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    7 views21 pages

    Hartley

    Uploaded by

    matttzvetan
    forging

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 21
    Abstract ‘The principal cbiecive of this paper iste provide a short overview of recent research in the numerical simulation of fersing, witha emphasis on application: rather than the mathematical formulations which are well Cocamented esewaare, The paper addreste: a auan- ber of specife topics, iciuding Process Modeling, Tool and Dis Design, Interface Phenomena, Material Phenomena 2nd Computational Aspects. The paper ase Jooks at recent developments in re-meshing and its importance in realistic forging modelling. ‘Wile many features of the forging process have been covered there are sil a number, such a interstage heat sreatment and post- process thermal behaviour, that have sesived litle attention, A holtic approach to forging modeling ie ull awaited sn which al fea" tures ofthe process together tvith the sn fuence of aspects such ae press behaviour are considered (© 2005 Elsevier BV. All ights reserved Kepsorde Forging! Sinuston:Fiaitesleneat 1. Introduction While forging may be one of the most ancient of metal working techniques. it remains today one of the most important ‘manufacturing processes embracing primary processes such as the reduction in size of large cast ingots (~1 m diameter). to the net-shape microforming of electronic components (<1 mm). Such a diverse renge of scale may at frst sight present a forbidding range of differing requirements for numerical simulation, but this is not necessarily trac. There will of course be certain size-dependent questions that must be considered, such as ‘how many elements should be used for modelling a billet Im diameter by 4m long’. or ‘is grein orientation important at the microscale’, but the vast majority of forging processes can be modelled using a single large-strain plasticity code. Special problems, such as anisotropy or grain eronth, will nat- urally require particuler techniques but the over-tiding requirement is, for researchers, to ensure that the code is as com- plete and robust as possible, and for industrialists, to ensure that the code is easy to use and provides a realistic model of the real process. Of course these are complementary requirements, but the motivation for their setisfaction may be diff ent. Numerical simuletion techniques can, in principle, address questions such as how many forming stages are required. for 2 particular product. ‘can a product be made using net-shape forging to avoid post-forging processes’, ‘will the forging tools withstand the cyelic loading inevitable in high volume hot forging’. ‘will the final product have the required grain structure and mechanical properties’ and so on. The principal cbjective of the first part of this paper is to provide a very brief summary of current research into the development and epplication of numerical simulation techniques in forging modelling, in order to guide researchers on. * Correponding authoe. Tel: 44 121 414 4155 far: 244121 414 Emel aktecer parley Qokams ack (P. Males), teqves@ al net (1. Ping) 0045-76255 se eet mater © 2005 Eevee BV. All esi aseved, 4:10 tole) ama 290808013 P, Heviley,L Pilinger | Comput. Methods App, Mech Engrg 195 (2006) 6676-8600 who is active in specific areas of this topic. In this content ‘current’ means rescarch published in journals from 2001 ‘onwards, and covers 133 papers from 25 different international journals. The focus on publications in the new millennium is an arbitrary boundary but has been chosen with the view that research published five or more years ago, which, although may be extremely important, cannot be described as current. This does not mean that rescarch conducted before this time is ano longer in nced of further work, but simply that the primary purpose of this paper is to bring together a diverse range of research, across as many aspects of forging as possible, that has been published in journals in the recent past. Although not included in this summary, up-to-date coverage of research is of course also provided through regular international confer fences. These include ‘Numerical Modelling of Industrial Forming Processes (96 46, ‘Metal Forming (107.71], ‘Technol ogy of Plasticity {66]' and ‘Material Forming (36,37/, while the texts by Kobayashi et al. [68] Rowe et al. [111], Hartley ct al. [52] and Wagoner and Chenot [135] provide a broad coverage of the mathematical formulation and application of ‘nite element modelling techniques. ‘The second part of this paper gives a slightly more detailed overview of developments in an area essential for the suc- cessful modelling of realistic forging processes, that is re-meshing techniques for bth 2D and 3D geometrias. Some of the carlicr contributions to this work are also cited and examples of how some of these techniques could be used are given The phrase ‘simulation of the forging process’, may imply modelling solely of the deformation process, but if this narrow definition were adopted it would exclude many ther important facets of the production process. These include billet prep- aration, pre-process heating, inter-stage annealing or cocling, post-process thermal behaviour, elastic unloading and recov- ery, dis stresses, deformation and ‘ear, lubrication phenomena and behaviour of the forging press. The complete simulation should include all these features. While this complete model may await improvements in computer speed and capacity, each of the individual elements has already been the subject of some research and all that remains is the moti vation and means to bring them together. 2. Aspects of forging simulation Simply to place some restriction on the range of seseerch, we shall interpret ‘sumerical simulation’ es meaning the use of the finite clement method, though i is recognised that cther techniques such as the boundary element, finite difference and fof course the slab method are valuable approaches, and other variants such as meshless methads are now receiving attention ‘A convenient place to begin this summary is with reference to the principal types of formulation used for simulating forging, followed by a discussion of the simulation af various processes, in which the principal concer has been the metal ow during the operation. 21. Finite-element formulations ‘Most of the investigations discussed in this paper adopt a flow-type formulation. This can take 2 variety of forms but is ‘essentially based on the consideration of plastically deforming metal as 2 viscous fuid, The Cauchy stress tensor oyis there- fore principally a function of strain rate & and is defined in terms of the viscoplastic potential eo) iy a) For isotropic materials, ¢ is a function only of the generalised strain rate & which leads to the following expression for the generalised stress 2: 260) The generalised stress is commonly taken to be proportional to some power of the generalised strain rate according to the ‘well-known Norton-Hoff law’ Ke, 3) which is equivalent to defining the viscoplastic potential to be Kan oa for some cocficients K and m. “The governing equations are defined with respect to a deforming volume I’ and its associated surface, part of which (S;) isin contact with the tools (and therefore subject to frictional eflecis), and the rest of which (S,) is subject to applied extec- eos Pte, £Pilge | Cong Melts dp ch Ear 195 (208) 66-4679 nal force F, (which may, ofcourse, in places be 2er0) and corresponding velocity i. By analogy with the viscoplastic poten tial, a frictional potential ¢y may be defined on S; such that: ff ‘where fis the frictional force and is the relative velocity between the workpiece and the tocl. As will be seea later, there are several methods for including friction. Of all the kinematically admissible velocity fcids. only those for which the vol- ume is conserved are acceptable as solutions to the deformation problem. In practice, this means introducing an additional quantity to enforce volume constancy. This may take the fonm of 2 Lagrange multiplicr term or, more usually. a penalty method expression. If inertial efacts are ignored, the solution to the deformation problem is then obtained as the stationary value of the functional: a= [ee av sof gars [ (ras [ Faas in whic i the volumetric stain rote and g the penalty coecient, is chosea to have a large value. After discretisation of the workpisce volume into finite clemeats the srtin rates in Eg, (6) may be expecrsed in tems ofthe nodal vclocities C Balin o bby means of the operator Byre which is defined in terms of spatial derivatives of the shape functions for the clements being used. Furthermore, the applied forces on S, ate normally defined at the nodes of the model (or may be converted to equiv- alent nodal forces) so that the first-order variation of the functional IJ yields a set of equations relating applied nodal force to nodal velocity. These of course are just the fundamental principles undertying the flow formulation, and there are various refinements and developments of the basic theory Flow formulations have the great advantage of simplicity and when expressed in terms of an Eulerian framework lead to straightforward solution methodologies. Although these fonmulations specifically ignore elastic behaviour in the governing equations themselves, elastic effects such 2s residual stresses can be incorporated into the computation. ‘Alternative formulations, based on a solids approach to metal deformation, incfude elastic behaviour directly in the equations. As with flow approaches, there are many variations, but the usual starting point is the Prandtl-Reuss relation- ship which is derived from the decomposition of strain rate into elastic and plastic parts, together with Hooke’s law and the normality principle associated with the chosen yield criterion (usually von Mises’). Inversion of the Prandtl-Reuss equation leads to the constitutive relationship: Dib 8) In this expression, @, is the rotationally invariant Jaumana) rate of Piola-Kirchhoff Il stress, and Df, is the elastic-plastic stress-strain matrix Diy =2G| 6:5: + bide ° in which Gis the clastic rigidity modulus, vis Poisson's ratio, 6yis the Kronecker delta, o, is the deviatoric stress tensor and, Y is the slope of the yield stress versus plastic strain curve Solid, or elastic-plastic, formulations usually employ an updated Lagrangian incremental approach. As with the flow formulation, a functional is constructed representing the rete of energy potential, but as this is defined within the config- turation at the start of the increment. the rate of deformation energy is expressed in terms of the rate of nominal stress 3, and the velocity gradient i,. Obtaining the stationary value of this functional leads to the following expression for the rate of change of forse applied to the nedes of an element Fae f Nid ao) where the integration is carried out over the volume of the element, for which the shape functions are Vx) ‘Most of the complexity of the elastic-plastic formulation stems from the fact that Eqs. (8) and (10) refer to different staess rates. These ate related by the familiar expression: Combining Eqs. (7) (8). (10) and (11) gives the basic element stiffness equations for the elastic-plastic approach, which can bbe expressed in incremental form as Wining + Gals a AF = | [Bon(D, ~ 2s0e)Ban + Nida eNs] AVAL a) ‘Once again, there are various refinements to this basic approach such as ensuring the objectivity of the incremental strain defined implicitly by the By, matrix, and dealing with the over-constraint end volumetric locking that is experienced with certain types of element discretisation Whichever approach is taken to modelling the deformation, it is usually important to determine the temperature changes that occur Guring the process. The theoretical basis of this is quite simple, and is an application of Laplace's equa- tion relating the temporal and spatial variations of temperature Tin a material with thermal capacity c, thermal conduc tivity and density g: ar_,é ee (13) a ‘Here, x, are the co-ordinates of a point and Q represents thermal energy. The latter will depend upon internal work of deformation and other effects such as frictional beating, convection and radiation. It is quite usual to separate the defor- mation and thermal calculations, and to solve Eq. (13) om an incremental basis at the end of each mechanical step using ‘some Variation of a finite-difference scheme. For example, an increment with time interval Ar would be divided into V ther- sal steps, for cach of which the temperature change in the domain (of volume 1) can be calculated according to the ‘equation: 1 a arg Od +8 +80 +807) as) Jn this expression, 6" is the change in thermal energy due to conduction, 89" isthe change due to internal work of defor- mation, 6 is the change due to friction and 6@" is the change dur to convection and radiation. If the domain is taken to be ‘en clement with D faces in contact with the tools, and F free-surfece faces, the various contributions would take the form: (15a) 150) (15e) 8g = So aleo(rt — rf) +a: — Ty) Ae Isa) In these equations, » is the proportion of the work of deformation contributing to the increase in temperature (usually between 0.9 and 1), i is the area of element face i, Tis its temperature, my is the Tresca ftiction factor for tool contact face i, Aw is the relative displacement occurring at this face during the increment and k; is the interface conductivity. e, and f are the surface emissivity, Stefan constant and convection coefficient respectively. 7a represents the ambient temper ssture and ¥//3is the shear yield stress. The factor of a half in the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (15¢) provides for hhalf of the frictional work to contribute to the heating of the element, although other allocations are possible. The hot forging of titanium compressor blades [143] has been analysed ona number of occasions, to determine temper- ature-related errors [86] or the effect of the shape and position of the preform [14], while (102,101) has looked carefully at the die profiles and their deformation during blade forming. The geometric accuracy of such blades is a critical factor in their performance and has been examined by Yang et al. [140] in a simulation of isothermal precision forging of a blade using the fiow formulation. Microstructural evolution in the forging ofa titanium alloy turbine blade has been examined by Hu and Dean [54] Soltani et al. [120] compared the flow and solid approaches to simulating che forging of a turbine blade and concluded that the predictions were very similar up to the stage of die closure, but thereafter the flow formulation gave inaccurate results. They proposed a hybrid scheme in which the much faster flow formulation is used for the open-die stages of form- ing before switching to an elastic-plastic analysis for the final phase when the elastic compressibility of the material becomes important The forming of automotive components of a similar three-dimensional complexity has also been modelled [114] includ- ing the hot forging of @ lower-arm connector [105], and the precision cold forging of a steering yoke [93] Page 4 esto P. Hartley, 1 Piling | Comput. Methods Appl. Mech Engrs, 195 (2006) 6676-6690 Examples of the modelling of other types of component include gear forging [79.1.15,81), fasteners [106], screw spikes. [48], axisymmetric forgings [22,40,119,132} aluminium alloy wheels [64] and impeller nubs [65] Pillinger et al. [108] described a system for simplifying the finite-clement analysis of components, such as fasteners, that possess a longitudinal axis of symmetry More general stuuiies include the work of Tamura et al. (128,127) who examined the dimensional precision and unifor- ity of forged round billets, while Lin and Lin [83] examined the influence of the geometric conditions of the dic and work- piece, on barrelling Goring extrusion-forging ‘The majority of the above examples examined only 2 single stage in the process, but clearly many industrial processes involve multi-stage operations. an example of which is investigated by MacCormack and Monaghan [90], A novel approach by Lee et al. [78] for designing the preform shape in hot forging, involves the use of electric-feld theory combined with artificial neural networks. Preform stages have also been investigated by Tomov and Radev [131] through the intro- Guction of 2 shape complesty factor, and by Zhzo ct al [146] who used seustivity analysis methods to design the initial preform shape in order to optimise the final shape in multi-stage near net-shape forging Incremental forging techniques offer the opportunity to produce accurate ring-type components with smaller loads than pressing operations, but have received surprisingly litte attention. Two examples concern rotary forging of @ ring-shaped workpiece [51], and mushrooming of a solid cylinder [$4]. A different type of incremental forging operation is ring rolling: Hartley and Fillinger 53] have developed re-meshing schemes for large internal diameter rings and Davey et al. [30-33] Geveloped modelling strategies for railway wheel forgings with a small internal diameter ‘Microforging is an area of great potential, especially in electronic and medical devices for example, but the investigation of methods to improve the surface quality of wristwatch parts in multi-stage microforging [142] is the only recent example that has been found, ‘The post-forging behaviour of the workpiece has received littl attention, Mungi ct al. [97]and Lacarac et al.[7S]are two of the few examples that consider residual stresses that result from forging processes. The influence of press behaviour, although important in processes such as net-shape forging, has also received litte attention but Ou et al. [100] have considered press elasticity in a study on optimising the forging of turbine blades. Tris possible that the continual three-dimensional re-meshing necessary for modelling incremental forging end maybe the need for inciuding anisotropic or orthotropic models in microforging analysis have discouraged more extensive research in these areas. But such problems offer the greatest potential for original research of value for practical forging operations. The publication of a much wider range of industrial forging applications would greatly encourage the use of finite ele- ment simulation, particularly amongst smaller companies, but the majority of current journals, quite naturally, focus on original research, and companies are understandably reluctant, due to a lack of time or for economic advantage, to publish details of their operations. However, @ means of encouraging industrial and academic dialogue in which both parties must engage, is essential to promote future research goals that are of practical value 2.3. Tool and die design Of particular practical value is of course tool and die design, and several researchers have given this area their attention. This research includes the use of inverse techniques combined with FE simulation to design intermediate die shapes for a two-step forging sequence [4] or with shape sensitivity analyses [134,26,77]. Inverse techniques have also been used to inves- tigate compensation of the dic profile to allow for deformation during the process [87,102,101], optimal shape design in extrusion-forging using a polynomial network and genetic algorithm [139], and backward-simulation techniques for die cavity design in flashless forging [145]. The influence of specific dic features, such as flash design, has been investigated ‘by Tomov et al [130] and the elastic deformation of tools during cold forging has been examined by Alves et al. (2}. Ganz- pathysubramanian and Zabaras [42] used a continuum sensitivity method for evaluation of dic temperatures and the effect, of variations in process characteristics. There are examples of FE process simulations linked with other systems such 25 ‘process planning and knowledge-based rules for multistage forging die design [63], and with CAD/CAM design of forging dies for the manufacture of a titanium aero-engine disc [125] A novel die design using a floating die in cold forging has been examined by Ryu and Joun [1121 ‘Many of the above have focussed on determining the correct cie shape, while others have assessed die stresses [69] in -pre-loaied dies for example [59], or for gear forging [72], MacCormack and Monaghan (88,89) have conducted failure ana Iysis of cold forging dies and both Falk et al. [38] and Folgaf et al. [58] examined their fatigue behaviour 24. Interface phenomena The phenomena that take place at the interface between the forging dies and the workpiece can be complex. involving the combined effects of friction, wear and heat transfer. This is especially the case in hot forging where the thermal effects in articular con lead to the formation of surface scale during the process. Yang et al. [140], in the simulation of isothermal precision forging of a blade, used a flow formulation, in which a friction potential based on the Tresca model of friction ‘was implemented in the form of the function: (18) ‘where m is the shear friction factor, fis the shear yield stress and ty is 2 very small number compared with the «ypical sclative interface velocity ¢. Pilinger et al. [108: -plastic technique, introduced additional elements at tool-workpiece interfaces and modified their stiffaess by the following function of the sheer friction factor m: se an The replacement of the shear factor m by the new term S allowed an approximation of the non-linear effect of increasing friction to be included with a simple modification to the local stiffaess mattix. Mungi et al. [97] adopted a different ap- proach and modelled friction acecrding to the Coulomb law- Fie-niRiE. if lol 2 alos (18a) u=0, if |o|

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