Pathloss 4.0 Multipath MULTIPATH OPERATION ...... OVERVIEW ce Variable Gradient. Constant Gradient Profile Formats . VARIABLE GRADIENT RAY TRACE . Number of Rays . .. Total Display Angle Antenna Orientation K .......0eee Ff 0 San A aplaTS aT 2 Site 1 and Site 2 Antenna Heights ’ Ground Reflections ...... veeeee eens Gradient Table ....... ReREnee CONSTANT GRADIENT RAY TRACE .... Site 2 Start and End Antenna Heights .... Site | Antenna Height ....... Antenna 3 dB Beam Widths Frequency ...........00005 Earth Radius Factor (K)... Include Ray Densities . Polarization . Ground Reflections . Height Gain Calculation ..... Rabe RROD INHIBIT REFLECTIONS ........0022 00000200000 a REVERSE PROFILE... .. silat - a PROFILE DISPLAY FORMATS View Display ... ‘Antenna Orientation Earth Radius Factor K ... Qala MULTIPATH REFERENCE «2.000.000.0000. 0000000000 8 EARTH RADIUS REPRESENTATION . Refractivity Gradient ......... PATH PROFILE FORMATS ... Physical Earth Profile Effective Earth Radius Profile wees 10 -10 -10 RAY TRACING . 2 ilMuttipath Pathloss 4.0 Multipath Fading 12 Inversion Layer .... iiPathloss 4.0 Multipath MULTIPATH OPERATION OVERVIEW ‘The Multipath module uses ray tracing techniques to analyze propagation and ground reflections on line of sight paths. Select Module - Multipath from the menu bar to access this module. The ray trace is automat- ically generated on entry. Two methods of operation are provided. Variable Gradient AA flat earth profile representation is used to display the ray trace. The rays follow curved paths in accord- ance with the relationship between K (dN/dH) and elevation which is specified in the Gradient data entry form. No further analysis is available using this method. The variable gradient display is used to illustrate propagation anomalies such as ducting and radio holes. Constant Gradient The profile is displayed using an effective earth radius and all rays follow straight lines in this representa- tion. The program tracks the rays, recording the distance traveled for both direct and reflected rays. The antenna discrimination based on the antenna beam width is taken into account in the ray trace. When the ray trace is complete, the receive signal versus elevation at Site 2 can be calculated, On terrain profiles which support a single reflection, the results are equivalent to those obtained in the Re- flections module. Profile Formats ‘The Multipath module also includes a generalized display of profile formats which illustrates the possible methods of representing a path profile. The central ray is drawn for several common values of K. VARIABLE GRADIENT RAY TRACE ‘A number of rays are drawn about the central ray over a user defined angle. The path of the ray is de- termined by a user defined refractivity gradient ver- sus elevation relationship. This method is used to demonstrate ducting and other atmospheric propa- gation anomalies. The diagram on the right shows an extreme example of a duct formed between a sub-refractive and super-refractive layer. The ef- fect is a space wave fadeout at Site 2. BSE Select Method - Variable Gradient from the Multi- path menu bar to bring up the Variable Gradient di- alog box. The ray trace will be automatically generated when this dialog is closed. SEERRSEES ‘The following entries are required: Page 1 of 14Muttipath Pathloss 4.0 Number of Rays ‘This is the number of rays on either side of the central ray. For exam- ple, if 50 rays are specified, the total number of ray’s drawn will be 2 oe | Shit Total Dislayangle 3 [029 2 Oiettonk [133 ‘Total Display Angle Antenna OienaonK All rays will be contained within the total display angle. For example, St Aree Height in) 17820 suppose that the number of rays has been set to 50, and the total dis- _ %#° @Aftenn Height fm) J65.20 play angle is 2 degrees. The ray trace will generate 50 rays in a one Ground Feflectens TATA ‘degree segment above the central ray and another 50 rays in the one None degree segment below the central ray. Depending on the path length, | @ SngleRetecion some experimentation may be required to produce the desired dis- Double Reflection _Gracken! Table Play, Sena Antenna Orientation K The antenna orientation K determines the angle of departure of the central ray. Normally, this is set to the median value of K (4/3). Site 1 and Site 2 Antenna Heights ‘The antenna heights can be directly entered. If the antenna configuration supports multiple combinatior click the Antenna Combination button to select a new combination of main and diversity antennas. Note that the antenna heights are local variables in the Multipath module and any changes made to the antenna heights here are lost when the Multipath module is closed. Ground Reflections The maximum allowable number of reflections is set as desired to improve the readability of the display. Reflections can also be selectively inhibited along the profile. Gradient Table ‘The Gradient data entry form specifies the relationship be- tween K or dN/dH and elevation. This data determines the EAMAIRASEIEUIAg variable gradient ray trace characteristics. Up to five eleva- tions can be specified. To erase an entry, press the F3 key or Kana enter the letter "X' for the value. The data is automatically 733] 3885 sorted in terms of elevation when the form is closed. The 840.00 | 021) 300.00 | gradient can be specified in terms of K or dN/dH. The oppo- 360001 "590.00 | site format is automatically calculated. A single entry is treated as a constant gradient. Multiple en- tries are treated as layers with constant gradients. In the Elevation (m)1 above gradient table example, the ranges are defined as fol- lows: Page 2 of 14Pathloss 4.0 Multipath Elevation K Note that parameters such as frequency and polariza- tion are not included in the Variable Gradient dialog Below 810 meters 810 to 840 meters 840 to 880 meters Above 880 meters box. Only the ray trace display is provided using this method. CONSTANT GRADIENT RAY TRACE ‘The constant gradient ray trace is used to determine the reflective characteristics of the path. All rays are straight lines in this display. The first ray starts at the end antenna height specified in the Constant Gradient dialog box and continues in a clockwise direction until it covers 80 percent of the path. The angle between the rays is determined by the pro- gram. Note that not all rays are displayed on the screen; otherwise, the density would obscure the behavior of the ray trace. Once the ray trace is com- plete, the height gain characteristics of the path can be calculated. eo} 838 BERSSESE Select Method - Constant Gradient from the Multi- path menu bar to bring up the constant gradientdialog box. Com- EE plete the entries and options and Click the OK button to generate Sie 2Stat Antenna Height) the ray trace. The following entries are required: ‘ae Ee Ranged Waa Site 2 Start and End Antenna Heights ofr | Sees ‘The default start antenna height is the minimum antenna height, St® 1Anlerna 348 Beamwcth () ‘The default end antenna height is the tower height. The first ray St 2Antern= 38 Beamwiah (*) will terminate at the end antenna height. Fig ola Earth Radius Factor Site 1 Antenna Height IF inch ay dency This is the point of origin of the ray trace. If the antenna config Palaizaton— — Ground Reflections — uration supports multiple antenna combinations, click the Anten- | 7 Vettical | C None na Combination button to set the Site 1 antenna height to the © Hoieorta | | © Single Retlecton main or diversity height. Note that the antenna heights are local variables in the Multipath module and any changes made to the antenna heights here are lost when the Multipath module is, tricia Cont] TAS TR closed. tee Antenna 3 dB Beam Widths ‘These are the total 3 dB beam widths (both sides of the main lobe) of the Site 1 and Site 2 antennas. The beam widths affect the amplitude of reflected rays received at Site 2 due to the antenna discrimination. Page 3 of 14Multipath Pathloss 4.0 Frequency Enter the frequency in MHz. This is the global value of frequency and will be changed throughout the pro- gram. Earth Radius Factor (K) ‘This sets the constant gradient for the display. The multipath display shows the flat earth profile and an upper profile derived from the specified earth radius factor. Include Ray Densities This is equivalent to divergence defined as the scattering of reflected rays due to the curvature of the earth. The effect can seen on the constant gradient ray trace example display above. Note that the density of the direct rays arriving at Site 2 (number of rays per unit of elevation) is greater than the reflected ray density. Including the ray densities, effectively reduces the reflected energy at low values of K and has no effect at high values of K, Polarization Select either horizontal or vertical polarization. Polarization is a global variable throughout the program. The polarization affects the amplitude of the reflected rays. Ground Reflections ‘The maximum allowable number of ground reflections is set as desired to improve the readability of the display. The "None" selection serves no purpose in a constant gradient ray trace. Reflections can also be selectively inhibited along the profile as described in the following paragraph. Height Gain Calculation Once the constant gradient ray trace is complete, the Height Gain menu selection is enabled and the relative receive signal at Site 2 can be deter- Heishtincemert ni) mined as a function of elevation. The user is prompted to enter the height [0.20 increment for this calculation. ae Page 4 of 14Pathloss 4.0 Multipath As each ray is traced, the length traversed along the path is calculated. If ground contact occurs, | ] the complex reflection coefficient is calculated doe Lo | i based on the grazing angle, frequency, polariza- °* | tion, and the type of terrain. When the ray arrives | at Site 2, the angle of arrival and the elevation are § « | recorded. A record for each ray is created con- | taining the following data: Fao : + number 24 + classification. fas 1 + 0-direct path is | 1- single ground reflection al | 2 double ground reflection “Gs = = = = Beg Ow wT + arrival angle at Site 2 * elevation at Site 2 + amplitude at Site 2. For a direct path, the amplitude is determined by the Site 1 antenna 3 dB beam width. In the case of a reflected wave, the amplitude is reduced by the reflection coefficient. * path Jength traversed by the ray. * the additional delay produced by a ground reflection. ‘The ray records are separated into subsets, according to the ray classification and the angle of arrival. For direct path rays, the angle of arrival is not considered as the Site 2 antenna is assumed to be exactly oriented atthe Site 1 antenna. Range data records are developed from these subsets by associating sequential ray numbers, in each subset, with an elevation range at Site 2. The result is a series of independent ray records which exist over a certain elevation range at Site 2. Each range data record is examined to determine if the elevation difference be- tween successive rays is consistent and any extreme deviations are discarded. The height gain diagram is developed by calculating the relative receive signal between the start and end antenna heights at the specified height increment. ‘The magnitude and phase at specific elevations are determined by interpolating the applicable range data records and adding the Site 2 antenna discrimination. The received signal is calculated by the vector addi- tion of these values. The display may show several discontinuities where a different number of rays are used. in the vector addition. No assumptions are made outside of the data ranges. If a given elevation is spanned by a single range, the magnitude is determined by the Site 1 antenna beam width. If the resolution is too coarse, select Height Gain on the menu bar again and enter a smaller height incre- ment, Page 5 of 14Muttipath Pathloss 4.0 INHIBIT REFLECTIONS Reflections can be selectively inhibited over any portion of the profile. Select Operations - Inhibit Reflec- tions or press the F7 key. The ray trace is canceled the arrow appears on the display and its location is dis- played on the status bar. Move the cursor to one end of the segment over which reflections will be inhibited and press the F1 key or the right mouse button. Ifthe first point is selected in error, press the F8 key or click the reset button. Repeat for the opposite end of the segment. ‘The profile is redrawn showing a dotted line over the inhibited segment. A ray will not be reflected in this segment in either the constant or variable gradient ray trace modes. To reset the profile to normal, select Operations - Cancel Inhibit Reflections or hold down the Ctrl key and press the F7 key. REVERSE PROFILE ‘The ray trace starts at the site on the left side of the screen (Site 1). To view ray trace from Site 2, provision has been made to reverse the profile. All data including site names, coordinates, antenna heights and the worksheet are reversed. PROFILE DISPLAY FORMATS Profile Display Formats illustrate different representations of a path profile and shows the path followed by a ray for several Profi Zz values of the earth radius factor K. For small distances on the -Mitiisi= =) Daly earth, a parabola is used to represent the earth in radio wave Sie © TolelDisply LS propagation analysis. Refer to the Multipath Reference section Sie2 Patio Care of the manual. UO ceieed | ea ae © Equalced | Heb The initial display shows the profile drawn on the earth with Site 1 at the apex of the parabola. The Site 1 antenna is oriented horizontally. The earth is drawn with K = 1 which constitutes a |#oteental true earth. This is the perspective for a person standing at Sitel. at Tenens: fk=1- Thue Eath _Abicnra Dintaion 6 Four rays are drawn with the following values of K K=43 standard atmosphere K=23 sub refraction K = infinity super refraction K true earth The ray with the same value of K as the profile display will be a straight line. All other rays are curved lines. ‘The Profile Display Formats dialog box provides the following options: View ‘The profile can be displayed from Site 1 or 2 or it can be centered on the parabola. The latter is the repre- sentation used in the Pathloss program. Page 6 of 14Pathloss 4.0 ‘Multipath In the equalized display, the profile is positioned on the parabola so that the line between the Site 1 and 2 antennas is horizontal. Note that this is not possible if the earth radius factor is large. The Diffraction Mod- ule uses this option to assist in defining the radius of an obstacle. Display Both sides of the parabolic earth representation can be shown, or the display can be ‘The former is used to illustrate the concept. The latter is the working profile display. ited to the profile. Antenna Orientation K Initially, the Site 1 antenna will be oriented horizontally. The antenna can be oriented for any of the four values of K. The option for "All K values” produces the classic profile display which is impossible to achieve in practice. Earth Radius Factor K ‘The parabolic earth is drawn using the earth radius factor K. The ray with the same value of K will be drawn as a straight line, Page 7 of 14Pathloss 4.0 Multipath ‘The radio refractivity of air for frequencies up to 30 GHz is given by: = 2 £ N= 776-843.73 10° Pp « P total atmospheric pressure in millibars C ee © partial pressure due to water vapor in milli- ? peel ET i bars tt ° T absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin © —_—_—— 5 T and € normally decrease with elevation. al- ways decreases with elevation. ‘The concept of radio wave bending is illustrated in Figure (2). Inthe upper diagram, the atmosphere is shown as discreet layers with refractive indexes 71) -- Ms. In the lower diagram, the atmosphere has continuous variation or the refractive index. The diagram represents propagation through a hori- zontally stratified atmosphere. Refractivity Gradient ‘The refractivity gradient is the slope of the refrac- tivity versus elevation curve: AN Refractivity Gradient = 27 6 An example of a constant refractivity gradient which represents normal propagation conditions is shown in Figure (3). Decreasing h Inereasing Elevation CONTINUOUS REFRACTION Figure 2: Flat Earth Refraction OW senna ELEVATION IN METRES AMSL Figure 3: Refractivity Gradient Page 9 of 14Multipath Pathloss 4.0 MULTIPATH REFERENCE EARTH RADIUS REPRESENTATION For small distances relative to the earth radius, the parabolic representation of the earth given by Equation (1) is used. 2 hase y= a aN elevation above sea level distance earth curvature actual earth radius (6375 Km) seas ‘The path followed by a radio wave is governed by the vertical gradient of the index of refraction. Under normal propagation conditions, the density of the earth's atmosphere decreases uniformly with increasing elevation, Radio waves, in this case, will bend downwards toward the denser medium, ‘The earth radius in Equation (1) can be replaced by an effective earth radius (K-a) so that radio waves can be represented as straight lines. This transformation is valid only for a constant vertical gradient of the index of refraction. This assumption is valid for radio paths within one kilometer of the earth's surface. ‘This effective earth radius model simplifies the basic path geometry. Parameters such as grazing angles, and path clearance can be calculated using plane geometry. The following paragraphs provide a basic derivation of the effective earth radius model. This representation is used in the Pathloss program. REFRACTION ‘When a ray passes through two mediums with different re- fractive indexes, the ray is bent in the direction of the me- he< hy dium with the larger refractive index, in accordance with Snell's law. medium 2 (hz) 1m, - sin(8)) = Ny sin(6;) @ ~~ medium 1 (hi) ‘The refractive index, 1, of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium. The index of refraction is a dimensionless number and does not exceed 1.00045 at sea level. For con- venience, the refractive index is usually expressed as re- fractivity, N, defined as: Figure 1: Refraction N= (7-1) -10°N units @) Page 8 of 14‘Multipath Pathloss 4.0 PATH PROFILE FORMATS Physical Earth Profile Figure (4) shows a physical representation of a path profile using the representation given by Equation (1). The ray path curvature is based on the refractivity gradient shown in Figure (3). The initial angle of the ray is assumed to be zero (horizontal). Effective Earth Radius Profile = cor Radus Figure 4: Physical Path Profile In Figure (5), the earth radius, a, is replaced by an effective tl Ray Path earth radius, a,, defined as: ee ‘ i “1 ‘The ray is now represented as a straight horizontal tine, Figure 5: Effective Barth Radius Profile ‘The profile is drawn in a rectilinear format which implies the following assumptions: + The distance along the ray path is equal to the great circle are distance. + Elevations perpendicular to the earth are equal to their rectilinear values. The elevations with respect to the ray path are given by: +f “72K ‘The usual terrain profile representation is obtained by applying a transformation to Equation (7) so that the display is relative to the end points of the profile. The final display is shown in Figure (6). hah, o ‘The elevation, h, is given by: Page 10 of 14Pathloss 4.0 Multipath Siege ik yp inkilometers h in meters ® 24h 15 °K yp inmiles h infeet Figure 6: Path Profile Format RAY TRACING ‘The ray tracing algorithm is based on the following assumptions: ‘+ The atmosphere is separated into horizontal layers. Within a layer the refractivity gradient is constant. ‘+ Variations along the path and transverse to the path are negligible. Within a layer, a ray follows a parabolic path given by: = atm-x-L.x7 yratmx-Tx! % Page 11 of 14Multipath The constants, a and m in Equation (9) are deter- mined by the initial conditions. At the start, a is equal to the transmit antenna height and the slope 'm, is determined by the vertical antenna orienta- tion angle. Multipath Fading The effects of the above example ona 65 kilometer path are shown in Figure (7). The transmit antenna lies between a subrefractive layer below and an el- evated superrefractive layer above. The direct rays | pass between these layers to the receive antenna. Rays with a higher take-off angle reach the elevat- ed layer and are bent back towards the earth. Some of these rays also reach the receive antenna. Rays with a lower take-off angle reach the subrefractive Figure 7: Multipath Propagation layer and are bent back up. Some of these rays also reach the receive antenna, The receiver thus sees three different waves that have reached it by three different paths. Since the paths have different optical lengths, the waves will interfere with each other. Depending on the exact optical lengths and frequency, the inter- ference will be destructive or a signal enhancement will result. Slight changes in the structure of the atmos- phere will usually produce extreme variations in the receive signal. Under such conditions, short duration ‘deep fades are expected and the receiver is experiencing multipath fading. Ground reflections have been inhibited in this display, but these will actually constitute a fourth signal at the receiver. Inversion Layer Figure (8) shows an example of an inversion layer. Rays with a high take-off angle miss the layer en- tirely and end up far above receiver. Other rays with a lower take-off angle enter the layer and are ‘bent downward to the earth. There is a large region that does not receive a direct ray. Therefore, the re- ceiver has lost contact with the transmitter and is experiencing a space wave fade. The affected area is referred to a radio hole. Figure 8: Inversion Layer Page 12 of 14Pathloss 4.0 Figure (9) shows a example of an inversion layer but with ground reflections enabled. In this case, the transmit antenna is inside the layer and all rays are bent downward. The example assumes that the antennas were initially oriented during average propagation conditions (K = 4/3). The receiver will only receive rays which have been reflected ‘one or more times off the ground. 2896139) Figure 9: Inversion Layer with Ground Reflection Page 13 of 14Multipath Page 14 of 14