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HYDROLOGY D204
Students are advised to complete tutorial 1 and study the flow in pipes before doing
this tutorial.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 1
BRIEF REVISION OF PIPE FLOW
PIPE FRICTION
4Cf Lu 2m
When a fluid flows in a pipe the friction head is defined by the Darcy equation h f =
2gD
hf = friction head
um = mean velocity = Q/A
D = pipe bore
L = pipe length
Re = Reynolds number = umD/
R = Hydraulic resistance
The friction coefficient Cf is dependent on the surface roughness and degree of turbulence and there
are many theories about its relationship. The most common method for finding Cf is from the
Moody Chart or from one of many developed formulae such as :
Basically we are saying hf umn and n is only 2 for complete turbulent flow.
We must remember that Cf depends on the Reynolds number. In this case we would need to think
about recalculating Cf every time we change the flow.
32Cf L
R (or often K) is the fluid resistance. When n = 2 R= and when n is not 2, Cf and hence
g 2 D5
R changes with the flow rate. The units of R are s2/m5.
MINOR LOSSES
Minor losses occur at Entry and exit from a reservoir, at sudden changes in sections and sharp
bends. In general these are small compared to pipe friction when the pipes are long and are
neglected for short connections they are important. In terms of pressure head the losses are usually
formulated as:
8k
h L = RQ 2 where the resistance is given by R = where k is a factor that depends on the pipe
2D4
sizes and can be found in literature.
The Moody chart and other details concerning pipe losses can be found in tutorial 1.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 2
GUESSING and CORRECTING
nRQ n dQ
Starting with hf = R Qn differentiate to get dh f = nRQ n -1dQ = and since R Qn = hf
Q
nh f dQ Qdh f
dh f = or dQ =
Q nh f
nh f Q Q h f
If this relationship holds approximately true for finite changes then h f = or Q =
Q nh f
These equations are used to make corrections in the guessing game that follows.
The diagram shows a typical example with four reservoirs A, B, C and D connected to a common
junction J. The problem is to find the pressure head h at the junction.
For a system such as that illustrated, suppose that we need to find the flow in each pipe but we don't
know the pressure at the junction.
We could do four simultaneous equations in order to find the flow in each pipe but these days with
fast computational methods it is relatively easier to guess at values and make corrections.
Applying Bernoulli between the free surface of any reservoir and the junction gives:
h + z + u2/2g = hJ + zJ + uJ2/2g + hf
Many sources of information ignore the velocity term and state hf = z - zj - hJ and this will be so
here. For a given pipe we calculate the hydraulic resistance R (or K) and get the form hf = R Qn
Suppose we guess at the value of hJ (or more likely hJ + zJ). With a suitable programme such as
Excel it is easy to guess the head and keep changing it until Q = 0.
The point is that at the junction the total or net flow rate must be zero so each time we guess
we add up the total flow until Q = 0. If it is not very close to zero then we guess again.
A more systematic method of arriving at the correct answer is to make a correction after each guess
based on the error formula derived previously.
Using the guessed value of head we work out Q for each pipe. Any error in the guess will produce
Q h f nh Q
an error in the flow of Q = and the correction to the head must be h f = f for each
nh f Q
pipe.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 3
For four pipes A, B, C and D the total error is:
nh Q nh Q nh f Q nh f Q n Q
h f = f + f + + h f =
Q A Q B Q C Q D Q/h f
This method is called the nodal balance method.
Find the pressure head at the junction by guessing and hence the flow rate in or out of each
reservoir.
SOLUTION
32Cf L L
Calculate R for each pipe. R= 2 5
= 0.001653 5
g D D
RA = 677.8
RB = 816
RC = 66.1
RD = 193.7
The following solution was done on a spread sheet. Remember that on the spread sheet the
values in the table will automatically change when you change hJ in the programme. Adjusting
hJ until Q 0 gives the following.
Note that if Q is minus it is implied that hf is minus but this will cause a problem in the
calculations so use Q = Modulus(hf/R)
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 4
In an examination you may not have access to a suitable programmable calculator so you would
have to keep repeating all the calculations with an adjustment to the value of hJ each time.
Repeat the last worked example but use iteration to arrive at the answer.
n Q
The correction to be made after each iteration is h f =
Q/h f
With this formula you can calculate the adjustment each time. With no other data, a good idea
for the starting value is the mean height of the reservoirs. Also note that the height of the
junction is not normally given but if we guess at hJ + zJ we get the same result but do not know
the static head at J. Also note that K is commonly used instead of R. A good starting guess
might be hJ = (63 + 54 + 40 + 20)/4 = 44 m
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 19 0.16743 0.00881
B 816 54 10 0.1107 0.01107
C 66.1 40 -4 -0.246 0.0615
D 193.7 20 -24 -0.352 0.01467
=-0.3199 =0.09605
Now find the correction
2 Q 2 x (-0.3199)
h f = Q/h = 0.09605 = 6.66 Change the values of hJ to 37.34 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 25.66 0.19457 0.00758
B 816 54 16.66 0.14289 0.00858
C 66.1 40 2.66 0.2006 0.07542
D 193.7 20 -17.34 -0.2992 0.01725
=0.23886 =0.10883
Now find the correction
2 Q 2 x (0.23886)
h f = Q/h = 0.10883 = 4.39 Change the values of hJ to 41.73 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 21.27 0.17715 0.00833
B 816 54 12.27 0.12262 0.00999
C 66.1 40 -1.73 -0.1618 0.09351
D 193.7 20 -21.73 -0.3349 0.01541
=-0.1969 =0.12725
Now find the correction
2 Q 2 x (-0.1969)
h f = Q/h = 0.1273 = 3.09 Change the values of hJ to 38.6 and repeat.
f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 24.64 0.19066 0.00774
B 816 54 15.64 0.13844 0.00885
C 66.1 40 1.64 0.15751 0.09605
D 193.7 20 -18.36 -0.3079 0.01677
=0.17875 =0.1294
2 Q 2 x (0.17875)
h f = Q/h = 0.1294 = 2.76 Change the values of hJ to 41.4 and repeat.
f
The number of iterations depends on how accurate you want the answer to be but you can see
the answer is converging on 40 m.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 5
WORKED EXAMPLE No.3 (EC Exam Standard)
The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a
common junction.
Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is
less than 0.1 m.
SOLUTION
The height of the datum is not given so we can only calculate the combined head and height.
The best guess is usually the mean height of the reservoirs which is (50 + 45 + 40 + 30)/4 =
41.25
1st ITERATION
2nd ITERATION
2 Q 2 x (0.5991)
h f = = = 0.0678 This is less than 0.1 so meets the answer
Q/h f 1.76786
QA = 1.55 m3/s QB = 1.24 m3/s QC = -0.45 m3/s QD = -2.28 m3/s
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 6
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1
The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a
common junction.
Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is
less than 0.1 m.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 7
NETWORKS
If the flow in any pipe is the opposite way, then hf will be negative and all is taken care of.
The solution is based on calculating the total hf for either the clockwise or anti-clockwise flow and
adjusting the Q values until hf is zero.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 8
WORKED EXAMPLE No.4
Pipe AB R = 50 s2/m5
Pipe BC R = 30 s2/m5
Pipe AC R = 60 s2/m5
SOLUTION
Guess the flow in each pipe bearing in mind the total flow at a node is zero. Clockwise is
positive. The starting guess is:
Q (AB) = 0.6 Q (BC) = -0.6 Q (BC) = -0.4
First iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.6 18 30
BC 30 -0.6 -10.8 18
AC 60 -0.2 -2.4 12
-0.2 4.8 60
Second iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56 15.68 28
BC 30 -0.64 -12.288 19.2
AC 60 -0.24 -3.456 14.4
-0.32 -0.064 61.6
Q = f1 =
h - 0.32
= 0.000524 Correct the Q values by subtracting
2 h f1/Q 2 x 61.6
Third iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56052 15.708 28.025
BC 30 -0.6395 -12.2688 19.185
AC 60 -0.2395 -3.44162 14.37
-0.3185 -0.00005 61.58
This is one iteration more than we need. The head loss is so close to zero that this is the correct
answer.
Q (AB) = 0.56052 m3/s, Q (BC) = -0.6395 m3/s and Q (AC) = -0.2395 m3/s
If we check the flow into each node we will see that the original figures have been maintained.
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 9
MULTIPLE LOOPS
When a network contains multiple loops, there will be pipes common to adjoining loops with a
clockwise flow in one loop appearing as anti-clockwise in the other. Each loop must be identified
and the corrections made systematically to each loop in turn. The correction to the flows must be
made each time before moving on to the next loop. For more than two loops in a network, the
process becomes very elaborate and computer methods need to be used.
SOLUTION
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 10
Now do loop BCDEB
PIPE
BC
R
1000
Q
0.02
hf
0.4
hf/Q
20 Q =
h f1 = - 5.55 = 0.01117
CD 1000 -0.01 -0.1 10 2 h f1/Q 2 x 248.5
DE 1000 -0.04 -1.6 40
BE 7500 -0.02381 -4.2504 178.5
-5.550 248.5 Correct all flows in this loop by adding 0.01117.
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 1000 0.09381 8.79956 93.80597 Q =
h f1 = - 1.8132 = 0.00266
BE 7500 0.01264 1.19829 94.80084 2 h f1/Q 2 x 341
EF 1000 -0.0662 -4.38165 66.19403
FA 1000 -0.0862 -7.42941 86.19403
-1.81321 340.9949 Correct all flows by adding 0.00266
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 11
We need to keep going until hf is very small. Our initial guess was not very good.
Do ABEFA Again
Q =
h f1 = - 0.849 = 0.00131
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q 2 h f1/Q 2 x 323.866
AB 1000 0.09646 9.30543 96.46467
BE 7500 0.01071 0.8604 80.33071
EF 1000 -0.0635 -4.03674 63.53533
FA 1000 -0.0835 -6.97815 83.53533
-0.84905 323.866 Correct all flows by adding 0.00131
Do BCDEB again
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
BC 1000 0.03575 1.278342 35.75391 Q = h f1 = - 0.3603 = 0.00116
CD 1000 0.00575 0.033107 5.75391 2 h f1/Q 2 x 155.916
DE 1000 -0.0242 -0.58787 24.24609
BE 7500 -0.012 -1.08389 90.16178
-0.36031 155.9157 Correct all flows by adding 0.00116
We have a total friction head of less than 1 metre in both loops so we will end here.
To find the pressure head at each node we must evaluate the friction heads with these flows.
PIPE R Q hf
AB 1000 0.09778 9.56004
BE 7500 0.01087 0.88554
EF 1000 -0.0622 -3.87189
FA 1000 -0.0822 -6.76087
BC 1000 0.03691 1.362302
CD 1000 0.00691 0.047739
DE 1000 -0.0231 -0.53318
BE 7500 -0.0109 -0.88554
Pressure at B = 50 9.6 = 40.4 m Pressure at E = 40.4 0.9 = 39.5 m
Pressure at F = 50 6.8 = 43.2 m Pressure at E = 43.2 3.9 = 39.3 m (check)
Pressure at C = 40.4 1.4 = 39 m Pressure at D = 39 0.05 = 39 m
Pressure at D = 39.4 0.5 = 38.9 m (check)
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 12
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2
1. The diagram shows a simple pipe network in the horizontal plane with nodes at A, B, C and D
with flow rates as indicated. The hydraulic resistance of each pipe is as follows:
AB 500 s2/m5
BC 500 s2/m5
CD 1200 s2/m5
DA 1200 s2/m5
BD 600 s2/m5
2. The diagram shows a water supply network with the demands indicated at the nodes.
The value of K for each pipe is 500 s2/m5 except for BE which is 600 s2/m5.
The supply pressure head at A is 120 m above the ground elevation for the area served which is
flat and level. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe and the pressure head at each node.
ANSWERS
Q m3/s hf m Node hm
AB 0.373 69.6 A 120
BE 0.126 9.6 B 50.4
EF -0.227 -25.7 C 35.4
FA -0.327 -53.4 D 32.7
BC 0.173 15.0 E 40.7
CD 0.0732 2.7 F 66.6
DE -0.127 -8.0
BE -0.126 -9.6
D.J.DUNN www.freestudy.co.uk 13