PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 8-65 from Table 14, which expresses no-load steam in percentage of total steam at most efficient load for various name plate nominal ratings. These figures apply to single-cylinder tur- bines with most efficient load at 80% of the name plate ratings for units rated 1000 kw and above. The values of the no-load factor apply only to straight condensing turbines and are somewhat higher than the average for modern high-efficiency units with hydrogen cooling. Some designers use tables of stonm-rate factors which, when multiplied by the steam rate at rated load, give the approximate steam rates at partial loads. Such factors are given in Tables 7 and 9 for NEMA sizes. Soe Kef. Gt for additional data. Noncondensing no-load steam flow depends largely on ston conditions, For units of 500 kw and less, assume no-load steam = 20 to 25% of total steam at the most efficient load. Most efficient load in small noncondensing turbines is frequently full load. Percentage of maximum throte ow 2030 8 800 000: 002! < $004 & 006) 008 019 207 rt 18 [-Feures.on curves are pressure ato mum ote volume ow. cu Ree ae 1° Sommer ft . fovea per @ 14 a $12 § 10 ‘Al os and up| £75 and up| Used enh a vesand un] 7s ant] is | 04 {Elferency correction factor for parva loads 03 = 100-(Scale A x Scale B) Fro. 34. Partial-load correction fastor for condensing turbines. (Warren and Knowlton, op. eit.) 100 £9 Jotet TTT i _ 8 9] + > yi rE 96 {ft a a a CY Generator rating, megawatts —----— Toget % generator loss at any load. —| ‘multiply % generator loss at rated oad by generator loss factor 1800 rpm air cooled '3600 rpm air cooled 3600 rpm Ho cooled 1800 tpm H cooled Gene Ve tA fa C7 oa Fracton of rang Fra. 35. Ay imate efficiencies of General Electric turbine generator, 3600 and 1800 rpm, air- and hydrogon-codied. Curves drawn for 0.80 power factor: for 0,00 power factor add 0.15% to rated-load Generator efieiency; for O70" power factor subtract 0.26% {rom rated-load genorator efficiency. (Warren and Knowlton, op. elf)8-66 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES ESTIMATING STEAM RATES FOR LARGE TURBINES. A more complete method of estimating turbine performance is presented by Warren and Knowlton in Ref. 65. Corrections for fractional load are shown in Fig. 34, for generator efficiency at other than rated load in Fig. 35, for mechanical losses in Fig. 36, and for exhaust losses in Fig. 37. 600; Ae | |_| 8 fool 11 L = 300 and £ nolL, f ? i a Figures on curves are exhaust annulus area,square | feet senate | I TTI 110,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,090 -70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 ting, kw Fro. 36, Approximate mechs lowes of condensing turbines versus rated load, in kilowatts. ‘Mechanical losses are constant at all loada for any given unit; therefore, the per cent mechanical loss ‘varies inversely with load. (Warren and Knowlton, op. eit.) “0 ot 3[8 aa ee ty 2 0{-% y 3 a a Z & aa i Bee a 2 | 160 | 3600 e |] [3fi93 [3600] 7] 4 | 249 | 3600] a [5 [354 [3600] —| [6[ 417 [3600] — | 10 7 [497 | 3600 [585 | 1800 Equvalent annulus velocity 1s weight ow | 2{ 620 | 1800} _ | to exhaust x specific volume corres” 10] 84.1 | 1800 ponding to condenser inlat.ciided by [rif gs : ‘annulus area * [ils [ieoo ok Pee ee ee eee eee eee 100 200° 300 400 500600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 Equivalent annulus velocity, ft/sec ‘Fra. 37. Exhaust-loss curves for condensing turbines. (Warren and Knowlton, op. cil.) The internal efficioncy of a turbino is the ratio of the heat converted into work at the turbine shaft to the available enerav. Figure 34 gives corrections to the basic internal efficiency due to change of load, but does not include change in exhaust loss, mechanical losses, or generator losses. The maximum throttle flow volume must be estimated before Fig. 34 oan be used. Exhaust losses vary with load. The magnitude of the exhaust loss depends largely on the area of the exhaust annulus. Various arens may be used for a turbine of a given rating, depending on the average vacuum and the desired efficiency. Because a large annulus decreases exhaust loss but increases first cost it is necessary for the designer to arrive at an economic balance, considering all factors. Exhaust annuli vary from 1 to 2 9q ft per 1000 kw of rated load. ‘The exhaust loss in Fig. 37 is expressed in Btu per pound of exhaust steam. At the lower velocities, the curves include internal losses in the last few stages, inherent in low steam flows in these sections. ‘The exhaust loss in per cent equals (100 X exhaust loss in Btu per Ib, Fig. 87) + available energy, for nonextraction turbines, ‘This percentage loss is determinedPERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 8-67 for each load. The final nonextraction engine efficiency, corrected to the true exhaust loss, ‘equals efficiency at 4% exhaust loss from Fig. 33 x 100 ~ actual gesthnust loss EXaMPLe. Assume a condensing nonextraction turbine rated at 30,000 kw; 0.8 power factor; £850 psig-00 F-1 1/9 in. Ig abs; hydroxen-cooled generator; capability 33,000 kw. From Fig. 33 the overall engine efficiency (with 4% exhaust loss, 1.25% mechanical losses, and 98.4% generator efficiency) at w capability of 33,000 kw with 850 psig, 300 I auperheat = 77.63%. Engine efficiency corrected for superheat = TSS = 7RAG. Available energy = 1453.1 ~ 208 = 13 OTe x BTL kwhr. Approximate maximum throttle flow = 33,000 X 7.81 = 257,730 Ib per hr, 987.1 Btu per Ib. Therefore, approximate nonextruction steam rate = = 7.81 Ib por 1 find eclowt ls Approtnate ext to hw ont = 219 aan ea por Ther approximate exhaust condition = 1453.1 — 4: = 1016.3 Btu per lb. At 11/2 in, Hg abs and 1016.3 Btu, the approximate quality is 91.8%, and the specihe volume is 0.018 X 444.0 = 408.4 ou ft per Ib. Assume an exhaust of 35.4 sq ft area (No. & in Fig. 37). Then exhaust velocity = 251,730 4004 1 conmenpnds on Tg 7 to an exhat ose of 18.8 Btu per Ib, Hence exhaust loss = 18.3/557.1 = 3 28% of the available energy. arta! bed correction. Seite wah 826 ft per see. cu ft per Ib. Maximum volume flow xt throttle ‘turbines in Class B (I Exhaust temperature, °F abs Throttle temperature, °F ahs Absolute initial preysure 850 + Absolute exhaust pressure 0.734 Factor, scale B + 0.85 Conditions at partial loads ean be computed und overall nonextraction stcam rate found aa in Table 15. ‘The Willans lino for this unit is shown in Fig. 38. Table 15. Nonextraction Performance of 30,000-kw Turbine 1, Per cent of maximum throttle flow 20 40 60 80 100 2, Throttle flow, Ib per hr + 51,546 | 103,092 | 154,638 , 206,184 | 257,730 3, Basic overall cllicioncy of turbine = 78.4% with 4% exhaunt low, 1.25% moohanioal loo, and 98.4% generator elficiency 4, Basie internal olicioney. % aRESCHREEICOT | 8% Efficiency correction (Fig. 33) 0.922" (0.969 0.987 1.00 1.00 ‘Actual internal turbine. effexeney 4x5), % 7456140 82.91 84,0084. Equivalent annulus velocity, ft per Pa 165 330 496 661 826 Exhaust lows (ig, 36), Btu/Ib 2 " 8 12 18.3 Exhaust los % (8 + available cenerey) 4a 197 1B 2153.29 10, Turbine wheel efficiency ox [s- Cie’) % 14.27 79.80 81.72 82.19 81.2 11, Turbine wheel steam rato, Ib por br [100 3413] + [(10) X avaulable ener] 8.24 7.67 7.49 745 1.54 12, Heat to internal work, Btu per Ib (19) x available ences 413.7 444.5 455.2 457.9 452.4 13, Heat to exhaust, Buu per Ib 1039/4 = 1008.6 = 997.9 995.2 1000.3 14, Turbine wheel load, internal, kw +t) 625513441 20645 2767534181 15, Mech, loses, kw (Fig. 35) 285 285 285 285 285, 16. Generator input (1415), kw $970 ‘13156 20360-27390 33896 17, Generator lass, % Olas 34) 5.1 3.00 2.21 1.8601? 18, Generator low Ce ) 304 394 450 509 576 19, Ce ‘output (16 18), kw 5666 =—=«*12762=«19970—=S«26881 810 20, Overall nonextraction steam rate (2+ 19), 1b per kwhr a1 8.07 7.16 7.67 1.748-68 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES SHELL PRESSURE CURVES represent the second set of data required in analyzing turbine performance. In the older throttle-governed types of turbine the inlet pressure ‘and all stage pressures are nearly proportional to the flow of steam through the turbine up to the most efficient load, my TTITTTTTT TTT ‘The steam flow is related to 20 load, by the Willans line, hence 7 inlet pressure can be plotted against load. Inlet pressure at 200) the most efficient load is less a sa than throttle pressure by the z pressure losses through throttle Baa] (#0 valve, strainor, and governor 2a | leo.g valve. This lors ranges from 3 g | B to 5% of the absolute initial 210) (9 § pressure. Below most efficient jo [ go # loud, inlet pressure at any load Por £ is proportional to total stoam a |” flow. Above most efficient fe 10 = load, added steam passes ‘ through the throttle vulve with 0 (°° added losses. These throttling Py 1100 losses above most efficient load lo ean be assumed to vary as the °y Tone Eo) 3,00 square of total steam, since vo- Generator output, kw locity through these areas is . Willans line and other date for turbine ealeulation given Proportional to the totul steam fan the example, p. 8-67. flow. Exawpue. Assume that the 30,00-kw turbine above is throttle xoverned with most efficient load (ull primary valve opening) at 26,881 kw when a 3% pressure drop oceurs at the throttle. An over oad valve io provided for higher loads. Inlet. prowure at first-stage nossle ~ 864.7 (1 — 0.03) ~ 838.7 pxin. Tnlet prossure at 5666 kw 18 proportional to steam flow and exjuals 838.7 (51,546/206,184) = 209.7 pria, Throttle pressure drop at 26,881 kw = 0.03 X 864.7 = 26 psi, Premure drop at capability of 33,310 kw = 26 X (257,730/206,181)? = 40.6 psa. Inlet pressure at capability = 864,7 — 40.6 = 824.1 psin. An inlet pressure line A on Fig. 38 shows these conditions. Although many throttle-governed turhines of the type considered above are operating, few if any new turbines tare of this desi Asmume that this turbine in nozsle governed, with all steam passing the first-stage nozzles, each group of nossles being under the control of a separate valve, es in most modern units, ‘The inlet pressure before the first~tege nozsles remains eswntially constant at all loads. But the pressure before the nozzles of each mucceeding slage can be assumed approzimately (see Ref. 64) proportional to the steam flow, as shown on Fig, 56. If it is assumed that the pressure before the second-stage nosales (commonly ealled the first-stage shell pressure) is 480 pnw at 26,881-kw load, the pressure at 83,000 kw will be 480 X (257,730/208,184) = 600 psia; at 5656-kw output it wall be, approximately, 480 (51,546/206,184) = 120 puss, These pressures are plotted as curve B, Fig. 38, Frequently stage pressures in other stages are known at one particular flow or load. If they are, and if the variation in first-stage shell pressure (curve B, Fig. 38) is known, a complete set of shell pressure curves may be made up by proportioning each stage shell pressure to the first stage ahell ‘pressure in ucoordance with the ratio that exista at the known point. Such curves are illustrated in Fig, 56. For additional details, see Ref. 64. THE STATE-LINE CURVE, also called the condition curve or the expansion line, is the third characteristic curve. It is the locus of points on a Mollier diagram representing the steam condition at each stage and the final end point. The exact condition curve can be plotted only from a step-by-step calculation of the noszle, blade, disk, and leakage losses of each stage. For estimating purposes, such an accurately drawn curve is not necessary. Approximate curves serve ordinary necds, such as for estimates of station performance with regenerative heating. ‘Manufacturers usually furnish condition curves for given loads as in Fig. 54, or data on the condition of the steam at various extraction and reheat points, and at the exhaust, as well as data on the leaving losses. This information is part of the performance data on the unit, These condition points can readily be plotted on a Mollier diagram, and condi- tion ourves drawn through them, Similarly, if test data are at hand indicating etoam con- ditions at various points, condition curves can be drawn. ‘An estimate of the state line of a turbine, needed for preliminary studies, can be made by using certain assumptions. The probable engine efficiency of a unit at most efficient load, if operated straight condensing, can be found from engine efficiencies previously given. ‘The steam rate based on generator output can be computed from the engine efficiency.PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 8-69 The steam in expanding must furnish energy to supply the net output at the generator terminals, plus all generator and mechanical losses. This sum, the net energy being delivered to the turhine shaft, is known as the wheel output. It. corresponds, in a way, to the indicated horsepower of a reciprocating engine. Since radiation from large turbines is small, this internal work is the only energy taken from the steam. All remaining energy therefore goes to the exhaust. The enthalpy of steam going to the condenser is equal to the initial enthalpy minus the heat that goes to wheel work on all straight condensing and noncondensing turbines. This enthalpy, known as the ezhauel point, is used in estimating the state line. Part of the heat to the exhaust is in the form of kinetic energy leaving the last row of buckets. This energy has been generated from a portion of the available energy, but cannot be converted into useful work. When this energy is subtracted from the exhaust point tho state-line ond point is obtained. A nearly straight line drawn on a Mollier diagram between the state-line end point and the initia! conditions is a suitable first ap- proximation to the condition curve, valuable for many estimating purposes. (See p. 8-83.) Generator Los The manufacturer usually furnishes data on generator officioncy, or Fig. 35 may be used. If such data are not at hand, the following approximate formulas express generator efficiency at nominal or name plate rating at 80% power factor. Gen- erator efficiency in per cent at nominal rating of unit, in kilowatts, is 9 (-Vrating/1000) For 1800 rpin turbines ne = 98.85 For 3600 rpin turbines ne = 96.0 — G—2 22 He Mauaie - (8Vrating/1000) , in per cont of full load officiencies, are approximately: Correction factors for partial loa: Jenctator lond Per cent of rating 100, 80, 75. 50 235 100% 99.6% 99.5% 98.3% 5% 100% © 99.3% 99.0% 96.37% 92.3% At turbine capability, the power factor of the generator is usually greater than 80%, with an increase in generator efficiency which would require a correction factor greater than 1.00, For estimating purposes a factor of 1.01 can be used for turbines under 10,000- kw rating. ‘The coupling kilowatts can be found by dividing the output by the generator efficiency. EXAMPLE. Assuine a turbine with nominal rating of 7500 kw, 9000 cpu with mont efficient Towd at 80% of rating, 80% power factor on the kenettor. The generator efficiency at rated load tg = 96.0 — (2.544/7500/1000) = 94.72%. At most efficient load of 6000 kw (80% of rating) gene- rator efficiency, ay = 0.093 X 94.72 = 04.06%. Coupling kilowatts at most efficient lord = 6000/ 0.9406 = 6379 kw. The mechanical losses of « turbine consist of friction in journal and thrust bearings, power to drive governor, oil pumps, and water glands, and any other mechanicul lossos. Radiation is small, except in simall auxilury turbines where, for purposes of computation, it can be included in the mechanical losses. Mechanical losses depend almost entirely on the speed of the unit, and may be con- sidered constant at all loads, since the speed is maintained substantially constant. They are expressed as a percentage of the nominal rating of the generator, and can be supplied by the manufacturer or taken from Fig. 36. When not supplied they may bo estimated by the following approximate formulas for single-cylinder units up to 100,000 kw: 1800 rpm turbines, Loss in per cent of nominal rating = 1.5 — 1.15 logio (rating/10,000) 3600 rpm turbines, - Loss in per cent of nominal rating = ( Vrating/1000) Mechanical losses added to coupling kilowatts give wheel kilowatts, that ix, the net power that must be developed on the shaft. Examrzz, The mechanical losses in the 7500-kw, 3600-rpm unit of the previous example would be 7500 X 4/(1004/7500/1000) = 110 kw. Therefore, wheel kilowatts at most efficient load = 6379 + 110 = 6480 kw. Wheel kilowatta at other loads can be found by adding 110 kw to the coupling kilo- watts at that load,8-70 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES ‘The heat-to-wheel work 4, in Btu per pound of steam at a given load now can be found. hy = 312 Xw kw q where w kw = total wheel kilowatts and Q = total pounds of steam per hour passing through the turbine. Of the total heat hi that enters the throttle, he is all that pases out through the shaft as work; the remainder goes to the condenser with the exhaust steam. The heat to exhaust per pound of steam ig ho = hi ~ he. ho in known as the exhaust pornt. Examrue, Ansume that the 7500-kw, 3000-rpmn turbine operates ut 450 prix, 750 F, 2 in. Hie abs with @ steamn rate at 6000 kw of 9.8 Ib per kwhr. Total steam per hour = 6000 X 9.8 = 58,800 Ib. ‘Heat to internal work at most efficient load = (412 X 6189) /58,800 = 376.5 Btu per Ib. Enthalpy at 450 psig, 750 F = 1386.6 Btu per tb. Therefore, heat to exhaust = 1386.6 — 376.5 = 1010.1 Btu per Ib. This is the exhaust point from which the leaving loss is subtracted to obtain the state-line end point on a Mollier diagram. WETNESS AT THE EXHAUST is an important factor in leaving losses, erosion, resuper- heating, and condenser design. It ean readily be found from the Mollier diagram when the total heat 4» is determined. Moisture at the exhaust should not excced 14% if exces- sive bucket erosion is to be avoided; moisture is usually hmited to 11 to 12%. Turbine designers consider the stage efficiencies of those sections subject to wet steam to be de- creased by 1 to 1.2% for each por cent of moisture present. If moisture content at the exhaust could be limited to 4 to 5% there would be no sacrifice in stage efficiency, sinco the steam would be supersaturated leaving the last blade row. This condition of 4 to 5% moisture at the exhaust ean be secured with turbines operating on the reheat cyclo, giving high officiencies for such units. LEAVING LOSS AND HOOD LOSS occurs in the exhaust hood between the last wheel exit and the exhaust flange to the condonser. (Scc Ref. 61.) The loss consists of both inetie energy loss and pressure loss through the hood, since, according to the Power Test Code, vacuum is mea~ sured at the exhaust flange. This loss increases rapidly 2 with load. ‘The heat equivalent to the loss produces no 2 useful work and passes to the condenser as part of he. ‘The | energy equivalent to this loss comes from the expansion of LY the steam from initial conditions to exhaust pressure. aa, VF ; ‘The leaving loss and oxhaust hood loss, sometimes called E { simply the ezhauat Joss, may be expressed in Btu per pound flow to the condenser, as a pereentuge of isentropic avail- able energy. ‘The manufacturer may furnish an estimate of exhaust loss, as this can be determined from the turbine design. Robinson (Ref. 61) states that with a particular exhaust operating at fixed steam conditions, the exhaust loss in- croases roughly as the square of the quantity of steam flow- ing to the condenser. With a particular exhaust passing fixed flow, increasing the total available energy by improved steam conditions, correspondingly reduces the percentage exhaust loss, For heat-balance calculations the end point of the con- Z| dition or state-line curve is taken as Ap, Fig. 39. The 43 224) condition curve represents the loci of steam states at each “277d 28: | stage. Each stage available energy is multiplied by the i applicable efficieney, to find a point on the condition curve. It is assumed that if it were possible to utilize the leaving loss, it would be utilized at the turhine internal efficiency, hence exhaust loss is always multiplied by the internal eff- cieney. Warren and Knowlton do this, as shown in Fig. 39, By is the exhaust point and D; corresponds to the state-line end point, Ap. Y = exhaust loss and X/Y = internal efficioney of the turbine. Warren and Knowlton state that once the end point (such as D;) of a condition curve is determined from data such as that in Table 15, the condition curve can be drawn. If a straight line is drawn from initial conditions A (Fig. 3¥) to the end point Di, the condition curve at most efficient load will generally lie above this in the upper portion. Generally, it will cross the straight line about 25% of the way down. From the standpoint of feedwater heating and other calculations, the section above this crossing point may be neglected because, as a rule, steam ia not extracted for feedwater heating much above this point. ‘The true state line lies, on an average, about 6 Btu below this straight line midway between the _alpy, M, Dy} Hs Entropy Fra, 30, Construction of the state Tine (gee text).PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 8-71 crossing point marked Mj, and Dj, as shown at Ny. For all practical purposes the condition curve or state line can be drawn’ AMiNiD;. The exact shape is of no great importance, once the end points are determined, From computations as in Table 15 it becomes possible to determine exhaust points and end points for partial loads. Most of the condition curves through these end points will be substantially parallel to the condition curve MyN,D; and can be so drawn. THE INTERNAL EFFICIENCY, 7, of a turbine with no extraction or reheat is the ratio of the utilized heat, as shown by the condition curve, to the total available energy. On Fig, 39, the condition curve efficiency 9; = (ha — hpi) available energy. THE}WHEEL EFFICIENCY, nw of such a turbine is the ratio of the heat to work on the shaft to the total available energy. On Fig. 39, the wheel efficiency nu = (ha — hai) /available energy. STAGE EFFICIENCY is the ratio of the heat to work in a stage of a turbine, measured on the shaft, to the isentropic available energy for that particular stage. Nozzle and blade losses together with disk and idle blade loss and leakage must be considered. In general, ‘te = may, Whore m4 = stage officiency; m = nozzle officiency; m = diagram efficiency: ‘y = a factor to cover disk, idle blade, leakuge, and radiation lossos. In large turbines + is. large, about 98%, for units with full peripheral admiasion and moderate blade speeds when labyrinth packings are tight. On small machines with partial admission, high wheel speeds and large leakage, -y is smaller. REHEAT FACTOR. It is well known from thermodynamics that the heat returned as rehoat in a stage increases the availablo heat to produce work in succeeding stages. Hence the total heat. available to praduee wark in the severnl stages Zh, will exeaed the total available energy (iy — hu). The ratio 2h,/(h — ha) is known as the reheat factor, R. Let hi, = work per stage and (h; — hx’) = stago available energy. Thus stage efficiency ty = he/ (in = ha!) Let m = average stage efficiency. It can be shown that = ml. Hence, with the condition curve found, it is possible to estimate the averago stage effi- ciency, provided the reheat factor R is known. Reheat factors are discussed in Refs. 67-69. Table 16 presonts reheat factors taken from Thatcher's results, for an infinite number of stages. If R,, = reheat factor for an infinite number of stages and R, = reheat factor for n stages, Ry = 1+ (Re — 1){(n — 1)/n). Table 16. Reheat Factors * (Reprinted by permission from Thatcher, Reheat Factors for Expansion of Superhoated and Wet Steam, Trane, ASME, 1930) Fox Sursnneat Recion Parsoune Ratro, P;/Paat o 5 10 20 30 40 50 .90 | 1.018 | 1,024 | 1.031 | 1.035 | 1.038 85 | 1.026 | 1.038 | 1.050 | 1.054 | 1.057 80 | 11034 | 11051 | 1066 | 1.072 | 11077 75 | 1043 | 1.065 | 1081 | 12090 | 1097 70} 12053 | 1.078} 1100 | ican | tong 165 | 1.066 | 1.092 | tite | igo | taat foo | 073 | tins | orig2 | nasi | 1165 155} 1cogz | ting | 1as# | o1.n73 ftae7 [50 | 1092 | 1.134 | 1173 | 1a95 | tant tas | titos | ings | otn95 | tiaa | 1.235 Fon Sarvnarion Rearon Isewrroric Avaranie Ewenoy, Bro * Values are for an infinite number of stages.8-72 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES 15. EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS ‘Turbines largor than 500 kw are generally provided with extraction openings from which steam may be bled for regenerative feedwater heating. Table 1 (p. 8-14) shows tempera- tures at extraction points of the AIEN-ASME Preferred Standard turbines. They may be considered representative of desirable extraction points on other turbines. The number of rogenerative fecdwater heaters varies froin one to six in usual installations. If econ- omizers are used, the highest temperuture heater may be vmitled and the extraction opening blanked off, resulting in a small increase in turbine capability. When air pro- heaters alone are installed all extraction points should be used to obtain optimum feed- water temperature to the boiler. Effect of Regeneration. More throttle steam is required when steam is extracted for regenerative feedwater heating and the generator output is kept constant. A con- siderable portion of the original heat in the throttle steam is returned to the boiler in the hot foodwater leaving the lust oxtraction heater, henoe the heat por pound of steam to bo supplied by fuel is reduced. ‘There is also an increase in turbine efficiency. The net result of these effects is a reduction in turbine cycle heat rate, and a consequent improve- ment in station economy. Complete heat-balance calculations under extraction conditions involve lengthy caleu- lations, a knowledge of the particular turbine characteristics, and careful accounting for every heat unit entering the cycle frown any source. Excellent approximations can be made by determining the engine efficiency and drawing condition curves for various loads by methods already described. (See pp. 8-68 and 8-70.) THE HEAT BALANCE. A flow dingram is prepared including auxiliary services, such as steam jct ejectors, evaporators, boiler feed and other pumps, gland leak-offs, drain coolers, and make-up water. Assumptions are made of the pressure drops from turbine to heaters, of terminal differences in heaters and drain coolers, of heat losses by radiation, and of heat added in pumps. Heat-balance calculations are made for each heater, starting at the highest pressure heater. The power generated in each section of the turbine (be- tweon extraction points) is calculated, and the mechanical and electrical losses are deducted from the total internal power generated. ‘The heat rate of the turbine in Btu per kilowatt- hour = 7'S(H, — h.) + kw, where 7'S = total pounds of steam per hour entering the throttle; H; = enthalpy at throttle; he = enthalpy of final feedwater, and kw = output at generator terminals, Methods for making such calculations are in various textbooks on steam turbines and power plants. (See Ref. 64.) SHORT-CUT METHODS for quickly estimating heat rates have been developed. Some take the form of mathematical equations like those in Hendrickson nud Veselowsky's paper (Ref. 70) and others. Curves are presented in other papers which show the effects of the several variables on heat rates. (See Refs. 64, 72, and 73.) The reduction in heat rate depends on the number of heaters, and increases with the number of heaters, The maximum gain theoretically occurs when an infinite number of heaters increases feedwater enthalpy to that of saturated steam at throttle pressure. ‘This is not practically feasible, so thet usually one to six or more heaters are used. ‘There is also an optimum temperature to which feadwater ean be heated in an ideal cyclo to secure the maximum reduction in heat rate, for any specified number of heaters, as shown in Fig. 40, taken fromm Ref. 73. Theoretical reduction in the non-extraction heat rate for ideal cycles with an infinite number of contact heaters and no pressure drop in extraction lines is given in Table 18. Theoretical non-extraction heat rates are given in Table 17. To obtain an estimate of heut rate divide the value obtained from Table 17 by the overall turbine-generator efficiency to obtain the actual nonextraction heat rate. Multiply the applicable value from Table 18, interpolating if necessary, by the applicable ordinate from Fig. 40 to obtain the percentage true reduction in nonextraction heat rate caused by regenerative feedwater heating. Decrease the actual nonextraction heat rate by the true reduction percentage to obtain the approximate final heat rate. Usually the final heat rate must be decreased by 1.0 to 2.5%, to allow for other gains which simultaneously occur. Optimum feedwater temperature and reduction in heat rate with a given number of heaters vary with throttle pressure, temperature, and exhaust pressure. Data similar to Fig. 40 are shown in Ref. 71 and other technical literature. In Fig. 40 the reduction in heat rate with any specified number of heaters decreases if the final feedwater temperature is either lower or higher than the optimum value, but it does not vary much over a considerable range of temperature on either side of the optimum. It is not always possible to extract steam at the pressure required for optimum feedwater (Continued on p. 8-76)EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS Table 17. Theoretical Nonextraction Heat Rates, Btu per kwhr (Taken by permission from Salisbury, The Steam Turbine Regenerative Cycle—An Analytical Approach, Trans, ASME, 1942) Initial Pressure, po 200 300 1000 1200 1800 2400 Initial Tempera- ture, 650 | 700 800 850 900 650 700 850 900 950 1000 Vin. Hig 10140 10031 9919, 9804 xhaust Pressures 15in. Hg | 2in. HR 10840 9013, 8925 3837 8749 8658 8566 8898, 8817 8735 8651 8567 8483, 8398 8675, 8593, 8511 8429 8347 8265 8238 8157 8076 7995 8076 7996 7917 7839 8521 9808 8723 8638 8553, 8468 8383, 8349 8266 8183 8100 8180 8098 8017 7937 8-73 Notes, Table derived from Theoretical Steam Rate Tables, by J. 11. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, ASME, New York, N. Y, 1938, 1 Safien obisined from the tables have been altered sigh Divide by the overall turbine-generator efficiency to obtain, ‘te in a few cases to give smooth curves non-extraction heat rate.100 ver cent 3. 8 reducton i nonestrect; rate & 8 g 0 2S = jfeedwoter — condenser in per cent *” Tgstuaton = Reonenar "POF COME Fra, 40, Curve correlating fraction of “theoretical” xain against percentage of “ponsible’ rise for various numbers of heaters. (Taken by permimion from Sulisbury, The Steam Turbine Regenerative ‘Cycle—An Analytical Appronel, Trane. ASME, 1942) Table 18. Theoretical Percentage Reductions in Nonextraction Heat Rates for Various Initial Pressure and Back Pressures in the Infinite-heaters Cycle * (Taken by permission from Salisbury, The Steam Turbine Regenerative Cycle—An Analytical Appiouch, Trans, ASME, 1942) Initial | Initial Reduction in Non-eatraction Heat Rate, % Pressure, | Tempern- nn pig | ture, °F | tin. He [14/zin. He) Qin. He | 21/2 in. He 200 700 10.57 10.33 10.15 10.01 800 10.16 9.90 9.70 9.55 900 9.75 9.46 9.25 9.08 400 700 12.34 12.17 12.04 11.94 800 11.89 11.70 11.55 W44 900 4s 122 11.06 93, 1000 10.99 10.75 10.57 10.43 600 700 13.57 13.44 13.34 13.26 800 13.08 12.93 12.61 12.72 900 12.59 12.41 12.18 1900 12:10 11.90 11.63 800 700 14.64 14.54 at 800 14.12 13.99 13.83 900 13.60 13.45 13.26 1000 13.08 12.90 1267 1200 700 16.27 16.21 16.12 800 5-67. 15.58 900 15.07 14.96 1000 14.47 14.34 1800 700 18.35 18.32 800 17.63 17.58 900 16.91 16.85 1000 16.19 16.1 2400 800 19.30 19.28 900 16.47 18.44 1000 17.64 17.59 © Based on 80% turbine efficiency. For each 5 points increase in turbine efficiency the reduction in heat rate given increases 0.1, on the average. 8-74EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-75 temperature. Furthermore the pressure at each extraction point varies with load. Figure 41 from Salisbury's paper shows the variation in the peak gain in heat-rate for various fractions of the optimum rise in feedwater enthalpy. The extraction points on the ATEE-ASME Proferred Standard units wero fixed after careful study of design, manufacturing, and operational considerations, and completo 1.00 To obtain gain in heat rate multiply the ordinate by values 3.60] from Figs. 43 and 44, 2. This curve applies with accuracy } toany number of heaters. o Bm 0 ow 100 12) 10 Te) 180 200 220 cn ‘Fraction of optimum tise in enthalpy Fic. 41. Fraction of the peak gain in heat rate as a function of the fraction of the optimum rise in feed- ‘water enthalpy. (Salsbury, op. cit.) heat-balance data on such machines are available from manufacturers. Table 20, p. 8-82, shows how final feedwater tomporature varies with loud on a standard 60,000-kw unit. ‘The optimum feedwater temperature for various pressures and number of extraction stages can be approximated from the curves in Figs. 40 and 42. (See also Ref. 64.) | | 2 ss sleeeeeens [Throttle presbures: 30 to 20 pol Throttle fempersture: 760 F ‘Final feedwater temperature, °F BERBER E EEE ESBS EES 4 70 Tras it ‘Number of stezes of extraction Fra. 42, Optimum final feedwater temperature, ‘While the data in Fig. 42 apply to 750 F throttle tomperature, the final feedwater tem- peratures vary only a few degrees with change in throttle temperature from 750 F. ‘The percentage of reduction in nonextraction heat rate at optimum feedwater enthalpy and for various steam conditions is given in Figs. 43 and 44 from Salisbury’s paper.8-76 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES v7 16 15) (=FpG) © *% Reduction in non-extraction heat rate at opmum feedwater enthalpy 2 3 4 5 6 Number of heaters Fra, 43. Specific curves showing actual fractional gain over nonestraction heat rate for various steam conditions and number of heaters at 1 in. Hg abs. "Note: For furtl to reduction in exhaust (Taken by permumion from lows, wee text. For gnin at reduced feedwater temperature Salisbury, op. ev.) "7 ‘atopimum feedwater enthalpy /=PpG) % Reducton in non-extracton heat rate 2 3 4 7 e 7 10 5 6 ‘Number of heaters Fra, 44. Specific curves showing actual fractional gain over nonextraction heat rate for various steam conditions and numbers of heaters at 2 in. Hg abs. Note: For further gain due to reduction in exhaust Joes, pee text. For gain at reduced feedwater temperature, use Fig. 41. (Salisbury, op. cit.)EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-77 ‘These curves indicate that (1) the gain obtainable by feedwater heating increases rapidly as initial pressures increase; and (2) the gain in heat rate decreases as initial steam tem- perature increases, at constant turbine inlet pressure, and that this decrease is greatest at the highest. pressures. ESTIMATING DATA FOR THE REGENERATIVE CYCLE.* Regenerative feed- water heating, or the extraction of steam from a turbine to heat boiler feedwater, results in a reduction in heat supplied to the cycle per unit of output, i.e., a better heat rate. The magnitude of the reduction depends on the operating steam conditions, the number of points at which steam is extracted, and the temperature to which the feedwater is heated. Figures 45 to 48 permit a quick estimate to be made of the gain due to extraction for feed heating for typical steam conditions. These curves and the others which follow have been calculated from Salisbury's work, for steain conditions of 400 psig— 750 F—1 in, Hg abs 600 psig— 825 F—1 in. Hg abs 1250 psig— 950 F—1 in, Hg abs 1500 psig—1050 F—1 in. Hg abs with 1, 2, 4, and 10 stages of feedwater heating. 12 ——— emo bat" I 400 psiz-750 C Hy Abs J wo 1158 3 T™ B83 i | : £6 <| 3 £ $4 | — { I I i O 100 200 300 400 ‘500 Feedwater temperatur Fig, 45 2 Abs i * x0 y a { een aa 7c | 5 8 pst - it py | sta Z Ce | ] i | I | |__| | 1 I\T y | NJ 300 me ro Feedwater temperature, °F Fria, 46 Reduction in Nonextraction Heat Rate Due to Feedwater Heating in an Ideal Regenerative Cycle, * This description, including Figs. 45 to 52, and Table 19, were contributed by A. O. White, Steam ‘Turbine Engineering Division, General Eleotrie Co.8-78 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES a T 1250 Ti sol"d Abs | 4 w 10 a © z gee ~~] Ee E -+— i I stage |e aS T 1 ! 80 100 200 30 ro 0 Foodwater temperature, °F ‘Fig. 47 uy T T “Y600 psig-1060 E-1” Hg Abs | 4 2 —| x : | c & a % if | 3 1 stage As [— a g PQ i 4 2 T 1 \ 7) 100 400 600 200 800 Feedwater temperature, °F Fra. 48 Reduction in Nonextraction Heat Rate Due to Feedwater Heating in an Ideal Regenerative Cycle. ‘These figures show reduction in heat consumption, in per cent, with respect to the non- ac heat rato, versus feedwater temperature, °F, for the four specified heater com- inations. ‘Nonextraction heat rate is HRnz = (Hi — he) X SR where H, = throttle enthalpy: he = condenser liquid enthalpy; and SR = steam rate, pounds per kilowatt-hour. The steam rate may be either the theoretical steam rate (3412.75/available energy) or ‘the actual steam rate for the turbine, yielding either theoretical or actual nonextraction heat rate, respectively. The theoretical nonextraction heat rate may also be found fromEXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-79 Table 17, taken from Ref. 73. The percentage reductions shown by the ordinate in Figs. 46 to 48 apply to the actual nonextraction heat rate. The resulting heat rate Extraction heat rate = Nonextraction heat rato ( - Erection is for a contact heater cycle as defined by Salisbury, with no terminal differences or pressure drops, and no credit for reduction in leaving loss, ‘The heat rate found in this manner should be reduced approximately 1.0 to 2.5% to allow for reduced exhaust loss when steam 400 peoig-750 6 * 20 2 ix £ $10 eF “so 100 200 300 400 500 Feedwater temperature, °F 80 600 poig-95 F-1"He Abs 5 E gn 3 Es : LA ‘6006 206 300 00 00 Feedwater temperature,°F Fra. 50 Tucreww in Throttle Flow at Constant Load Due to Feedwater Heating in an Ideal Regenerative Oycle. is extracted. It also should be increased about 0.5 to 1.0% to allow for cycle losses in the actual cycle, as compared with the ideal cycle. Thus Heat rate, extracting = (Nonextraction heat rate) (1 _% sefution) ey where F = 0.98 to 1.00, the lower values applying to machines with large non-extraction exhaust loss and small cycle loss, and the higher values to machines with small nou- extraction exhaust loss and poor heater arrangements. (See Refs. 64, 72, and 73.) ‘Comparisons between various steam conditions, number of heaters, and feedwater temperatures may be quickly made by use of these figures and the nonextraction heat rates in Table 17, provided engine efficiencies or the corresponding nonextraction steam rates are known for the specified steam conditions.8-80 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES T 1280 psiz-860, aa) Abs Increase in throttle flow, % 8 ~ 4 ZA 100. 200 300 400 B00 Feedwater temperature,°F a. . Tc 1500 psig-1060 F-1 Hg Abs ® s ncrenge in throttle low, % al 100 200 300 400 600 ‘Feedwater temperature,?F Fra. 52 ‘Tocrease in Throttle Flow at Constant Load Due to Feedwater Heating in an Ideal Regenerative Cycle Table 19. Total Steam Extracted, % of Throttle Flow Steam Pressure, psig, 400 oo | 1350 «| 1500 Final Feedwater Temperature, °F Stages of Focdwater Leating 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500,EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-81 Extraction for feedwater heating results in an increase in throttle flow for a given output, that is, an increase in throttle steam rate. Figures 49 to 52, inclusive, readily permit this increase to be determined. For the same steam conditions, number of extractions, and foodwater temperatures as shown in Figs. 45 to 48, the percentage increase in throttle flow for a given output is plotted against feedwater temperature for the four specified heater combinations. If the nonextraction steam rato is known, the extraction steam rate ean be found from the relation % increase 100 When extracting for feedwater heating, the condenscr flow is less than the throttle flow by the amount extracted. Table 19 permits the total steam bled (or extracted) to be deter- mined as a percentage of the (extraction) throttle flow for four steam pressures and various feedwater temperatures. Values for other steam conditions, feedwater temperatures, or number of heaters can be obtained by interpolation. Condenser steam rate (pounds per kilowatt-hour) may be found from the increase in throttle steain rate determined fram Figs. 49 to 52, and the percentage extraction found from Table 19, Extraction SR = Nonextraetion SR. @ + Condenser steam rate (extracting) : % increase’ % extraction’ Nonexiretion sam rat (1+ ital) (, _ entation) The condenser steam rate, together with an estimated exhaust enthalpy, enable the con- donger size to bo determined. Throttle flow and heat consumption determine the boiler size. Thus these curves and tables enable a quick estimate to be made of the specifications of major units in a power plant, for various conditions of design. USE OF SHORT-CUT METHOD. Exanrue, Estimate the heat rate for a turbine-generator operating at 800 psig-900 F-1 in. He abs exhaust prensure with six extraction heaters heating the feedwater to the optimum temperature. The nonextraction enxine efficiency in 81% with nonextraction exhaust loss of 5%. 1H; at 816 psia, 000 F ~ 1454.9 Btu/lb; $ ~ 1.0389; Hz at 1 in. abs — 880.6 Beu/Ib Available energy = 1454.9 — 880.6 = 574.3 Btu/Ib Steam rate = 3413 + (674.3 X 0.81) = 7.334 Ib/kwhr Nonextraction heat rate = 7.334 (1454.9 — 47) = 10,326 Btu/kwhe With six heaters gain from Fig. 43 = 11.38%, Deereased for eycle losses Net guin from six heaters = 10.88% Heat rate uncorrected for exhaust loss = 10,326 X (1 — 0.1088) = 9203 Btu/kwhr Allow 2.5% for decrease in exhaust loss. Final heat rate of turbme-generator for extraction at full load with six heuters = 9203 X (1 — 0.025) = 8973 Bu/kwhr PARTIAL LOAD CORRECTIONS. Salisbury points out that as the turbine load decreases there ix a rapid drop in temperature of the feedwater, and hence in the duty of the lowest pressure heater. Qeeasionally, where generator air coolers and steam jets are used in the condensate circuit, the extraction for this heater ceases to be required. He suggests that the number of heaters may be considered to be reduced by one, and that the heat rate at partial load then be calculated under extraction conditions in the usual way, For additional discussion, see Ref. 64. PERFORMANCE DATA ON EXTRACTION UNITS OF THE AIEE-ASME PRE- FERRED STANDARDS are available from manufacturers. Table 20, for a 60,000-kw it, is representative of data on such units. "ithe heat rates given in Table 20 are based on the following: 1. 5% pressure drop from turbine extraction flange to heater. 2. 5F terminal difference on all closed heaters; 0 F terminal difference on No, 2 contact heater; 10 F terminal difference on drain cooler. 8. Condensate leaves hotwell at saturation temperature corresponding to condenser Tho hoat rato ix defined hy: Throttle flow (throttle enthalpy — final feedwater enthalpy) ‘Net generator terminal output * Heat rate (Btu/kwhr) = After deducting power required by motor-driven auxiliaries such as oil pumps and hydrogen equipment. ete.8-82 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES Table 20, Turbine Performance Data—60,000-kw Rating, 1200 psig-300 F (ATBE-ASME Preferred Standard) Extraction Performance Extraction Performance Bx ae All 5 Heaters in Service Lower 4 Heaters Ibaust | Per ight ae | ot denn Feed- | Throttle | Feed- | Throttle | Com sure, rottle | Com ott in,” | Rated] Steam | Heat | water | Steam | Gener | Heat | water | Steam | denser Hig | land | litte | pears] TBP] Bate | RE | are] Tamm] Hale | ae abe | “P| tevin | ate | fee | Rate 1 B | 785 | woo | 21 | 836 | 674 | 10,202 | 252 | 8.21 so | 727 | sar | 337 | 7.90 } 6.08 | 9:3508 | 2 | 7.71 | 713 | sem | 30 | ze | see | 81964 | 319 | 70 wo | 7:15 | see | 396 | 808 | 503 | sion | 33 | 7.77 wo | 7.20 | 8.915 | 47 | 8.20 | 5.85 | 8.999 | 352 | 7.85 Hie} 2 | 8.15 | 10,436 | 293 | 8.65 | 7.07 | 10,586 | 254 | 8.49 50 | 743 | 91375 | 338 | 8.09 | 6.28 | 91505 | 23 | 7.88 | 2 | 8967 | 30 | 7.98 | 5.99 | 91098 | 30 | 7.72 wo | 7.19 | 8.938 | 307 | 814 | 5.92 | 9090 | 3463 | 7.82 | 6.04 tio | 7:23 | 8,956 | 408 | 8.24 | 5.95 | 9,040 | 352 | 7.89 | 6.04 2 2 | 843 | 10,796 | 26 | 8.97 | 7.38 | 10,951 | 256 | 8.80 | 7.56 50 | zor | 9591 | 340 | 8.29 | 649 | 91724 | 206 | 8.07 | 6.2 6 | 73 | 917 | 32) sn | om | 920 | 3 | 7.05 | 6.25 too | 7.27 | 9032 | 398 | 8.23 | 605 | 9.125 | 34 | 7:91 | 6.16 uo | 7.29 | 9,035 | 409 | 8.32 | 605 | 9,120 | 353 | 797 | 6.15 2ye| 25 | 8.72 | 1.013 | 28 | 9.25 | 7.66 | 11,273 | 257 | 9.07 | 7.82 so | 700 | 9.705 | 32 | sar | oor | sioa | 206 | 8.25 | 6 B| 74 | 9:23 | 373 | 8.26 | 62 | 91398 | 33 | 799 | 64 10 | 7:36 | 9,152 | 400 | 8:36 | 618 | 9126 | 345 | Bor | 628 two | 7:38 | 910 | 0 | 943 | 67 | 9.206 | 354 | 8.07 | 6.26 Figure 53 shows the five-stage feedwater heating cycle used in computing the values given in Table 20. ha. 53. Feedwater heating cycle for Preferred Standard unit of Table 20. Cutting Out Top Heater. The purchaser may elect not to use the highest pressure extraction point for feedwater heating. It is then blanked off, and the turbine operates with the remaining lower pressure heaters. Performances with the lower four heaters in service are also given in Table 20. ‘Figures 54 to 60 present the usual technical data furnished by the General Electric Company for an AIEE-ASME Proferred Standard 60,000-kw turbine-generator set to operate at 850 psig-950 F-1.5 in, Hg. abs. These data supplement data such as Table 20, ‘SELECTION OF HEATERS. The economic selection of the proper number of heaters requires evaluation of the savings, with consideration given to average use factor and average load throughout the useful life of the turbine, the cost of fuel, and whether or not economisers are used. Against the fuel saving are charged the fixed charges on the invest- ment in the added heater, valves and piping, repairs and maintenance on this equipment, and the cost of added power for pumping due to the friction head added by the heaterEXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-83 In many cases this balance will indicate Entropy that the savings from adding one or vs af Ae more additional heaters are not war- ranted by the returns on this invest- 140] __Q&f? Pl ment. \ Fy When the final feed temperature is WS decided, temperatures leaving other \ Ripe ented heaters can be selected. It appears de- \ |_—Bi6. 000 Ip Der Br sirable to make the euthulpy rise of the oa feedwater in each of the heuters equal to 10 N= (00 Ib per br the average rise per heater, i.e., to pro- kT vide for equal enthalpy rise per heater. (ce Werke (See Refs. 64 and 73.) In actual cases this basic rule is slightly modified by passe ip per bs drainage from higher-pressure heaters, by evaporators and their condensers, 1850 ry and by heat from boiler feed pump losses. Turthermore, the turbine manu- / facturer must locate extraction openings in the casing so us not to weaken the structure and to permit extraction pip- sag ing to be attached. With a given final feedwater temperature, theso small ad- justments of the other heaters have little effect on the heat rate of the unit. Terminal differences in feedwater heaters are OF in open heaters (dencra- tors) and usually about 5 F in closed ? heaters. Some engineers allow 10 Fdif- @ ference in the highost pressure heater tog 6 4 a \, VY 00, — reduce the cost of the eater. Increased fuel prices favor lower terminal differ- ences and more extensive use of drain coolers. For evaluation of the guins with drain coolers see Ref. 64. With the terminal difference fixed, the saturated steam temperature can be determined, hence the steam pressure in the heater. 1180 Some feedwater heaters for high-pres sure bleeder points, where superheated steam is bled from the turbine, havo been furnished with a countercurrent section to utilize the superheat, which in , soine cases has heuted the feedwater to 300 41 \\I temperatures higher than the satnration temperature of the steam. Pressure drop occurs in piping, non- return valves, and gate valves between turbino casing and heater, and in the turbine between the extraction stage 1050 and the extraction opening. The pro- cy, portions of these connections vary, and SS) the total pressure drop ranges from 5 to 10% of the absolute stage pressure. In older designs the major portion of this oy) pressure drop was caused by the non- return valve. No serious error occurs in assuming the same percentage pressure drop from extraction point to heater at all turbine loads. ‘The pressure of the steam in the tur- #60 bine easing now can be computed, and, a ut iw Ww When plotted on the condition curve, the pq, 54. tate lines for Preferred Standard unit; total heat in the steam at the extraction 506 iw. Sa) pun DOO F-1S teHe We 7 point can be found. ‘General Electric Co.) i8-84 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES ‘The flow of stoam through a given area such as a stage in a steam turbine is theoretically ptyportional to Vp/», where p = psia and » = specific volume, cubic fect per pound, both taken at the stage inlot. Tests indicate that the relation between absolute pressure a ToT wets aang pened “1060 points a ail flown, and at other exhaust prossarey Geica hs wiavimceemetrar wwo|-S PINS a wet, i” = reel! | 7 zino| NS Woes oe 100 200 00 00 0 ‘Throttle flow, 1000 Ib per hr Fra. 55, State line end points. (Courtesy of General Electric Co.) and steam flow at a given stage is approximately a straight line, as shown in Fig. 66. The pressure at each extraction point can be assumed proportional to the flow through the sage following the extraction point. Slight. errors in extruction-paint, prossures have comparatively little effect on final unit performance. 2% Mp 100 Jt Bag’ et action-stiae prea s 1 2nd and Sth Extraction-stage presrure, pel » 3S 8 Tet and ath Extraction-stage pressure, pl g ‘3rd Extraction-stage pressure, psi 8 g 4 » 29] ‘ | t ao) 1 ok ol oh tii { to Ey 00 0 00 0 Flow to following stage, Ib per hr ia. 56. Extraction shell pressure data. (Courtesy of General Electric Co.) ‘Numbering of feedwater heaters is not standardized. General practice favors numbering in the order of passage of the feedwater, i.e., the lowest pressure-extraction heater becomes No. 1, the next lowest, No. 2, ete. Heaters may be drained (1) through traps to the succeeding hater in cascade, and finally to the condenser; (2) by a return pump to the feed system at each heater; or (3) by cascad- ing to No. 2 heater, often a denerating heater, and mixing with the feed. ‘The drains fromEXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-85 3° with the expansion Hine, drawn exclusive of exhaust lows, 2. To obtain true exhaust enthalpy mult ly the exhaust joes by 88%. the Epproximate turbine internal fficlency, and add the product Exhaust loss, Bta per Ib Eternal eteieney wes Secure at ight toad, as 7 pene AIER-ASME Preferred Standard 60,000-Kw turbine-yrenerator wet - 860 psiy-900 F-1.6 in Hg abs 20 100 200 400 500 Gondenser Bows 00 Tb per hr Fra. 57, Exhaust loss. (Courtesy of General Electric Co.) 200, 3 8 1 ‘MER-ASME Picterved” Standard —] &o00 hw turbinesgenerater ae Generator lossee, kw g | — {ons pt Fo cas mi ooo — 3600 a0, 000 _B0,000 Net generator output, kw Fra. 58. Generator and mechanical losses. (Courtesy of General Electrie Cod fa te Bid ontiaction wage, to 8th extraction Mage 4 nenaipy of Intermediate Peete fiand teaser ee Ti aus beara ~|_ SRE 0 oe ae eo em, 108 yo Fra. 59. Gland leakage data, (Courtesy of General Electric Co.)P 8 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES e ‘Hahgaat presse a oa res Gn any oxhault other than 1.6 8, ip xe Percent change a steam rate Roe wz (=) Decrease “(4) Increase 1.02 Lad or EB to, the percentage correo ‘on ean be ebiatned by interpola] 7 lg bebween the above curren. & ma CO ‘Throttle flow, 1000 Ib par he i ree Ed t i aig T ° “9 a3 — 0 0 ’ Tht flow, 10 Te per he $4 | oan ext corer ny ese tn td ff 55 | ae ener care cn be mad tesa rca etn: Bea itary eae =>] for sparation at all exhaort Sieur um of je roading o0 the new nao pressure CM 6 gL [Preperepend for 4 Brample. Corteetion from 2,0in bane to 2.8 sn. operation: moroen 2.) and 27 ns en oa BO x correction = Initial tomperntare, °P aertwo0 oF DENG CURVES ‘Thame corretion facors marume constant contrl-alve ‘opening, and ace tobe eplled te yunrantee nese ‘extraction stn rates, (0) For other than guarantee fil condone the throttle ‘ow can be found from the folowing expreaion; ‘Whore Q=throtile fiow, Tb per bey ‘PSinki arenare. pale ‘Veinitht specie volume, cv fe per > (2) Ths sane rate wt thedatged sontiton an be found by ‘ultpiying the guarwites ste rate by th folowing” 14 Soest factor 10 9) he ¢ rected generator Outpt sel tothe folowing: ‘Gorreeted flow jhe? nm) Seaton a (i Note: These correction fuctora ar Sexu from normal ‘operatiog conta of B20 prig-10 P=1 6, ig abe. Toor can bo ved for other gonruntoreabatat prowures ‘AIEL-ASME Prolerred Stuniard ‘oe mbscrpt G danoton guarantee cond ‘plibou the subsoriptropreneat aired con Fie, 00, Correction factors. ‘Yatuee (Courtesy of General Hlectne Co.) No. 1 heater may cither be pumped or may pass through a heat exchanger to the con- denser. H. L. Guy (Ref. 74) shows that (2) will decrease heat consumption over (1), with 600 Ib, 700F stoaia conditions by about 0.87%; whilo (3) betters (2) by 0.7%. With 350 1b, 700 ¥ steam conditions, the gains of (2) and (3) over (1) are 0.97 aud 0.69%, respectively, for tho conditions assumed. System (2) involves many small dnp pumps, often of low capacity, and at the high-pressure heaters these must pump against full boiler feed pressure. These added auxiliaries decrease the reliability and availability factors of the turbine. Scheme (3) or a modification of this arrangement is generally preferred. For a complete discussion of losses in hoater eycles, see Ref. 64. FEEDWATER HEATING SYSTEMS. An open heater of the dencrating typo is incorporated in the feedwater heating system of most turbines. Smaller turbines and those in industrial plants usually have only one or two points of extraction for feedwater heating. One of these heaters is generally an open heater from which the boiler feed pump takes its supply. The function of the deaerator is to remove practically all the oxygen in the feedwati Experience has indicated that it is undesirable to locate the deaerator in the cycle where the pressure in the deaerator may fall below atmospheric at low load. It is recent practice to locate the deserator at that extraction point where the pressure in the deaerator remains above atmospheric pressure over the norinal load range. ‘The water storage of the system often is combined with the deaerator. The eapacity of this storage is gencrally a 10-minute supply at maximum feedwater demand. To prevent oxygen from being absorbed in this storage water during short, shutdown periods of the turbine, closed tubes are sometimes installed in the bottom of the storage tank, and live steam admitted to keep the water oiling during shutdown. Condensation from the heating tubes is removed by a trap,EXTRACTION CALCULATIONS 8-87 Boiler-feed Pump. Boiler-feed pump suction usually is taken from the deaerator. ‘Tube passes of heaters beyond the boiler feed pump must be designed for full pump dis- charge pressure. Some plants depend on deaeration in the condenser hotwell, and all heaters are of the closed type. The boiler feed pump is generally connected between the second and third heaters, When high pressures are used, a booster pump may be installed site the second heater and the main boiler feed pump after one of the higher pressure eaters. Allowance may be made especially in high-pressure plants (800 psig and higher), for the heat added to the feedwater by losses in booster and boiler-feed pumps. It may be assumed that 10% of the losses disappear as radiation and 90% are carried away by the feedwater. On this assumption, the temperature rise in degrees Fahrenheit due to pump losses is 144Pd tp = 0.911 — ~ = 99) a7, whera 9» = pump efficiency, as a decimal; P = total pressure added by pump, psig; d = specific volume of feedwater entering pump, cubic feet per pound. Centrifugal condensate pump efficiency may vary from 25 to 60%, depending on working conditions. Centrifugal boiler-feed and booster pumps have efficiencies, at full load, of 50 to 75% depending on pressure and temperatures. These efficioncies decrease at partial loads. The evaporator to provide distilled water for boiler-feed make-up usually forms an clement in the extraction system. A single-stage evaporator generally is used, taking = 0,1665Pd (i - 1) Ip Generator Air Cooler —— Condensate Drips Fra. 61, ‘Typical turbine-heater cycle steam from No. 2 or No. 3 extraction point, and exhausting into an evaporator condenser placed in the condensate line between the preceding heater and the heater at the extraction point from which steam is taken. The evaporator and its condenser serve as the first ‘stage of feedwater heating at the extraction point from which steam is taken to the evapo- rator. Make-up in a modern station varies from 0.5 to 2% of the total steam to the tur- bine. In industrial plants, it may be much higher. See also Evaporators, Section 3. ‘Heat transfer in evaporator coils depends both on temperature head and on the vapor temperature and degree of purity of the water evaporated. Thus with 25 F temperature head, heat transfer rates of 425 Btu at 100 F vapor temperature, 500 Btu at 200 F and 550 Btu at 300 ¥ might be expected. Generally the total heating surfaces in all stages of multiple-effect evaporators are made the same. Condensate Circuit, Feed leaving the condensate pump usually passes first through the condenser for the primary steam jets of the air pump. Knowing the total steam required by the jets and the total heat in this steam, the temperature rise of the feedwater can be computed,8-88 STEAM TURBINES AND ENGINES The feedwater next passes through the generator air or hudrozen cooler where use of clean. condensate is desirable, as it eliminates the need of cleaning and will not corrode tubes. Few data have been published to show the relation which the heat recovered in the gen- erator air cooler bears to the heat equivalent of the total electrical losses. Schoenherr (Ref. 75) indicates that at 29.5 in. vacuum, 92.5% of the electrical losses are recovered by the feedwater; at 29 in. vacuum, 84.5%; at 28.5 in. vacuum, 76%. Passing condensate through the generator air or hydrogen cooler reduces the steam bled at the first bleeder point, and results in a final saving in heat rato of 0.25 to 0.5%. See Ref. 64. The feedwater next passes through the oil cooler. Data indicate that heat equivalent to the total mechanical losses is absorbed by the feedwater in this heater. Undoubtedly some of the heat in the generator losses and heat from the turbine itself passes by conduc- tion to the bearings and is removed by the oil, If u heat exchanger is used on drains, this can be calculated by assuming a terminal difference of 10¥ between the cooled drains and entering condensate, and calculating the resultant temperature rise of the condensate. ‘The feedwater finally passes through the condenser of the secondary air jets of the vacuum putnp, where temperature rise can be calculated, and thence to the remaining heaters of the cycle. At light load, there may be insufficient condensate properly to cool the generator air or hydrogen. In such a case a thermostatically controlled valve may by-pass feedwater heyond the oil cooler to the condenser, where it flashes and thereby increases the flow to the generator air cooler to obtain the desired generator air temperature. Figure 61 shows typical extraction layout, Further information ou the computation of the heat balance om extraction turbines can be found in Refs. 64, 70, 72, 76-79, 16. AUTOMATIC EXTRACTION TURBINES Extraction turbines are being used to an increasing extont in industry. Steam at a fixed prosaure can be automatically extracted for process or other use iu varying amounts. Regulators are provided to control extraction pressure and to maintain speed and load. ‘The extraction-pressure regulator consists of an external or internal valve to control steam How to the low-pressure section, Figure 17 shows a turbine of this type. ‘These turbines frequently exhaust to a condensor, but occasionally they are designed to exhaust at atmospheric pressure or higher. Some double-automatic-ertraction units supply steam at two process pressures. However, most units arc of the single-automatic-extrac- tion eandensing type. Newman (Ref. 80) presents the approximate method for estimating performance of a single-uutomatic-extraction turbine upon which the following discussion is based. Table 21 presents theoretical steam rates useful in this method. Table 21. Condensed Table of Theoretical Steam Rates, TSR * (Adapted by perminsion from Theoretical Steam Rate Tables, Keenan and Keyes, 1988, ASME) Main Pressure, psig | 150 | 200 | 250 | 300 | 400 | 600 | 850 Initwl Temp. °F | 450 | 500 | 550 | 600 | 700 | 750 | 825 Initial Superheat, °F | (84) | (112) | (144) | (178) | (252) | 61) | (298) ‘Exhaust Pressure ‘Theoretical Steam Rates, Ib/kwhr lin, Hgabs | 9.09] 8.5¢/ 8.10| 7.71| 7.06] 6.63] 6.19 2in. Hg abs | 9.96] 9:32] 8.79] 8.34] 7:60] 7.09) 6.58 Bin. Hy abs | 10.62| 9.87] 9.28] 8.78] 7.96| 7.40) 6.85 0 pei 18.2 | 16.1 | 14.6 | 13.4 | 7 | 10.6 | 9.38 10 paix 22.4 | 19.3 | 17-2 | 15.6 | 13.3 | 116 | 10.30 20 peig 26.7 | 22.3 | 19.5 | 17.5 | 14.7 | 12.7 | 11.10 50 paig 42.4 | 32.3 | 26.8 | 23.1 | 18.5 | 15.4 | 13.10 100 paig 581 | 425 | 344 | 25.1 | 19.4 | 15.90 150 psig eeesetehaite i Sit | 33.6 | 23.8 | 18.60 45.8 | 29.0 | 21.50 35.3 | 24.80 * For more extensive table of Theoretical Steam Rates, see Section 4.AUTOMATIC EXTRACTION TURBINES 8-89 earl, 22 ives the full-load nonextraction officioncy of single-automatic-extraction Table 22. Full-load Nonextraction Efficiencies for Condensing Single-automatic- extraction Steam Turbines acta EEE eet Eee Eee Ee Ee Ct Main Pressure, pris, Rating, kw, 130 | 200 | 250 | 300 | 400 [ 600 | 050 (08 p) |--? 2 Efficiency, 9 500 600 | 595 | 585 380 | 565 | 545, 625 | .615 | 610 | .605 | .600 | -580 | :360 750 | .630 | .625 | .620 | [610 | :595 | '575 tooo | .650 | .645 | .640 | .630 | .oz0 | 600 1250 | 665 | .660 | .650 | .645 | :635 | ‘615 1500 | .675 | .670 | .665 | -660 | :645 | ‘630 2000 | .690 | .685 | 680 | .675 | .665 | .645 2500 | .700 | .695 | 1690 | 1685 | :675 | 660 3000 | .710 | .705 | .700 | °695 | °685 | :670 3500 | .715 | .710 | .705 | .700 | .690 | .600 4000 | £720 | «715 | 710 | :705 | [700 | :685 5000 | 725 | .720 | 715 | .710 | .705 | -695 6000 | .735 | .730 | .725 | .720 | .715 | .705 m5 7500 mo | 735 | 1730 | '725 | :720 Half-load flow factors, H, for such units are given in Table 23, Table 23. Half-load Factors Rating, kw (0.80 pf) Factor, H 500 0.590 625 750 1000 0.585 1250 1500 2000 0.580 2500 3000 3500 0.575 4000 5000 6000 0,570 7000 ESTIMATING METHOD FOR AUTOMATIC EXTRACTION TURBINES. To esti- mute turbine performance, first find the value of the theoretical steam rate, TSR: throttle conditions to exhaust; the theoretical steam rate, TSRz, from throttle conditions to extraction pressure, both from Table 21; and the engine efficiency » for the turbine rating from Table 22. The rated-load nonextraction throttle flow is (TSR: X rating in kw) + 7. This throttle flow is represented by point A, Fig. 62. The half-load flow factor, Table 23, multiplied by the rated-load throttle flow A gives the throttle flow at half-load, point B, Fig. 62. AB is part of the Willans line for condensing operation. ‘The ratio TSR,/TSR; is noxt determined, and tho extraction factor, Z, found from Fig, 63, ‘The maximum desired extraction flow, F, must be known. ‘The extraction factor, E, multiplied by the maximum desired extraction flow, F, equals the amount by which the condensing throttle flow must be increased at all loads to permit the desired extraction and still maintain the specified load on the generator. Hence, at rating, the throttle flow at full extraction = A + (E X F) and is represented by C, Fig. 62, Since (E X F) is an