocalwir el
ess
netwo rk;t hisme anttha ttheya lsos haredt hec ostsasso
ciat
edwi t
ht he
VS AT c o nne ct
iona ndl ocalwi rel
e s
sne two rk.$i smo delle
dt ogreater
sustai
na bili
tyf o rev e
ryone.In Va nga,s e
veralo rganis
ati
ons,inc l
udinga
hospital,apha rma cy
,s ever
almi s
s i
onaryg ro ups,ac ommuni tyr es
o urc
e
centre,a nds omeno n-pro0to r
gani s
ations,ha dane edforInternetaccess
andt heme anst opa yf orit.$i sarrangeme nte nable
dt hene t
worko f
organisations t o ha ve a higherq ua l
ityc onne ctiona ta lo werc o
st.
Addi t
iona ll
y,o ne o rgani
sati
oni nt he v il
lag e ha dt he capacit
ya nd
will
ingne sst o ma nages everala s
pec t
so ft he ne twork
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GLOSSARY
360 GLOSSARY

Glossary

0-9
802.11. While 802.11 is a wireless protocol in its own right, 802.11 is often used to
refer to a family of wireless networking protocols used mainly for local area net
working. Three popular variants include 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11a. See also:
Wi-Fi.

A
AC see Alternating Current

access point (AP). A device that creates a wireless network that is usu
ally connected to a wired Ethernet network. See also: CPE, master
mode

accumulator. Another name for a battery.

ad-hoc mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the creation of
a network without an access point. Mesh networks often use radios in ad-hoc
mode. See also: managed mode, master mode, monitor mode

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). A protocol widely used on Ethernet net

works to translate IP addresses into MAC addresses.

address space. A group of IP addresses that all reside within the same logical
subnet.

advertised window. The portion of a TCP header that speciCes how many addi
tional bytes of data the receiver is prepared to accept.

Alternating Current (AC). An electrical current which varies over time in a cyclic
manner. AC current is typically used for lighting and appliances. See also: Direct
Current

amortization. An accounting technique used to manage the expected cost of re

placement and obsolescence of equipment over time.

ampli.er. A device used to increase the transmitted power of a wireless device.

amplitude. The distance from the center of a wave to the extreme of one of its
peaks.
 Glossary 361

anchor clients. Business clients of a subscription system who are reliable and
can be considered low-risk.

AND logic. A logical operation that only evaluates as true if all of the items being
compared also evaluate as true. See also: OR logic.

anonymizing proxy. A network service that hides the source or destination of com
munications. Anonymizing proxies can be used to protect people's privacy and to
reduce an organization's exposure to legal liability for the actions of its users.

anonymity. In computer networks, communications that cannot be linked to a

unique individual are said to be anonymous. The trade-off of anonymity versus
accountability in communications is an ongoing debate online, and rules about
anonymous communications vary widely around the world. See also: authen
ticated

antenna diversity. A technique used to overcome multipath interference by us

ing two or more physically separated receiving antennas.

antenna gain. The amount of power concentrated in the direction of strongest

radiation of an antenna, usually expressed in dBi. Antenna gain is reciprocal,
which means that the effect of gain is present when transmitting as well as re
ceiving.

antenna pattern. A graph that describes the relative strength of a radiated Celd
in various directions from an antenna. See also: rectangular plot, polar plot,
linear polar coordinates, logarithmic polar coordinates

AP see Access Point

application layer. The topmost layer in the OSI and TCP/IP network models.

Argus see Audit Record Generation and Utilization System

ARP see Address Resolution Protocol

associated. An 802.11 radio is associated to an access point when it is ready to

communicate with the network. This means that it is tuned to the proper channel, in
range of the AP, using the correct SSID and other authentication parameters, etc.

at. A Unix facility that allows timed, one-shot execution of programs. See also:
cron

attenuation. The reduction of available radio power as it is absorbed along a path,

such as through trees, walls, buildings, or other objects. See also: free space
loss, scattering
362 GLOSSARY

Audit Record Generation and Utilization System (Argus). An open source

network monitoring tool used for tracking fows between hosts. Argus is available
from http://www.qosient.com/argus .

authenticated. A network user that has proven their identity to a service or

device (such as an access point) beyond a shadow of a doubt, usually by some
means of cryptography. See also: anonymity

azimuth. The angle that measures deviation with respect to the south in the
northern hemisphere, and with respect to the north in the southern hemisphere.
See also: inclination

B
bandwidth. A measure of frequency ranges, typically used for digital communic
ations. The word bandwidth is also commonly used interchangeably with capa
city to refer to the theoretical maximum data rate of a digital communications
line. See also: capacity, channel, throughput

battery. A device used to store energy in a photovoltaic system. See also: solar
panel, regulator, load, converter, inverter

beamwidth. The angular distance between the points on either side of the main
lobe of an antenna, where the received power is half that of the main lobe. The
beamwidth of an antenna is usually stated for both the horizontal and vertical
planes.

benchmarking. Testing the maximum performance of a service or device.

Benchmarking a network connection typically involves fooding the link with
trafCc and measuring the actual observed throughput, both on transmit and re
ceive.

BGAN see Broadband Global Access Network

BNC connector. A coaxial cable connector that uses a "quick-connect" style

bayonet lug. BNC connectors are typically found on 10base2 coaxial Ethernet.

bridge. A network device that connects two networks together at the data link
layer. Bridges do not route packets at the network layer. They simply repeat
packets between two link-local networks. See also: router and transparent
bridging .rewall.

bridge-utils. A Linux software package that is required for creating 802.1d

Ethernet bridges. http://bridge.sourceforge.net/
 Glossary 363

Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN). One of several standards used

for satellite Internet access. See also: Digital Video Broadcast (DVB-S) and
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT).

broadcast address. On IP networks, the broadcast IP address is used to send

data to all hosts in the local subnet. On Ethernet networks, the broadcast MAC
address is used to send data to all machines in the same collision domain.

bypass diodes. A feature found on some solar panels that prevents the forma
tion of hot-spots on shaded cells, but reduces the maximum voltage of the pan
el.

C
CA see Certi.cate Authority

Cacti (http://www.cacti.net/). A popular web-based monitoring tool written in

PHP.

capacity. The theoretical maximum amount of trafCc provided by a digital com

munications line. Often used interchangeably with bandwidth.

captive portal. A mechanism used to transparently redirect web browsers to a

new location. Captive portals are often used for authentication or for interrupting
a user's online session (for example, to display an Acceptable Use Policy).

cell. Solar panels are made up of several individual cells, which are electrically
connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. Batteries are also
made up of individual cells connected in series, each of which contributes about
2 volts to the battery.

Certi.cate Authority. A trusted entity that issues signed cryptographic keys.

See also: Public Key Infrastructure, SSL

channel capacity. The maximum amount of information that can be sent using
a given bandwidth. See also: bandwidth, throughput, data rate

channel. A well deCned range of frequencies used for communications. 802.11

channels use 22 MHz of bandwidth, but are only separated by 5 MHz. See also:
Appendix B.

CIDR see Classless Inter-Domain Routing

CIDR notation. A method used to deCne a network mask by specifying the num
ber of bits present. For example, the netmask 255.255.255.0 can be speciCed
as /24 in CIDR notation.
364 GLOSSARY

circular polarization. An electro-magnetic Celd where the electric Celd vector

appears to be rotating with circular motion about the direction of propagation,
making one full turn for each RF cycle. See also: horizontal polarization, ver
tical polarization

Class A, B, and C networks. For some time, IP address space was allocated in
blocks of three different sizes. These were Class A (about 16 million addresses),
Class B (about 65 thousand addresses), and Class C (255 addresses). While
CIDR has replaced class-based allocation, these classes are often still referred
to and used internally in organizations using private address space. See also:
CIDR notation.

Classless Inter-Domain Routing. CIDR was developed to improve routing efC

ciency on the Internet backbone by enabling route aggregation and network masks
of arbitrary size. CIDR replaces the old class-based addressing scheme. See also:
Class A, B, and C networks.

client. An 802.11 radio card in managed mode. Wireless clients will join a net
work created by an access point, and automatically change the channel to match
it. See also: access point, mesh

closed network. An access point that does not broadcast its SSID, often used
as a security measure.

coax. A round (coaxial) cable with a center wire surrounded by a dielectric, outer
conductor, and tough insulating jacket. Antenna cables are usually made of coax.
Coax is short for "of common axis".

collision. On an Ethernet network, a collision occurs when two devices connec

ted to the same physical segment attempt to transmit at the same time. When
collisions are detected, devices delay retransmission for a brief, randomly selec
ted period.

conductor. A material that easily allows electric or thermal energy to fow through
without much resistance. See also: dielectric, insulator

connectionless protocol. A network protocol (such as UDP) that requires no ses

sion initiation or maintenance. Connectionless protocols typically require less over
head than session oriented protocols, but do not usually offer data protection or
packet reassembly. See also: session oriented protocol.

consistent platform. Maintenance costs can be reduced by using a consistent

platform, with the same hardware, software, and Crmware for many components
in a network.

constructive interference. When two identical waves merge and are in phase,
the amplitude of the resulting wave is twice that of either of the components. This
is called constructive interference. See also: destructive interference
 Glossary 365

controls. In NEC2, controls deCne the RF source in an antenna model. See

also: structure

converter. A device used to convert DC signals into a different DC or AC

voltage. See also: inverter

CPE see Customer Premises Equipment

cron. A Unix facility that allows timed and repeated execution of programs. See
also: at

Customer Premises Equipment. Network equipment (such as a router or

bridge) that is installed at a customer's location.

D
data link layer. The second layer in both the OSI and TCP/IP network models.
Communications at this layer happen directly between nodes. On Ethernet net
works, this is also sometimes called the MAC layer.

data rate. The speed at which 802.11 radios exchange symbols, which is always
higher than the available throughput. For example, the nominal data rate of
802.11g is 54 Mbps, while the maximum throughput is about 20 Mbps). See also:
throughput

dB see decibel

DC see Direct Current

DC/AC Converter. A device that converts DC power into AC power, suitable for
use with many appliances. Also known as an inverter.

DC/DC Converter. A device that changes the voltage of a DC power source.

See also: linear conversion, switching conversion

decibel (dB). A logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of

power relative to a reference level. Commonly used units are dBi (decibels relat
ive to an isotropic radiator) and dBm (decibels relative to a milliwatt).

default gateway. When a router receives a packet destined for a network for
which it has no explicit route, the packet is forwarded to the default gateway. The
default gateway then repeats the process, possibly sending the packet to its own
default gateway, until the packet reaches its ultimate destination.

default route. A network route that points to the default gateway.

366 GLOSSARY

Denial of Service (DoS). An attack on network resources, usually achieved by

fooding a network with trafCc or exploiting a bug in an application or network
protocol.

depreciation. An accounting method used to save money to cover the eventual

break down of equipment.

destructive interference. When two identical waves merge and are exactly out
of phase, the amplitude of the resulting wave is zero. This is called destructive
interference. See also: constructive interference

DHCP see Dynamic Host Con.guration Protocol

dielectric. A non-conductive material that separates conducting wires inside a

cable.

Digital Elevation Map (DEM). Data that represents the height of terrain for a
given geographic area. These maps are used by programs such as Radio Mo
bile to model electromagnetic propagation.

Digital Video Broadcast (DVB-S). One of several standards used for satellite
Internet access. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN) and
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT).

dipole antenna. The simplest form of omnidirectional antenna.

Direct Current (DC). An electrical current which remains constant over time. DC
current is typically used for network equipment, such as access points and
routers. See also: Alternating Current

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). The radio modulation scheme

used by 802.11b.

directional antenna. An antenna that radiates very strongly in a particular direc

tion. Examples of directional antennas include the yagi, dish, and waveguide an
tennas. See also: omnidirectional antenna, sectorial antenna

directivity. The ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction

when transmitting, or to receive energy from a particular direction when receiv
ing.

diversity see antenna diversity

DNS see Domain Name Service

DNS caching. By installing a DNS server on your local LAN, DNS requests for
an entire network may be cached locally, improving response times. This tech
nique is called DNS caching.
 Glossary 367

dnsmasq. An open source caching DNS and DHCP server, available from
http://thekelleys.org.uk/

Domain Name Service (DNS). The widely used network protocol that maps IP
addresses to names.

dominant mode. The lowest frequency that can be transmitted by a waveguide

of a given size.

DoS see Denial of Service

DSSS see Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

DVB-S see Digital Video Broadcast.

Dynamic Host Con.guration Protocol (DHCP). A protocol used by hosts to

automatically determine their IP address.

E
eavesdropper. Someone who intercepts network data such as passwords,
email, voice data, or online chat.

edge. The place where one organization's network meets another. Edges are
deCned by the location of the external router, which often acts as a .rewall.

electromagnetic spectrum. The very wide range of possible frequencies of

electromagnetic energy. Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum include radio, mi
crowave, visible light, and X rays.

electromagnetic wave. A wave that propagates through space without the need
for a propagating medium. It contains an electric and a magnetic component.
See also: mechanical wave

elevation see inclination

end span injectors. An 802.3af Power over Ethernet device that provides
power via the Ethernet cable. An Ethernet switch that provides power on each
port is an example of an end span injector. See also: mid span injectors

end-to-end encryption. An encrypted connection negotiated by both ends of a

communications session. End-to-end encryption can provide stronger protection
than link layer encryption when used on untrusted networks (such as the Inter
net).
368 GLOSSARY

EtherApe. An open source network visualization tool. Available at http://eth

erape.sourceforge.net/

Ethereal see Wireshark.

Extended Service Set Identi.er (ESSID). The name used to identify an 802.11
network. See also: closed network

external traf.c. Network trafCc that originates from, or is destined for, an IP ad

dress outside your internal network, such as Internet trafCc.

F
.restarter. A graphical front-end for conCguring Linux Crewalls available from
http://www.fs-security.com/.

.lter. The default table used in the Linux netClter Crewall system is the Clter
table. This table is used for determining trafCc that should be accepted or denied.

.rewall. A router that accepts or denies trafCc based on some criteria. Firewalls
are one basic tool used to protect entire networks from undesirable trafCc.

>ush. To remove all entries in a routing table or netClter chain.

forwarding. When routers receive packets that are destined for a different host
or network, they send the packet to the next router closest to its ultimate destina
tion. This process is called forwarding.

forwarding loops. A routing misconCguration where packets are forwarded cyc

lically between two or more routers. Catastrophic network failure is prevented by
using the TTL value on every packet, but forwarding loops need to be resolved
for proper network operations.

free space loss. Power diminished by geometric spreading of the wavefront, as

the wave propagates through space. See also: attenuation, free space loss,
Appendix C

frequency. The number of whole waves that pass a Cxed point in a period of
time. See also: wavelength, Hertz

front-to-back ratio. The ratio of the maximum directivity of an antenna to its

directivity in the opposite direction.

full duplex. Communications equipment that can send and receive at the same
time (such as a telephone). See also: half duplex
 Glossary 369

fwbuilder. A graphical tool that lets you create iptables scripts on a machine
separate from your server, and then transfer them to the server later.
http://www.fwbuilder.org/

G
gain. The ability of a radio component (such as an antenna or ampliCer) to in
crease the power of a signal. See also: decibel

gain transfer. Comparing an antenna under test against a known standard an

tenna, which has a calibrated gain.

gasi.cation. The production bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen that occurs when
a battery is overcharged.

globally routable. An address issued by an ISP or RIR that is reachable from

any point on the Internet. In IPv4, there are approximately four billion possible IP
addresses, although not all of these are globally routable.

H
half duplex. Communications equipment that can send or receive, but never both at
once (such as a handheld radio). See also: full duplex.

Heliax. High quality coaxial cable that has a solid or tubular center conductor
with a corrugated solid outer conductor which enables it to fex. See also: coax

Hertz (Hz). A measure of frequency, denoting some number of cycles per

second.

HF (High-Frequency). Radio waves from 3 to 30 MHz are referred to as HF.

Data networks can be built on HF that operate at very long range, but with very
low data capacity.

hop. Data that crosses one network connection. A web server may be several
hops away from your local computer, as packets are forwarded from router to
router, eventually reaching their ultimate destination.

horizontal polarization. An electromagnetic Celd with the electric component

moving in a linear horizontal direction. See also: circular polarization, vertical
polarization

hot-spot. In wireless networks, a hot-spot is a location that provides Internet ac

cess via Wi-Fi, typically by use of a captive portal. In photovoltaic systems, a
370 GLOSSARY

hot-spot occurs when a single cell in a solar panel is shaded, causing it to act
as a resistive load rather than to generate power.

hub. An Ethernet networking device that repeats received data on all connected
ports. See also: switch.

Huygens principle. A wave model that proposes an inCnite number of potential

wavefronts along every point of an advancing wavefront.

Hz see Hertz

I
IANA see Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

ICMP see Internet Control Message Protocol

ICP see Inter-Cache Protocol

impedance. The quotient of voltage over current of a transmission line, consist

ing of a resistance and a reactance. The load impedance must match the source
impedance for maximum power transfer (50 for most communications equip
ment).

inbound traf.c. Network packets that originate from outside the local network
(typically the Internet) and are bound for a destination inside the local network.
See also: outbound traf.c.

inclination. The angle that marks deviation from a horizontal plane. See also:
azimuth

infrastructure mode see master mode

insulator see dielectric

Inter-Cache Protocol (ICP). A high performance protocol used to communicate

between web caches.

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The organization that adminis

ters various critical parts of Internet infrastructure, including IP address alloca
tion, DNS root name servers, and protocol service numbers.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). A Network Layer protocol used to

inform nodes about the state of the network. ICMP is part of the Internet protocol
suite. See also: Internet protocol suite.
 Glossary 371

Internet layer see network layer

Internet Protocol (IP). The most com-mon network layer protocol in use. IP deCnes
the hosts and networks that make up the global Internet.

Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP). The family of communication protocols that

make up the Internet. Some of these protocols include TCP, IP, ICMP, and UDP.
Also called the TCP/IP protocol suite, or simply TCP/IP.

Intrusion Detection System (IDS). A program that watches network trafCc,

looking for suspicious data or behavior patterns. An IDS may make a log entry,
notify a network administrator, or take direct action in response to undesirable
trafCc.

inverter see DC/AC Converter

IP see Internet Protocol

iproute2. The advanced routing tools package for Linux, used for trafCc shaping
and other advanced techniques. Available from http://linux-net.osdl.org/

iptables. The primary command used to manipulate netClter Crewall rules.

irradiance. The total amount of solar energy that lights a given area, in W/m2

ISM band. ISM is short for Industrial, ScientiCc, and Medical. The ISM band is a
set of radio frequencies set aside by the ITU for unlicensed use.

isotropic antenna. A hypothetical antenna that evenly distributes power in all

directions, approximated by a dipole.

IV characteristic curve. A graph that represents the current that is provided

based on the voltage generated for a certain solar radiation.

K
knet.lter. A graphical front-end for conCguring Linux Crewalls. Available from
http://venom.oltrelinux.com/

known good. In troubleshooting, a known good is any component that can be

substituted to verify that its counterpart is in good, working condition.
372 GLOSSARY

L
lag. Common term used to describe a network with high latency.

lambda () see wavelength

LAN see Local Area Network

latency. The amount of time it takes for a packet to cross a network connection.
It is often (incorrectly) used interchangeably with Round Trip Time (RTT), since
measuring the RTT of a wide-area connection is trivial compared to measuring
the actual latency. See also: Round Trip Time.

lead-acid batteries. Batteries consisting of two submerged lead electrodes in

an electrolytic solution of water and sulfuric acid. See also: stationary batteries

lease time. In DHCP, IP addresses are assigned for a limited period of time,
known as the lease time. After this time period expires, clients must request a
new IP address from the DHCP server.

Line of Sight (LOS). If a person standing at point A has an unobstructed view of

point B, then point A is said to have a clear Line of Sight to point B.

linear polar coordinates. A graph system with equally spaced, graduated con
centric circles representing an absolute value on a polar projection. Such graphs
are typically used to represent antenna radiation patterns. See also: logarithmic
polar coordinates

linear conversion. A DC voltage conversion method that lowers the voltage by

converting excess energy to heat. See also: switching conversion

linear polarization. An electro-magnetic wave where the electric Celd vector

stays in the same plane all the time. The electric Celd may leave the antenna in a
vertical orientation, a horizontal orientation, or at some angle between the two.
See also: vertical polarization, horizontal polarization

link budget. The amount of radio energy available to overcome path losses. If
the available link budget exceeds the path loss, minimum receive sensitivity of
the receiving radio, and any obstacles, then communications should be possible.

link layer encryption. An encrypted connection between link-local devices, typ

ically a wireless client and an access point. See also: end-to-end encryption

link-local. Network devices that are connected to the same physical segment
communicate with each other directly are said to be link-local. A link-local con
nection cannot cross a router boundary without using some kind of encapsula
tion, such as a tunnel or a VPN.
 Glossary 373

listen. Programs that accept connections on a TCP port are said to listen on that
port.

load. Equipment in a photovoltaic system that consumes energy. See also: bat
tery, solar panel, regulator, converter, inverter

Local Area Network (LAN). A network (typically Ethernet) used within an organ
ization. The part of a network that exists just behind an ISP's router is generally
considered to be part of the LAN. See also: WAN.

logarithmic polar coordinates. A graph system with logarithmically spaced,

graduated concentric circles representing an absolute value on a polar projec
tion. Such graphs are typically used to represent antenna radiation patterns. See
also: linear polar coordinates

long fat pipe network. A network connection (such as VSAT) that has high ca
pacity and high latency. In order to achieve the best possible performance,
TCP/IP must be tuned to match the trafCc on such links.

LOS see Line of Sight

M
MAC layer see data link layer

MAC address. A unique 48 bit number assigned to every networking device

when it is manufactured. The MAC address is used for link-local communica
tions.

MAC .ltering. An access control method based on the MAC address of commu
nicating devices.

MAC table. A network switch must keep track of the MAC addresses used on
each physical port, in order to efCciently distribute packets. This information is
kept in a table called the MAC table.

maintenance-free lead-acid batteries see lead-acid batteries

Man-In-The-Middle (MITM). A network attack where a malicious user intercepts

all communications between a client and a server, allowing information to be
copied or manipulated.

managed hardware. Networking hardware that provides an administrative inter

face, port counters, SNMP, or other interactive features is said to be managed.
374 GLOSSARY

managed mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the radio to
join a network created by an access point. See also: master mode, ad-hoc
mode, monitor mode

master browser. On Windows networks, the master browser is the computer

that keeps a list of all the computers, shares and printers that are available in
Network Neighborhood or My Network Places.

master mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the radio to cre
ate networks just as an access point does. See also: managed mode, ad-hoc
mode, monitor mode

match condition. In netClter, a match condition speciCes the criteria that determ
ine the ultimate target for a given packet. Packets may be matched on MAC ad
dress, source or destination IP address, port number, data contents, or just about
any other property.

Maximum Depth of Discharge (DoDmax). The amount of energy extracted

from a battery in a single discharge cycle, expressed as a percentage.

Maximum Power Point (Pmax). The point where the power supplied by a solar
panel is at maximum.

MC-Card. A very small microwave connector found on Lucent / Orinoco / Avaya

equipment.

mechanical wave. A wave caused when some medium or object is swinging in

a periodic manner. See also: electromagnetic wave

Media Access Control layer see data link layer

mesh. A network with no hierarchical organization, where every node on the net
work carries the trafCc of every other as needed. Good mesh network imple
mentations are self-healing, which means that they automatically detect routing
problems and Cx them as needed.

message types. Rather that port numbers, ICMP trafCc uses message types to
deCne the type of information being sent. See also: ICMP.

method of the worst month. A method for calculating the dimensions of a stan
dalone photovoltaic system so it will work in the month in which the demand for
energy is greatest with respect to the available solar energy. It is the worst month
of the year, as this month with have the largest ratio of demanded energy to
available energy.

MHF see U.FL

micro.nance. The provision of small loans, savings and other basic Cnancial
services to the worlds poorest people.
 Glossary 375

mid span injectors. A Power over Ethernet device inserted between an Ether
net switch and the device to be powered. See also: end span injectors

milliwatts (mW). A unit of power representing one thousandth of a Watt.

MITM see Man-In-The-Middle

MMCX. A very small microwave connector commonly found on equipment man

ufactured by Senao and Cisco.

monitor mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices not normally used for
communications that allows the radio passively monitor radio trafCc. See also:
master mode, managed mode, ad-hoc mode

monitor port. On a managed switch, one or more monitor ports may be deCned
that receive trafCc sent to all of the other ports. This allows you to connect a
trafCc monitor server to the port to observe and analyze trafCc patterns.

Multi Router Traf.c Grapher (MRTG). An open source tool used for graphing
trafCc statistics. Available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/mrtg/

multipath. The phenomenon of refections of a signal reaching their target along

different paths, and therefore at different times.

multipoint-to-multipoint see mesh

mW see milliwatt

My TraceRoute (mtr). A network diagnostic tool used as an alternative to the

traditional traceroute program. http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/. See also:
traceroute / tracert.

N
N connector. A sturdy microwave connector commonly found on outdoor net
working components, such as antennas and outdoor access points.

Nagios (http://nagios.org/) A realtime monitoring tool that logs and notiCes a

system administrator about service and network outages.

NAT see Network Address Translation

nat. The table used in the Linux netClter Crewall system to conCgure Network Ad
dress Translation.
376 GLOSSARY

NEC2 see Numerical Electromagnetics Code

NetBIOS. A session layer protocol used by Windows networking for Cle and
printer sharing. See also: SMB.

net.lter. The packet Cltering framework in modern Linux kernels is known as

netClter. It uses the iptables command to manipulate Clter rules. http://net,lter
.org/

netmask (network mask). A netmask is a 32-bit number that divides the 16 mil
lion available IP addresses into smaller chunks, called subnets. All IP networks
use IP addresses in combination with netmasks to logically group hosts and net
works.

NeTraMet. An open source network fow analysis tool available from fresh
meat.net/projects/netramet/

network address. The lowest IP number in a subnet. The network address is

used in routing tables to specify the destination to be used when sending pack
ets to a logical group of IP addresses.

Network Address Translation (NAT). NAT is a networking technology that al

lows many computers to share a single, globally routable IP address. While NAT
can help to solve the problem of limited IP address space, it creates a technical
challenge for two-way services, such as Voice over IP.

network detection. Network diagnostic tools that display information about

wireless networks, such as the network name, channel, and encryption method
used.

network layer. Also called the Internet layer. This is the third layer of the OSI
and TCP/IP network models, where IP operates and Internet routing takes place.

network mask see netmask

ngrep. An open source network security utility used to Cnd patterns in data
fows. Available for free from http://ngrep.sourceforge.net/

node. Any device capable of sending and receiving data on a network. Access
points, routers, computers, and laptops are all examples of nodes.

Nominal Capacity (CN). The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from a
fully charged battery. It is expressed in Ampere-hours (Ah) or Watt-hours (Wh).

Nominal Voltage (VN). The operating voltage of a photovoltaic system, typically

12 or 24 volts.
 Glossary 377

ntop. A network monitoring tool that provides extensive detail about connections
and protocol use on a local area network. http://www.ntop.org/

null. In an antenna radiation pattern, a null is a zone in which the effective radi
ated power is at a minimum.

nulling. A speciCc case of multipath interference where the signal at the receiv
ing antenna is zeroed by the destructive interference of refected signals.

number of days of autonomy (N). The maximum number of days that a photo
voltaic system can operate without signiCcant energy received from the sun.

Numerical Electromagnetics Code (NEC2). A free antenna modeling package

that lets you build an antenna model in 3D, and then analyze the antennas elec
tromagnetic response. http://www.nec2.org/

O
OFDM see Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

omnidirectional antenna. An antenna that radiates almost equally in every dir

ection in the horizontal plane. See also: directional antenna, sectorial an
tenna

one-arm repeater. A wireless repeater that only uses a single radio, at signiCc
antly reduced throughput. See also: repeater

onion routing. A privacy tool (such as Tor) that repeatedly bounces your TCP con
nections across a number of servers spread throughout the Internet, wrapping
routing information in a number of encrypted layers.

OR logic. A logical operation that evaluates as true if any of the items being
compared also evaluate as true. See also: AND logic.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

OSI network model. A popular model of network communications deCned by the

ISO/IEC 7498-1 standard. The OSI model consists of seven interdependent lay
ers, from the physical through the application. See also: TCP/IP network mod
el.

outbound traf.c. Network packets that originate from the local network and are
bound for a destination outside the local network (typically somewhere on the In
ternet). See also: inbound traf.c.
378 GLOSSARY

overcharge. The state of a battery when charge is applied beyond the limit of
the battery's capacity. If energy is applied to a battery beyond its point of maxim
um charge, the electrolyte begins to break down. Regulators will allow a small
amount of overcharge time to a battery to avoid gasi.cation, but will remove
power before the battery is damaged.

overdischarge. Discharging a battery beyond its Maximum Depth of Dis

charge, which results in deterioration of the battery.

oversubscribe. To allow more users than the maximum available bandwidth can
support.

P
packet. On IP networks, messages sent between computers are broken into
small pieces called packets. Each packet includes a source, destination, and
other routing information that is used to route it to its ultimate destination. Pack
ets are reassembled again at the remote end by TCP (or another protocol) be
fore being passed to the application.

packet .lter. A Crewall that operates at the Internet layer by inspecting source
and destination IP addresses, port numbers, and protocols. Packets are either
permitted or discarded depending on the packet Clter rules.

partition. A technique used by network hubs to limit the impact of computers that
transmit excessively. Hubs will temporarily remove the abusive computer (parti
tion it) from the rest of the network, and reconnect it again after some time. Ex
cessive partitioning indicates the presence of an excessive bandwidth consumer,
such as a peer-to-peer client or network virus.

passive POE injector see Power over Ethernet

path loss. Loss of radio signal due to the distance between communicating sta
tions.

Peak Sun Hours (PSH). Average value of daily irradiation for a given area.

photovoltaic generator see solar panel

photovoltaic solar energy. The use of solar panels to collect solar energy to
produce electricity. See also: thermal solar energy

photovoltaic system. An energy system that generates electrical energy from

solar radiation and stores it for later use. A standalone photovoltaic system does
this without any connection to an established power grid. See also: battery, sol
ar panel, regulator, load, converter, inverter
 Glossary 379

physical layer. The lowest layer in both the OSI and TCP/IP network models.
The physical layer is the actual medium used for communications, such as cop
per cable, optic Cber, or radio waves.

pigtail. A short microwave cable that converts a non-standard connector into

something more robust and commonly available.

ping. A ubiquitous network diagnostic utility that uses ICMP echo request and
reply messages to determine the round trip time to a network host. Ping can be
used to determine the location of network problems by "pinging" computers in
the path between the local machine and the ultimate destination.

PKI see Public Key Infrastructure

plomb. A heavy piece of metal buried in the earth to improve a ground connec
tion.

PoE see Power over Ethernet

point-to-multipoint. A wireless network where several nodes connect back to a

central location. The classic example of a point-to-multipoint network is an ac
cess point at an ofCce with several laptops using it for Internet access. See also:
point-to-point, multipoint-to-multipoint

point-to-point. A wireless network consisting of only two stations, usually separ

ated by a great distance. See also: point-to-multipoint, multipoint-to-multi
point

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). A network protocol typically used on serial lines

(such as a dial-up connection) to provide IP connectivity.

polar plot. A graph where points are located by projection along a rotating axis
(radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric circles. See also: rect
angular plot

polarization. The direction of the electric component of an electro-magnetic

wave as it leaves the transmitting antenna. See also: horizontal polarization,
vertical polarization, circular polarization

polarization mismatch. A state where a transmitting and receiving antenna do

not use the same polarization, resulting in signal loss.

policy. In netClter, the policy is the default action to be taken when no other Clter
ing rules apply. For example, the default policy for any chain may be set to AC
CEPT or DROP.
380 GLOSSARY

port counters. Managed switches and routers provide statistics for each net
work port called port counters. These statistics may include inbound and out
bound packet and byte counts, as well as errors and retransmissions.

power. The amount of energy in a certain amount of time.

Power over Ethernet (PoE). A technique used to supply DC power to devices using
the Ethernet data cable. See also: end span injectors, mid span injectors

PPP see Point to Point Protocol

presentation layer. The sixth layer of the OSI networking model. This layer
deals with data representation, such as MIME encoding or data compression.

private address space. A set of reserved IP addresses outlined in RFC1918.

Private address space is frequently used within an organization, in conjunction
with Network Address Translation (NAT). The reserved private address space
ranges include 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. See also: NAT.

Privoxy (http://www.privoxy.org/). A web proxy that provides anonymity through

the use of Clters. Privoxy is often used in conjunction with Tor.

proactive routing. A mesh implementation where every node knows about the
existence of every other node in the mesh cloud as well as which nodes may be
used to route trafCc to them. Each node maintains a routing table covering the
whole mesh cloud. See also: reactive routing

protocol analyzer. A diagnostic program used to observe and disassemble net

work packets. Protocol analyzers provide the greatest possible detail about indi
vidual packets.

protocol stack. A set of network protocols that provide interdependent layers of

functionality. See also: OSI network model and TCP/IP network model.

PSH see Peak Sun Hours

Public key cryptography. A form of encryption used by SSL, SSH, and other
popular security programs. Public key cryptography allows encrypted information
to be exchanged over an untrusted network without the need to distribute a
secret key.

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI). A security mechanism used in conjunction with

public key cryptography to prevent the possibility of Man-In-The-Middle at
tacks. See also: certi.cate authority
 Glossary 381

Q
quick blow. A type of fuse that immediately blows if the current fowing through it
is higher than their rating. See also: slow blow

R
radiation pattern see antenna pattern.

radio. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which waves can be gen
erated by applying alternating current to an antenna.

reactive routing. A mesh implementation where routes are computed only

when it is necessary to send data to a speciCc node. See also: proactive routing

realtime monitoring. A network monitoring tool that performs unattended monitoring

over long periods, and notiCes administrators immediately when problems arise .

reciprocity. An antenna's ability to maintain the same characteristics regardless

if whether it is transmitting or receiving.

recombinant batteries see lead-acid batteries

rectangular plot. A graph where points are located on a simple grid. See also:
polar plot

Regional Internet Registrars (RIR). The 4 billion available IP addresses are ad

ministered by the IANA. The space has been divided into large subnets, which
are delegated to one of the Cve regional Internet registries, each with authority
over a large geographic area.

regulator. The component of a photovoltaic system that assures that the bat
tery is working in appropriate conditions. It avoids overcharging or underchar
ging the battery, both of which are very detrimental to the life of the battery. See
also: solar panel, battery, load, converter, inverter

repeater. A node that is conCgured to rebroadcast trafCc that is not destined for
the node itself, often used to extend the useful range of a network.

Request for Comments (RFC). RFCs are a numbered series of documents

published by the Internet Society that document ideas and concepts related to
Internet technologies. Not all RFCs are actual standards, but many are either ap
382 GLOSSARY

proved explicitly by the IETF, or eventually become de facto standards. RFCs

can be viewed online at http://rfc.net/.

return loss. A logarithmic ratio measured in dB that compares the power refec
ted by the antenna to the power that is fed into the antenna from the transmis
sion line. See also: impedance

reverse polarity (RP). Proprietary microwave connectors, based on a standard

connector but with the genders reversed. The RP-TNC is probably the most
common reverse polarity connector, but others (such as RP-SMA and RP-N) are
also commonplace.

RF transmission line. The connection (typically coax, Heliax, or a waveguide)

between a radio and an antenna.

RIR see Regional Internet Registrars

Round Trip Time (RTT). The amount of time it takes for a packet to be acknow
ledged from the remote end of a connection. Frequently confused with latency.

rogue access points. An unauthorized access point incorrectly installed by legit

imate users, or by a malicious person who intends to collect data or do harm to
the network.

Round Robin Database (RRD). A database that stores information in a very

compact way that does not expand over time. This is the data format used by
RRDtool and other network monitoring tools.

router. A device that forwards packets between different networks. The process
of forwarding packets to the next hop is called routing.

routing. The process of forwarding packets between different networks. A device

that does this is called a router.

routing table. A list of networks and IP addresses kept by a router to determine

how packets should be forwarded. If a router receives a packet for a network that
is not in the routing table, the router uses its default gateway. Routers operate at
the Network Layer. See also: bridge and default gateway.

RP see Reverse Polarity

RP-TNC. A common proprietary version of the TNC microwave connector, with

the genders reversed. The RP-TNC is often found on equipment manufactured
by Linksys.

RRD see Round Robin Database

 Glossary 383

RRDtool. A suite of tools that allow you to create and modify RRD databases, as
well as generate useful graphs to present the data. RRDtool is used to keep
track of time-series data (such as network bandwidth, machine room temperat
ure, or server load average) and can display that data as an average over time.
RRDtool is available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/rrdtool/

rsync (http://rsync.samba.org/). An open source incremental Cle transfer utility

used for maintaining mirrors.

RTT see Round Trip Time

S
SACK see Selective Acknowledgment

scattering. Signal loss due to objects in the path between two nodes. See also:
free space loss, attenuation

sectorial antenna. An antenna that radiates primarily in a speciCc area. The

beam can be as wide as 180 degrees, or as narrow as 60 degrees. See also:
directional antenna, omnidirectional antenna

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). An end-to-end encryption technology built into vir
tually all web browsers. SSL uses public key cryptography and a trusted pub
lic key infrastructure to secure data communications on the web. Whenever
you visit a web URL that starts with https, you are using SSL.

Selective Acknowledgment (SACK). A mechanism used to overcome TCP inefC

ciencies on high latency networks, such as VSAT.

Server Message Block (SMB). A network protocol used in Windows networks to

provide Cle sharing services. See also: NetBIOS.

Service Set ID (SSID) see Extended Service Set Identi.er

session layer. Layer Cve of the OSI model, the Session Layer manages logical
connections between applications.

session oriented protocol. A network protocol (such as TCP) that requires ini
tialization before data can be exchanged, as well as some clean-up after data
exchange has completed. Session oriented protocols typically offer error correc
tion and packet reassembly, while connectionless protocols do not. See also:
connectionless protocol.

shared medium. A link-local network where every node can observe the trafCc
of every other node.
384 GLOSSARY

Shorewall (http://shorewall.net/). A conCguration tool used for setting up netClter

Crewalls without the need to learn iptables syntax.

sidelobes. No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction.
Some is inevitably radiated in other directions. These smaller peaks are referred
to as sidelobes.

signal generator. A transmitter that emits continuously at a speciCc frequency.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). A protocol designed to facilit

ate the exchange of management information between network devices. SNMP
is typically used to poll network switches and routers to gather operating statist
ics.

site-wide web cache. While all modern web browsers provide a local data
cache, large organizations can improve efCciency by installing a site-wide web
cache, such as Squid. A site-wide web cache keeps a copy of all requests made
from within an organization, and serves the local copy on subsequent requests.
See also: Squid.

slow blow. A fuse that allows a current higher than its rating to pass for a short
time. See also: quick blow

SMA. A small threaded microwave connector.

SMB see Server Message Block

SmokePing. A latency measurement tool that measures, stores and displays

latency, latency distribution and packet loss all on a single graph. SmokePing is
available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/smokeping/

SNMP see Simple Network Management Protocol

Snort (http://www.snort.org/). A very popular open source intrusion detection

system. See also: Intrusion Detection System.

SoC see State of Charge

solar module see solar panel

solar panel. The component of a photovoltaic system used to convert solar ra

diation into electricity. See also: battery, regulator, load, converter, inverter

solar panel array. A set of solar panels wired in series and/or parallel in order
to provide the necessary energy for a given load.

solar power charge regulator see regulator

 Glossary 385

spectrum see electromagnetic spectrum

spectrum analyzer. A device that provides a visual representation of the electro

magnetic spectrum. See also: Wi-Spy

Speed. A generic term used to refer to the responsiveness of a network connec

tion. A "high-speed" network should have low latency and more than enough ca
pacity to carry the trafCc of its users. See also: bandwidth, capacity, and
latency.

split horizon DNS. A technique used to serve different answers to DNS requests
based on the source of the request. Split horizon is used to direct internal users
to a different set of servers than Internet users.

spoof. To impersonate a network device, user, or service.

spot check tools. Network monitoring tools that are run only when needed to
diagnose a problem. Ping and traceroute are examples of spot check tools.

Squid. A very popular open source web proxy cache. It is fexible, robust, full-
featured, and scales to support networks of nearly any size. http://www.squid-
cache.org/

SSID see Extended Service Set Identi.er

SSL see Secure Sockets Layer

standalone photovoltaic system see photovoltaic system

State of Charge (SoC). The amount of charge present in a battery, determined

by the current voltage and type of battery.

stateful inspection. Firewall rules that are aware of the the state associated
with a given packet. The state is not part of the packet as transmitted over the In
ternet, but is determined by the Crewall itself. New, established, and related con
nections may all be taken into consideration when Cltering packets. Stateful in
spection is sometimes called connection tracking.

stationary batteries. Batteries designed to have a Cxed location and in scenari

os where the power consumption is more or less irregular. Stationary batteries
can accommodate deep discharge cycles, but they are not designed to produce
high currents in brief periods of time. See also: lead-acid batteries

structure. In NEC2, a numerical description of where the different parts of the

antenna are located, and how the wires are connected up. See also: controls
386 GLOSSARY

subnet mask see netmask

subnets. A subset of a range of IP networks, deCned by netmasks.

switch. A network device that provides a temporary, dedicated connection

between communicating devices. See also: hub.

switching conversion. A DC voltage conversion method that uses a magnetic

component to temporarily store the energy and transform it to another voltage.
Switching conversion is much more efCcient than linear conversion.

T
target. In netClter, the action to be taken once a packet matches a rule. Some
possible netClter targets include ACCEPT, DROP, LOG, and REJECT.

TCP see Transmission Control Protocol

TCP acknowledgment spoo.ng

TCP window size. The TCP parameter that deCnes how much data that may be
sent before an ACK packet is returned from the receiving side. For instance, a
window size of 3000 would mean that two packets of 1500 bytes each will be
sent, after which the receiving end will either ACK the chunk or request retrans
mission.

TCP/IP see Internet protocol suite

TCP/IP network model. A popular simpliCcation of the OSI network model that
is used with Internet networks. The TCP/IP model consists of Cve interdependent
layers, from the physical through the application. See also: OSI network model.

tcpdump. A popular open source packet capture and analysis tool available at
http://www.tcpdump.org/. See also: WinDump and Wireshark.

Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP). An encryption protocol used in con

junction with WPA to improve the security of a communications session.

thermal solar energy. Energy collected from the sun in the form of heat. See
also: photovoltaic solar energy

thrashing. The state when a computer has exhausted the available RAM and
must use the hard disk for temporary storage, greatly reducing system perform
ance.
 Glossary 387

throughput. The actual amount of information per second fowing through a net
work connection, disregarding protocol overhead.

throughput testing tools. Tools that measure the actual bandwidth available
between two points on a network.

Time To Live (TTL). A TTL value acts as a deadline or emergency brake to sig
nal a time when the data should be discarded. In TCP/IP networks, the TTL is a
counter that starts at some value (such as 64) and is decremented at each router
hop. If the TTL reaches zero, the packet is discarded. This mechanism helps re
duce damage caused by routing loops. In DNS, the TTL deCnes the amount of
time that a particular zone record should be kept before it must be refreshed. In
Squid, the TTL deCnes how long a cached object may be kept before it must be
again retrieved from the original website.

TKIP see Temporal Key Integrity Protocol

TNC connector. A common, sturdy threaded microwave connector.

Tor (http://www.torproject.org/). An onion routing tool that provides good pro

tection against trafCc analysis.

traceroute / tracert. A ubiquitous network diagnostic utility often used in con

junction with ping to determine the location of network problems. The Unix ver
sion is called traceroute, while the Windows version is tracert. Both use ICMP
echo requests with increasing TTL values to determine which routers are used to
connect to a remote host, and also display latency statistics. Another variant is
tracepath, which uses a similar technique with UDP packets. See also: mtr.

traction batteries see lead-acid batteries

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). A session oriented protocol that oper

ates at the Transport Layer, providing packet reassembly, congestion avoidance,
and reliable delivery. TCP is an integral protocol used by many Internet applica
tions, including HTTP and SMTP. See also: UDP.

transmission power. The amount of power provided by the radio transmitter,

before any antenna gain or line losses.

transparent bridging .rewall. A Crewall technique that introduces a bridge that

selectively forwards packets based on Crewall rules. One beneCt of a transparent
bridging Crewall is that it does not require an IP address. See also: bridge.

transparent cache. A method of implementing a site-wide web cache that re

quires no conCguration on the web clients. Web requests are silently redirected
to the cache, which makes the request on behalf of the client. Transparent
caches cannot use authentication, which makes it impossible to implement trafCc
accounting at the user level. See also: site-wide web cache, Squid.
388 GLOSSARY

transparent proxy. A caching proxy installed so that users web requests are
automatically forwarded to the proxy server, without any need to manually con
Cgure web browsers to use it.

transport layer. The third layer of the OSI and TCP/IP network models, which
provides a method of reaching a particular service on a given network node. Ex
amples of protocols that operate at this layer are TCP and UDP.

trending. A type of network monitoring tool that performs unattended monitoring

over long periods, and plots the results on a graph. Trending tools allow you to
predict future behavior of your network, which helps you plan for upgrades and
changes.

TTL see Time To Live

tunnel. A form of data encapsulation that wraps one protocol stack within anoth
er. This is often used in conjunction with encryption to protect communications
from potential eavesdroppers, while eliminating the need to support encryption
within the application itself. Tunnels are often used conjunction with VPNs.

U
U.FL. A very tiny microwave connector commonly used on mini-PCI radio cards.

UDP see User Datagram Protocol

unintentional users. Laptop users who accidentally associate to the wrong

wireless network.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). Cable used for 10baseT and 100baseT Ether
net, consisting of four pairs of twisted wires.

Useful Capacity (Cu ). The usable capacity of a battery, equal to the product of
the Nominal Capacity and the Maximum Depth of Discharge.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP). A connectionless protocol (at the transport

layer) commonly used for video and audio streaming.

UTP see Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Glossary 389

V
valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) see lead-acid batteries

vertical polarization. An electro-magnetic Celd with the electric component mov

ing in a linear vertical direction. Most wireless consumer electronic devices use
vertical polarization. See also: circular polarization, vertical polarization

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT). One of several standards used for satel
lite Internet access. VSAT is the most widely deployed satellite technology used
in Africa. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN) and Digital
Video Broadcast (DVB-S).

video sender. A 2.4 GHz video transmitter that can be used as an inexpensive
signal generator.

Virtual Private Network (VPN). A tool used to join two networks together over
an untrusted network (such as the Internet). VPNs are often used to connect re
mote users to an organization's network when traveling or working from home.
VPNs use a combination of encryption and tunneling to secure all network trafCc,
regardless of the application being used. See also: tunnel.

VoIP (Voice over IP). A technology that provides telephone-like features over an
Internet connection. Examples of popular VoIP clients include Skype, Gizmo Pro
ject, MSN Messenger, and iChat.

VPN see Virtual Private Network.

VRLA see valve regulated lead acid battery

VSAT see Very Small Aperture Terminal

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT). One of several standards used for satel
lite Internet access. VSAT is the most widely deployed satellite technology used
in Africa. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGN) and Digital
Video Broadcast (DVB-S).
390 GLOSSARY

W
WAN see Wide Area Network

War drivers. Wireless enthusiasts who are interested in Cnding the physical loc
ation of wireless networks.

wavelength. The distance measured from a point on one wave to the equivalent
part of the next, for example from the top of one peak to the next. Also known as
lambda ().

WEP see Wired Equivalent Privacy

wget. An open source command line tool for downloading web pages.
http://www.gnu.org/software/wget/

Wi-Fi. A marketing brand owned by the Wi-Fi Alliance that is used to refer to vari
ous wireless networking technologies (including 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g).
Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity.

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). A fairly strong link layer encryption protocol
supported by most modern Wi-Fi equipment.

Wi-Spy. An inexpensive 2.4 GHz spectrum analysis tool available from

http://www.metageek.net/.

Wide Area Network (WAN). Any long distance networking technology. Leased
lines, frame relay, DSL, Cxed wireless, and satellite all typically implement wide
area networks. See also: LAN.

wiki. A web site that allows any user to edit the contents of any page. One of the
most popular public wikis is http://www.wikipedia.org/

window scale. A TCP enhancement deCned by RFC1323 that allows TCP win
dow sizes larger than 64KB.

WinDump. The Windows version of tcpdump. It is available from

http://www.winpcap.org/windump/
 Glossary 391

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). A somewhat secure link layer encryption

protocol supported by virtually all 802.11a/b/g equipment.

Wireless Fidelity see Wi-Fi.

wireshark. A free network protocol analyzer for Unix and Windows.

http://www.wireshark.org/

WPA see Wi-Fi Protected Access

Z
Zabbix (http://www.zabbix.org/) A realtime monitoring tool that logs and notiCes
a system administrator about service and network outages.
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 393

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

Guidelines for building some simple types of antennas

Collinear omni
$i santennaisv erys i
mpl etobuild,requir
ingjus
tapi eceo fwir
e,anN
socketandas quareme tall
icplat
e.Itc anbeus edforindo ororoutdo or
po i
nt-t
o-multi
po i
nts hortdist
ancec o
verage.
$epl atehasaho ledr ill
edinthemi ddletoa c
commo dat
ea nN t ype
chass
issocketthatisscrewedintoplace.
$ewi reiss ol
deredt ot hec e
ntr
epi no ft heN soc
k e
ta ndhascoilsto
separ
atethea c
tivepha se
de lements
.
Twov e
rsi
onso ft hea ntennaarepo s
sible
:o newithtwopha s
edeleme nts
andt woc oi
lsa nda notherwi t
hfourpha s
ede l
ement
sa ndf ourcoi
ls
.Fo r
theshortantennat heg ai
nwi llbea r
ound5dBi ,whi
lethel ongonewi t
h
fourelementswi l
lhave7t o9dBio fga i
n.
Wea r
eg oi
ngt ode s
cribeho wtobui l
dt helongant
ennao nly.

Pa
rtsl
i
sta
ndt
ool
sre
qui
re
d
Ones cre
w- onN- typefema leconnect
or
50c mo fcoppero rbrasswireof2mm o fdia
mete
r
10x10c mo rg r
eatersquareme t
all
icplat
e
Ruler
Pli
ers
Fil
e
Sol
deringirona nds o
lder
Dril
lwi t
has e
to fbit
sf orme t
al(inc
ludi
nga15mm dia
met
erbi
t)
Api e
ceo fpipeo radrillbitwit
hadi ameterof1cm
Viceorc l
amp
Hamme r
Spannero rmo nkeywr ench
394 APPENDICES

Fi
gur
eAC1:10c
mx10c
mal
umi
nump
lat
e.

Co
nst
ruc
ti
on
S
tra
ight
ent
hewi
reus
ingt
hev
ice
.

Fi
gur
eAC2:Ma
ket
hewi
rea
sst
rai
ghta
syo
uca
n.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 395

Wit
hama rke
r,dra
wal i
nea
t2.
5cms t
art
ingf
romoneendofthewir
e.
Onthi
sli
ne,bendthewi
rea
t90de
gre
eswitht
hehe
lpofthev
iceandof
t
hehammer.

Fi
gur
eAC3:Ge
ntl
yta
pth
ewi
ret
oma
keas
har
pbe
nd.
Dr
awa
not
herl
inea
tadi
st
anc
eof3.
6cmf
romt
hebe
nd.
Us
ingt
hev
icea
ndt
heha
mme
r,be
ndo
ncea
gai
nthewi
reo
vert
hiss
eco
nd
l
i
nea
t90de
gre
es,i
ntheo
ppo
sit
edi
re
cti
ont
othe0r
stbe
ndbuti
nthe
s
amepl
ane
.$ewi
res
houl
dlo
okl
ik
ea
Z.

Fi
gur
eAC4:Be
ndt
hewi
rei
ntoa
Zs
hap
e.
Wewi
llno
wtwi
stt
he
Zpo
rti
ono
fthewi
ret
oma
keac
oilwi
tha
di
ame
tero
f1c
m.
396 APPENDICES

Todot
his
,wewi
llus
ethepi
peo
rthedr
il
lbi
tandc
urv
ethewi
rea
round
i
t,wi
tht
hehe
lpo
fthev
icea
ndo
fthepl
ie
rs.

Fi
gur
eAC5:Be
ndt
hewi
rea
rou
ndt
hed
ril
lbi
ttoma
keac
oil
.

$ec
oilwi
lll
ookl
ik
ethi
s:

Fi
gur
eAC6:ec
omp
let
edc
oil
.

Yo
us ho
uldmakeas
econdco
ila
tadista
nceof7.
8cmfr
omt he0rs
tone.
Bot
hc oi
lss
houl
dhav
et hes
ametur
ningdir
ect
iona
ndsho
uldb epl
ace
d
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 397

onthesamesideofthewir
e.Makeathi
rdandafour
thco
ilf
oll
owingthe
sa
mepr oc
edure,a
tthesamedi
sta
nceof7.8cmonefr
omeac
ho t
her
.
Tri
mt hel
astphas
ede l
ementa
tadist
anceof8.
0cmfromt
hefourt
hc o
il.

Fi
gur
eAC7:
Tryt
oke
epi
tass
tr
aig
htp
oss
ibl
e.
Ifthecoi
lsha
vebeenmadec
orr
ect
ly
,its
houl
dno
wbepo
ssi
blet
oins
erta
pipethr
oughal
ltheco
il
sass
hown.

Fi
gur
eAC8:I
nse
rt
ingap
ipec
anh
elpt
ost
rai
ght
ent
hewi
re
.
Wi t
hama r
k e
ra nd ar ul
er
,dr a
wt hedia
gonalso
nt heme t
al
li
cplat
e,
0ndingitscentr
e.Wi thasmalldi
amete
rdri
llbit
,makeapil
othol
eatthe
cent
reo ftheplate.Incr
eas
ethedi a
mete
roft heho
leusi
ngbitswit
ha n
i
nc r
eas
ingdiame t
er.
398 APPENDICES

Fi
gur
eAC9:Dr
il
li
ngt
heh
olei
nth
eme
talp
lat
e.

$eho
les
houl
d0tt
heN c
onne
cto
rex
act
ly
.Us
ea0l
eifne
ede
d.

Fi
gur
eAC10:eN c
onne
ct
ors
hou
ldCts
nug
lyi
nth
eho
le
.
Toha
vea
nant
ennai
mpe
danc
eof50Ohms
,iti
simpo
rta
ntt
hatt
he
v
isi
bl
esur
fac
eoft
hei
nte
rna
lins
ula
toro
fthec
onne
cto
r(t
hewhi
tea
rea
a
roundt
hec
ent
ralpi
n)i
satt
hes
amel
eve
last
hes
urf
aceo
fthepl
at
e.
Fo
rthi
sre
aso
n,c
ut0.
5cmo
fco
ppe
rpi
pewi
tha
nex
ter
naldi
ame
tero
f2
c
m,a
ndpl
acei
tbe
twe
ent
hec
onne
cto
randt
hepl
at
e.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 399

Fi
gur
eAC11:Ad
dingac
opp
erpipes
pac
erh
elp
stoma
tcht
hei
mpe
danc
eof
t
heant
ennat
o50Oh ms.

S
cre
wthenutt
othec
onne
cto
rto0xi
t0r
mlyo
nthepl
at
eus
ingt
hes
panne
r.

Fi
gur
eAC12:S
ecu
ret
heN c
onne
ct
ort
ig
htl
ytot
hep
lat
e.
S
moo
thwi
tht
he0l
ethes
ideo
fthewi
rewhi
chi
s2.
5cml
ong
,fr
omt
he0r
stc
oil
.
400 APPENDICES

Ti
nthewir
efo
rar
ound0.
5cma
tthes
moo
the
dendhe
lpi
ngy
our
sel
fwi
th
t
hevi
ce.

Fi
gur
eAC13:Ad
dal
it
tl
eso
lde
rtot
hee
ndo
fth
ewi
ret
ot
in
itp
rio
rtos
ol
der
ing
.
Witht
heso l
der
ingiro
n,tinthecentr
alpinoftheconnec
tor
.Keepi
ngthe
wi
reve
rti
calwit
ht hepli
er
s,sol
derit
stinne
dsideinthehol
eo ft
hecent
ral
pi
n.$e0rstcoi
lshoul
dbea t3.
0cmf romthepla
te.

Fi
gur
eAC14:eCr
stc
oils
hou
lds
ta
rt3.
0cmf
romt
hes
urf
aceo
fth
epl
at
e.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 401

Wea r
eno wgoingtostr
etc
hthecoi
lsext
endi
ngthet
otalv
erti
call
eng
thof
thewire
.Usi
ngt hevi
ceandthepl
ie
rs,y
oushoul
dpul
lthecabl
esothatt
he
0nall
engt
hofthecoi
lisof2.
0cm.

Fi
gur
eAC15:S
tre
tc
hingt
heco
ils
.Beve
ryge
ntl
eandt
ryno
ttos
cr
apet
hes
urf
ace
o
fthewir
ewit
hthepl
ie
rs
.

Repe
att
hesa
mepr
oce
dur
efo
rtheo
the
rthr
eec
oil
s,s
tr
etc
hingt
hei
rle
ngt
h
t
o2.0cm.

Fi
gur
eAC16:Re
pea
tth
est
re
tc
hingp
roc
edu
ref
ora
llo
fth
ere
mai
ningc
oil
s.
402 APPENDICES

Att
hee
ndt
hea
nte
nnas
houl
dme
asur
e42.
5cmf
romt
hepl
at
etot
het
op.

Fi
gur
eAC17:eCni
she
dant
ennas
hou
ldbe42.
5cmf
romt
hep
lat
etot
he
e
ndoft
hewir
e.

I
fyo
u ha
veas
pec
trum a
nal
yze
r wi
th at
rac
king g
ene
rat
ora
nd a
di
re
cti
ona
lco
upl
er
,yo
uca
nche
ckt
hec
urv
eoft
her
eWe
cte
dpo
wero
fthe
a
nte
nna
.

$ef
oll
owi
ngpi
ct
ures
howst
hedi
spl
ayo
fthes
pec
trum a
nal
yze
r.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 403

Fi
gur
eAC18:As
pec
tr
ump
loto
fth
ere
Eec
te
dpo
wero
fth
eco
ll
ine
aro
mni
.

Ify
ouinte
ndt ousethisantennaoutsi
de,youwillnee
dtowe a
ther
proo
f
i
t.$es i
mples
tme t
ho distoe ncl
osethewholethinginala
rgepie
ceof
PVC pi
peclo
sedwithcaps.Cutaho leatthebot
tomf ort
het
ransmi
ssi
on
l
ine
,andsea
ltheante
nnas hutwithsi
li
coneorPVCg l
ue.

Cantenna
$ewa veguideantenna,s o
me t
imescall
edaCa nt
enna,use
sat i
nc a
na sa
waveguideandas hortwi resol
der
edo nanN connecto
ra saprobefor
coax
ial-ca
ble-t
o-waveguidet r
ansi
ti
on.I tca
n bee as
il
ybuiltatjustthe
pri
ceo fthec onnector
,r ecyc
li
ngaf o
o d,j
uic
e,oro t
herti
nc an.Iti
sa
dir
ecti
onala nte
nna,us efulforshorttome di
um dis
tanc
epo i
nt-t
o-po
int
l
inks.Itma ybea l
souseda saf e
ederforapara
bol
icdis
ho rgri
d.

Notal
lc ans a
reg oodf
or bui
ldi
ng a
nant
enna be
caus
ethe
rea
re
di
mens
iona
lconst
rai
nts
.

1.$ea cce
pta
bleva
lue
sfo
rthedia
mete
rD ofthefe
edarebe
twe
en0.60
and 0.
75wa v
ele
ngt
hina i
ratthedes
ignf
req
uency.At2.
44GHzt he
wavel
engh i
t s12.
2cm,sothecandi
amet
ershoul
dbeinthera
ngeof
7.3-10cm.
404 APPENDICES

2.$eleng
thLoftheca
npref
era
blys
houl
dbea
tle
as 75G ,whe
t0. reG
ist
heg
uidewa
vel
engthandi
sgi
venby:

G =/
(s
qrt
( /1.
1-( 706
D)2
))

ForD =7.3c m,wene edac a

no fatle
ast56.4c m,whileforD =9.2cm
weneedac ano fatle
ast14.
8c m.Generall
ythes mal
lerthedia
meter
,the
l
ongerthecanshouldbe.Forourexample,wewi l
luseoilcanst
hathav
ea
di
ame t
erof8.3cma ndahe i
ghtofabout21c m.
3.$e pr obe f o
rc oaxi
alc a
blet o waveguide tr
ansi
tio
ns hould be
posi
ti
onedatadi s
tanc
eSf r
omt hebott
omo fthecan,giv
enb y:

25G
S=0.

I
tsl
eng
ths
houl 25,whi
dbe0. cha
t2.
44GHzc
orr
espo
ndst
o3.
05c
m.

Fi
gur
eAC19:Di
mens
io
nalc
ons
tr
aint
sont
hec
ant
enna

$egai
nforthi
sa nt
ennawi
llbei
ntheo
rde
rof10t
o14dBi
,wi
tha
be
amwi
dthofar
ound60degr
ees
.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 405

Fi
gur
eAC20:eCni
she
dca
nte
nna
.

Pa
rtsl
i
st
ones
cre
w-onN- t
ypefema
lec
onnec
tor
4cmofcopperorbr
asswi
reo
f2mm o fdi
amete
r
anoi
lcanof8.3cmofdia
mete
rand21cmo fhei
ght

Fi
gur
eAC21:Pa
rtsne
ede
dfo
rth
eca
nte
nna
.
406 APPENDICES

To
olsr
equi
re
d
Cano pener
Ruler
Pli
ers
Fil
e
Sol
deringir
on
Sol
der
Dril
lwi t
has e
tofbi
tsf
ormet
al(
wit
ha1.
5cm di
ame
terbi
t)
Viceorclamp
Spannerormo nk
eywre
nch
Hamme r
Punch

Co
nst
ruc
ti
on
Wi
tht
hec
ano
pene
r,c
are
ful
l
yre
mov
etheuppe
rpa
rto
fthec
an.

Fi
gur
eAC22:Bec
are
fulo
fsh
arpe
dge
swh
eno
peni
ngt
hec
an.

$ecir
culardis
khasaveryshar
pe dg
e.Becar
efulwhe
nhandli
ngi
t!
Empt
yt hec a
na ndwashi twit
hs oap
.Ifthec a
ncont
ainedpi
nea
ppl
e,
co
oki
es
,o rsomeo t
hert
ast
ytrea
t,haveafr
ie
nds er
vet
hef
oo d.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 407

Withtherul
e r
,me asur
e6. 2cmf ro
mt hebo tt
o mo fthec a
na nddrawa
poi
nt.Bec a
refultome a
surefro
mt hei nnersideoft hebott
o m.Usea
punch(oras ma l
ldr i
llbitoraPhi ll
ipss c
rewdriv
er)a ndaha mme rto
markthepoint.$i sma kesitea
si
ert opr ec
is
elydril
ltheho l
e.Bec a
ref
ul
nott
oc ha
nget heshapeo ftheca
ndo ingt hi
sb yins
ert
ingas mallbl
ockof
woodorothero bj
ectinthec a
nbeforetappingit.

Fi
gur
eAC23:Ma
rkt
heh
oleb
efo
red
ril
l
ing
.
Withas mal
ldia
me t
erdri
llbi
t,ma keaho leatt
hecent
reo fthepl
ate
.
I
ncre
a s
ethedia
meteroftheholeusi
ngbitswithanincr
eas
ingdiamet
er
.
$eho les
houl
d0te x
act
lytheN connect
or.
Usethe0let
osmo ot
hthebo r
deroftheholeandtoremovethepai
nti
ng
ar
ounditinor
dertoens
ureabette
relec
tri
calco
nta
ctwit
hthec o
nnect
or.

Fi
gur
eAC24:Ca
ref
ul
lyd
ril
lap
il
oth
ole
,th
enu
seal
arg
erb
itt
oCni
sht
hej
ob.

S
mo ot
hwiththe0l
eo nee
ndofthewi
re.Ti
nthewi
ref
ora
round0.
5cm
a
tthesameendhel
pingyo
urs
el
fwitht
hevic
e.
408 APPENDICES

Fi
gur
eAC25:Ti
nth
eendo
fth
ewi
reb
efo
res
ol
der
ing
.

Wi
tht
hes
olde
ri
ngi
ron,t
int
hec
ent
ralpi
noft
hec
onne
cto
r.

Keepi
ngthewir
evertic
alwitht
hepl
ier
s,s
olde
rit
sti
nne
dsi
dei
n
thehol
eofthecent
ralpin.

Fi
gur
eAC26 :So
lde
rth
ewiretot
hego
ldc
upontheNconne
ct
or
.
Ins
ertawasherandge
ntl
ysc
rewthenuto
ntot
hec o
nnec
tor
.
Tri
mt hewireat3.
05cm me
asur
edfro
mthebott
om pa
rtoft
henut.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 409

Fi
gureAC27:el engt
hofth ewireiscr
it
ic
al.
Unsc
rewthenutfromt heconne
ctor
,lea
vingt hewa s
heri
nplac
e.
I
nser
ttheconnect
o ri
ntothehol
eo ft
hec an.
Sc
rewthenuto ntheconnec
torf
romi ns
idet hecan.

Fi
gur
eAC28:As
se
mbl
eth
eant
enna
.
410 APPENDICES

Uset
hepli
erso
rt hemonk
eywr
enc
htos
cre
w 0r
mlyt
henuto
nthe
co
nne
cto
r.Y
ouaredone
!

Fi
gur
eAC29:
You
rCni
she
dca
nte
nna
.

Aswi tht heo t

herantennade si
gns
,yous houl
d ma keawe at
herpro
of
encl
o s
urefortheante
nnai fyouwishtouseitoutdoo
rs.PVC work
swe l
l
f
o rthecanantenna
.Inse
rtt heent
ir
ecaninalarg
ePVCt ube
,andsealt
he
endswithc a
psandg l
ue.
Youwi l
lneedtodril
laho leinthesi
deofthet
ubet oac
co mmoda
tetheN
connect
oro nthesi
deoft hecan.

Cantenna as dish feed

Aswi tht heUS Bdo ng lepa r
abolic,youc anus et hec a
ntennade si
gna sa
feede rforapa raboli
cr eWe
c t
ort husa tt
ainingas igni
0cantl
yhi ghergain.
Mo untt hec a
no nthepa r
abolicwi ththeo peningo fthec a
npo i
nteda t
thec ent
reo fthedi sh.Us et het echniquede scribedint heUS Bdo ng l
e
ante nnae xample(watc hingsignalstrengthc hange sove
rt i
me )to0ndt he
optimum l oc
ati
ono ft hec a
nf ort hedishy oua reus i
ng.
Byus ingawe l
l-bui
ltc antennawi t
hapr ope r
lyt unedparaboli
c,yo uc an
achie vea no ve
rallant ennag aino f30dBio rmo r
e.Ast hes i
zeo ft he
para boli
ci ncre
ases,so do e sthepo tenti
alg aina nd dir
ecti
vit
yo ft he
antenna .Wi thv er
yl argepa rabolas,youc ana chievesi
gni0cant
lyhi gher
gain.
 APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION 411

NEC2
NEC2s ta ndsf o rNume ri
c alEl ec troma gne ticsCo de( version2)a ndi sa
freeant e nnamo delingpa c
k ag e.NEC2l et
sy o ubui l
da na nt ennamo delin
3D,a nd t he na na lys
est hea nt enna
se l
e ctroma gneticr espons e.I twa s
develo pe dmo ret ha nt eny e ar
sa g oa nd ha sbe e nc ompi ledt or un o n
ma ny di 1e re ntc omput ers ystems .NEC2 i spa rti
cularlye 1ectivef or
analysingwi re- gri
dmo dels,buta l
soha ss omes urfacepa tchmo deling
capabi l
ity .
$ea nt ennade s
igni sde scribe di nat e xt0l e,andt henthemo de lisbui l
t
usingt hi st ex tde scripti
on.Ana nt ennade scribedi nNEC2i sg i
v enint wo
parts:itss truc turea ndas eq uenc eo fco ntrols.
$es truc tur ei ssimpl yanume ricalde s
cript i
o no fwhe ret hedi 1erent
partso ft hea nt ennaa reloc ated,a ndho wt hewi resa reconne cte dup .$e
contro lst ellNECwhe ret heRFs our cei sco nnec ted.
Onc et he sea re de 0ne d,t he t r ansmi tti
ng a nte nna i st hen mo dell
ed.
Be ca
us eo ft her eciprocityt heo remt het ransmi ttingg a
inpa tterni st he
samea st her eceivingo ne ,s omo de ll
ingt het ransmi s
si
o nc harac t
eristi
csis
suNc ientt ounde rstandt hea nte nna 'sbe havio urc o mpletely.
Af req ue nc yo rr ang eo ff req uenc ieso ftheRFs igna lmus tbes pec i
0ed.
$e ne xti mpo rt
ant e leme nt i st he c ha rac
te ro ft he g round.$e
conduc tivityo ft hee arthv a riesf rom pl ac
et opl ac e,buti nma nyc asesit
playsav italro leinde ter
mi ningt hea nt ennag ai
npa tt
ern.
Tor unNEC2o nLi nux,i ns tal
lt heNEC2pa ck agef romt heURLbe low.
Tol aunc hi t,t ypene c2a nde nte rthei nputa ndo utput0l ena me s.Itisalso
wo rt
hi ns talling t he x ne cview pa cka gef o rs t
r ucturev eri
0c ati
ona nd
radiation pa ttern pl o
tting.I fa llwe ntwe lly o us ho uld ha ve a 0l e
containi ngt heo utput.$i sc anbebr okenupi nt ov ari
o uss ections,but
foraq uic ki de ao fwha titr epres entsag ainpa tternc anbepl ottedus ing
xne c
v i
e w. Y o u s hould s ee t he e xpe cted pa tt
ern, ho riz
o ntall
y
omni di rec t
io na l,wi thape aka tt heo ptimum a ng leo ftake o1.Wi ndo ws
andMa cv er sionsa rea l
soa vailable.

$ea dv
anta
geo fNEC2i sthatwecang etanide aofhowtheantenna
work
sbefo
rebuildi
ngit
,andho w wec a
nmo di
fythedesi
gninorderto
ge
tthemaximum gai
n.I
tisac omple
xt oola
ndr equir
ess
omeres
earc
ht o
l
ear
nho wtous eite1ec
ti
vely
,butiti saninvaluabl
etoolf
orantenna
de
sig
ner
s.
NEC2isavai
la
blefr
om htt
p:/
/www.nec2.
org/
412 APPENDICES

APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS

$efoll
owingta
ble
sli
stt
hecha
nne
lnumbe
rsa
ndc
ent
ref
req
uenc
iesus
ed
f
or802.
11aand802.
11b/
g.

Notethatwhilea
llofthes
efr
equenci
esarei
nt heunli
cens
edI S
Ma nd U-
NIIbands,notal
lchannel
sar
ea v
aila
bleinal
lcountr
ies
.Ma nyregi
onsimt
po
serest
rict
ionsonoutputpo
wera ndindoo
r/o utdo
oruseo nsomechant
ne
ls.

$e s
eregula
ti
onsarerapidl
ychangi
ng,soa
lwaysc
hec
ky o
urloc
alreg
ulat
t
ionsbef
oretra
nsmit
ti
ng .Notetha
tthes
eta
ble
sshowthec
ent
erfr
equenc
y
f
ore a
chc ha
nnel.Channelsar
e22MHzwi dein802.
11b/
g,and20MHz
wi
dein802.11a.

802.11b / g

Channel Center Frequency Channel Center Frequency

# (GHz) # (GHz)

1 2.412 8 2.447

2 2.417 9 2.452

3 2.422 10 2.457

4 2.427 11 2.462

5 2.432 12 2.467

6 2.437 13 2.472

7 2.442 14 2.484
 APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS 413

802.11a

Channel Center Frequency (GHz)

34 5.170

36 5.180

38 5.190

40 5.200

42 5.210

44 5.220

46 5.230

48 5.240

52 5.260

56 5.280

60 5.300

64 5.320

149 5.745

153 5.765

157 5.785

161 5805
414 APPENDICES

APPENDIX C: PATH LOSS

 APPENDIX D: CABLE SIZES 415

APPENDIX D: CABLE SIZES

Wiregauge,dia
meter
,c urre
ntc
apa
cit
y,a
nd r
esi
st
anc
ea t20
C.$e se
va
luescanv ar
yf rom c abl
etoca
ble.Whe
ni n doubt
,consul
tthe
manufa
ctur
er'
sspec
i0ca
ti
o ns.

AWG Gauge Diameter (mm) Ohms / Meter Max

Amperes

0000 11.68 0.000161 302

000 10.40.00 0.000203 239

00 9.27 0.000256 190

0 8.25 0.000322 150

1 7.35 0.000406 119

2 6.54 0.000513 94

3 5.83 0.000646 75

4 5.19 0.000815 60

5 4.62 0.001028 47

6 4.11 0.001296 37

7 3.67 0.001634 30

8 3.26 0.002060 24

9 2.91 0.002598 19

10 2.59 0.003276 15
416 APPENDICES

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

Uset
hes
etabl
estocol
le
ctt
hene
ces
sar
yda
tat
oes
ti
mat
ether
equi
re
dsi
zeo
f
yo
ursol
are
nergysy
ste
m.

General Data

Site Name

Site Latitude ()

Irradiation Data
Gdm(0), in kWh / m2 per day)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Worst Irradiation Month

Reliability and System Operational Voltage

Days of Autonomy (N)

Nominal Voltage (VNEquip)

 APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING 417

Component Characteristics

Solar Panels

Voltage @ Maximum Power (Vpmax)

Current @ Maximum Power (Ipmax)

Panel Type/Model and Power (Wp)

Batteries

Nominal Capacity @ 100 H (CNBat)

Nominal Voltage (VNBat)

Maximum Depth of Discharge (DoDMAX)

or Usable Capacity (CUBat)

Regulator

Nominal Voltage (VNReg)

Maximum Current (ImaxReg)

418 APPENDICES

Solar Panels

Voltage @ Maximum Power (Vpmax)

Current @ Maximum Power (Ipmax)

Panel Type/Model and Power (Wp)

DC/AC Inverter (if needed)

Nominal Voltage (VNConv)

Instantaneous Power (PIConv)

Performance @ 70% Load

Loads

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

x Usage
= Energy
x Nominal
Description # of Units
Power Hours /
(Wh/day)
Day
 APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING 419

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

ETOTAL DC

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (AC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

x Usage
= Energy
x Nominal
Description # of Units
Power Hours /
(Wh/day)
Day
420 APPENDICES

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

ETOTAL AC (before converter)

ETOTAL AC (after converter) = ETOTAL AC / 70%

Finding the Worst Month

Site Name

Site Latitude ()

Nominal Voltage of the Installation VN

(Month) J F M A M J J A S O N D

Inclination

2
Gdm () (kWh/m
day)
 APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING 421

Site Name

Site Latitude ()

ETOTAL (DC)
(Wh/day)

ETOTAL (AC)
(Wh/day)

ETOTAL (AC + DC)=

Im (A) = ETOTAL
(Wh/day)
2
1kW/m / (Gdm() x
VN)

Worst Month Summary

Worst Month

Im (A)

ImMAX (A) = 1.21 x Im

ETOTAL (AC + DC)

422 APPENDICES

Final Calculations

Panels

Panels in Series (NPS) NPS = VN / VPmax =

Panels in Parallel (NPP) NPP = ImMAX / IPmax =

Total Number of Panels NTOT = NPS x NPP =

Batteries

Necessary Capacity ETOTAL(WORST

(CNEC) MONTH) / VN x N

Nominal Capacity
CNEC / DoDMAX
(CNOM)

Number of Batteries in
VN / VNBAT
Series (NBS)

Cables

Panels > Bat Batteries >

Main Line
teries Converter

Voltage Drop (Va - Vb)

 APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING 423

Panels

Panels in Series (NPS) NPS = VN / VPmax =

Panels in Parallel (NPP) NPP = ImMAX / IPmax =

Thickness (Section)

r x L x ImMAX / (Va - Vb)

Forca
blet
hic
kne
ssc
omput
ati
o 01286 mm2/
n,r=0. m(f
orc
oppe
r)a
ndL
ist
hele
ngt
hinmetr
es.
424 APPENDICES

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES

Wereco
mmendthes
eres
ourc
esfo
rle
arni
ngmo
rea
boutt
hev
ari
ous
a
spe
ctsofwi
re
les
snet
worki
ng.

Ant
enna
sAndAnt
ennaDe
si
gn
Fre
ea nt
ennadesi
gns,htt
p:/
/www. f
reea
ntennas
.com/
Hyperli
nkTech,ht
tp:/
/hyperl
inkte
ch.c
om/
Pasa
denaNe t
worksLLC,ht t
p://www.wla
npa r
ts
.com/
Super
Pass,ht
tp:
//
www. s
uperpass.
com/
UnoNc i
alNEC2c odea r
chi
ves,http:
//
www. nec2.o
rg/
US BWi Fidi
shdesi
gns,htt
p:/
/ www.us
bwi0.orc
o n.
net
.nz
/

Ne
two
rkTr
oub
les
hoo
tingTo
ols
Bingt hroug hputme asureme ntt ool,http://
fg ouget.
free.
fr/
bing/i
ndex-
en.sht ml
Cac tine t
wo rkmo nit
o r
ingpa ckage,ht t
p: //
www. cact
i.net
/
DS LRe po rtsba ndwidths peedt est
s,ht tp:/
/www. dsl
reports
.com/st
est
Ethe rApene two rkt r
aNcmo ni to
r,ht t
p://ethe r
ape.sourcef
orge.
net/
Flowco pens ourceNe t
Flo wc o l
lect
o r
,ht tp:
// net
ac a
d.k i
ev.
ua/Wowc/
i
ptr afne t
wo rkdi a
g nosti
ct o o
l,ht t
p://i
pt raf
.seul.
or g
/
MyTr ace
Ro utene two r
kdi agno s
ti
ct ool,ht tp://
www. bitwiz
ard.nl
/mtr/
Na giosne two rkmo nitoringa nde v
e ntno ti
0c a
ti
ont o ol
,
http://www. na gi
o s.or
g/
Ne tFlow,t heCi scopr o t
o colfo rcoll
e c
tingI Pt r
aNci nf
orma ti
on,
http://en.
wi k i
pedia .
org/wi ki/
Ne tWow
ngrepne t
wo rkse curi
tyut ili
tyf or0ndi ngpa tter
nsi nda t
aWo ws,
http://ngrep .
source f
orge.ne t
/
Ne two rkmo nitoringi mpl eme ntat
iong uidesa ndt utori
als
,
http://wiki.debian.org/Ne two rk_Mo nito ri
ng
Nto pne t
wo rkmo nit
o r
ingt ool,htt
p: /
/www. ntop.org/
SoftPe r
fectne two rka nalysistoo l
s,ht t
p://www. s
oftperfe
ct.
com/
Squi dt ra
ns parentht tppr o xyHOWTO,
http://tl
dp.o rg/HOWTO/ TransparentPro xy
.ht ml
Wi resharkne two r
kpr o t
o cola naly
zer,ht tp:
// www. wires
hark.or
g/
 APPENDIX F: RESOURCES 425

MRTG,ht tp://oss.
oetiker
.ch/mrtg/
rr
dtool,http:/
/oss.oet
ik e
r.c
h/rrdtool
/
Smo kepi
ng,ht tp:/
/o s
s.oeti
ker.
ch/smokepi
ng/
Argus,htt
p: /
/qo si
ent.
c om/argus/
Netramet,http:
//www. cai
da.or
g /
tool
s/meas
ure
ment
/ne
tra
met
/
Snort
,http://www. snor t
.or
g/
Mo dS ec
urity,ht t
p://
www. mo dsecuri
ty.
org
/
Apache,http://
www. apache.o
rg /
Zabbix,http://
www. z
a bbi
x.org/
ngrep,htt
p: /
/ngrep.sourcef
o r
ge.net
/
nma p,htt
p://www. nma p.
org
net
cat,http:/
/nc 110.sourcef
orge.net
/

S
ecur
it
y
Ant i
Pro xyht tppr ox
yc ircumv entiont oolsandi nfo r
ma t
ion,
http://
www. ant iproxy.
c om/
Ant i
-spywa ret ools
,ht tp://www. spyche cker.
c om/
Dr i
ftnetne two rkmo nitoringut ilit
y,
http://
www. ex parrot
.co m/ ~c hris/drif
tne t/
Introductiont oOpe nVPN,ht tp://www. l
inux j
o urnal.c
om/ art
icl
e/7949
Linuxs ecur i
t ya nda dmi ns o f
t war e
,
http://
www. linux .o
rg/a pps/a l
l/Ne two rk i
ng /Security_/_Admi n.
html
Ope nS SHs ecur eshella ndt unne li
ngt o ol,http://openssh.
o rg
/
Ope nVPN e nc rypte
dt unne lsetupg uide ,http://openvpn.ne t
/howto.html
Privoxy0l teringwe bpr oxy,ht tp:/ /
www. privoxy .
org/
PuTTYS S Hc lientforWi ndo ws ,ht tp://www. put t
y .
nl/
Sawmi lllo ga na lyz
er,ht tp://www. s
awmi ll
.net/
Securityo ft heWEPa lgorithm,
ht tp://www. isaac. cs.ber kel e y.edu/ isaac/ wep- faq.ht ml
Stunne lUni v ersalSSLWr appe r,http://www. stunne l
.org
/
TORo nio nr o uter
,ht tp://www. to r
pr oject.
org/
We akne ss
e sint heKe yS che dul i
ngAl go ri
thm o fRC4,
http://
www. cry pto.
co m/ pa pers/o t
he rs/rc4_ksapr oc.
ps
Wi ndo wsS CPc l
ie
nt,ht tp: //wins cp.net/
Your802. 11Wi rel
essNe two rkha sNoCl othes,
http://
www. cs.umd. edu/ ~wa a/wi r
e l
ess.pdf
Zo neAlarm pe rsonal0r ewa l
lf orWi ndo ws,http: /
/www. zonelabs.
com/
Lo ggi
ng ,ht t
p: //wigl
e.ne t/,ht tp://www. nodedb .com/ ,
orht t
p://www. st
umbl er.ne t
/.ht tp: /
/www. isa
a c
.c s
.berkel
ey.edu/i
saac/
we p-
426 APPENDICES

fa
q.ht mlhttp:/
/www. cs
.umd.edu/~wa a/wire
les
s.pdf
htt
p:/ /
dl.
aircr
ack-ng.or
g/brea
kingwe pandwpa .
pdf
htt
p:/ /
downl oa
d.aircr
ackng.or
g/wiki0l
e s
/doc/enhanced_tk
ip_mic
hae
l.
pdf
CaptiveP orta
ls
,Co ova
Chi l
li
,Co ovaAP( htt
p://
coova.or
g/Coov
aChi
ll
i/
)
WiF idog( htt
p://
www. wi0dog.org
/ )
M0 n0wa ll
,pfSense( htt
p://
m0n0. ch/wall
/ )
Putty,http:/
/www. putt
y.nl/
WinS CP,ht t
p://
wi nsc
p.net/
Cygwi n,ht t
p:/
/www. cygwin.c
om/
Ope nVPN J o
urna l
,http://
www. l
inuxjournal.
com/ a
rtic
le/
7949
Tor,ht t
p://www.torproj
ect.
org/
Spyche c
ker,http:
/ /
www. spyc
hecker.com/

Ba
ndwi
dthOpt
imi
sa
ti
on
Ca chehier
archieswi t
hS quid,
http://
squi
d-do cs.
sourc
efor
g e.net/
la
test
/html/c
2075.ht
ml
dnsma sqcachingDNSa ndDHCPs erver
,
http://
www.the kel
leys
.org
.uk /dnsmasq/
do c.
html
Enha nci
ngI nternat
ionalWo rl
dWi deWe bAcces
si nMoza
mbique
$r oughtheUs eo fMi r
roringa ndCa chingProx
ies,
http://
www.isoc.org/i
net
97/ ans97/cl
oet
.htm
Fl
u10l edist
ri
but io
nut il
it
y,ht tp:
//www.bris
tol
.a
c.uk/
Wu1/
LinuxAdv ancedRo uti
nga ndTr a
NcCo ntr
olHOWTO,ht tp:
//
la
rtc
.or
g/
Mi cros
oftInternetS e
curi
tya ndAc c
ele
ratio
nS er
ver,
http://
www.mi crosoft
.co
m/ isaser
ver/
Mi
cr
oso
ftI
SAS
erv
erFi
re
wal
landCa
cher
eso
urc
esi
te
,ht
tp:
//
www.
is
ase
rve
r.
org
/
Optimis
ingInter
netBa ndwidthinDe vel
o pi
ngCo untr
yHi g
her
Educat
ion,htt
p:/
/www. i
na s
p .
inf
o/pubs
/bandwidth/inde
x.ht
ml
Pl
anetMa la
ysi
ablogo nba ndwidthma nagement,
ht
tp:/
/pl
anetmy.c
om/ bl
o g
/ ?
p=148
RFC 3135:P e
rfo
rma nceEnha nci
ngPro x
iesInte
nde dtoMi t
iga
teLi
nk-
Rela
tedDe gr
adat
ions,http:/
/www. i
et
f.
org/rf
c/r
fc3135
Squi
dwe bpr o
xyc ac
he,ht tp://
squid-cache.org/

Me
shNe
two
rki
ng
Fr
eif
unkOLS Rme s
h0rmwa r
efortheLi
nks
ysWRT54G,
ht
tp:
//www.
fr
eif
unk.
net/
wiki
/Fre
if
unkFi
rmwar
e
MITRo of
netProj
ect
,htt
p:/
/pdos.
cs
ai
l.
mit
.e
du/r
oof
net
/do
ku.
php
 APPENDIX F: RESOURCES 427

OLSRme s
hne t
worki
ngda e
mo n,htt
p:/
/www.ol
sr
.or
g/
Ai
rJ
aldiMes
hRo ute
r,htt
p:/
/drupal
.a
ir
jal
di.
com/
node/9
OpenWRT,ht t
p:/
/wiki
.o
penwr t
.or
g/t
oh/s
tar
t
Vi
ll
ageTel
co,www.vi
ll
aget
elc
o.org

Wi
re
les
sOpe
rat
ingS
yst
emsAndDr
ive
rs
DD- WRTwi r
eles
sr outerOS ,
http:/
/www.dd-wrt.
com/
Host
APwi r
ele
ssdriverfort hePris
m 2.5chi
pse
t,htt
p:/
/hos
tap
.epi
te
st.
0/
m0n0wa l
lwirel
es
sr outerOS ,htt
p://
m0n0.c
h/wall
/
MadWi Fiwire
les
sdr i
v e
rf ortheAt her
oschi
pse
t,htt
p:/
/madwi0.
org
/
Metr
ixPy ra
midwi rel
e s
sr outerOS ,
ht
tp:
//code.
googl
e.com/ p/pyramidli
nux/
OpenWRTwi rel
essrout e
rOSf orLinksy
sacce
sspoint
s,
ht
tp:
//openwrt.
org
/
Tomatowi r
el
essrouterOSf orLink s
ysac
ces
spoint
s,
ht
tp:
//www.polar
cloud.com/ tomato

Wi
re
les
sTo
ols
Chil
li
spo tca pti
v epo rt
al,http://
www. c hil
li
spot.i
nfo/
Int
erac
tiveWi relessNe t
wo rkDe s
ignAna lysi
sUt i
lit
ies
,
htt
p:/
/www. qsl
.ne t/n9zia/wirel
ess/
page 09.html
Kis
MACwi r el
essmo nit
o rforMa cOSX,ht t
p://kismac-ng.org
/
Kis
me twi reles
sne two rkmo ni
tori
ngt o o l
,http:
//www. ki
smetwir
ele
ss.
net
/
Ma c
Stumbl erwi r
e les
sne two rkdetecti
o nt oolforMa cOSX,
htt
p:/
/www. ma cstumbl er.com/
NetSt
umb l
erwi relessne tworkde te
ctiont oolforWi ndows,
htt
p:/
/www. wirelessde f
ence.org/Content s/
Ne ts
tumble r
Ma i
n.htm
Nets
po twire l
essne t
wo rkde tecti
onf orMa cOSX,
htt
p:/
/www. netspo tapp.com/
PHPMy PrePa i
dpr epa i
dt icket
ingsystem,
htt
p:/
/source fo
rg e.net/projec
t s
/phpmy pr epai
d/
RadioMo bil
er a diope r
forma ncemo de lingto ol
,
htt
p:/
/www. cplus.org/ r
mw/
RadioMo bileo nline ,http:/
/www. cplus .
org/rmw/rmo nli
ne.
html
Well
enreiterwi relessne two r
kde tec
tiont oolforLinux,
htt
p:/
/source fo
rg e.net/projec
t s
/well
enre ite
r/
WiFiDo gc aptivepo rtal
,ht t
p://www. wi 0dog.or
g /
Prox
im,ht t
p: /
/www. proxim.com/techno l
ogy
428 APPENDICES

WiSpyspe
ctr
um anal
ysi
stool
,htt
p:/
/www.meta
geek.
net/
Spe
ctr
um Anal
yse
r,http://www. seeedstudi o.com/depot/rf
-
explorer-model -ws ub1g-p- 922.html ?cPath=174
"RFExplo
rermodel2.
4G" ,
http:
//www. s
eeedstudio.com/ depot/
-p-924. html
cPat
h=174
Vi
deo
Send.
htt
p:/
/www.
l
ight
int
hebo
x.c
om/
Popul
ar
/Wi
0_Vi
deo
_Tr
ans
mit
ter
.ht
ml

Ge
ner
alWi
re
les
sRe
lat
edI
nfo
rma
ti
on
Home br
ewwi rel
essha rdwa rede s
igns,htt
p: //
www. w1ghz.
org/
Li
nksyswire
lessaccesspo intinforma t
ion,ht t
p: //
li
nksysi
nfo.
org
/
Li
nksysWRT54G r es
o urceg uide,
ht
tp:
//se
att
le
wi re
les
s.net/inde x.
cgi/
LinksysWr t54g
Ronj
ao pti
caldatalinkha rdware,http:
//r
o nja.twibri
ght.
com/
Se
att
leWirel
esscommuni tywi r
eles
sg roup,htt p://
sea
ttl
ewir
ele
ss.
net
/
Se
att
leWirel
essHa rdwa rec ompa ri
sonpa ge,
ht
tp:
//www.seatt
le
wi rel
e s
s.net/Hardwa r
eCo mpa ri
son
St
ephenFoskett'
sP owe rOv erEthernet(Po E)Ca l
cula
tor,
ht
tp:
//www.gwe e
p.ne t
/~sfos k
e t
t/t
ech/poecalc.
ht ml
WhiteSpacesproject,http://www.wirel
e s
swhi tespace
.or
g/pro
jec
ts.
as
px

Ge
ner
alCo
mput
ingTo
ols
Fi
leshar
ing,htt
p://
sparkl
es
har
e.o
rg,ht
tps:
//gi
thub.
com/phi
lcr
yer
/l
ipsy
nc,
ht
tp:
//rs
ync.
samba.or
g/
OpenRe la
ytest
ing,http:
//
www.mail
ra
da r
.c
om/ ope
nrel
ay,
ht
tp:
//www.chec
ko r
.c
o m/
Dis
ki magi
ng,http:
//www.par
ti
mage.
org,htt
p://
www.powerq
uest
.com/

Ne
two
rki
ngS
erv
ice
sAndTr
ai
ning
Wirel
essToolkit
,
htt
p:/
/wtki
t.
o r
g /
g r
oups /
wt ki
t/
wi ki
/820cb/downl o
ad_page.ht
ml
wir
e.l
es
s.dkc o
ns ul
tancya ndse rv
ices
,http://wir
e.l
ess
.dk/
Wirel
essLabandt rainingatICTP ,http:/
/wi re
les
s.
ict
p .
it
/
Wirel
essU,http://
wireles
su.or
g /
NetworkStart
upRe sourceCe nter
,Or e
g on,http:
//www.nsrc
.or
g/
Inv
eneo,http:
//www. inveneo.
o rg
/
6Deploy(ECFP7pr ojec
t),http:
//www.6de ploy
.org
Ass
ocia
tion f or Pr ogress
ive Co mmuni cati
ons wi rel
essc onne
cti
vi
ty
pro
jec
ts,htt
p://www. apc.
o r
g/wirel
ess
/
 APPENDIX F: RESOURCES 429

Int
ernat
iona
lNe t
wo r
kf ort he Avail
abil
it
yo fS ci
enti
0c Publ
ic
ati
ons
,
htt
p://
www.ina
sp.i
nfo/
Make r
eUniver
sit
y,Ug a
nda,http:/
/mak .
ac.
ug/
Acce
ssKe ny
aISP,http:
//www.acces
skenya.
com/
Broa
dba ndAcce
ssLtd.wi r
el
essbroadbandca r
ri
er,htt
p:/
/www.bl
ue.
co.
ke/
Vir
tualITo ut
sour
c i
ng,htt
p:/
/www. vi
rtual
it
.bi
z/
Coll
ecti
o no
flookinggla
sses
,http:/
/www.tra
c e
route.
org/

Re
gio
nalI
nte
rne
tRe
gis
tr
ars
IANA,http:
//www.ia
na.org/
Afri
NIC,http:/
/www.af
rinic
.net
/
APNI C,htt
p://
www.apnic.
net/
ARIN,http:
//www.ari
n.net/
LACNI C,http:
//www.l
acnic.
net
/
RIPENCC,ht t
p://
www. r
ipe.
net/

I
Pv6Tr
ans
it
ioni
ng
htt
p://
www. petri
.c
o.i
l/ipv6-tr
ansit
ion.
ht m
htt
p://
www. 6diss
.or
g/tuto r
ial
s/t
ransi
ti
o ning.
pdf
htt
p://
arst
echnica.
com/ business
/2013/01/ i
pv6-
tak
es-
one
-st
ep-
for
war
d-
i
pv4 -
two-st
eps-back
-in-2012/
htt
p://
www. 6deploy
.eu/index.php?pag
e =home
RIPEI Pv6transi
ton,ht tp:
//www. i
pv6a c
tnow.or
g/
TestyourIPv6,http://
t e
t-i
pv6.org
IPv6De pl
oy mentstatus,ht t
p://
6lab.
cisco.
com

Dy
nami
cRo
uti
ngPr
oto
col
s
htt
p://
www. ci
scopre
ss.
com/st
ore/
rout
ing-t
cp-ip-vol
ume -i
-cci
e-profe
ssional
-
devel
opme nt
-9781578700417?w_ptgr
evar
tcl=Dy namic%20Ro uti
ng
%2 0Pr
otocols
_24090
htt
p://
www. ci
scopre
ss.
com/art
ic
les
/ar
tic
le.
asp?p=24090&s eqNum=5
htt
p://
ptgmedia.
pe a
rsonc
mg .
com/i
ma ges
/9781587132063/ s
ampl ec
ha pte
r/
1587132060_03.pdf
htt
p://
www. i
netdaemon.com/t
utor
ial
s/i
nter
ne t/
ip/ro
ut i
ng/dyamic_vs_sta
tic
.s
htmlhttps:
//l
earni
ngnetwor
k.ci
sc
o .
com/doc s
/DOC- 7985
OS PFDe sig
ng uide:htt
p:/
/www.ci
sco.
com/ warp/publi
c/104/1.pdf
430 APPENDICES

S
ola
rPa
nelDe
si
gn
Lowr e
s o
luti
onPS H ma ps/
calc
ul at
iontool
s,
ht
tp:/
/re.
jrc
.ec.
europa.
eu/pvgi
s/apps4/pv
est
.php?map=a
fri
ca&l
ang=e
n
Highla
ndsAndI sl
andsproj
e c
t,
ht
tp://
www. wir
eless
whitespace.org/
proje
cts
/ wi
nd-0-r
enewabl
e-e
ner
gy-
bas
e s
tati
on.aspx
PVSYS T,http:
//www.pvsys
t.com/
Sol
arDe sig
n,http://
www. s
o l
ar
de si
gn.co
.uk/

Mi
sc
ell
ane
ousLi
nks
CygwinLi nux-li
keenv ironme ntforWi ndo ws ,ht tp:/
/www. cy
gwin.co
m/
Graphviznetwo r
kg raphv i
suali
zati
ont oo l,http://www. graphvi
z.or
g/
ICTPba ndwidthsimul ator
,ht t
p://wir
ele ss
.ict
p .t
rie s
te.i
t/
si
mul a
tor/
ImageMa gic
ki magema nipulati
ont oolsa ndl ibraries,
htt
p://
www. imagema gick.or
g /
NodeDBwa rdri
vingma pda tabase,http://www. no dedb.
com/
Par
tit
ionI ma g
ediskut il
ityf orLinux,ht tp://www. parti
ma ge
.org
/
RFC1918:Addr e
ssAl locat
ionf orPrivateI nterne ts,
htt
p://
www. iet
f.o
rg/rf
c/rfc1918
RustyRus se
ll'
sLinuxNe two r
k i
ngCo nce pts,
htt
p://
www. net0lt
er.
org /
do cume ntat
ion/HOWTO/ ne t
wo r
kig-
concept
s-
HOWTO. html
Ubunt uLinux,http:/
/ www. ubuntu.com/
VoIP-4D Prime r
,http://www. it
46.se/
v oip4d/ voip4d. php
wgetwe but i
li
tyforWi ndows ,http:/
/use rs.
uge nt.be /
~bpuype/wget
/
ISOS tandard,http:
//standards.i
so.or
g/ittf/PubliclyAv ai
la
bleSt
andards
 APPENDIX F: RESOURCES 431

Bo
oks
802.
11Net
works
:$eDe 0ni
ti
veGuide,2ndEdi
ti
on.Ma
tthe
wGa
st,
ORei
ll
yMedi
a.I
SBN #0-
596-
10052-3

802.
11Wire
les
sNe t
wo r
kSit
eS ur
veyi
nga
ndI
nst
al
la
ti
on.Br
uceAl
exa
nde
r,
Cisc
oPr
ess
.ISBN #1-587-
05164-8

$eARRLUHF/ Mi
crowaveExperi
ment
er
sMa
nua
l.Ame
ri
canRa
dio
Re
layLe
ague
.IS
BN #0-87259-
312-6

Buil
dingWi
rel
es
sCommuni t
yNetworks
,2ndEdi
ti
on.Ro
bFl
ic
keng
er,
ORei
llyMe
dia
.ISBN #0-
596-
00502-
4

Depl
oyi
ngLic
ense-Fre
eWi r
ele
ssWi
de-
Are
aNe
two
rks
.Ja
ckUng
er,Ci
sc
o
Pr
ess
.IS
BN #1-587-05069-
2

Wi
rel
essHac
ks,2ndEdit
ion.RobFl
ic
keng
era
ndRo
gerWe
eks
,O
Rei
ll
y
Me
dia.IS
BN #0-596-
10144-9

IPv6Sec
uri
ty(
Cis
coPres
sNetworki
ngTechno
log
y).S
cot
tHo
gg,Er
ic
Vynck
e,Cis
coPre
ss.I
SBN #1587055945

LAN Swi
tc
hSec
uri
ty:Wha
tHack
ersKnowAbo utYo
urS
wit
che
s.Er
ic
Vync
keandChr
ist
ophe
rPa
gge
n.ISBN #1587052563

Bui
ldingtheMobi
leInt
ernet
.Mar
kGr
ays
on,Ke
vinS
hat
zka
mer
,Kl
aas
Wie
renga.IS
BN #1587142430
432 CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDIES
 Case Studies - Introduction 433

Case Studies - Introduction

Nomatte
rhowmuc hpl a
nninggoesi
ntobuil
dingalinkornodel
ocat
ion,
youwi
lli
nevi
tabl
yha v
etojumpi nandactua
ll
yi ns
tal
lsomet
hing
.$i sis
t
hemo mentoftrut
ht ha
tde mo
nstra
tesj
ustho waccur
ateyo
uresti
mates
andpr
edi
cti
onsprovetobe.

Itisar aredaywhe ne v
erythi
ngg oespr
e c
is
e l
yaspl a
nned.Evena ft
eryou
i
ns t
allyour1 st,10th,or100thno de,youwi l
lsti
ll0ndthatthingsdonot
alwayswo rko uta syoumi ghthaveinte
nde d.$i ssec
tio
nde scri
besso
me
ofo urmo reme morabl
ea ndr e
centne t
wo rkpro j
ect
s.Whe t
he ryoua r
e
aboutt oe mbar kony our0r s
twirel
essproj
e c
to ryoua r
eano l
dha ndat
this
,iti sreas
sur i
ngt oreme mberthatther
ei salwaysmo r
et olear
na nd
event hee xpe
rtswhoha vec ont
ri
butedtot hisbookstil
lle
arnf romeach
0eldpr o
jectthe yareinv
olvedin!

Bel
owareafe
wlas
tminut
eti
psandtho
ught
sbe
for
ewee
mba
rko
nte
ll
ing
yo
ua bo
utourl
at
est0e
lda
dve
ntur
es.

Equipment enclosures
Cheap pl asticsa r
eo ft
ene asyt o 0nd,butt heyma ybema deo fpo or
materialsa nda ret hin,t husmo s
tl
yuns uit
ableforenclosinge quipme nt.
PVCt ub i
ngi sfarmo reresil
ienta ndi sma detobewa terproo f
.
InWe stAf ri
ca,themo stc ommo nPVC i sf
oundi nplumbi ng,siz
e dfrom
90mm t o220mm.S ome time sAc cessPo i
ntsc a
n0ti ntosuc ht ubing,and
wit
he nd- capst hata ret orched-ono rglued,theyc a
nma kev eryr obust
waterproo fenclosures.
$e ya l
soha vet hea dde dbe ne0to fbe inga e
rodynamica nduni nt
e re
sti
ng
to pas s
ers-by.$er esulti
ng s pacel efta r
ound t hee quipme nta s
sures
adequa t
ea ircircul
a t
ion.
Als
o,i ti so f
tenbe s
tt ol eavea ne xhaustho l
ea tthebo tt
o mo fthePVC
encl
os ure,a l
thoughi no nei nstancea ntsdecidedtone s
t25me t
resabo ve
gro
undi ns i
det hePVC ho ldingt hea cc
esspo i
nt.Awi r
eme shcoverma de
fr
oml ocallya v
ailabl
es creenma teri
alwa susedtos ec
uret hee xhaustho le
fr
omi nfestat
ions .
434 CASE STUDIES

Antenna masts
Recov
eri
nguse
dma te
ri
alsforusetobui
ldantennamastsi
sag oodpl
an.
Loca
lme t
alwor
ker
sma yal
readybefami
li
arwit
hho wtoma ke
te
lev
isi
onmast
sfro
ms cra
pme t
al
.Afewquickadapt
ati
onsa
ndt he
sesa
me
mast
scanbere-
purpo
sedforwi r
el
es
snet
wo r
ks.

$et ypica
lma s
tist he5 me t
repole
,c ompris
edo fas ingl
e30mm
diameterpipewhichisthenpla
ntedint
oc ement.I
t'
sbestt
oc ons
truc
tthe
ma sti
nt wopa rt
s,withar emo v
abl
ema stthat0tsi
ntoaba sewhichis
sli
ghtl
yl a
rgerindiameter
.Alt
ernat
iv
ely
,thema stmaybema dewitharms
thatcanbes ec
urel
yc e
me nte
dintoawa l
l.

$istypeo
fma s
tc anbeaugme
ntedb yse
ver
almetr
eswit
ht heus
eofguy
l
ine
s.
Tost
eadyt
hepol
e ,pla
ntthr
eel
ines120degr
eesa
par
t,f
orminganangl
eof
atl
eas
t33deg
reeswiththet
ower.

De
tai
lsofhowtoeart
hthemastcan bef
ound i
nthec
hapt
erc
all
ed
Ha
rdwar
eSel
ect
iona
ndCon0g
ura
tio
n.

Involve the local community

Communi t
yi nvol
v e
menti simperat
iv
ei na ssur
ing the succe
ssa nd
sus
tai
nabi
li
tyo fapr oje
ct.Invo
lvi
ngthecommuni t
yi napr oje
ctcanbe
the gr
eat
estc hall
enge,but ifthe communi t
yi s noti nvol
vedt he
tec
hnolog
ywi llnotserv
etheirnee
ds,norwil
litbea c
cepte
d.Mo reove
r,a
communitymi ghtbea f
rai
da ndcoul
dsubver
ta ninit
iat
ive
.Re ga
rdl
essof
thecomplex
it
yo ftheunder
taki
ng,asucce
ssf
ulproj
ectneedssupportand
buy-i
nfromt hoseitwil
lser
ve.

Takeyourti
mea nd besele
cti
vein 0ndi
ngtheri
ghtpeopleforyour
pro
ject
.No othe
rde ci
si
on wil
la1ecty o
urpro
jec
tmo r
et han ha
ving
e1ec
ti
ve,t
rus
tedl
oca
lpeopleonyourt
e a
m.

Ina ddi
tion,tak
eno teofkeypl aye
rsinani nst
it
uti
on,orc ommunity
.
Identi
fythosepeopl
ewhoa relik
elytobeo pponent
sa ndpropone
ntsof
yourpr oj
ect.Ase a
rl
ya spossi
ble,att
empttoe ar
nt hesupportofthe
potenti
alpropo
nentsandtodi1usetheoppo
nents.
 Case Studies - Introduction 435

$isisadiNcultta
skando net
hatr
equi
resi
nti
matekno
wle
dgeoft
he
i
nst
it
uti
onorcommunity
.
I
ftheproj
ectdoesnothav
eal o
cala
lly
,thepro
jec
tmustta
keti
meto
a
cqui
rethi
sknowle
dgeandtr
ustf
romthecommunit
y.

Do nott r
yt oint
roduceat ec
hnol
ogyt oacommuni
ty wi
tho
ut
unde
rst
andi
ngwhi
chappli
cat
ionswi
lls
erv
etheco
mmuni
ty
.

Whengat
her
inginf
orma
ti
on,ver
if
yt hef
act
sthatyouaregi
ven.Most
of
te
n,l
oca
lpart
ner
swhotr
usty
ouwillbev
eryfr
ank,ho
nes
t,a
ndhelpf
ul.

Whenl o
o ki
nga tpa
yme ntme
thodsforyournewwir
el
essse
rvi
ce,pre
-pai
d
s
ervi
cesareide
al,astheydonotreq
uirealegalc
ont
ract
.Commi tmenti
s
a
ssur
edb ytheinves
tmentoff
undsbefor
es e
rvi
cei
sgi
ven.

Buy-
ina
ls
orequi
rest
hatthos
einvol
vedinv
esti
nthepr
oje
ctt
hemsel
ves
.A
pr
oje
cts
houl
da s
kforre
cipr
ocali
nvol
vementfr
omthec
ommunity
.

Aboveall
,theno-
goopt
ionshoul
dalwa
ysbee v
alua
ted.Ifal
ocalal
ly
and communit
y buy-i
ncannotbe had,the pr
ojec
ts ho
uldconsi
der
cho
osingadi1e
rentco
mmunityorbene
0ci
ary
.

$eremus
tbeanego
tia
ti
on;e
qui
pment
,money
,andtr
aini
ngc a
nnotbe
g
if
ts
.$ecommuni
tymustbei
nvo
lve
dandt
heytoomus
tc o
ntr
ibute
.

Now read on
Inthene x
tchapt
ersofthi
sse
cti
onyouwi l
l0ndsomeofourpr
oje
cts
des
cri
bed,whi
chhopef
ull
yyouwil
l0ndus
efultol
ear
nfr
om.

Weha ventincludedCa seS t

udiesfrome ar
li
erver
si
o nso ft
hisbo okexc e
pt
fortheo neinVe nez
uelawhi chwa sext
remelyins
trume nta
line st
abli
shing
thev iabil
i
tyo fl o
ng di st
anceo utdoorpo i
ntto po intlink sforr ura
l
conne c
tivi
ty.
OneCa s
eS tudyno tincludedint hisse
ctio
nbutunde rta
kenb yInveneo
whoa r
ewo r
k i
ngc los
elywi t
ht heteami nvol
vedinwr iti
ngt hisbookc an
bef ounda tthef ol
lowingURL.Le db yAndrisBjorns
o nwhoi sInve
ne o'
s
CTO,t hereissomev eryusefulinfor
ma t
ioninhiswr i
teupoft heproj
ec t
.
http:
//www. i
nv eneo.
org/90km-wi r
el
ess-
li
nk-f
or-mfa
ng ano-i
sl
and/
436 CASE STUDIES

Wehopey o
uno we nj
oyreadingeac
ho ftheCaseSt
udie
sfo
ll
owingthi
s
i
ntr
o.Yo
uwi l
lseewhowa sinvolv
edandofcour
sethe
irpr
o0l
eisi
ncl
uded
i
ntheAcknowl
edgementsofthisboo
k.

Al
loft heaut
horsha
vebee
ni nv
olve
di n 0e
ld depl
oyme
ntsa
nd a
ls
o
moni
torourFa
cebo
okpag
ewhic
hy o
uc a
n0ndhe r
e .

ht
tps
:/
/www.
fa
cebo
ok.
com/
gro
ups
/wi
re
les
su

S
oa syou be
ginto pla
ny ournex
tde pl
oyment
,pl
eas
edo po
sta
ny
q
ues
ti
onsyouhav
efortheex
pert
stor
espo
ndt o.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 437

Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in

Venezuela

Introduction
Alt
hought hi
sCa s
eS tudyi ssev
e r
alyear
so l
dno w,weha veleftitinthi
s
ver
si
ono fthebookasi tsti
llt
ot hi
sda yi
sthelongesteve
rsuccess
fulpoi
nt
topointoutdoor802.11t est
.He reyouwi l
l0ndt hepionee
ringwo rkof
thos
e who a r
es ti
lla uthori
ng thisbo ok.And i nf a
cts o
me o fthe
pre
parat
ionwo r
kinvolvedi nthesetupofthi
stesti
ss t
il
lrel
eva
ntf orthos
e
pla
nninglongdist
anceo utdoorli
nks.Enjoyre
ading!

Background
$a nk
sto afa
voura
bletopo
graphy,Vene
zue
laalr
eadyha
ds omel
ong
ra
ngeWLAN li
nks,li
kethe70k ml ongope
rat
edbyFundac
it
eMri
da
bet
weenPi
coEs
pejoandCanagua.

Totes
tthelimitsoft
heWiFitec
hnolo
gy,iti
snec
ess
aryt
o0ndapa th
wi
thanuno bst
ruct
edl
ineo
fsig
hta ndacle
ara
nceofa
tlea
st60% o
fthe
0r
stFr
esne
lzone.

Whi lel ookinga ttheterr

aininVe nezuel
a,ins e
archo fastretchwithhig h
elevati
o na tthee ndsa ndl owg r
o undinbe tween,I0r s
tf ocuse
di nthe
Gua y anar e
g i
on.Al thoughpl e
ntyo fhighg r
oundsa r
et obef ound,in
particularthef amo us" t
epuys"(tallmesaswi t
hs teepwa ll
s),therewe re
alway so bst
acl
esi nthemi ddleground.Mya tt
enti
ons hift
edt otheAnde s,
who ses teepslopes( r
is
inga br
uptl
yf r
omt hepl ai
ns)pr ove
da dequat
efo r
the t ask.Fo rs everalyears,I ha veb eent rav
ell
ing thro ughs par
sely
po pulateda re
asduet omypa ss
ionf ormo untai
nbi k i
ng.Int heba cko f
myhe ad,Ik eptar e
cordo fthes uit
abil
it
yo fdi1erents potsforlong
distancec ommuni c a
tio
ns.
Picode lAguilaisa no ut
sta
ndingpl aceforlongdistanceco mmuni ca
ti
o n.
Itha sa nalti
tudeo f4100m a ndisa boutat woho urdr i
vefro m myho me
towno fM ri
da.Fo rtheo t
herend,I0na l
lylocat
edt het owno fElBa l,
inCo jedesStat
e .
438 CASE STUDIES

Usi
ngthef
reesoft
wareRa dioMo bil
e
(a
vai
la
blea
tht t
p:/
/www.cplus.
org
/rmw/eng
li
sh1.
html
)If
oundt
hatt
her
e
wasnoobs
truct
ionofthe0r s
tFresnelz
one
,ov e
ra280km pa
thbe
twee
n
Pi
codelAguil
aandElBa l.

Action Plan
Onc esat
is
0edwi ththee xi
stenceo fas uit
abl
etraj
e c
tory
,welookedatthe
equipmentneededtoa chie
vet heg oal
.
Weha vebe e
nus i
ngOr inococ ardsforanumbe ro fyear
s.
Sporti
ngano utputpo wero f15dBm a ndrece
ivethres
holdof-84dBm,
t
he yarerobustandtrustworthy.$ef r
e espa
celossat280k mis149dB.
So,wewo ul
dne ed30dBia ntennasatbo t
he ndsa ndeventhatwould
l
eavev e
rylit
tl
ema rg
inf orothe rloss
es.

Ont heotherhand,theLinksy
sWRT54G wi rel
essr o
uterrunsLinux.
$eOpe nS ourc
ec ommuni t
yhaswr i
tt
ens e
vera
l0r mwa r
ev ers
ionsfo
rit
t
hata l
lo
wf orcompletec
us t
omisa
ti
ono feve
rytransmiss
ionpa r
ame t
er
.
In part
ic
ular
,Ope nWRT 0r mwa r
ea ll
owsf o
rt headjustmento fthe
ac
k nowl
edgme ntti
meo ftheMAC l ayer
,aswe l
la stheo ut
putpo wer.
Ano t
her0rmwa r
e,DD- WRT,ha saGUIi nte
rfa
c eandav e
ryconvenie
nt
si
tesurve
yut i
li
ty
.

Further
mo r
e,t heLinksysc a
n bel o cat
edc los
ertot heantennat hana
l
apt op.
So,wede ci
dedt ogowi thapa i
ro fthesebo x
es.Onewa scon0gure dasa n
AP( accesspo i
nt)andt heo t
hera sac l
ient
.$eWRT54G c ano perateat
100mW o utputpowerwi thgoo dlinearit
y,andc a
ne venbepus hedupt o
200mW.
Buta tt hisv a
lue,nonl inear
it
yi sv eryse v
ereand spuri
ouss ignalsare
generat
ed,whi chshouldbea voided.
Althought hisisconsume rgradee quipmenta ndq ui
teinexpensi
v e,aft
er
yearsofus i
ngit,wefeltcon0dentt ha titcoul
ds e
rveourpurpose.
Ofc ours
e ,wek eptaspa r
esetha ndyj ustincase.

Bysett
ingtheoutputpowe
rto100mW (20dBm)
,wec
oul
dobt
ai
na
5dBadvant
agec
o mpare
dwiththeOr
ino
coc
ard.
$e r
efo
re,wese
ttl
edforapai
rofWRT54Gs
.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 439

Pico del Aguila Site Survey

OnJ a
nuary15,2006,Iwe nttoPicogui
latochec
ko utt
hesi
tetha
t
Radi
oMo bil
ehadrepor
tedassuit
abl
e.
$ea zi
muthtowar
dsElBa lis86
,buts
inc
ethema gnet
icdec
li
nat
ioni
s
816
,ourante
nnashoul
dbepo int
edtoamagnet
icbear
ingof94
.

Unfor
tunat
el
y,when Il ook
edt owa
rds94
,Ifound theli
neo fsig
ht
obs
tr
uctedbyanobsta
cletha
thadnotbeens
hownbythesof
tware
,dueto
t
helimit
edres
olut
ionofthedig
ita
lel
eva
ti
onmapst
hatar
efreel
yavai
l
able
.

Irodemymo unt
ai
nbi k
efors
ever
alhoursex
amini
ngt hesur
rounding
ar
ealooki
ngforac l
earpat
htowar
dstheEast
.Sever
alpromis
ingspo t
s
wer
eidenti
0ed,andforeac
hofthem Itookphoto
sa ndrecor
dedt he
co
ordi
nat
eswi t
h a GPS forl
at
erproce
ssi
ng wi
tht heRadio Mo bil
e
s
oftwa
re.

$isle
dmet ore
0nemypaths
ele
cti
on,r
esul
ti
ngi
ntheo
nede
pic
tedi
n
Fi
gur
eCsLD 1us
ingGo
ogl
eEar
th:

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 1:Vi
ewofthe280kmlink
.Mar
acai
bo
sLa
keist
oth
eWe
st
,
a ndt
hePe
ninsu
laofPa
ragu
ani
stot
heNort
h.
440 CASE STUDIES

$er
adi
opr
o0l
eobt
ai
nedwi
thRa
dioMo
bil
eiss
howni
nFi
gur
eCs
LD 2:

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 2:Ma
pandpro
Cleoft
hep
rop
ose
dpat
hbet
wee
nPi
coAg
uil
a,
a
ndMor
roc
oyHil
l,ne
art
het
ownofElBa
l.

$ede
tai
lso
fthewi
re
les
sli
nka
redi
spl
aye
dinFi
gur
eCs
LD 3:

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 3:Pr
opa
gat
io
nde
tai
lso
fth
e280k
mli
nk.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 441

Inorde
rtoachie
vearea
sonabl
ema r
ginofs
ome12dBf
ort
hel
ink
,we
nee
dedant
ennaswit
hatl
east30dBigai
nate
ache
nd.

Antennas
Highg a
ina nte
nnasf orthe 2.4 GHz ba nd we r
e no ta v
ail
abl
ei n
Venezuel
a.
$ei mpo r
tc os
tsa recons
ider
able,so wede ci
dedi nste
adt or e
cyc
le
para
bo l
icreWec
tors(fo
rmerl
yusedf oras at
el
liteser
vice
)a ndrepla
cethe
fe
edwi tho nedesi
gnedfor2.4GHz .Wepr ovedthec o
nc e
ptwithan80
cm dish.$eg ain waswayt o
ol ow,s owet r
iedano 1se
tfed2. 4m
re
Wector.$i so 1er
eda mpl
eg ain,a l
bei
twi ths omedi Ncult
iesinthe
ai
mingo fthe3.5beam.$e22. 5o 1se
tme antthatthedishappear
edto
bepointingdownwa r
dswhenitwa shori
zont
allyal
igned.

Sever
alte
stswereperfor
medusingvar
iousca
ntenna
sa nda12dBiYa gias
afeed.Wepo inte
dt heant
ennaatabasesta
ti
ono ftheuniv
ers
it
ywirel
e s
s
networkthatwaslocat
ed11kma wayona3500m mo unt
ai
n.$et es
ts i
te
si
tsat2000m a ndthere
for
etheele
vat
ionangl
eis8.Beca
useoftheo1s e
t
fe
ed,wepo inte
dt hedish14downward,a
sc a
nbes eeninthefol
lo
wi ng
pi
cture:

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 4:2.
4mo >s
etfe
dreE
ect
orwit
ha12d Biant
ennaa
tit
sfo
cus
,
l
ooki
ng14down.eact
uale
lev
ati
onis8up.
442 CASE STUDIES

Wewe reabletoesta
bli
shalinkwiththebasest
ati
onatAguada,butour
e1ort
st o meas
uretheg ai
no fthes et
up usi
ngNe ts
tumble
rwe renot
succ
ess
ful
.$e rewastoomuc hWuctuat
ionontherec
eiv
edpowervalue
sof
l
ivetra
Nc .
Forame aningf
ulme a
sur
emento fthegai
n,wene e
dedas i
gnalgener
ato
r
andas pe
ctrum a
nalys
er
.$e seins
tr
ume ntswer
eals
orequi
redfort
he0e l
d
tri
pino r
dertoali
gntheante
nnasproper
ly.

Whi l
ewa it
ingforther e
quir
edequi
pment,wel ookedforanantennatobe
use
da ttheo t
here nd,a ndals
oapo inti
ngs yst
em bett
ersuit
e dtothe
nar
rowr adiobeamo fahighgai
nante
nna.
In Februar
y2006,It rave
ll
edto Tri
est
et o pa
rti
ci
pateint hea nnual
wir
elesstr
aini
nge v
e ntthatIhav
ebeena t
tendingsi
nce1996.Whi lethe
re,
I me nti
onedt he pr oje
ctt o my coll
eague Carlo Fonda
,who wa s
immedi a
tel
ythri
lle
da ndeage
rtopar
ti
cipat
e .

$e c olla
borat
ion betweent he Lati
n Ame ric
an Ne tworki
ng School
(EsLaRe d)and theAbdusS ala
mI nt
ernat
ionalCent r
ef or$e or
eti
cal
Physics(ICTP)g oesbackto1992,whe nthe0rstNetwo r
kingSchoo
lwa s
heldinM ri
dawithICTPs upport.
Sincet hen,me mberso fbo t
hi nst
it
utionsha v
ec ol
labora
tedo nseve
ral
acti
viti
es.Someo ftheseincludea nannualt r
aini
ngs choolonwirel
ess
netwo r
k i
ng( or
ganize
db yI CTP)a nd a no
thero nc omputernetworks
(organi
ze dbyEs LaRed)thata rehoste
di nse v
eralcountr
iesthr
oughout
LatinAme r
ic
a.

Acco r
dingl
y,itwasnotdiNculttope r
suadeProfess
o rSandroRa di
cella
,
thehe adoftheAeronomyandRa di
oPr opagat
ionLa bora
toryatICTP ,to
supportCa rl
o Fonda
stripine ar
ly Apr i
lto Ve nezuel
ai no rdert o
part
icipat
eintheexper
iment.
Backa thome ,Ifo
unda2. 75m paraboli
cc e
ntralfe
dme shante
nnaa ta
neighbourshouse
.Mr .Is
ma e
lS a
ntosgraci
ousl
yl enthisa nt
ennaf o
rt he
experi
me nt
.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 5s
howst
hedi
sa
sse
mbl
yoft
heme
shr
eWe
cto
r.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 443

FigureCs LD 5:Carl
oandEr mannod i
sas
se
mb l
ingthesa
tel
li
tedi
shsup
p l
ie
db y
Mr.Is
ma elSant
os.
Wee xchang e
dthefeedf
ora2. 4GHzo ne,anda i
me dtheant
ennaatas i
gnal
generat
o rt hatwasloca
tedo nt opo fal addersome30m a way.Wi tha
s
pe ctr
um a nal
yse
r,weme a
suredthema ximum o fthesig
nalandlocat
edt he
f
o cus.Wea ls
opinpoi
nte
dt hebores
ightforboththecentr
alfe
da ndtheo1set
a
nt ennas.Thi si
sshowninFigureCsLD 6:

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 6:Fi
ndi
ngt
hef
oc
uso
fth
eant
enna
swi
tht
he2.
4GHzf
ee
d
444 CASE STUDIES

Wea ls
oc ompare
dt hepowe ro
ft herece
ive
ds ig
nalwi t
htheo ut
putofa
comme r
cia
l24dBia nt
enna.$isshowedadi 1ere
nceo f8dB,whichle
dus
tobeli
evetha
ttheover
allgai
nofo urant
ennawa sabout32dBi.Ofcours
e,
the
reissomeuncer
tai
ntyaboutt
hisval
ue.Wewe rerec
eivi
ngre
Wecte
dsi
gnal
s,
buttheval
ueagr
eedwiththecal
cul
ati
onfromt heante
nnadimensi
on.

El B a l Site Survey
Onc e we we res a
ti
s0ed wi
tht he properf unctioni
ng and a i
m ofbo th
antennas
,wede cidedtodoas i
tesurve
ya ttheo therendo ftheElBall i
nk.
Ca r
loFo nda,GayaFiorandEr ma nnoPietrosemo l
ir e
achedthesit
eonApr i
l
8th.$ef ol
l
o wi
ngda y,wefoundahi l
l(southo fthetown)wi t
htwote l
ecom
towersfromt woc e
llphoneo pera
torsando nebe longingtotheMa joro fEl
Bal.$ehi l
lo fMo r
rocoyi
ss ome75m a bovethes urro
undingarea
,a bout
155m a bov
es ealeve
l.Itpr
o vi
desa nuno bstr
uc t
edv iewtowardsElAg uil
a.
$e reisadi rtroadtothetop ,amus tforo urpur pose,gi
venthewe i
ghto f
thea nt
enna.

P
erf
ormi
ngt
hee
xpe
ri
ment
OnWe dnesda
yApr i
l12th,Javi
e rTrivi
oa ndEr mannoPiet
rosemo l
itrav
ell
ed
towardsBa lwiththeo 1seta nte
nnal o
adedo nt opofaf our-whe e
ldr i
ve
truck.Ea r
lyint hemo rningo fApril13t h,wei nst
al
le
dt hea ntennaa nd
po i
ntedita tacompassbe ar
ingo f276 ,giventhatt
hedecli
nati
o nis8a nd
there
foret het r
ueAz imuthi s26 8.Att hesamet i
me ,theo t
hert ea
m
(compo sedb yCa r
loFo ndaa nd Ga yaFi orf r
omI CTP,witha s
si
stanceof
Franco Be ll
aro
sa,Lo ur
de sPie t
rosemo l
ia nd J o
s Tri
vi
o)r ode tot he
previ
ous l
ysurveye
da r
eaa tPicode lAg ui
lainaBr oncotr
uckt hatcarr
iedthe
2.7m me s
ha nte
nna.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 7:Pi
cod
elg
uil
aands
urr
ound
sma
pwi
thBr
onc
otr
uck
.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 445

Poorwe atheriscommo na ta l
ti
tudeso f4100m a boves eal e
v e
l.$eAg uil
a
team wa sa bl
et oinstal
la ndpo i
ntt heme sha nte
nnabe f
oret hef oga ndslee
t
began.Fi gureCs LD 8s ho wsthea ntennaa ndt her opeus eda sa na idin
aimingt he3r adiobeam. Powerf o
rt hesignalg enera
torwa ssuppl i
e dfrom
thetruc kb yme anso fa12V DC t o120V AC i nvert
er.At11A. Mi nEl
Bal,wewe reablet oo bservea- 82dBm s ignala tthea g r
eedupo n2450
MHzf re
q uencyus i
ngt hes pect
rum a nal
yser
.Tobes ureweha df o undthe
propers ource,wea s
kedCa rl
otos witcho 1thes ignal
.I nde e
d,t het rac
eo n
thespe ct
rum a nalyse
rsho we donlyno is
e.$i sc on0rme dt hatwewe rere
all
y
seei
ngt hes ignalthatoriginat
eds ome280k ma way.Aftert urningt hesignal
generatoro na gai
n,wepe r
formeda0net uningi ne le
vationa nda zimuthat
bothe nds.Onc ewewe r
es at
is0edt hatweha da tta
inedt hema xi
mum
rece
iveds ignal,Ca rl
or emo vedthes ignalgene r
atorandr eplacedi twi t
ha
LinksysWRT54G wi rel
e ssrouterc on0gureda sa na c
c es
spo int.Javie
r
substi
tutedt he spectr
um a nal
y s
ero no ur e nd f ora no ther WRT54G
con0gur eda sac l
ient.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 8:Ai
mingt
hea
nte
nnaa
telg
uil
a.
Ato nce
,wes t
art
edrecei
ving" beaco
ns"butpi ngpacket
sdi d notg e
t
t
hrough.$i swasexpe
cted,sinc
et hepropaga
tio
nt i
meofther adiowave
ove
ra300k ml i
nkis1ms .Ittakesatlea
st2msf oranacknowledgment
t
or e
a c
ht hetra
nsmit
ter
.Fortunatel
y,theOpe nWRT 0rmwa r
ea l
lowsfor
adj
usti
ng theACK t i
ming.Af terCa rl
oa dj
ustedforthe3 o rdersof
magnit
udei nc
rea
seindelaya bovewha tthesta
ndar
dWi Filinke xpe
cts
,
446 CASE STUDIES

webe
ganr
ece
ivi
ngpa
cke
tswi
thade
layo
fabo
ut5ms
.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 9:ElBala
nte
nnainst
al
lat
ion.Ac
tuale
le
vat
io
nwa
s1
up
wa r
d,s
inc
etheant
ennahasano>se
tof22.
5.

Weproce
ede
dt otrans
fers
eve
ralPDF 0l
esbetwe
en Ca
rl
o
sand J
avi
er
s
l
apt
ops
.$er e
sul
tsa
reshowni
nFigur
eCsLD 10.

Fig
u r
eCsLD 10:S
cre
ens
hoto
fJa
vier
sl
apt
ops
howi
ngd
eta
il
sofPDFClet
rans
fe
r
f
rom Car
lo
sl
apt
op280kma wa
y,u
singtwoWRT54Gwi
rel
es
sro
ute
rs
,noampli
Cer
s.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 447

No
tet
hepi
ngt
imeo
faf
ewmi
ll
is
eco
nds
.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 11:J
avi
erTr
ivi
o(ri
ght
)andEr
mannoPi
et
ros
emo
lib
eami
ng
f
romtheElBala
nte
nna
.

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 12:Ca
rloFo
ndaa
tth
eAg
uil
aSi
te
448 CASE STUDIES

Mrida, Venezuela, 17 April 2006.

Oney earaf
terper
for
mi ngtheexper
imentjus
tdesc
ribe
d,wef o
undthe
ti
mea ndres
ourc
estorepeati
t.
Weus e
dc ommerc
ial30 dBia nte
nnas
,a nd a
ls
oac oupl
eofwire
les
s
rout
erswhic
hha d bee
n mo di0e
db ytheTI ER gr
oupl edbyDr.Eri
c
BrewerofBer
kel
eyUnivers
ity
.

$epur poseo ft
hemo di
0ca
ti
ono fthesta
ndar
dWi FiMAC i stomakeit
sui
ta
blefo rlongdis
tanceappli
cat
ionsbyrepla
cingt heCS MA Me dia
Acce
ssCo ntrolwi
thTDMA.$el atte
risbe
tte
rsui t
edf o
rl o
ngdist
anc
e
poi
nt-t
o-pointli
nkss
incei
tdoesnotrequi
ret
herecepti
o nofACKs .
$iseli
mi nate
stheneedtowaitf
orthe2msr oundt ri
ppr opag
ati
onti
me
ona300k m pat
h.

OnApr i
l28th,2007,ate
amf ormedb yJ a
v i
erTri
vi
o,Jos
To rr
esa nd
Fra
nci
scoTorr
esins
tal
le
doneo ftheantennasatElAgui
lasi
te
.$eo t
her
te
am,formedbyLeonar
doGo nz
lezV.,LeonardoGonz
lezG.,Ale
jandro
Gonzl
ezand ErmannoPie
tros
emo l
i,inst
all
edt heot
herantennaatEl
Bal
.

Asoli
dlinkwasq
uick
lyest
abl
is
hedusingt
heLinksy
sWRT54G route
rs.
$isall
owedfo
rvi
deotra
nsmis
si
ona tameas
uredthr
oughputo
f65kbps.
WiththeTDMA rout
ers
,themeasure
dthr
oughputwas3Mbpsineach
di
re
cti
on.

$ispr
oduc
edt
het
ota
lof6Mbpsa
spr
edi
ct
edb
ythes
imul
at
ionsdo
nea
t
Be
rke
ley
.

Can we do better?
$rill
edbyt heseresul
ts,whichpavethewa yforrea
ll
yinexpensi
velong
di
st
ancebr oadband li
nks,thesecond t
eam mo vedtoa not
herlocat
ion
pr
evio
usl
yi denti
0eda t382k mfrom ElAguil
a,i
napl ac
ec al
l
edPl a
ti
ll
n.
Pl
at
ill
ni s1500m a bov
es ealev
eland ther
ei sanuno bs
truct
ed0r s
t
Fr
esnelz
onet owardsElAg ui
la(l
ocat
edat4200m a bo
vesealevel
).

$epr
opo
sedpa
thi
ssho
wni
nFi
gur
eCs
LD 13:
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 449

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 13:Ma
pandp
roCl
eoft
he380k
mpa
th.

Again,theli
nkwasq
uic
klye
sta
bli
she
dwi
tht
heLi
nks
ysa
ndt
heTI
ER
suppli
edrout
ers
.

$eLi nksy
slinks howe da pproxi
ma t
ely1% pa cketl
oss,wit
ha naver
age
roundt r
ipti
meo f12ms .
$e TI ER e qui
pme nt sho wed no pa cke
tl os
s,wi t
h uni di
re
cti
onal
propagat
ionti
me so f1ms .
$i sall
owedfo rvi
de ot r
ansmi s
si
on,butthelinkwa snotst
abl
e.
Weno ti
cedc onsi
de r
a bl
es ignalWuctuati
onst hatoft
eni nt
errupt
edt he
communi cat
ion.
Ho wever
,whe nt her ecei
ve ds i
gnalwa sabout- 78dBm,t heme a
sured
throug
hputwa sat otalo f6Mbpsbi di
rec
ti
o nalwiththeTI ER route
rs
implementi
ngTDMA.
450 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
LD 14
:et ea
ma telAgui
la,J
os
Torr
es(
lef
t)
,Ja
vie
rTr
ivi
o
(
ce
ntr
e)andFranc
is
coTorr
es(
ri
ght
).

Alt
ho ughfurthertes
tsmus tbeconduct
edtoasce
rta
intheli
mi t
sfo
rst
abl
e
thr
o ughput,wea r
ec on0dentthatWi-Fihasag re
atpotenti
alf
orl
ong
dis
tancebroa dbandco mmunicat
ion.I
tispar
ti
cula
rl
ywe l
lsuite
dforr
ura
l
are
aswe r
et hes pec
trum issti
llnotcrowde
da nd int
erf
erenc
eisnota
problem,prov i
dedthereisgoo
dr a
diol
ineofsi
ght.

Acknowledgments
Wewi shtoex
pre
ssourgrat
itudetoMr .Is
ma e
lS a
ntosf
orlendi
ngthe
meshante
nnat
obeinst
al
ledatElAg ui
laandtoEng.Andr
sPiet
ros
emol
i
f
orsupplyi
ngt
hespeci
alsca
1o l
dingjo
int
susedf o
rt hei
nst
al
lat
ionand
t
rans
porta
ti
onoft
heante
nnas.

We'
da l
soliketothank t
he AbdusSal
am Int
ernat
iona
lCentr
eof
$eor
eti
calPhys
ic
sforsuppor
ti
ng Car
lo Fo
nda
st r
ipf r
om I
tal
yto
Ve
nez
uel
a.
 Case Study: Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela 451

Fi
gur
eCsLD 15:eteamatPla
til
lo
n.Fro
ml e
fttori
ght
:Leonar
doGonzl
ez
V.
,Leo
nar
doGo nz
le
zG.,ErmannoPie
tr
ose
moliandAle
jandr
oGonz
l
ez
.

$e2006e xpe r
ime ntwa spe r
forme db yEr mannoPi et
rose
mo l
i,Javie
rTr i
vio
fro
m Es LaRed,Ca rl
oFo nda,a ndGa yaFiorf r
omI CTP.Wi tht hehelpo f
FrancoBe ll
arosa,Lo urde sPi e
trosemo l
i,andJo s
Trivi
o .
Forthe2007e xper
ime nt s,Dr .EricBre werfr
o m Ber
k el
eyUniversi
typrovided
thewi rele
ssro uterswi tht hemo di0edMAC f orlongdista
nc e,aswe l
la s
enthusi
as t
ics uppo rtt hro ugh hi sc olla
borat
or,S oneshS urana.Re dULA,
CPTM,Di re
c cindeS erv ic
iosULAUni vers
idaddel osAndesa ndFunda cit
e
M ri
dac ontri
but edtot hi strial
.
$es e
co ndex peri
me ntwo rkwa sfundedb yCa nada'
sI DRC. Re fe
rences
:
Fundaci nEs cuel
aLa tino ame r
icanadeRe des,La t
inAme ric
an Ne tworking
School,http:
//www. esl
ared. or
g.ve/
AbdusS a l
amI nternationa lCe ntrefor$e ore
tic
alPhy s
ics
,
http:
//
wi rel
es
s.ictp.
it/
Ope nWRTOpe nS o urce0r mwa r
efo rLinksys,
http:
//
o penwrt.org/www. idrc.ca
FundaciteM ri
da,
http:
//
www. f
unda cite-me rida.
g o
b .
ve/
-
-ErmannoPi e
tro
semo l
i
452 CASE STUDIES

Case St ud y : P isces P roject

S
ola
rPower
edWi 0Linksi
nMi cr
one
sia
ByBr
uceBa
iki
eandLaur
aHo sma
n,as
sis
tedinthefi
el
dbyMa rc
o
Ze
nnaroandEr ma
nnoPietr
ose
molifr
omI c
tp.

Twolo ng -
dis
tance,sol
ar-poweredwi re
les
spointtopointco nnect
ionswerese
t
upintheMi cronesi
anRe gionoft hePaci
0cine a
rlyAug ust2012aspa r
tof
thePaci0cI s
la
ndS c
hoolsCo nne c
tivi
ty
,Educati
on,andS o
lar(PISCES)
Proj
ect( htt
p:/
/www. pi
sc
es paci
0c.org
/li
ves
it
e/),
amul t
i-
partneredendeavour
foc
usedo ntr
ainingandlo calcapaci
tybuil
dingvis-
-vi
ss olar-
powered
inf
orma tionandc ommuni c
ati
onst e
chnolo
gy( I
CT)wi thint hePaci
0cregi
on.

Fi
gur
eCS
P1:Ha
ndsOnTr
aini
ng

$e0r sthalfofthePI SCESpr oj

ectwa saha nds-ont r
ainingwo rkshopo n
So la
r-poweredlong-distanceWi Fitec
hno l
o gyattheUni ver
sityofGua m.
$ewo rk
sho pf oc
us e
do n Wi Fit echnology
,s ta
nda r
ds,s olarpo wer,si
te
sur v
eys,proj
e c
tsafe
ty,a ndlinkpl a
nningto ol
s.
$ewo r
kshop provided plentyo fo pportuni
tie
sf orha nds-one xperi
ences
,
wi theacha fte
rnoon
sa ctiv
ityconsis
ti
ngo fao ne-t
o-thre
eho urlabinwhi ch
studentsactuali
se
dt hepr acti
calinf
orma ti
onf r
omt hemo rning
sle
cture.
Ont he0na lday,thes tudentss e
tupas ol
arpo wer
e dpo i
ntt opo inthigh
ba ndwidthl i
nki nt heCe ntr
ef orIslandS ust
ainabi
li
ty,replaci
nga no l
der
,
sl
o werlinktot heInternet.
 Case Study: Pisces Project 453

Fi
g.CS
P2:Ane
wfa
st
erI
nte
rne
tco
nnec
ti
onf
ort
heCe
ntr
efo
rIs
la
nd
Sus
ta
ina
bil
it
y

Forthese
condhalfofthePISCESpr ojec
t,t
hete
amt ra
vel
ledtoChuuk,o ne
oftheFedera
tedS t
ate
so fMi cr
o nes
ia(FSM),and i
nsta
ll
ed bothaso l
ar-
powere
dlongdis
tanceWi FiInt
ernetconnec
ti
onandaS ola
r-Compute
r-Lab-
in-
a-Boxataprimaryschoolonapr evi
ousl
yun-connec
tedisl
and,Udot,in
theChuuklag
oon.

Fi
gur
eCS
P3:eInt
erne
tconne
ct
io
nfo
rtheUd
otS
cho
olor
ig
ina
tedf
ro
m
Chu
u k
smainIs
la
nd,We
no,15k
maway.
454 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCS
P4:Mo
unt
ingt
hep
olema
sti
nUd
ot

$eUbi quit
iNetworksWiFihar
dwarei
nst
all
edinWenowasmo unt
edon
the3rds t
oryroofoft heTruk S
top Hot
el,whi
cho1er
edt heheig
ht
nece
ssar
yf orl
ine-of
-si
ghtto prov
ideconnec
ti
vi
tyacr
ossthe Chuuk
LagoontoUdotIsl
and.

$esingl
e-l
evels
cho
olo
nUdo tr
equi
reda40-f
oot(12m)po l
ema
sto
n
whi
chtomo untt
heUbi
qui
tiNet
work
sWI FIa
ntenna/
radi
o.

Localcommuni
tymember
sjoine
di ntohel
pwhenthehef
tofthepol
e
mastprove
dtoohe
avyf
orthePISCESteamt
orai
seal
one
.
Witht e
am member
sone ac
hi sl
and,thea
nte
nnaswer
eline
dupa nd
co
nne c
tedtoea
chot
her
.

$enetwor
kwa st
henr
outedt
hro
ughalo
calDSLInte
rne
tconne
cti
onto
pr
ovi
deInt
erne
tconne
cti
vi
tytothes
chool
,and t
hesurr
oundi
ngloc
al
co
mmunity
.

Ea
chWiFiunitispower
edwi
thasola
rphot
ovol
tai
csys
tem,whi
chcons
is
tsof
a30wattsolarpanelfr
omS o
lar
Land USA,sol
arc ha
rgeco
ntr
oll
erwit
h
Po
wero
verEthernet
,and38a
mpho urso
fbatt
erybac
kup .
 Case Study: Pisces Project 455

Fi
gur
eCS
P5:Ud
ot

$euni queS ol
ar-
Co mput e
r-Lab-i
n-a-Boxdeployeda tUdotschoolwas
devel
opedb ystudent
sa tIl
li
no i
sInst
ituteofTechnol
o gy
.
$i sturnkeycomputerl a
bi sdesi
gne dtobea sclos
et opl
ug-and-
playas
poss
ibleforoff
-gri
denv ir
onme nts
.
Iti
nc l
udessixIntelClass
ma tela
ptops,sol
arpane l
sa ndmounti
ngg e
ar,a
charg
ec o
ntrol
ler
,wiring,and l a
ptops ec
urit
ye quipment
,allcontai
ned
wit
hinauni quel
y-des
igneda ndr ea
dy -
to-
shipbo xthatst
rai
ghtf
orwar
dly
tr
ansformsintothecomput erlab
stable
.

Fi
gur
eCS
P6
456 CASE STUDIES

$ePI S
CESPr
ojectr
ece
ive
df undi
ngsupportfr
om Googl
e,t
hePa
ci0c
Te
lec
ommuni
cat
ionsCounci
l,andtheInt
ernetSoc
iet
y.

I
na ddi
ti
ont
othePa
rtne
rsme
nti
one
dabo
ve,PI
SCESPr
oje
ctpa
rtne
rs
i
ncl
ude:

Univer
si
tyo fGuam
I
ll
inoisInst
it
uteofTechnol
ogy
GreenWi Fi
,Invene
o
i
Soluti
ons
I
nternat
ionalCentr
efor$e or
eti
calPhy
sic
s(ICTP)
Univer
si
tyo fCali
for
nia,Be
rke
ley
sTIERrese
arc
hgroup
.
 Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 457

Case Study: University Of Ghana campus

wireless network

Introduction

$eUni ve
rsi
tyofGha naisoneo fsixpubli
cunivers
iti
esandt hepremi
er
unive
rsi
tyinGha nawithas t
udentpo pul
at
iono fabout41,000.Wi t
hthe
gr
o wi
ngnumb e
ro fst
udentsandfacultyi
twa sobvio
usthatwec ouldnot
conti
nueexpandingourcompute rlabstofac
ili
tat
elear
ninga ndrese
arc
h,
si
nceweha dli
mi t
eds pa
cea ndl i
mi t
edfundstoe quipthesec o
mputer
l
abs.

$es olut
ionwastog owi r
el
esss
otha tanyst
udentwit
hhi s
/he
rl a
pto
p
coul
da c
ces
st he ne t
work. $is howevercould not be achi
eve
d
imme diat
el
yduet hestat
usofthenetworkatt
het i
me.I
twa sabigWat,
un-ma nage
dne t
wo r
k,withlot
sofproble
ms-I PconWi
ct
s,rogueDHCP
seve
rs,lar
gebro
adcastdomai
nsjus
ttome nti
onafew.

Beca
usethe IT unitwas no t pro
v i
ding a wir
el
essserv
icetot he
communit
y,user
sbe c
ameimpa ti
enta nd s
tar
tedconnec
ti
ngt he
irown
wir
el
essro
uterstothenet
wo r
k .$i sma denetworkmanagementeven
morediNcult
.Itbe
c a
meobv i
oust ha
ti fwedi dnotprovi
deawi r
el
ess
se
rvi
cetotheuse
rco
mmunity,theywo uld0ndthei
rownwa yofdoi
ngit.

Our0rs
tste
pinaddr
ess
ingt
heprobl
em wa
stor
edesi
gno urnet
wor
kfrom
aWatnet
worktoamo r
estr
uct
ure
do newi
thco
re,di
str
ibuti
onandac
ces
s
l
aye
rs.

$i sbro
ug htalotofst
abil
it
ytot henet
work.Becaus
eo fthemana ged
swi
tche
s,identi
fyi
ngprobl
emsbe c
amemuc he as
ie
rt o
o .$es tr
uctured
wir
ednetwo r
kg a
veusag o
odfoundat
iontobuil
dawi r
eles
snetwor
kt hat
comple
me ntsthewir
ed net
wo r
ka nd mee
tstheg r
owingne e
dso fo ur
use
rs.
458 CASE STUDIES

Wi2 setup and installation

A numberoff
act
orswer
eco
nside
redi
ndet
ermi
ningt
het
ypeo
fAc
ces
s
P
oint(AP)t
odepl
oy.So
meofthes
ewer
e:

Cost
Support
Ma na
gement
Secur
it
y

Becauseo fthesi
zeo fournetworkwede c
idedtogoforanEnt er
pri
se
Sol
utionwhi chwo ul
dma kema nage
mentmuc heas
ie
r.Duetothehi gh
cos
to ftheseEnte
rpri
seSol
uti
ons($600perAcce
ssPoi
ntandabo
ve+c o
st
ofthec ontrol
l
er)wee ndedupi nal o
ngde ba
teove
rwhichproductto
us
ef ortheWi Fii
mplementa
ti
on.

Wec ons
ultedNS RC (t heNe t
wo rkStartupRe sour
ceCe nt
era tUniv
ersi
ty
ofOr e
gon)whowe r
ea ls
oloo k
ingi ntoa 1o r
dabl
ea nds cal
abl
ewirel
e s
s
so
lutionsandt he
ypo intedust oUbi q uit
iUni Fiwhichc ost
sabout$80
perAc ces
sP ointandha safreesoft
wa rec ontr
oll
er
.To get
herwithNS RC
personnelwedi d as urveyand r a
n as uc c
ess
fulpil
otwi th 10Ac c
e s
s
Points.Be c
auseo ft hec os
t,functi
o na l
it
y,ma nage
abili
tya nd e
aseo f
deployment,Uni ve
rsi
tyo fGha nadecide dtos c
aleupfromt hepil
otusing
Ubi q
uitiUni FiAc ce
ssP oi
ntsa nd t
hene t
wo r
kq uick
lyg rewfrom 10
AccessPointsto90.

Forsec
urit
y,UniFiAPssuppo r
tbothWPAP e
rsonala
ndWPAEnt erpr
is
e
whichal
lowsuserst
oa uthenti
cat
ewit
har adi
uss e
rve
r.Inaddit
iontoall
ofthedeplo
ymentadvantag
e sofUbi
quit
i,wefoundthatt
herewasalar
ge
UniFiusercommunit
yt hatprovi
dedgoodtechnic
alhel
pint heeve
ntof
pro
blems.

APS et
up
Ini
tia
lAP s etup and con0gura
ti
oni nvol
vedc onnec
ti
ng an AP toa
networks
witchpo r
tinthes a
mev l
anasthec o
ntrol
le
rserv
er.
$eAPg oesthroughadopti
onwhe nconnec
ted;thi
sall
owsthenewAPt o
reg
ist
erit
sel
fwi ththecontrol
le
rforma na
geme nt
.Afte
rinit
ials
etup
,the
APi sthe
nc o nnec
tedtot hedesi
gna
tedde par
tment
swirel
es
svlanona
swit
ch.
 Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 459

IPAddres
si
ng
Pri
vat
eI Paddr
ess
ingwa
sa do
pte
df ort
hewire
les
snet
wo r
ko ncampus
.
$e r
ea r
eo naver
age25/24wire
les
ssubne
tsindepa
rtment
s,f
acul
ti
es
,
sc
hoolandcol
le
ge.

Bandwidt
h
Bandwidt
ha l
locat
iontothewire
les
snetworki
s10% o
ftheUniver
si
ty
s
STM1ba ndwidth.
Curre
nt g r
owing wi r
el
ess us
ersc o
upled wit
h gr
owing emerg
ing
appl
ic
atio
ns willrequi
re more ba
ndwidt
ht ogivea g
o o
d bro
wsing
expe
ri
ence.

Se
curit
y/Authenti
cat
ion
User
sa nd APsa ut
hentic
atewith aradi
uss e
rve
rus
ing802.1x
.Both
s
tudenta nd sta
1a ccountdetai
l
sa r
estore
di n aMy
sqldat
abas
e.$e
ca
mpuswi r
ele
ssne t
worke xi
st
sinsepar
atevl
ansfr
omthewi
redfore
asy
i
denti
0catio
na ndma nagement.

Connecting to the UG campus wireless network

$eUnive
rsi
tyOfGhanaCampusWir
el
es
sNe t
wor
kha
sthr
eema
jor
Ne
two
rks
/SSI
Ds-STAFF,S
TUDENT,GUEST.

STAFF
$isS
SID/Networ
kisavai
labl
etoact
iv
esta1oft
heUni
ver
si
ty
.
S
ta1ar
erequi
redtoaut
hentic
atewi
ththe
irst
a1IDandPI
Na sus
erna
me
a
ndpass
wordres
pect
ive
lytologi
n.

STUDENT
$isS SI
D/Netwo
rkisav
aila
blet
os t
udent
so ftheUni ver
si
tywhoha ve
r
egis
ter
edforag i
venac
ademicy e
ar.S
tudent
sa ut
henti
cat
ewi t
ht he
ir
s
tudentIDandPINasus
ernameandpas
swordre
s pect
ive
lytolo
gin.

GUES T
$isSSID/Networki
savail
abl
et oguest
swhovisi
ttheUniv
ers
it
ywi
thi
na
pe
ri
odo fti
me .
Gues
tsarere
q ui
re
dtor e
questauthenti
cat
iona
ccountde
tai
lsf
romt
heIT
de
part
me ntbysubmi
tt
ingtheirdeta
ils
.
460 CASE STUDIES

Pictures of our project and installation

Fi
gur
eCS
G1:Ou
rca
mpu
s

Fi
gur
eCS
G2:Ou
rca
mpu
s
Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 461

Fi
gur
eCS
G3:Ac
las
sr
oom

Fi
gur
eCS
G4:el
ib
rar
y
462 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCS
G5:Oneo
fou
rAPs

Fi
gur
eCS
G6:La
you
tofUni
ver
si
tyo
fGh
anac
amp
uswi
thAP'
s
.
 Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 463

Fi
gur
eCS
G7:Wi
thUni
Fiweareab
letos
imul
at
eth
eco
ver
ageo
fth
e
wi
re
le
sss
ig
nalass
hownabo
ve.

Fi
gur
eCS
G8:Abo
vei
sth
eUni
Fic
ontr
ol
le
rsh
owi
ngs
omes
ta
tis
ti
cso
fou
r
us
age
.
464 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCS
G9:Be
lo
war
est
ati
st
ic
spe
rAc
ces
sPo
int
.

Fi
gur
eCS
G10:Wea
rea
ls
oab
let
oge
tst
ati
st
ic
spe
rus
erf
romt
hec
ont
rol
l
er.

Challenges we faced
Oneo fourma inc hal
le
ng e
swa sg e
tti
ng ag ood Cat
5c abl
efo rthe
i
nstal
la
tio
n.Ina ddit
ionitwa ssomewhatchal
le
ng i
ngtog e
tthecableto
theri
ghtloc
ati
onsincethebuil
dingswer
eno tdesi
gnedwit
hthisi
nmi nd.
Bandwidt
hi sals
oac hal
lengebutwea r
et r
yingtol i
mitpeer
-to-pe
er
act
ivi
tyonthenetworkusingcyber
oam.
 Case Study: University Of Ghana campus wireless network 465

Next steps
We(theIT Depar
tme ntoftheUnive
rsi
tyofGhana)opera
tethewi
re
les
s
ne
tworko ur
sel
ves
.Weha v
ei mmediat
epl a
nstoe xpand t
hewire
les
s
ne
tworkunti
lweg etasmuchcover
ageofourcampusbui
ldi
ngsasweca
n.
$iswillthe
nr e
duc etheneedforourstude
ntstoset
upt he
irownAPs
maki
ngo urj
obma nagingt
henetworkmuc hea
si
er!

Aut
hor
:Emmanue
lTogo
,He a
doftheNet
wor
kingUni
toft
heUni
ver
si
ty
ofGha
na'
sCo
mputingS
yst
ems(UGCS).
466 CASE STUDIES

Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network,

India

Introduction
Inv e
rsi
on2o fthisbookweincl
udedacasest
udya bouttheDha r
amsal
a
Co mmuni t
yWi r el
es
sMe sh Net
wo r
k.Foll
owingo nf r
omt hisorig
ina
l
deplo
yme ntint hesubse
quenty e
ars
,a ne ws etofne twor
ksa nd a
comme rc
ialwire
lessISPhasemerge
di nt
hes a
mer egi
onl e
db ythesame
people
.He rewede sc
ri
beoneo ft
hei
rma j
orproje
cts
.

Airjaldis Garhwal Network:

Work
ingTo
war
dsTe
chni
cala
ndEc
ono
micVi
abi
l
ityi
ntheHi
mal
aya
n
Ra
nge

Abo utRbb/ Ai rj
aldi
Rura lBr oadba ndPv t.Ltd.,isal eadingi nno vatorandi mpl eme nterof
tec
hni cal
lya nde c ono micall
yv iabl
ec onnecti
vitys ol
utionsf o
rr uralareas
.
Wede si
g n,bui l
da ndo peratebr oadbandne two rksinr uralarea
si nI ndia
.
Incorporate di nIndi ain2009,RBBpr es
entlyo wnsa ndo perat
esne two r
ks
int heI ndi a
ns ta
teso fHi ma chalPr adesh,Ut tarakhand,J har
kha nd,a nd
Karna ta
k a.RBBus esAi rJ
aldiasabr andna mef ori t
sne tworka ndo t
her
conne ct
ivity-relat
e di nit
iati
ves.
$ec ompa ny sactiviti
esa recarriedo utf r
o mo urma nagemento Nc ein
De l
hi,o uro pe rat
ionso Nc einDha r
ams al
a,Hi ma chalPr a
de s
ha ndo Nc e
s
inea chne two rklo cation.
Ourdi verset eami nc l
udesl oc
a lIndianv il
lagers,Tibetanr ef
ugees,sk i
ll
ed
professi
ona lsf rom me tropoli
tana reasi nIndi aa ndpe oplef r
omo utsi
de
India.
Webe li
ev et hatrur alne two r
ksne e dtobet echnicall
yv ia
blet heyne ed
topr ovideaq ualitya ndc ons
istencyo fservi
cest hatisa tthev e
ryl eas
t
si
mi lartot ha to1e r
e da nywhe r
ee lse.
$e ya l
sone edt obee conomic al
lys ustai
nablet heyne edt obea bleto
sta
ndo nt heiro wnwi thinar elativ
elys hortpe riodo ftime( around18
mo nths)whi leo1e ringc li
entsservicesatreasonablepr i
ces.
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 467

Furt
her,wea res tr
onga dvoc
ateso fa na l
l-i
nc l
usiv
e r
eta
ilecosys
tem
approa
cho ncewer e
achana r
ea ,wes ee
kt oc onnecta
llcl
ie
ntswhoa r
e
inneedofconne ct
iv
ity
,rega
rdl
esso fthesizeo ftheirope
rat
iono rpack
age
demand.Wea spir
et oma keallo urc li
entspa yf orthei
rc onnect
ivi
ty,
al
thoughsubs
idi
e sar
eo 1er
edtos ele
ctedclients,ma i
nlyt
hosededica
tedto
soci
alanddevel
opme ntalc
ause
sa nds howing0na nci
alnee
d.

RBB wo r
ksc l
osel
ywi th AirJ
al
diRe se
a r
cha nd Inno v
ati
o n,ano n-f
or-
pro
0t( s
ect
ion25)e nter
pr i
seregi
st
eredi nIndia.Cr eat
edi n 2007,the
Air
Jal
di Resear
ch& I nnovat
ion identi0e
ss uitablea nd a 1orda
ble
net
worki
ngs ol
utio
nsf orr ura
la r
eas
,teststhemi nre al
-l
if
ee nvir
onments
and s
hare
si t
slearni
ngwi thlike-
minde do r
gani
zati
o nsand indivi
duals
.
Air
Jal
di al
soo pera
tesa t rai
ning and c apaci
ty-buil
ding c e
ntrei n
Dhara
ms a
la,wherene tworko per
ator
sa nda ct
ivi
st
sc ana cquir
ethes k
ill
s
tobui
ldandma nager ura
lwi re
les
snetwo r
ks.

Mo s
to fourdeplo
yme ntteam me mbe rshavebeentrai
ne dbyo ursi
st
er
org
aniz
ati
onAi rJ
aldiRese
archa ndInno v
ati
on.
Team membersnorma l
l
yt a
ketheba s
icone-mo nt
h Wire
less108cours
e
and t
hemo r
ea dva
nc e
d Wireless216c ourseso1er
eda tt heAirJ
al
di
NetworkAc a
demy.Af te
ra na ddit
ional3 -
mo nthinte
rnshipwhe r
ethey
workunderthec l
osesuperv
isi
o no fseni
orteam me mbersino neofour
net
wo r
ks,the
yareenroll
edaspe rmanentteam me mber
s.

The Airjaldi Garhwal Network Vital Statistics

Da t
eo finiti
ation/
ince
pti
on|j anuary2010
Siz
e/spread|a bout100km2,r angingfro
mt heDe hradunval
le
yt ot
he
heightsofTe hriGarwalMo untai
ns(heightofabout2,000mete
r).
Prima r
yc l
ients|Mi c
robank i
nge nte
rpri
se,Schoo
ls,Co mmunit
ybase
d
Or ganiz
atio
ns ,Busi
nessa
ndPr ivat
eus e
rs
Long es
tlink|55Km.
Popul a
ti
onde nsi
ty|169/km2( inc o
mpa ri
son:Delhi
:9,294/
km2;Ov er
al
l
India:363/km2;US A:33.
7/ k
m2)
468 CASE STUDIES

Realities, needs
$eTe hriandPa uriGa r
hwaldi st
ri
ctso fUt t
ara
k hand,whi chstretc
hes
fr
o mt heHi malay
an pe a
kso f$a l
aiyaS agar
,Jo nlia nd t
heGa ngotr
i
groupt otheDhe radun Vall
eya nd Rishikes
h,a reo neo fIndia
smo s
t
mo unta
inousarea
s.Kno wnforitsma nyr el
igi
oust emple s
,lo
cat
edo nthe
bankso ftheRi ve
rGa ng e
sa nd onhi ll
topsleadingt ot heHi ma l
ayan
range,ther e
gionisk nown fori tsrugged beauty.$i sruggednessis
howeveralsoacausefortherelat
ivepov e
rtyofther egion:it
sinhabita
nts
l
ivemo stl
yins mallvi
ll
agessepar
a t
edfrome ac
ho t
herb yta
llmo unta
ins
and deepv a
ll
eys
.$ema i
nl ocalso urc
eso fi ncome a resubs i
st
ence
agri
cult
ureandc ot
tageindust
rie
s.Ma nywo r
ko utsi
det heregi
on,inl a
rge
ci
ties
,intheplai
nsa ndinmi l
it
aryandg o
vernments er
v i
c e
sacr
ossIndia.

In2009,KGFSRur alS er
vices1
,ami c
ro- bankingins tit
utionaNliatedwi t
h
IFMRTr ust,de
2
cidedt osetupo per
ati
o nsint hishi l
lya r
ea.$e iraim wa s
toreachpo tenti
a lcl
ientsint hev il
l
ageso fTehr iandPa uriwhount i
lthen
hadl i
ttleo rnoa cce
sst oregularbankings ervi
cesa ndwe reals
oc onsidere
d
barel
yba nkableb ymo s
tba nk s
.
Usingpo pula t
ionde nsi
tyma pping,KGFSs oughtl oca
tionsforit sbank
branche satthec ent
reo fcatchme ntareasreachinga bout10,000pe ople.
Its oon be ca mec l
ea rto KGFS t hat,ha v
ing s olvedt hede nsitya nd
acc
e s
sibili
ty pr e-requisi
tes
,t hey weref aced wi ths everec o
nne cti
vit
y
l
imi t
ations,a s mo sto ft he ir pro
po sedl o cat
io ns ha d no I nternet
inf
rastructure.i niti
alde ployme nto fVS ATsa nd us eo flocalADS L
ser
v i
cespr ovede xpens i
ve,s
lowa ndpro netobr eakdo wns.
$a twa swhe nwer e cei
vedac al
lfromI FMR sITt eam,a ski
ngifwe
dbe
int
erestedi npr opo s
ingac onne cti
vit
ys olut
ionf ort he i
r0rst15br anches.

$ei ni
ti
alde ployment:approach,de
sign,deploy
me nt
Whe nrespondingt ot hec al
l,aswedowi t
hs imil
arrequest
s,AirJ
al
di
for
msi tsr e
spo nse base
do ni nf
orma t
iono nt he fo
llo
wi ng ne
twork
ess
ent
ial
s:
howfaristhec l
o s
estavai
la
bleba c
khaulloca
tion(t
heplacefrom wher
ewe
canava
ilaccesstotheInternetcl
oud)fromt hepropos
eddeploymentar
ea?
Oursurveyssugg e
stedthattherewer
er el
ati
velyfe
wba ckhaullo
cati
onsin
thear
ea.

1 ht
tp:
//
rur
al
channel
s.
if
mr.
co.
in/
kgf
s-
mode
l/
wha
t-i
s-
a-k
gfs
/
2 ht
tp:
//
www.i
fmr.c
o.i
n/
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 469

Mo stwerelocatedi nDe hraduna ndneighbouri

ngt owns( s
eeFigureCS D
1).Re achi
ng f r
o m t her
et ot he propos
ed de plo yme nta re
a pr oved
problemati
c.Af termuc he 1ortwel oc
atedaba ckha uldr opataBTSi n
thetowno fNa rrandarNa gar(s
eeFigureCS D 1).Al t
ho ughv er
yc loseto
someo fthebra nches,ther
ewa snol i
neofsitef
romt hedr optoa nyo fthe
branches
.$i sle dust ocomeupwi t
has omewhatco unter-intui
ti
vesoluti
on:
uset he Narrandar Na garlo c
ati
o nasba ckha
ult oc onnec ta Ne twork
Ope r
ati
onCe nter( NOC)t hatwillbepla
cedinthev alleybe l
ow,whe r
ebe tt
er
LoSt ofa
vourablemo unta
intopsforpote
ntia
lrel
ayswa savail
able.

Fi
gur
eCS
D 1:Ga
rhwa
lNe
two
rkBack
haul
,NOCa
nds
omeI
FMRb
ranc
hes
,
2009

Canwepr opo s
eade ployme ntpla nthatistechnic
all
ys ol
idbuta tthe
sa
met i
mea 1o rdabletot he anchorc l
ie
nt3 a
nda ddit
ionalfutur
ec l
ient
s?
Ourinit
ials
ur veyo fthea reac onsi
stedofcoll
ect
inglat
itudea ndlongi
tude
dat
ao f pr
o po s
ed br anchl oc a
ti
o ns,ident
i0cat
iono f po s
si
bler el
ay
l
ocati
ons,as
sessme nto fo ver
a l
lc l
ientpotent
iali
nt heareaanda ss
e s
sment
ofthepubli
ci nfr
astructureo fthea rea
.

3Eac
ho fournet
wo rk
shaso neormo r
ecl
ie
ntswhic
harer
efer
redtoasa
ncho
r
c
li
ent
s.$eterm denot
esthei
rrolea
sthe0r
stcl
ie
ntsi
nanetwork,a
ndtheones
t
hatc
ontr
ibut
emo st
lytoit
sinit
ia
leco
nomicf
eas
ibi
li
ty
.
470 CASE STUDIES

Wewe reno tsurpr

ise
dto0ndo utthatthebr anchesweremo st
lyloc
ate
d
invalle
ys(easi
era c
ces
sforc l
ie
nts
,c l
osetor oa
ds)a ndse
parat
edfrome ac
h
otherbyhi g
hmo unta
inrangespr
eventingdirec
tLo Sbetweenthem.
Powe rsupplytor e
lay
spro mis
edt obeac hal
lengemo s
tpotenti
alre
lay
l
o ca
tionswe r
ee i
therawayfromt hegridorl ocat
eda tweakpo i
ntswhere
powe rwa satt i
me sdownf ordaysa ndwi ldpo werWuctuat
ionscause
d
rout
e r
st ohangorburnwhe npo werspik
e shi
tthe m.

Ha v
ingde c
idedthatwewil
lpursuethi
sdepl
oymentinanycase
,our
depl
oymentteam hadt
omakesenseofi
tal
l.
$es olut
ionwer ea
che
dwasbasedonplac
ings
ola
r-po
were
drel
aysonas
fe
ws tr
ate
giclo
cat
ionsa
spos
si
ble
.

$isledt
oa ddit
ional0eldsurvey
s,inv
olvi
nghoursofpr
eli
minaryoNc e
r
ese
arc
husingtopo g
raphi
cma ps
,Go og
leEart
ha ndot
herto
ols,fol
l
o wed
b
yda ysoftre
kkingt oident
i0edlocat
ionsinordert
oseeifal ocat
ion
c
ouldbesecur
edt hr
oughar entdeal,a
ndt hesa
fet
yandinte
grit
yo fthe
r
el
ayguar
antee
db ythelando wners
.

Wha tistheo vera

llcl
ientpo t
e nti
alinthear
e aandwil
litbesuNci
entto
,
atami ni
ma ll
evel
,ensuret ha
tt henetwor
kise c
o no
mic
all
ysel
f-s
ust
ai
nabl
e
wit
hina r
o und18mo nths ?
Cli
entpo tenti
aldidnots eem brig
hta swel
l
.
Bes
idesthepr opose
dba nkbr ancheswef oundf e
wadditi
onalcl
ie
nts
mainlysc
ho o l
sando t
he rorganiza
tio
ns.

Wewe r
es urethatthec l
ientbasewillgro
wi nt ime,buthadto0ndawa y
toensurev i
abil
ityinar el
ati
velyshortti
me.
Wede cidedt oe x
tendthene tworktomo r
ede nsel
y-popul
ate
darea
satthe
foot
hill
so ftheGa rhwalrange.
$ea ctualdeploymentwo r
kbe ganinOc tober2009.
Afte
ra round t womo nthso fde pl
oymentwo rk,thec o
renetwor
kwa s
rea
dy.
It
ssiz
ewa saround50x 70km.
Itprovi
de dconne ct
iv
ityt o15ba nkbranchesa nda r
ound0veschool
sand
i
nsti
tuti
o nsint heval
ley.
Mo s
to fi t
ss t
and-alonerelay
swe res o
lar-
po weredandi t
slong
estsi
ngle
-
hoplinkwa s54k m.
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 471

Fi
gur
eCS
D 2:Ga
rhwa
lne
two
rk,p
art
iald
epl
oy
mentt
opo
log
y,Ea
rly2010

Fi
gur
eCS
D 3:Fi
el
dsu
rve
yint
heGa
rhwa
lre
gio
n
472 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCS
D 4:Fi
el
dsu
rve
yint
heKu
mao
nre
gio
n

Fi
gur
eCS
D 5:Pr
epa
ringf
orr
el
ayi
nst
al
la
tio
n,Ku
mao
nNe
two
rk
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 473

Fi
gur
eCS
D 6:Re
layt
rou
ble
sho
oti
ng,Ku
mao
nNe
two
rk

Fi
gur
eCS
D 7:La
stt
ouc
hest
oso
larr
el
ay
,Ku
mao
nNe
two
rk
474 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCS
D 8:Ba
ckh
aulRe
lay
,Ga
rhwa
lNe
two
rk
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 475

Fi
gur
eCS
D 9:Cl
ie
ntRe
lay
,Ku
mao
nNe
two
rk

Fi
gur
eCS
D 10:Cl
ie
ntRe
lay
,Ka
ngr
aVa
ll
eyNe
two
rk
476 CASE STUDIES

$r eey e
a rso no per
ati
o n,econo micv i
abili
ty,chall
engesandr e
s ponses.
$r eey e
a rso n,thepr es
entne two rkstil
lc at
erstot heinit
ial15br anc hes
and o r
iginalc li
ents.Itha sa l
sog rown s i
gni0cantly
.I t
spr e
sents izei s
around120x 100k m.
Travelti
mebe t
we eno urNOC/ ONc et oitsfurthestreac
hestakesa round
sevenho urs( !)
,a ndt henumbe ro fclie
nt sont hemo unta
inr angesa nd
val
ley hasg rown s i
gni0cantl
y.Ini tso ngoinge 1o r
tst o maintaint his
chall
engingne t
wo rk,ourt e
am ha sha dtode alwithl a
nds l
ides
,s now,r ain
andt hunde rs t
orms ,wilde l
ephant s
,leopa r
ds( yes
!)ando fc oursec l
ients
forwho m muc ho fthisma tt
ere
dl itt
lewhe nthe i
rlineisdown.
Wea rev erypr oudo ft hef a
ctt hato ura ver
a g
eupt imei no ury earso f
operati
oni nt hea reaexc e
eds95% a ndt hatthene t
wo r
kha sa t
tra
c ted
muc ha t
tentio nandpr ai
sefromi tsusers,otherInternetplay
ersa ndt he
me di
a.

$issai
d,c
hal
lenge
sst
il
laboundandt
hes
tr
uggl
etokee
pital
lrunni
ngis
s
ti
llver
ymucha nongoi
nge1ort
.$emai
nc ha
ll
eng
eswefa
cedsinc
ethe
i
ncept
iono
fthenetwo
rkare
:

Energ
ypo werisst
il
lama jo
rchall
enge
.$eg ri
d-pr
ovisi
onise
rrat
icand
probl
emat
ic.Usi
ngtheg r
idasthepo wersour
ceforourrela
ys(
evenwith
bat
ter
y backup) hasledt o burnt r
o ut
ersand ho ur
so ftrave
lt o
tr
ouble
sho
otlink
sdraine
do fthe
irpowerbackupaf
tertheli
newentdown.

Sol
arpower,ontheo therhand,al
tho
ugha l
mosttrouble -
fr
ee4
ishowev
er
st
il
lcost
ly
.
Bear
ingthecapit
alc o
stsforthes
erel
aysour
sel
vesstre
tc hesac hall
eng
ing
ec
ono mi
cpr o
po s
iti
one v
enf ur
the
r,whil
ehavi
ngc l
ientspa ythef ul
lcost
s
f
orar el
ayl
imitsthetypeofcli
ent
swhoc a
na va
ilourco nnect
io ns.

Rela
ysag oodr e
layisonetha tispl
acedinal ocat
ionco
veri
nga smuch
spa
cea spos
si
ble.IntheGa rhwa lare
a,thisme ansmount
aintops.$e se
pla
cesa r
eno r
ma l
lya nd natural
lyha r
dt og ett oand qui
tei s
olat
ed.
Buil
ding,mai
ntenanceandsec uri
tyinthesesit
esisanongoi
ngcha l
l
enge.
Atthetimeofwr i
tingwea r
ebus yrebuil
dingar e
laywhos
esolarpanel
s,
bat
ter
y,char
gerando t
herequipme ntwe r
estol
en.

4Ea
cho
fourne
two
rksha
soneo
rmo
rec
li
ent
swhi
cha
rer
efe
rre
dtoa
sa
ncho
rcl
i
ent
s
.$e
t
erm denot
esthei
rro
least
he0rstc
li
ent
sinane
two
rk,a
ndt
heo
nest
hatc
ont
ri
but
emo
stl
y
t
oitsini
ti
alec
o no
micfe
asi
bil
it
y.
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 477

Someo fourne
wc o
nnec
tio
nsha
veprove
nt obes
ocha
ll
eng
ingasto
re
quir
ear el
ayfore
ach ne
wloc
ati
ons
,clea
rl
ynotanea
syecono
mic
pro
posi
ti
on.

Si
zeasproudaswea reinthesizeofthenet
work,atra
veldi
sta
nceof
ov
er10hoursbet
we e
ni t
stoe xt
remepointsi
sstr
etc
hingoutte
am,who
movemo s
tl
yo n bi
kes,tothelimit,withsometroubl
e-s
hoot
ingtri
ps
l
as
tingo
vertwodaysonaccountoftra
vel
.

Economicv ia
bil
it
y t hedualmo untain-v
all
ey/
spa
rsepopul
ati
on-hi
gh
densi
tymo del
,whichisanimpl
ici
tac ross-s
ubsi
dyhaspro
vensucce
ssf
ul,
butha snotful
lysol
vedthechal
l
eng eo feconomicvi
abi
li
tyinma rgi
nal
mo unta
inousare
as.Ourres
ponse
stot hesechal
le
ngesev
olveconst
antl
y.
Prese
nto b
ser
vati
onsandst
epsi
mpleme ntedincl
ude:

Ene r
gyweha vel e
arnttha tsola
r-powere
dr e
laysaretheo nlyrealopti
o n
fortheGa rhwalne t
wo r
k( asforma nyo t
herlo
c a
ti
ons).
Int ryi
ng t or ati
onaliz
et he costsforc l
ients we havel i
mitedo ur
deploymentt oprivat
e/smallbusinesscl
ie
ntstoc l
uste
rswhe reami nimum
of10c li
entswithade mando fatleas
t1Mbpspe rc l
ie
ntc anbei denti
0e d
withina5- 6mo nthpe ri
od.A l owerdensit
yme anshi g
herpr ice
sa ndi s
usuall
yrequeste
db yc l
ient
sf orwho seoper
ati
onsconnecti
vityisessenti
al
.
Weha vealsobe gunt oo 1e ra paymentspreadfortimec ommi tment
deals
:cli
entspayf ortheco s
to fequipmentandr el
ays(ortheirshareofit)
overape r
io doftime,iftheya g
reetoac ont
ract
uallock-i
npe r
iodo fover
twoy ea
rs.

Rel
aysthebes
tloca
ti
oni snotnec
ess
ari
lytheonewit
hthebestco
ver
a ge
ONL Y,buto
nethatpre
sentano pt
imalcombina
ti
onofvis
ibi
li
ty
,se
curit
y,
acc
ess
ibi
li
tyandpric
e.Inc er
tai
nc as
esthismeansahighernumbero f
re
lay
s,butwebel
ie
vethatonthewho l
ethi
sisacheape
randmo r
erat
ional
opt
ion.

Sizeas i
mplesolutio
nt othes iz
epr obl
em wo uld beto brea
kt he
networ
kt os mal
lers ub orautonomousne twork
.We a reus i
ng thi
s
approa
chino t
hernetworks
,wherethesiz
elimiti
sco ns
ider
edbyar o
leof
thumbo famax.ofthreehourt
raveltoasit
e.
$i showeverma k
esl i
tt
lesens
einas par
sene t
works uchast heupper
Ga r
hwalrea
ches
.
478 CASE STUDIES

$ec ompr omisesol

uti
onwec a
mea cros
swasplace
me ntofsta
gingposts

i
ns trat
egicne t
workjuncti
ons.
Essenti
al
ly,thesepost
sa rest
oragespace
swhe reequipmentisk eptin
suNc i
entq uanti
ti
estoserveade0nedcat
chme nta
rea.
Whi leno tsavingthet ra
velti
me ,itall
owso urtea
mt omo v
eq uic
k l
y
withoutha vi
ngt ocarr
ya l
onghe av
ya ndbulkyequi
pme nt.$ee v
olut
ion
ofas ta
gingpo sttoano pera
ti
onalbas
ewi l
lcomewhe nk e
epingat e
amo f
twope opleats uchalocatio
nc oul
dbej ust
i0edbyitscli
entdensit
ya nd
rev
e nues
.

Economicvia
bili
tyAi rJ
al
di
sover
-ar
chinggoalistorea
chun-se
rvedand
under
-ser
veda r
easwi t
hhi g
hq ual
it
yi nte
rnetconnec
tiv
ity
.Assuch,the
cr
oss-
subsi
dymo delisjus
ti
0edasapa r
tia
lsol
utiontothechal
l
engesfa
ced
byma nya s
piri
ngr ura
linter
netprov
idersla
ckingtheskil
lsordesi
reto
bui
ldnetworksofthescal
eoftheGarhwalnetwork.

$a tisho weverc annotbet heo nlye conomica venuef ordeployme ntin

suc
hc hall
enginge nvir
o nme nt s
.
Oura tte
mptst oi ncr
ea s
et hev iabili
tyo fmo untain provi
sioninc l
ude
aggr
ess
ivepricingo fhighe rb andwi dthpa cka
gest hema r
ginalco s
tf or
hig
herba ndwidthi sr el
ativelyl ow,a l
lowingushi g herma rgi
nalr e
v e
nue s
whil
estil
lbeinga bletoo 1e rv eryreasonabledealsforsuchpa ckages
.
$i sstandsin ma jorc o ntras
tt ot heno n-scal
abledo ng l
ea nd VS AT
sol
uti
onst ha
ta reo f
te
nt hea l
ter
na ti
vestoo urs er
v ice
sint heseareas.At
the othere nd o ft he s pe ct
rum,we ha ve beg un o 1er
ing l i
mi te
d
ti
me/bandwidthpa cka
g es.
Alt
houg hmo reexpe nsi
v eo nape r-unitbasi
s,thesepa cka
gesarea ppeali
ng
toc l
ientswho wi s
ht ol imi tt he i
rc onsumpt i
ont ot hei
re conomic
wil
li
ngne s
stopa y.

Futureplansinc
ludeintr
oducti
ono f4-C:lo c
a lcente
rswhereuser
sc an
util
iz
eba ndwidthforCl as
sro
oms et
up( onlinei ndivi
dua
llearni
ng,live
teac
hingt oac l
ass
roome tc
.)Cinema( watching0l mso rotheronline
contenta tal oca
lc ent
er)
,Ca f(inte
rnetc a
fwhe r
epe o
plec an use
indi
vidualcomputer
s)andCo nnect
ivi
ty(throughl ocalhot
spotinthearea
ofthec ente
ro rthroughconnect
iv
itydea l
stoho usesandoNc essol
da t
theCa f
).
 Case Study: Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India 479

Summary
$eGa rhwa lnetwo r
k wa screatedi nr es
po nset o ar equestf r
oma n
anchorc l
ient
,ami cr
o-bankinge nter
pris
ef orwho mc onnecti
vitywa sa
necess
aryc onditi
onf oras ucc
e s
sfulimpleme ntati
ono fi t
sv i
siono frural
bank i
ng.AirJal
direspondedtot hede ploy
me ntc hal
lengewi t
ht heho peof
ensuri
nghi gh-quali
tyandhi gh-avail
abil
it
ybr oadbandi nter
netc onnecti
on
and long -t
erm e c
o nomics usta
inab i
li
ty
.$e seo bj
e c
tiveswe r
er e
ached
through ac ombinati
ono fc ar
fulde ployme ntpl a
nni ng,util
izati
ono f
naturaltopo g
raphicasse
ts,expans i
ono fthene tworkf romt hes pars
el
y-
populate
d mo untai
nt errai
nst ot hemo rede ns
elyinha bi
ted Dhe rdun
vall
ey,anda g
gres
sivepri
cingo nhi gherbandwi dthpa c
k ag
es.Futurepl a
ns
incl
ude f ur
there xpansi
ono ft hene twork, thic
keningo ft hec l
ie
nt
densit
yine x i
sti
nga re
asande nrichingofpa c
k agesands ervi
ceso1e r
edb y
AirJal
di.
480 CASE STUDIES

Case Study: Open Technology Institute

Red Hook initiative Wi2 & Tidepools

RedHo okInit
iat
iveWi Fiisac ol
l
abora
ti
velydesi
gne dmeshnetwork.I
t
provi
desInter
neta cc
esstot heRedHo oksect
iono fBrookl
yn,NY ,and
ser
vesasapl atf
ormf orde vel
opi
nglocalappl
ic
a t
ionsands e
rvic
es.Red
Ho okI ni
ti
ati
veha sbui l
tt henetwor
ki n par
tnershi
p wit
ht heOpe n
Technol
o g
yI nsti
tut
e,put t
ing human-c
enter
ed designand communi t
y
engage
me ntatthecoreoftheproje
ct.
$ec ommuni t
ye xpandedthene t
worksig
ni0cantl
yf ol
lo
wingana t
ura
l
dis
aste
rintheF al
lof2012.

Ke
yas
pe ct
s
1. Ma i
nne t
wo rkanchorsar
etrus
tedcommunityo
rgani
zati
ons.
2. Soli
drelat
ionshi
pwi thtechni
calsuppor
tprov
iderfr
o mo uts
ide
thecommuni ty
.
3. Co mmunity-l
ed de s
ign proc
esse mphas
iz
eslocal needs a
nd
enhanc
ese ngage
me nt
.
4. Rapid proto
typing ofappli
cat
ionsdesi
gnedfortheloc a
larea
networ
k .

History of the network

Beginni
ngi nF a
ll2011,theRe dHo okInitia
tiv
e( RHI),aBr ookl
ynno n-
pro0tf ocusedo nc reati
ng s oci
alchanget hr
o ughy outheng a
gement,
approachedt heOpe n Te chnolo
gyI nsti
tutea boutc oll
abor
ati
ng ona
communi tywirel
essne t
wo rk.RHIwa nte
dawa yt ocommuni cat
ewi th
theresi
de ntsimme di
atel
ya rounditscommuni t
yc ent
er.OTIwa sinit
ia
lly
unablet os upportthee 1o rtdir
ectl
y,buti ntroduce
d Ant ho
nyS chlo
ss,
RHIMe diaProgra
msCo ordinat
or,t
oJ onathanBa l
dwin,aPa r
sonsSchool
ofDe signg r
aduat
es tudentwhoha dbe ene xper
imentingwithwirel
ess
me s
ha sal ocaldig
ita
lplatform.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 481

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI1:Re
dHo
okWe
stHo
use
s-p
ubl
ich
ous
ingb
uil
di
ngs

RedHo o
ki sthenor
thwes
ter
ncorne
ro fBrookl
yn,jutt
ingo utint
ot he
Huds
onBa y.Iti
scuto1fromtheres
to ftheboroughb ytheGo wanus
Ex
pre
ssway,whic
hcar
rie
str
aNcfro
m pointsso
uthintolo
we rMa nhat
tan.

$ene i
ghbor
ho o
di shometoa ppr
oxima t
ely5000re
side
ntsofRedHo ok
House
spubli
cho usi
ngando t
herlowi ncomearea
snearanexpre
ssway
,as
wel
lasag entri
fyi
ngs e
cti
on with ma nysmallbus
ines
sescl
ose
rt othe
wat
er
.Ma nyindust
ria
lsi
tes
,anI ke
aa ndanumbe rofpubli
cparks0l
lout
t
hearea
.
482 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI2:Wa
lki
ngf
rom RHIOMc
est
oGo
wanu
sEx
pre
ss
way

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI3:Gowanu
sExpr
es
swaywhic
hdivi
dest
heRe
dHo
ok
ne
igh
bor
hoo
dfr
omt h
eres
tofBro
okl
yn.

RHIWi Fi
sini
ti
alpl
anwastoprov
idewi
rel
es
sac
ces
stotheInt
erne
tin
andar
oundRHI
sbui
ldi
ng,whi
chisnea
rtheex
pres
swa
ya ndtheRed
HookHo us
es.

Schl
ossandBa l
dwininst
alle
daUbi qui
tiNanost
ationo nthero
ofa nda
Links
ysroute
rinsi
dethebuilding
,connect
edviaet
hernet.
$e yconnect
edtheLinksysroute
rtothecente
r
smo dem.$i si
nsta
ll
a t
ion
provi
deda nopport
unit
yt opr oto
typeearl
yvers
ionso fRHIWi Fil oc
al
appl
ica
ti
ons.Whe nresi
dentso rvi
si
tor
stoRHIc onnec
tedtothewirele
ss
acce
sspointnamed RedHo okInit
iat
iv
eWi Fi,
t
heywe redir
ect
edt oa
websi
teonal oc
alse
rver
.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 483

Onthiswe
bsi
tewa
saSho
utBox
,al
oca
ldi
gi
talmes
sageboar
da l
l
owi
ng
ev
ery
onetolea
veaco
mme nto
rano t
ebehi
nda nd pa
rti
ci
pateint
he
pr
oje
ct.

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI4:Fi
rs
tRHIWiFinod
e(Ubi
qui
tiNanos
ta
tio
n)ins
ta
ll
edo
n
t
her
oof
to
poft
hebu
ildi
ngtha
tho
use
stheRHIoMces
.

InMarchof2012,Bal
dwinandSchlos
sins
tal
l
eda na
ddi
ti
onalUbi
qui
ti
Nanos
tat
ionont hero
ofo fanapart
mentbuil
dingo
ver
loo
kingCo1e
y
Par
kandmucho fther
esto
fthenei
ghbor
hood.

Ar es
idento fthebuildi
ngwi t
hs oci
altiest
oRHIdo nate
dt heel
ect
ric
ity
andro oft
opa c
cess.
Wi t
ht hisvant
a g
epo intont hene i
ghborhoo
d,thepossibi
li
tyofawirel
e s
s
networkc onnect
ingpubl i
cspacesbegantotakeshape
.
Ini
tia
lly,theCo 1eyPa rkwi re
lessacces
spointwasno tconnect
edtot he
Inte
rnet,butwa sconnectedtoaGur uPl
ugS er
ver
.
$eba si
c,lowpo werserverhostedal oc
alwebpageont henetworkanda
ShoutBo xsi
mi l
artot heoner unninginRHI .
484 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI5:Ru
nni
ngcabl
etoi
nst
allano
deo
nther
oofo
fana
par
tme
nt
bui
ld
ingnor
thofCo>e
yPa
rk.

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI6:No
dei
nst
al
le
dont
her
oofo
fana
par
tme
ntb
uil
di
ng.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 485

RHIWi Fiuse
sOTI
sCo mmoti
onWi r
ele
ss0rmwar
erunni
ngonUbiqui
ti
ro
uter
s.
Commo ti
onisaf r
eeand open-
sour
cec ommunic
ati
ontoolt
hatuse
s
mobil
e phones,compute
rs,and other wir
el
es
s devi
cestoc r
eat
e
dec
entr
al
ize
dme s
hnetwor
ks.

Mostimport
antl
y,Co mmo ti
onal
lowsne
twor
k de
vel
opmenttoocc
ur
dy
namica
ll
ya ndo r
ganic
all
y-s ot
hecommuni
tyca
nde c
idewher
eand
ho
wt henet
wo r
kshouldgrow.

Commoti
on net
worksaresus
tai
nabl
e withouta c onnec
tiont othe
I
nte
rne
t,whi
chma ke
sthe
mresi
l
ienttoouta
ges;t
heyc a
ndi s
tr
ibut
eacc
ess
t
oappl
ica
ti
onshos
tedonl
oca
lser
versorontherout
ersthemse
lves
.

Social software and growth of the network

Bas
edonr e
sea
rchintoco
mmuni
tywir
el
es
sne t
worksar
oundthewo r
ld,
Bal
dwi
nha dident
i0edanee
dfors
oci
alsof
twar
ethatwoul
da ddval
ue
andadi
st
incti
dent
itytot
hec
ommuni
tywir
el
essnet
work
,spe
ci0ca
ll
yto:

Sparkc i
vi
ca nd c o
mmuni tyengagementb ya ddr
ess
ing loc
al
needs,i
nte
rest
sandcult
ure.
Foste
rt r
ust,int
erde
pendence,and reci
pro
cit
yt hro
ugho utthe
communi t
y.
Me rg
edigi
talandphysi
calcommunityspac
es.
Ensurethatpeopl
ek nowa boutme s
h/ha v
es o
ftwar
ei nst
al
led
bef
o r
eac ommunicat
ionoutageocc
urs.

Sc
hlos
sandBaldwi
nbega
nwo r
kingwithpar
ti
cipa
ntsinRHI
ses
tabl
is
hed
medi
aprogr
amso nac o
ll
abo
rat
ive,human-ce
nte
reddesi
gnpro
cesstha
t
ca
ll
edupontheknowl
edg
eandinte
res
tsoflo
calre
side
nts
.

$r o
ughoutt he0r sty ear
,Ba ldwinand S c
hlos
sheld wo rks
hopswith
co
mmuni tyme mberst ode t
ermineloc
alneedsandgathe rde
sig
nideasf
or
Ti
depools
,de vel
opedb y Ba l
dwinf orpilot
ing ont heRHIne twor
k.
Ti
depoolsisa nopen- sourc
ec ustomi
zabl
elocalmappi ngplat
for
m buil
t
us
ingJavas
cri
pt,LeaWetJS,PHPa ndMo ngoDB.
Bal
dwinde s
igneditforlo c
alcommuni c
ati
on,plac
emaking ,a
nd
or
ganiz
ingarounde vents,i
ssues
,a ndc
ommuni tyas
set
s.
486 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI7:Wo
rks
hopt
oid
ent
if
ylo
calne
edsf
orRHIWi
Fine
two
rk.
(
Pho
tob
yBe
ckyKa
zans
ky)
.

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI8:Ti
dep
ool
sma
pofRHIWi
Fine
two
rk.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 487

$ec o
mmuni t
ywo rk
shopsproduc
edidea
sforloca
la ppl
i
cat
ionst
hat
wo
uldaddr
esss
pec
i0cnee
dside
nti0e
dbythecommunit
y.
$eneedsi
dent
i0e
dinthecommunitywor
ksho
pswere
:

Acc
esstotheInternet(a
tho me ,vi
amo bi
le,andatneig
hbor
hood
ki
osks
).
Acc
ountabl
ec ommuni typa r
ti
cipati
on(FAQs ,ele
ctr
oni
cbull
et
in
boa
rds,SMSe nabledfeat
ures)
.
Acc
esstoreso
urces(employmenta ndskil
l
ss har
ing
).
Loc
alInfor
ma t
ionS yst
em( his
to r
ic
alar
chiv
e,landmarks
).
Mult
il
ingual(S
panish,ArabicandTa ga
log)
.
Pl
ayf
ulinter
fac
et opromo teexplora
ti
on.

Inthes umme rof2012,Ba l

dwi
nj o
inedOTI
sst
a1,andOTIbr oug
ht
addi
tio
na lte
chexpe
rti
setotheco
ll
abora
ti
ona l
ongwit
he x
peri
enc
ecl
osi
ng
digi
ta
ldiv i
desa
nddevelo
pingcommunity-
cont
rol
le
dinfr
ast
ruc
tur
e.

$e orga
niz
ati
on
se xperi
encein Detr
oitand Phi
lade
lphi
a pr
ovi
ded
g
uida
nceonhowt ocoll
abora
tewit
hcommuniti
est
hathavebee
nsoci
al
ly
,
g
eogr
aphi
cal
l
ya ndte
chno l
ogi
cal
l
yisol
at
edwit
hinci
ti
es
.

Duri
ngthemo nt
hsf o
ll
owingtheinit
ia
ltes
tsofthelo
c a
lnet
work,OTI
andRHIfocus
edo nreal
iz
ingthr
eeini
tia
lappl
ic
ati
onsthatwo
ulduset
he
Tide
poo
lspl
atf
orma ndruno v
erthelo
calwir
el
essne
twork:

Whe re
stheB61Bus ?-Ana ppli
cati
onf oracc
ess
ingr eal
-t
imebus
l
o c
a t
ionsa nd arri
valtimesus i
ng dataf r
om theMe t
ropoli
ta
n
Transi
tAut hor
ity
sBusTimeAPI( launch
edOc t
ober9,2012) .
Stop& Fr iskSurvey-As urveyappl
icat
ionthatresident
scanus e
todo c
ume ntpo li
ceinte
ract
ionsinRe dHo okandi mpr o
vepublic
saf
ety( l
aunche
dOc tobe
r17,2012) .
RHIRa dio-Ano nli
neradi
os t
ati
on,str
eamingco ntentproduce
d
bytheY outhRa di
oGr oupa tRHI( underdeve
lo
pme nt).
488 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI9:Ma
gne
tad
ver
ti
si
ng"
Whe
re'
sth
eB61Bu
s".Ti
dep
ool
sap
pli
cat
io
n.

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI10-
11:Mo
bil
euse
rint
erf
acef
or"
Whe
re'
sth
eB61Bu
s?"
ap
pli
cat
io
n.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 489

Expansion after superstorm Sandy

OnOc t
ober29,2012,Superst
o r
mS a
ndydevast
ate
dl ow-
lyi
ngRedHoo k
al
ongwit
hmuc hofthesurr
o undingregi
on.
Amidpowerout
agesandWoo ding,theneedforacc
esstocommuni
cat
ions
sy
ste
msforinf
ormati
ona boutwha twa shappeni
nga ndwhe r
ehel
pwa s
nee
dedbeca
mec r
ucia
l.

$eRHIbui l
dingwasoneofthefe
wl o
cat
ionstha
tha dma na
gedtokeep
powerand,asares
ult
,RHIWi Fihadst
aye
dupt hrought hest
orm.Inthe
daysimme di
at
elyfol
l
owingthestor
m,upt o300pe oplepe rda
ywe re
ac
c e
ssi
ngthene t
worktocommunicat
ewithlovedo nes,lear
nwha twas
happeni
ngintheres
tofthec
ity
,andseekr
ecove
ryassi
sta
nc e.

Wei mmedia
tel
ysawc o
mmu nic
ati
onsa
so neofthec
ri
ti
calnee
dsinthe
c
ommunit
y,
s a
ysTonyS c
hlos
s.Wewante
di ttob
easeas
yaspos
si
bl
efor
p
eop
letocont
actthe
irnet
workst
oCndh ou
sing
,gai
nacc
es
stoinf
ormat
io
n,
a
ndrepo
rtthe
irsa
fet
yst
atus
.

Textme s
sag
ingwa st
hemo stwi
del
ya ndinsomec as
estheonlymeans
ofc ommunicati
onforneighbo
rhoodres
ident
saft
e rthestorm,soina
ma tt
erofdays,OTIdevel
opedRHIS tat
us-a nSMSt oMa pplugi
nfor
Ti
de pool
susingtheTropoApplic
ati
onProgra
mmi ngI nt
erf
ace(API
)for
handli
ngS MS me ss
agesand t
heGo ogl
eGe oco
dingAPIf orhandli
ng
natura
llang
uageaddre
sse
s.

RHIS ta
tuspro
videdame ansfo
rr e
side
ntstote
xtt
hei
rlo
cati
onandnee
ds
t
o ac ont
actnumbe r,whicha ut
oma t
ica
ll
y mapstheinfo
rmat
ionin
Tide
poolswitht hr
eaded di
sc
ussio
ns oo the
rsinthec ommuni
tycan
re
spond.
490 CASE STUDIES

me
ss
age
sonaTi
dep
ool
sma
p.

Asreco v
erypr ogr
ess
ed,FrankS a
nbo rn,aFe deralEme r
gencyMa nage
me nt
Admi nis
trati
on( FEMA)I nnovat
ion Fe l
low,r e
a c
hedo uttoRHIa bout
expandingt hene t
worktof urt
hersuppo r
tre c
overye1o r
tsinRe dHo o
k.
Sanborn r e
crui
ted voluntee
rsf rom NYC Me s
h a nd Ha c
DC, a
Wa s
hing t
o n, DC ba sed ha c
k e
rspa ce
,a nd c oordi
nated with t he
Inte
rna t
ionalTechnol
ogyDi sas
terRes ourc
eCe nter(ITDRC) .
OTIa l
readyha dastor
eo froute
rsatRHIf r
o m bef
orethestor
m.
Wi t
ht echnicaldir
ect
ionfrom OTIa ndo perat
ingaccordi
ngt otheg oal
s
est
ablis
hedb yRHI ,t
het e
a msetupaFEMAs atel
li
teli
nko nther o
o fof
RHIa ndi nst
all
edaCo mmo t
ionrout eront heroofofana utobodys hop
downt hebl ockfro
m RHI .

Previ
o usl
y,theo wnero fthes hophadbe enreluct
antt oho starouter,as
hedi dno tseeabe ne0tindo ingso.Howe v
er,astheco mmuni tyrall
ie
di n
res
po nsetot hecri
sis
,thea ut
obo dyshopbe ca
meak eyl inkbe t
we e
nt he
Inter
ne tg a
tewayatRHIa ndt herouterover
lookingCo 1eyPa r
k,whi ch
hadb yt henbe c
omea ni mpo rta
ntaiddist
ri
butionpo i
ntf orRe dHo ok.
Althought hes at
el
lit
eupl inkwa so1eredforo nl
y30da ysandpr ovided
mo destba ndwidth,t he me sh networkc oul
d di st
ributet he Inte
rnet
conne ct
iont okeylocati
onswhe r
eresi
dents
,0rstresponde r
s,andre c
ov e
ry
volunteersneededitmo st
.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 491

Asthec
ommunitycamet
oget
hert
orespondtothest
orm,thene
edt
o
gr
owthi
sre
si
li
entco
mmunica
ti
onsi
nfr
ast
ruct
urebe
camecl
ear
.

Wi t
hpo werandwate
rstil
lo1i nmuchofRe dHooki nthef
oll
owi
ng
mo nt
h,ma ny lo
calorg
aniz
ati
onsand r
esi
dent
sreache
do utto he
lp.
Brookl
y nFibe
r,aloc
alInter
netse
rvi
ceprov
ider(
ISP),vo
lunt
eer
edan
addit
ionalg
ate
waytoRHIWi Fi.

To add t heg at
ewa yi ntot heme s
h,OTI ,RHIa nd Bro
oklyn Fi
ber
inst
all
eda5GHzUbi qui tiNanost
ati
onLo corouterrunni
ngAi r
OS( to
rece
ivethe0be rsi
g na
l),a ndaUbi q
uit
iNa nos
tat
ionrunningCo mmo t
ion
(asawi rele
ssa c
cesspo int),ont he3rdWo oro ftheVi s
it
ati
on Church
Re c
toryont hewestsideo fCo 1eyPark.
$ec hurc
hwa sal
sowi tho utpoweratthetime,buttheteaminsta
ll
eda n
uninter
rupti
b l
epo wersuppl ythatcoul
dr untheroutersf
or12ho ur
sa ta
time.

Fi
gur
eCsOTI13:Ro
ofto
pnode.I
nt h
ea f
ter
mathofSupe
rst
ormSa
ndy,
a
ddi
ti
ona
lco
mmu ni
tymemberso
>er
edtohostRHIWi Fino
desandal
oca
lISP
donat
edInt
erne
tconnec
ti
vi
ty.
492 CASE STUDIES

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI14:Ro
oft
opno
dei
nst
al
le
daf
te
rSu
per
st
ormS
and
y.

Si
ncet
hest
orm,RHIWiFiha
ss uppo
rte
da ppr
oxi
mat
el
y100us
erspe
r
wee
keve
nwitho
utpr
omo
tio
noftheres
ourc
e.

Dat
ac o
ll
ecte
db yCo mmoti
ono ncurr
entDHCPleas
es,a
swellasthe
Goog
leAnalyt
icsonthel
andingwebpa
ge,s
howtha
tres
ide
ntsa
ppearto
bepr
imari
l
yc onne
cti
ngus
ingAndro
iddevi
cesa
ndAppl
eiPodTo
uches
.

Inadditi
on,ma nyr es
ide
ntsus ethec omput
erwo rk
stat
ionsintheRHI
medial
a baswel
la sthewire
lessavai
labl
einRHI.RHIi sservi
ngasbo t
ha
phys
ica
la nd soc i
alanchorf ort he wir
ele
ssne t
wo r
k,dr i
ving di
git
al
ado
ption,educ
atingtheneighborhood,andcoor
dinat
ingreli
efe1or
ts.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 493

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI15:RHIWi
Fine
two
rkma
p.Ba
sema
p(c
)Go
ogl
eMa
ps2013.

Fi
gur
eCs
OTI16:Me
shne
two
rkt
opo
log
yvi
ewe
dinOLS
RVi
z.
494 CASE STUDIES

Sustainability & future goals

RHIwi llco ntinuet ode ve
lopt hepr ojectwi tht heg oalo fsuppo rt
ing
communi ty-wi der ec
overyf r
o mS uperst
o rmS andy.Wi ths upportf r
o m
Ne wY o
rk Ci tyWo rkforc
eDe velopme ntf undi ng,RHIa nd OTIa r
e
l
a unchi
ngat rainingpr ogra
mi nJ anuary2013t oe ngagene i
ghbo rhood
resi
dentsinma intai
ninga ndg rowi ngthewi rele
ssne t
wo r
k .Mo de l
edo n
the Digit
alS t ewardsc urr
icul
um de vel
o pedb yOTIa ndAl l
ie
dMe di
a
Project
sinDe troi
t,Mi chigan,thec ur
riculum wi lltr
ainy ounga dultsto
inst
allnewr oute r
s,ma intai
ne xi
stingo nes,a ndpr omotea doptio
no fthe
RHIWi Fine two r
kt hroughoutRe dHo ok .$eRHIDi gi
talS t
ewar dswill
prior
iti
zea dditiona lpublicspacesf ornetwo rke xpansi
ona ndwo rkwi t
h
otherresi
de ntst ode s
ignne w,lo calappl ica
tions.OTIwi llcontinuet o
assi
stinthede ve l
opme nto fthea pplic
ationsa nds upportthee ngineer
ing
ofthene two r
ki nc l
osec ol
la
bo r
ati
o nwi tht heco mmuni t
y.

Cost of the network

Do na
tedlabo rfr
oml o
c alres
identsa
ndt echnolo
gis
t.I
nsti
tut
ionalsupport
fro
m RHIa ndOTI .Ha rdware(~$50to~$85e a
chrout
e r
).
Inst
al
lati
on( 3-5wor kho ursfortwope o
plepe rsi
te
).Bandwidt
h( donat
e d
byRHI ,Broo kly
nFi ber,andFEMA) .Tr
ainingprogr
amf orloc
alresi
dents
toma inta
ina nd e
x pand netwo r
ka spa r
to famuni c i
palemployme nt
progr
am.

Lessons learned
Havi
ngrel
at
ions
hipsa
ndanchorwire
les
snode
sinpl
acepr
iort
oadi
sa
ste
r
f
aci
li
ta
tesr
api
dne t
workde
ploy
me ntthr
oug
h:

Alr
eady-
establ
is
hed rel
ati
ons
hips with key c o
mmuni
ty
st
akeho
lders
.
A he i
ghtened lev
elo ft echnol
ogi
callit
era
cy in t
he
communi t
y.
Pre-
posi
tio
ne d wirel
es
s ne t
wo r
k e qui
pment i n t
he
nei
ghborhood.

$emo s
tchall
eng
inginve
stmentisi
nt heini
tia
lo r
gani
zi
nga nddes
ign
phas
ebefor
eanyv a
lueisr
eali
zed.Co
mmuni ty
-desi
gnedappl
i
cati
onsadd
val
uetoaloca
lnet
wo r
k,ev
ena tasmal
lsca
le.
 Case Study: Open Technology Institute 495

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