C o p y r i ght o t ern

1 9 6 1 by S u h I ll i no i s Un i v ers i ty P r ess

Library of C on g r ess C atalo g C a r d N um b er 6 1 7 1 6 4

M a n u facture d i n t h e Un i te d S ta t e s of A m er i ca b y

V a i l B allou P ress , I nc .
,
B in ghamton ,
N e w Yor k

D e s i gn ed A n d or B ra un
 P RE F A C E

work and a p re vi ou s o ne Th e Wo r ld of A r t were ori ginally

T HI S , ,

p l a nned a s a s i n gle book T h e g ene r os ity of M r Harold F eld man a nd

. .

M r John F M ollo y en abled m e to sen d a draft to v ari ous fri en d s for

. .

c r i t l c l s m A s a result of t h e su gg esti ons of several readers the y now a p p ear

.

a s i nde p en d ent tho u g h rel ate d v olumes .

B oth a re i n good p art t h e p ro duct of an interest i n t h e arts lon g a go

a wak ene d b y E l i seo V i v as a n d enco ura ed no u r i she d a n d enr i che d b y
g , , ,

N e i l W ell i v er It has been s u sta i ne d b y con v ersat i ons w i th G eor g e Howe

.
,

Ki ng L u i Wu P au l R u dol p h P eter M i llar d A r thur D re x ler E rw i n Hau er

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, , , , ,

R obert E ngman Jam es B rook s C harlotte P a rk C M ar ca R ell i K R C

, , ,
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, . . .

Gre ene Howard B oatwri gh t R i char d S ewall Harry B erger C leanth

, , , ,

B rook s Jan i ce R u le C urt C onway Ki m S tan l e y L ee S tr a s b erg Ut a

, , , , ,

Hag en Alfre d R y der John G assner E l i ot E l i s o f o n Jon athan We i ss

, , , , ,

R ob ert T hom D avi d S l avi tt a nd S cott S ull i v an

, , .

A draft of th i s wor k was cri ti ci z e d i n d eta i l b y E l len Hari n g Ire d el l ,

Jenk i ns K R C Greene Jonath an Wei s s a nd R i char d S ew a ll In ad

, . . .
, ,
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d i ti on i t h a s h a d the bene t of com m ents from John G assner Loui s Z , .

Hamm er D orothy Wal sh R obert Herbert V i ncent S cull y P h i l ip John

, , , ,

son P a ul R u dol p h P eter M i ll ard Jam es B rook s I C Li eb V C C hap

, , , ,
. .
, . .

p ell R i char d B ernste i n S cott S u l l i v an D a vi d Sl a vi t t Th eo d ore We i ss

, , , , ,

Henri P ey re M erce C unn i n gh am John C ag e and R obert Lowel l I am

, , , .

most gratef u l to them ; the y ha v e ma d e i t p oss ible to i m p ro v e t h e book

i mm eas ur abl y .

I h av e tri e d to follow t h e lea d of t h e cri ti c i s m s wh i ch I ha v e rece i v e d .

D i v erg ent v ocab u lar i es o utl ook s a n d stresses however ha v e often p ro v ed

, , , ,

to b e gr eat obsta cles i n the w ay of a clear and comm on un d erstan d i ng .

N one of the fore g oi ng cr i ti cs sho u l d b e hel d acco untab le for a ny of t h e

b l u n d ers or bl urs the work contai ns .

I am g la d that th i s b ook i s be i n g p ubl i she d by S outh ern Ill i no i s Uni

vers i ty P ress It i s a source of great sati sfacti o n to m e that M r V ernon
. .

S ternb er g a n d h is e x cel l en t s ta ff hav e m a d e i t the ob j ect of th e i r u s ual

th o u ghtful sens iti ve concern
, .

N ew Ha ven , C o nnec t i c u t
M ay 1 9 6 0,
 C O NTE N T S

HE E LM
'

P A R T I : T R A O F A R T

1 Var i eti es o f E xt ens i o n

2 A Cl a s s i c a ti o n o f t he A rt s
3 S ome O p i ni o ns on Ar t

P AR T I I : N I N E A RT S

4 A r c h it ec tu r e
5 S c u l p t u re

6 P a i n ti ng

7 M u s icry

8 S t or y

10 M us ic

11 T he T he a tr e

12 T h e D ance

1a ex
 I NTR O D U C TI O N

E V ERY exp erience h a s an aesthetic qualitative side The leaf I

, .

hold in my hand is smo oth and green Thes e features were rs t en

.

c ountered 'though n ot a ctually known ) without the medi ation o f

wo rd s or ideas I then kep t ap a ce with them or suffered them What
.
, .

I rst faced and still c ontinue to fa ce is a purely pres ent entirely im ,

mediate , intuited content The leaf i s o f course more than this It has
. .

latent powers and energy and a career which began in the p ast and
,

continues into the future I grasp s omething o f this side of it to o but

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not in the s ame way in which I grasp its qualitative sensuous features , .

Part o f the leaf i s not yet manife s ted not yet open to an a es t h et i c
,

exp er i ence .

There are men wh o deny that there is anything more to the leaf
' o r any other obj ect ) than what it is immediately i e aesthetically
, . .
,

experien ced ; s ome s ay that what is immediately confronted is merely

a s ens ation o r a oating sense datum rather than qu alities resident in
things S till others think tha t what is experienced i s wholly our prod
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u c t or creature s omething no t at all real in no sense obj ective o r

, ,

intell igible B ut all o f them with the rest of us a cknowledge that part
.
, ,

of what is experien ced ha s diff e rent lilts and colors at d iff erent mo
ments that it is en countered ap art from all mediation by ideas and
, ,

independently of any determ ination as t o whether o r not it is real

o r obj ective or whether or not anything els e exists The mos t hero i c
, .

attempt at s cepticism must begin by accepting the aes thet i cally ex

e r i enc ed ; o t h er wi s e there would be nothing for it to question deny
p
~

, ,

or s ubj ec t ivize .

When we attend to the purely aesthetic to the merely qualitative

, ,

we have an aesthetic experience The qualities we then encounter are

.

s een to di ff er from one another in tonality vividnes s s tres s and , , ,

Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

rhythm The exper i en ce need not be restricted to what is made by us ;

.

it may be had apart from any works of art N or need it be an ex .

~

er i en c e of obj ects subs tances o c curren ces We have aesthetic ex

p , , .

e r i en c e s o f silence and emptines s of the mon otonous and repetitive

p , .

S ometimes these are recognized to be qualitatively complex For o ne .

th ing because o f o u r habits mem ories expectations and appetites

, , , , ,

p arts o f them en countered later have a di fferent weight and role than
s im ilar parts encountered earlier Also the environing world demands .
,

that any s tretch of experience s imple and uniform or complex and ,

var i ed have d iff erent stres ses in d iff erent pla ces
, .

we all have aesthetic experien ces B ut few o f us have aes thetic ex .

e r i en c e s as subtle as variegated as complex as they could be We

p , , .

are to o p ra ctical too immersed in the a ff airs of the world to be willing

,

t o spend much time in s avoring to the full what is available t o u s all .

We focus on a feature here and there ignoring the wealth of content ,

which could be enj oyed We hurry on t o give the feature a role in

.

o u r daily life And s o far as we do attend t o it aes thetically

. we face ,

i t as merely an a c cented p art of a larger but rather thin aesthet i c

e x perience We are c ontent to attend o nly t o what will help us move
.

mo re readily to what els e there might be Were we willing to open our .

s elves fully to aestheti c experience we would have ex c i tements pleas ,

u res and revelations we ne v er imagi ned p oss ible To lo ok and enj oy

, .

the empty spa ce between trees from multiple sides is to feel s ome
thing o f the excitement undergone by the mounta i neer when he lo oks
around h im o n the mounta in t o p Th i s at least is what happened to.
, ,

me not very long ago when fo r the fi rs t t ime I no ticed how empty

space powerful and p os i t ive changed in tonal i ty nu an ce and weight

, , , ,

as I sh i fted my p osition in relation t o i t .

An aes thet i c exper i ence i s ours when and while we are cons c i ous At .

di ff erent moments it has d iff erent qu alit ies stres ses and sign i can ce , , .

As a rule though it i s rather at and un interesting If we wish to

, , .

enrich it we must wh ile rema ining on the surfa ce of th i ngs make our
, ,

s elves more attentive more recept i ve than we had been We will n o t

, .
,

i n th i s way get the values we can obta i n when we c o n

, cern ours elves
w i th a es t h et i c o bj e c t s Thes e are obj ective j udged substanti al d i s
.
, , ,

tant be ings no t termini n o t j ust surfaces more than sensuou s con

, , ,
 I ntr od uc t io n

tents immediately experienced To obtain an aestheti c obj ect we must

.

enter into the common sens e wo rld with its robus t and v ital activities
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, ,

and there through an a ct of concentration detach a portion o f it from

,

the res t The a ct of bounding is p roduced by a change in attitude

. .

Instead of being concerned with the wo rld o f common sense a s sp read ,

o u t over a large area o f sp a ce and time and organized by con v ention ,

tradition and s o cial demands we mus t s o attend to a portion of it

, ,

t h at it is torn out of i t s context freed from its s o cial role and infu sed
, ,

with our emotions interes ts and values

, , .

An aes t h eti c obj ect is a dislo cated c ommon sense obj ect It is a -
.

bounded region a fragment of the common s ens e world w h ich we

,
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x a t e in an attitude of c oncentrated concern It usually h as an arrest .

ing qualitative side In fa ct one o f the reas ons men attend to aest h etic
.
,

obj ects is to enable them to have new aesthetic experiences D adaism .

,

t h e u s e by artists of found obj ects the introdu ction of ordina ry

,

t h ings color s s ounds and s h apes into wo rks of a rt yield new and
, , ,

fresh aesthetic experien ces of ordinary things If a common to ol were .

ex h ibited a s t h ough it were a work of s culpture if pigments of various ,

t h icknes ses and h ues are s et down on canvas without regard for one
anothe r if s ounds coming ove r t h e radio or es c aping from t h e s treet
,

a re in corp or ated in a mu s ical performan ce we will be led t o attend ,

aesthetically t o wh at we otherwi se would overlook The public and .

s ome critics are in clined to treat such a s eparation of obj ects from
their conventional s ettin g s as being without value ; e xperimental
artists and avant garde student s tend t o speak of the dislo cated o h
j e c t s a s works o f art B oth s ides exaggerate
. t h e one igno ring the ,

aesth etic dimens ions w h ic h are being made available the other for ,

getting that wit h out an element of creative making there c an be no

work o f art .

Wo r ks of A r t art obj ects unlike aes theti c experien ces o r a e s

, ,

thetic obj ects a re produced by wo rking over recalcitrant material in

,

the light o f more o r les s vaguely app rehended meanings Ideally the .
,

meanings p ermeate the material of an art obj ect When they d o the .

result is a beautiful self s ufc ient dramatized substantial whole with

,
-

, ,

w h ic h we can live fo r a w h ile But we nd it hard to understand or to

.

communicate what we then dis cern Ea ch work p resents its el f a s a .

 B as c i A r ts

lzu c t worthy of man s utmost de v otion E a ch is unique N o o ne

. .

take a ccount of it unles s he immerses h imself in it .

Vo r k s of art are t o be lived with as unduplicable irredu cible s elf , ,

cient real i t i es B y means of them we complete ours el v es and come

.
,

: n o w about ours elves i mpr o v e the da ily world and grasp the i m
, ,

t texture and n ature of reality in a way n o other enterpris e

,

n its D espite their uniqueness

. they have features in common If , .

1 d i d n o t there would be little warrant fo r treating them all a s

,

a n c e s of one single dist in ctive enterprise , .

n modern times wo rks of art have been approa ched from three
,

arent positions Intellectuals are a c customed to s aying that works

.

t I t n o t only have their origin in the mind o r spirit of man but

.l ly could be perfected there Had a man a fully determinate image .

vh a t he might p rodu ce he would on this vi ew ha v e no real need

, , ,

n ake or externalize the image except f o r the purp ose o f com ,

1i c a t i n what he had in mind T h o u h t hi s view nds favo r with

g g
'

o s o h er s and p edagogues con cerned a s they are with

ideas and
p
r communic ation i t because o f its comp arative neglect o f art

,

du cts and art p rodu ction never h a s s atised either spectators or

,

sts .

L t the opp osite extreme from the intel lectuals are the spectators .

a are c on cerned primarily with wo rks of art a s nished produ cts

y .

s these to which they attend it is thes e which they buy it is these , ,

ch they admire The idea that the artist may have in mind does
.

interes t them except s o fa r as it might provide a clu e t o the

,

o men t of his works S ince spectators p ay p ra cti cally no attention

y .

,h e pro ces s of producing a work of art their understanding o f art ,

ally omits a consideration of the nature of artistic activity The .

'
k s whi ch spect ators lik e could c on ceivably have been made by a h
mal beings o r by strange a ccidents T hat i s why spectators are .

e to entertain a high opinion of art and curiosity about the

gr a p h i c s of artists and yet sh ow n o o r little interest in the produc
1 o f art or in the ideas of the artists respon sible fo r it .

Phe position of artists is almo st midway between the positions taken

philos ophers and spectators Artists are primarily concerned with .

pro cess of creation Under the guidan ce o f attra ctive ideals they
.
,
 I nt r o d u c t i o n

adventure experiment improvise in one unending s earch for the a n

, ,

swer to a perennial half n oted question as to j ust what the wo rld im

,
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p orts fo r them and what they ought to do They need that answer i f
, .

they a re to d o full j ustice to their p o w ers and are to nd their proper

pla ce in the wo rld The ideas they have in mind are not matters of
.

maj or importance t o them ; their ideas function merely a s plans ,

suggestions guides t o be modied and even dis carded in the course

, ,

o f the pro ces s o f creation N o r is the nally produ ced work of art
.

at the centre of an artis t s con cern An artist takes his wo rk to be a

.

residuum o f the creative pro cess a momentary rest in an unending ,

quest a tes timony to the degree of su cces s s o far attained in his e ff ort
,

to be as complete a s he can be In his repo rts of himself he is in clined

.
,

to do less than j ustice to his own prep arations and achievements .

Fo r him the problems and demands of creativity are p rimary Were .

one t o follow his lead it would be hard t o understand why he decided

,

to aim at one thing rather than another or to dis c over why anyone ,

s h ould be interes ted in what he produced .

Art c annot I think be properly understood without taking into a c

, ,

count ideas the pro ces s o f creation and the work created Idea s are
, , .

made determinate in the pro ces s of creation and are fully expressed
only in the resulting work The creative act is no mere unending .

pro ces s ; it is fra ctionated by the ideas and brought to a proper clos e
by the work An a rt obj ect gives a sensu ou s material locu s fo r ideas
.
,

and epitomizes the p r o ces s by w hich it wa s a chieved But it would no t .

,

I think be c o rrect to put the obj ect the creativity and the ideas on
, , ,

a footing The emphas es o f spectators and artists on obj ects and

.

creativity are more appropriate to art than i s the intellectuals stres s

on ideas The obj ects and creativity are about of equal value B oth are
. .

m ore imp ortant than the ideas o r plans init i ally entertained .

All the arts are guided by ideas involve distinctive acts of creation , ,

and yield works which have a s elf su fficient excellence The wo rk of art

.

with which the artist nally ends re ali zes his i deas and epitomizes h i s
creativity All three idea creativity and work must therefore be
.
, ,

understood if one is to do j us tice t o what is in fact essential to art .

The artist s a ctivity and his wo rks though of primary importan ce , ,

can never be adequ ately unders tood if o ne igno res entirely the ideas
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

whic h a re in fact presupp osed and ines cap ably embodied i '

Thos e idea s h owever are overrun with features and tension

, ,

can be known only by those who take a ccount o f hi s exp e r ie

pas t training and his p ower of imagination His a ct of o r
, .

breaks new ground and in new ways N o ideas are ever adequ a .
*

freshnes s n ovelty p ower and uniquenes s ; n o work ever mak

, ,

e v ident the adventures the trials and erro rs t h e struggle t h

, ,

on to a chieve it C onvers ely no knowledg e o f an artist s i

.
,

c reati v e a cts will be adequ ate to the work wh ich is nally p r

for neither tells us about t h e nature of the medium o r the
which nally characterizes the s uc ces sful wo rk .

A work o f a rt i s s ensu ous c on crete embedded in a medium

, , .

no substitute fo r t h e experien ce o f it Every dis cus sion of a .

art becau se inevitably framed in general term s will fail to

, ,

its dis tin ctive avo r and substantial being But since all artist .

t ivit y and i t s products h ave the s ame ultimate origin and m o t

belong to the s ame kind of enterpris e o ff er the s ame type of s ,

to man s p roblem s question s doubts and inadequa cies one c a
, , ,

lig ent ly deal with art in general If we attend to the f e a t u r

.

found in them all we can more readily understand the enter

,

a rt in relation t o s uch other vital dis ciplines a s mathematic s ,

o h and religi on We c an als o mo re e ff e ctively attend t o the p

p y , .

whic h fa ce all artists and can c onsequently become

,

the nature o f artisti c creation and beauty the role ,

the pla ce of repre s entationalism the kind o f being wo rks,

the task o f critics than we otherwise could Thes e and simil .

were topics of the p receding work T h e Wo r l d of A r t The , .

oc cupied p rimarily with the arts a s belonging to di ff erent

types It come s closer therefore than T h e Wo r ld of A r t to the
.

o f thos e who s eek p rim arily to m ake appreciate or understan , ,

ul ar arts .

Works of art are p rodu ced when men make us e of their

powers to create s omething excellent If they su c ceed they .

the texture of an es sential dimension o f existen ce and po rt

emotionally signicant meaning wh ich existen ce h as f or
th e es sential dimensions o f existence are sp ace time and , ,
Ni n e B a s i c Ar ts

10

w h ich his tradition ideas and attitudes are altered He ends with a
, , .

produ ct greater than himself s i nce it is the out come of a hos t of

t rials It is als o les s than he is f o r he is a l ive s till in the making while
.
, , ,

it is nished done with He is bes t known through his followers and

, .

those who copy them Thes e m ake u s e o f a l t er ed down version o f the

.
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c ommon tradition exploit surfa ce feelings wo rk in approved ways

, , ,

and a ccentuate the familia r or readily ac ceptable sides of experien ce .

The artis t s o ff spring make an appeal he r arely does If we are to

.

understand what it is t h at he produces we must n ot only keep o u r ,

attention fo cus sed on him and his a ctivity rather than on his dis ciples,

o r their work but mu st know what it is that he can and does c reate
, .

The p res ent b ook has a s its ta sk the e x am ination of the kind of
adventure and produ ct which is chara cteristic of s ome long es tablished -

particular a rts It together with the p revious work should make p os

.
, ,

sible an understanding o f the n ature o f art a s a vital indispens able , ,

i rredu cible and splendid c i vilized adventure in a co smos at once

,

threatening and benign Neither individually n or together do the books

.

make p o s sible a m ore sensitive appreciation o r help a man improve hi s

capacity to make works of art But they should help one understand .

what art is If sustained by a genuin e direct partic i p ation in art they

.
,

should help a m an becom e more alert and to in crease his toleran ce for
arts no t yet recognized And they should hel p him get a better grasp
.

of the un i que life and world in which an art i st lives Progres s t owards .

these go als will be a ccelerated by a consideration o f s ome of the main

kinds of spa ces times and ongoings there are by a clas sicat i on of the
, , ,

arts and by an awa renes s o f what s ome lead ing artists take art t o do
,

and be The remaining chapters of this p art of the book are devoted to
.

thes e topics .
I ,
V A RI E T I E S O F E X TE N S I O N

T HE common s ens e wo rld in whic h we daily live i s c ris s cros sed

-

by ritu al and convention and overlaid with mean ings which tell u s
,

mo re about ou r inherited beliefs the less ons o f experience and the , ,

demands o f practi ce than they do about the es sence and native

promis e which obj ects a ctually have It is the w orld of nature trans .

muted by the interests needs and values p revalent in o u r s o ciety

, ,
.

Trees in our common s ens e world h ave featu res values and roles which
-

, ,

E skimos have n o t even surmised whereas snow c old and distance have , , ,

natures fo r them which a re not dis cerned by u s .

We come to know what obj ects in n ature are really like by ridding
common s ense obj ects of multiple a ccretions This is best done by
-
.

abstra cting various strands from them dealing with each s trand ,

sys tematically and then unders tanding how all the s trands can be
,

together Perception s cien ce a ction and evaluation are fou r basic

.
, , ,

modes of appr ehension which abstra ct strands from the comm on

s ens e wo rld E ach frees features o f c ommon s ens e obj ects from c on
.
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vent i o na l acc r etions As a cons equence each en ables us t o s ee what

'

those features ar e like ap art from the c onditioning imp osed by our
,

s o c i eties Ea ch mode o f apprehension however imp oses c onditions o f

.
, ,

its own A feature dealt wit h by one ha s a ch ara cter and role distinct
.

from what it has when dealt with by another .

C ommon s ens e sp ace is a mo s t irregular sp ace qualitatively di ff er

-

nt from pla ce to pla ce It bump s and slides and twists in unexpected

.

ways depending in good p art on wh at i s in it and how this relate s to

,

s ociety s p ra ctices and interests It has many s hifting and dis tinctive
.

focal points It embra ces a plurality of privileged positions E ach of

. .

these answers to the fact t h at ea ch man ritual in stitution task and , , , ,

cherished obj ect i s a centre towards which many things c o nverge and
from which many others radiate It has a fairly clear up and down .
,
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

14

ba ck and front right and left oriented with respect to ourselves o r

, ,

favored obj ects We live within that sp ace moving and a cting at
.
,

di ff erent rates and with di ff erent stres ses at di ff erent times thereby ,

imp osing tensions and changing the quality of different regions

a round u s C ommon sense sp a ce i s a highly c omplex spa ce We grasp
.

.

it only p artly by means of o u r con cepts lan guage emotions ev al u a , , ,

tions and decisions N o r do we do it full j ustice when we catch it

, .

within the mesh of our p erceptions s cien ce a ctions or values But in , , .

thes e latter way s we are able t o abs tract from manipulate and sys , ,

t em a t i c a lly o rganize it and thereby have elements by means of which

,

we can under s tand the s pace o f nature .

What is red here is related through the s ens e of sight to w h at i s , ,

blue there ; what is warm here i s related through the s en se of tou ch , ,

to what is cold there ; but we have no s ens e whi ch relates the red o r
the blue to the hot o r the c old The s een is related to the t ou ched n ot .

by a s ense but by perception The s ensed world i s a wo rld without .

volume without obj ects without p owers peopled by nothing mo re

, , ,

than w h at i s then and there the terminu s of a sens e It is no t the .

p erceptual world The termini of the di ff erent s enses o c cupy di fferent

.

planes o f a perceptual wo rld a world that can be known only if we ,

j udge as well a s s ens e .

Perceptual spa ce is a voluminous sp ace Within it observable o b .

j ec t s are related and isolated as contra stive and supplementary con ~

temporaries S in ce previou s a cquaintance with regions of percept ual

.

spa ce makes a di fference to them perceptu al space in its p arts and , ,

a s a whole necess arily has a ch angi ng nature

, .

The spa ce of s cien ce i s j us t a geometry It h a s no volume no r o o mi .

,

nes s As J ohn Wild following M er l ea u Ponty and Heidegger observes

.
,
-

, ,

it h a s n o privileged centre no directions which are measured by c are ,

o r eliminated by approa ch no ho rizon no denite directions n o right , , ,

and left It is abstra ct and c onceived not perceived n ot en countered

.
, , ,

not s ensed n ot observed Its n ature is exhau stively exp res sed in uni
, .

vers al impers onal obj ective terms by means o f variables fun ctions
, , , , ,

numbers algebrai c formulae and the like It i s n ot open to a travers al

, , .

by any obj ect .

We blunder when we speak of Venus a s s o many millions of miles

 Va r i e t i e s o f E x t e ns i o n

away from u s if by millions of miles we intend t o refer t o s ome
,

multiple o f the miles dealt w i th in c ommon sense A common sen se .

mile h a s an extension and over it one can walk in a common sens e

,

way A s cientic ally dened mile is an abs tra ction from this a set o f
.
,

numbers h aving no extension and allowing for no movement If we want .

to go to Venus we must travel no t in a s cienti cally dened sp ace

, ,

but in the spa ce of common sense or the more rened sp ace of known ,

n atu ral subs tan ces If we do the former we will move a s common sens e
.
-

men if the latter we will m ove a s n atural ones

, .

A sp ace ship c annot travel along a mathematically dened p ath .

That p ath has no thi cknes s no volume no lo c ation with respect to u s

, ,

who are suppos ed to launch it and perhap s travel in it A spa ce ship .

can travel only in a time app rop riate t o substan ces from which o ne
can abs tract a perceived time an eventful time an urgent time and
, , ,

a s cienti c time When we at la st set out in a sp a ce ship ou r time will

.
, , ,

be p rimarily u rgent ; tho s e traveling in the ship will be aware of lived

time ; when they land they will look ab out in a perceived time
, .

Throughout there will be charts p repared changes made observations , ,

recorded in the frame o f a s cienti c time That time will be n o more .

but als o n o les s real th an the others It will be real time dealt wit h .

under limitative c onditions so as t o m ake p ossible its readier manipula

tion or a rticulation N o t illu s o ry it s till is no t nal n ot a s real a s
.
, ,

t h e time o f nature o r the time of existence .

The yellow ball we feel p res sing down o n us from the s ky at midday
is n ot the s u n with which s cience deals That sun is neither h ot no r .

cold : it has only temperature It is neither yellow n or red It has n o

. .

c olo r though it vibrates Nor has it a shape It is t o be s een neither

, . .

over ou r heads n or at the horiz on It is not visible at a ll ,being .

without perceptu al qualities and having n o relation t o a perceiver .

It does not exis t t oday o r yes terday ; it ha s no p osition in our daily

wo rld but only in an abstract con ceptual domain of related ab stra e
,

tions It i s a p attern o f mathematically d ened terms s trung o u t

.
,

without extension and without ef c a cy The s cientically known sun is .

a stru ctu re t h e p arts o f which are s o des cribed and a rranged as t o

,

make them into instan ces and termini of formal abstra ctly expres s ed , ,

intelligibl e law s .
Nin e B a s i c A r ts

16

The s p ace o f a ction o f even t s is a spa ce of constantly altering

, ,

tensions E ach event h a s a sharply demarcated temp oral beginning

.

and ending and within that span a spac e comes to be That spa ce is
, .

related to the spaces of other events to constitute a single region of

eventful space This eventful sp ace is constantly being m ade and u m
.

made coming to be and p as sing away since it is the p roduct of vectors

, ,

wh ich overlap and s eparate in the cou rs e of the development o f their

sustaining events B oth the space of the events and the space between
.

the events are abstra ctions from t h e events and their interplay In .

neither space can o ne move o r place anyth ing since ea ch spa ce is ex ,

ha ns ted by the events and thei r v ec t o r a l interconnections S ome White .

h e a d i a ns however have argued as though events were ultimate

, ,

realities and all obj ects were derivatives from these Were they right .
,

there would be nothing which c ould a ct and nothing which c ould be ,

said to be the produ ct o f the a ction A wo rld o f events is a world of .

happenings in which nothing is done and nothing i s produ ced a wo rld ,

o f abstract o ccu rren ces which i s dis connected from the worlds of c om
m on sense and natu re
-
.

The spa ce of values eva lu a t i ona l spa ce is a space o f p o sitive and

, ,

negative afliations of opp ositions and fru s trations adoptions and

, ,

rej ections of subj ugations and enrichments If dimension i s under
, .

stood mathematically a s a distinct direction t o be expres sed by an

independent s et of terms evalu ational space will evidently have an,

indenite plurality of dimensions That spa ce is not perceived not .

,

con ceived no t a cted in o r through ; it is a sp ace wh ich is appreciated

, ,

a ff ectively resp onded t o O bj ects in it a re distanced o ne from the

.

other in multiple hierarchies of excellence As our valu ation system .

changes the ob j ects in evalu ational sp ace shift in po sition with respect
,

to one another ; this i s the only kind o f movement o r change p os sible in

that spa ce .

C ommon s ens e has a chara cteristic time as well a s a c h aracteris tic

sp ace Its time has a p rivate and a public side T h e private time i s a
. .

time of interests feelings s entiments attention ; the public time i s

, , ,

a comm on time of intera ction and interplay o f conditions impo sed and ,

submitted to When we are imp atient angry bored irritated our

.
, , , ,

private time h as a p a ce and quality con spicuously di ff erent from t h at

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

18

we a re constantly cons cious o f a certain duration the s p eci ou s

present varying i n length from a few s ec onds to p robably not more

than a minute The pra cti c ally cognized present is n o knife
edge but a s addle back with a certain breadth of its own on which
,

,

we s i t perched and from which we look in two d i rections into time

, .

The unit o f compo sition o f o u r perception of time i s a d u r a t i o n ,

with a b o w and a s tern a s it were a rearward and a fo rward lo oking

,

end .

Perceptual c ontent i s always spread out s omet i mes spatially and ,

always temp orally It carries within it the effect o f the immediate and
.

s ometimes of the remote p ast o n u s We c onfront it n o t a s an is olated

.

item but as charged with memo ries and habits and thus a s affected ,

by o u r impres sions o f what we had enc ountered in the p ast We do .

n o t pas sively lo ok at a green circle p assively listen t o a h igh pitched

,

cry or p as s i vely feel the razor s edge E a ch o f these is perceived a s

,

.

already involving us bec aus e we had been involved in simila r or

,

related exper i en ces befo re D uring o u r p erception of them they and

.
,

ou r emotion al tones alter f o r the pas t o u t of which we are is suing i s

, ,

through the intrus i on of o u r habits and memo ries here and now ,

making a differen ce to us and what we confront .

N o perception enc ompass es a simple uniform content : none is

simply present What we perceptually encounter is a directed p resent
.

stretch o f content under the p rimary governan ce o f what has been .

The past is n o w pres ent in what we perceive through the agency of

a vital rec all cons c i ou s and habitual The futur e is als o now await ing
, .

in i t and can even be s aid t o be p resent in i t by v i rtue o f our anticipa

,

tions hab i tual and c ons cious What we p erceive is perce ived a s that
, .

wh i ch will cont inue or change or will be followed by s ome other

,

content O u r content leans over into the wo rld t o be under the pres sure
.

of what we experienced and what we anticipate .

If we s eparate the e ff ect i ve pas t and future out o f our perceptual

content the residuum will be like what Lo cke B erkeley and Hume
, , ,

to ok to be the o r iginal data of exper i ence B ut they s urely followed an .

odd p ro cedu re tell i ng u s that the way for us t o nd out what is in

,

fa ct experienced is t o replace what we kn ow is experien ced by s ome

th ing which we nd only by an alysis It is c onceivable that a datum .
 Va r i e ti es o f E x t e ns i o n

completely purged of all pas t o r future elements is more real than one
which ha s thes e a s integral p arts But one thing su ch a datum i s not .

it i s not experien ced not perceived O u r p erceptu al data are ordered

, .
,

quickened and qualied by an intrusive pas t and future

,
.

The physiological theo ry o f p erception which i s in the main a o ,

c ep t ed by mos t c ontemporary philo sophers and psy chologists avoids ,

denuding the wo rld of experien ce to the degree that the English

empiri cists did According to this view we perceive the antecedent of
.

a whole series of o ccurren ces in the air and in o u r organs nerves and , , ,

brain But in th i s way we turn the evident facts upside down f o r we

.
,

t h en deny that we per ceive the p ast in what is p resent and hold , ,

instead that while in the pres ent we perceive only what i s p ast O n
, .

this view we would have t o s a y that we are alway s peering ba ck into

a world that no longer i s and have n o acquaintan ce with what i s n ow
,

c ontempo rary with u s If we are to take perception s eriously we mus t

.

take the perceived a s it present s its elf s ensuous complex exterio r

, , ,

p resent durational and obs erved

, , .

The time that con cern s s cience is distin ct from that known in per
c ep t i o n S cienti c time is totally sundered from all s ensu ou s content
.
,

a s b oth Galileo and Des cartes made abundantly clea r Following their
-

lead it i s toda y des cribed a s a s et of world lines a structure of ,

mathematically o rdered law connected dates o r numbers Among
,
-
.

contempo rary philo sopher s D onal d William s s eems almost alone in

, ,

hi s awarenes s that there i s n o p a s s age in it Hi s mes s age w a s mis sed .

becau s e he sp oke a s though s cientic time were the time o f experience

or existence S cienti c time i s a time in which n othin g a cts nothing
.
,

h appens n o thing in fa ct exists Like p erceptual time it is re al time

, .
,

under a dis tin ctive limiting condition .

N eith er the whole no r t h e p art s o f s cientic time are in a temp oral

relation to us o r to the things with which we inter act Its present i s
, .

j ust the boundary between two unlimited arrays o f numbers one with ,

p ositive the other with negative signs O ne should not strictly speak
, .
,

ing s ay o f it that it embra ces a past o r a future and o ne cannot

, ,

t h erefore stri ctly s peaking s a y o f it that it contains a p resent if by

, , ,

pre s ent one means s omething at on ce extended per cei v able and en

, ,

c o unt er abl e The dates in s cienti c time are merely numbers

. Putting .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

20

plus and minus signs before thos e numbers does not make them into
future and p ast times j oined by a present .

The fact that the present pas t and future of s cienti c time
, ,

are merely numbers need caus e no emb arras sment More is needed o nl v .

where genuine p as s age o ccurs where time in fact p as ses But s cientic
, .

time does not p as s ; there is nothing from which to which over wh ic h , ,

it c ould g o It i s a static array unperceived and uneventful S till it i s

.
, .
,

right to sp eak o f it as a time f o r it has a direction and is extended

, _
,

in the sens e that o ne p ortion can be s aid to be more distant from a

given present than ano ther .

E ven tfu l time i s dis tinct from both perceptual and s cientic time .

It embra ces a s et o f unit o c curren ces turbulent ongoings in an ex ,

tended p res ent atoms ea ch with its own beginning and ending The
, , .

units have n o e ff ective p asts or futures th ough on e c an distinguish ,

within them a p o rtion which is befo re and an other which is after The .

being o f an event c onsists in its coming t o be O n ce it has come to be it .

neces s arily perishes as Whitehead in s isted B ut als o an event is no

, .
,

les s tenu ous abs tract dis tant from t h e real time o f acting substan ces
, ,

than i s the time of perception o r s cien ce W hen substances by their .

interplay c onstitute an event thos e substan ces continue to remain,

outside it with their own p articular times

, .

There are short range events and long ones The Ro ckies are slowly

.

crumbling t o dust Their story o ccupies one long event The m ovement
. .

o f an aspen leaf is short termed ; there are fewer dis tinguishable ele

ments within it The movement o f the aspen is n

. ished long before the
Ro ckies cover a fraction o f their span Were events the n al stuff o f .

the univers e we could not s ay this unles s we w e re to t ake a s tand out

side both events or were to u s e t h e leaf s movement to measure the
,

lengt h o f a pres ent moment In either case we would have abandoned

.

the event whi ch is the Ro ckies That even t i s one single present not .
,

a sequen ce o f pres ents each j ust large enough to span an aspen s
,

utter We do no t grasp the full nature o f that present becaus e we

.

do not get inside it We do not live in its present but in the p resents
.

of sm aller events su c h as the steps o f a mountain climb w h ich pro

, ,

vide units by means o f which we can subdivide and mea s ure the larger .

Inside t he one event of the Ro ckies t h ere are dis tin g uishable stages
,
 Va r i e ties o f E x t e ns i o n

m arkin g t h e Ro ckies growth and decline All are p art o f a single

.
,

indivisible pre s ent event That event i s not c oordinate with and canno t
.
,

be related to other events B ecau s e each event i s s elf c o n ned eac h

.
-

wit h i t s own present time it canno t be c orrect t o s ay that events

,

together can by t h emselves cons titute a univers e .

The future for a pres ent event i s nonexis tent The pas t o f the
, , .

event i s dead Like t h e future it to o i s without effi ca cy in the pre s ent

.
,

of the event H e who can a ccept a t h eory in w h ic h an exterior p a s t

.

operates on the p res ent of an event will be a s u fciently p owerful

cosmic j umper to make it p os sible for him to leap from pre s ent to
p as t fro m present to future and from future to present And s ince
, , .

a two fold impos s ibility i s no more di fficult than a single one

-
there ,

ought to be no difculty in his j umping over the present entirely and ,

getting from pas t to future and from future to pas t in o ne move A .

p ast e ffectively operates in perceptual time and a future e ff ectively ,

op erates in important in urgent time ; neither operates in s cienti c

,

o r in eventful time .

Event s are singular univers e s containing wit h in themselves times

which are wh olly pre s ent That pre s ent is not t h e present of per cep
.

tion but like it i s extended ordered and obj ective though abs tra ct
, , , , , .

A s o called p receding o r su c ceeding event is an event with i t s own

present unrelated to the event which i s to come o r which had gone

,

before F or it what had been is no longer and what is to be is not

.
, ,

yet H e who l ives inside one o f these events knows n othing o f what h ad
.

been What will be o r what i s alongside H is ph ilos ophy is es sentially

, , .

H ume s though one relating no t to sens e data but to events in the

,

experience o f man .

Events are not ction s but als o they are not the real If we treat
, , , .

a musical piece as an event we will therefore n ot make it i llus ory But

, .

we will als o fall short o f grasping it in its entirety We will s ee it a s .

a single piece all in a present dis connected from any other pres ent
, , .

We will then in eff ect have musicalized ours elves made ourselves ,

part o f the music al event We will then live through and in the musical
.

piece which is what we seek to do when we read it That there should .

be a time perceived outside the piece only show s that there i s more
than one kind of time and th at thes e have considerable independen ce
, .
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

22

A hall is hired f o r three hours and the j anitor begins t o complain

, .

H e lives in o ne event and carries a watch by wh i ch he can measure

the length o f the con cert That he i s bored i s j ust as true as that the
.

audience i s ex cited and that from the p osit i on of a common sense

, ,
-

clo ck both o f them have been inside the hall for three hours The
, .

j anitor s event is no t longer the audience s event i s not shorter than

,

three hours B y the clo ck they are equally long ; ap art from the clo ck
.

they are in commensurable .

In urgent time the time o f imp o r t a nc e the future is operative in

, ,

s omewhat the s ame way as the pas t i s operative in perception M u ch .

neglected by philo s ophers it is a time that has been of great con cern
,

to religious men p olitici an s ; and his torians The anc i ent H ebrews
, .

lived in the light o f the coming o f the M es siah Christianity l ive .

under the aegis o f a day o f last j udgment B oth are s ensitive to the .

idea o f wo rld which is governed providentially in which the future

-
,

casts its shadow o n the p res ent and thereby makes m any things ,

thought bright and valuable at and dull and conversely The time
,

.

o f importan ce is a p resent res tru ctured directed redened over , , ,

whelmed by a future now operative in it A precipitating effective .

,

future is now doing i t s work making what now o ccurs the lo cus o f
,

a movement from the end t o the beginning That future alters the .

meaning of what has o ccurred forcing u s t o write our his tory anew
,

every time we freshly grasp what that future is ; it as ses ses u s and
therefore determines whether o r not and t o what degree we h ave been
good o r bad properly responsive
, .

Imp ortant t i me is n o t a t ime in which we daily live It i s surely not .

a time which we perceive o r f o r which we can give a s cient i c a c count .

It is l ike the time o f an event except that there is no ongoing no

, ,

becom i ng in it S till it is no t an eternity for there is sequence in it

.
,

and even change though the ch ange is a change in s tatus and not in
,

n ature or pla ce .

The future that is working in impo rtant time directs and as sesses ,

thereby making value present and dening what i s p ast It is a time

, .

in which one works to produ ce the beautiful M usical comp ositions are .

written primarily in that time The compo sition is o f course begun at

.
 Va r i e t i e s o f E x t e ns i o n

a certain moment marked by a clo ck event ; it is open to perception

and to s c i ent i c study B ut i t has ac cents and rhythms and a tonality
.

wh i ch are brought about only by going through a time o f i mp ortan ce

where future des i rable p ro spects govern what is to be .

Perceived time s cientic time e v entful t ime and the time o f ev a l u

, , ,

a t i o ns differ markedly And all of them are distinct from daily

.

common sense time as well as from the time chara cteris tic of n atu re
-

,
.

D aily time is thes e di ff erent t i mes i ncho ately together and qual i ed by
s o cial cond i tions The time o f nature i s thes e times intelligibly together
.

and then as outside all s o cial conditi on ing B oth common sens e and .
-

natural time are qualitative formal transitional and value laden , , , .

Their component times divide these character s amongs t themselves .

The common sense wo rld is sp atial and temporal ; it is als o dynamic

,

insistent trans fo rmat i ve embra c ing a sequence o f becomings and pas s

, ,

i ngs away each o f whi ch ha s a rhythm sp an nature and extension

, , , ,

of its o wn In it there are proces s es o f the mos t di verse kind each

.
,

grou nded in a distinctive obj ect It is a world in which things s erve a s

.

origins termini lo ci and grounds for a c ontinuum o f short ranged

, , ,
-

efca cious happenings That world h a s an i mpers on al and a pers onal

.

comp onent the one encompas s i ng the currents pert i nent to i n s t it u

,

tions the other relating t o ours elves t o the a ctiv i t i es in wh i ch we

, ,
-

engage and to the obj ects in whi ch we i nteres t ours elve s All o f us
,

c ome t o be and p as s away in a corner o f s o ciety whi ch is held over

aga inst a more extensive pro ces s o f the whole s o ciety and its i n s t it u
t i ons The per sonal and the impers onal are both subd i visions o f a
.

common s ens e world of becoming the several parts of which interpla y

-

with o ne another in unpredictable ways O u r daily world i s co u se .

,

quently a puls ating one w i th many fo ci boundaries centres , cau ses

, , , , ,

and eff ects O nly an o ccasional repetitive mechanic al p attern c an be

.

dis cerned in it Its obj ects human and animal inanimate a s well as
.
, ,

animate are bo th purposive and free

, .

Perception o ff ers o ne way o f is olating a single ma nageable strand

within the dynamic complex irregular uns table common sense world
, , ,

.

E ach perception encomp asses divers e kinds of sens e data The di ffer .

ent sens e data oc cupy distinctive elds and have distin ctive rat i onales .
Ni ne B a s ic A r ts

94

S in ce each sens e datum has its own tempo a perceptual obj ect neces ,

s a r il
y encomp as s es a plurality o f ongoings qualitatively and e ff ec
t ivel y di ff erent from o ne another .

We are as s aulted our attention is c ompelled by what we confront

, .

Ou r perceptual obj ects are seen to be insistent and resistant ; there is ,

a s Peirce remarked a hi c e t nu nc brute side to them We s eem to be

, , .

pas sive when we perceive what is dynam i c but we are n o t s o in fa ct , .

We have merely been overwhelmed dom i nated by what we confront , .

S ens e data and the perceived unities of these are realities When
, , .

derived from the dyn amic s ide o f the common sens e world they h ave -

features which they do n ot have as purely spatial or temp oral B oth .

are abstractions from a ri cher more s ubstantial c ommon sens e wo rld

,
-

abstractions whi ch are more coherent and more readily identied and
systematized than that from which they were derived And what i s true .

o f perception is true o f the s cienti c formulations which constitute the

s cienti c world .

T h ere is no a ctivity in the s cienti c world There are no dep ths no .

,

p otentialities no entities in it whi ch are capable o f a ction When we

, .

speak in s cience o f f o r c es and energies of a ctions and rea ctions and

, ,

o f caus ation we speak only o f abs tr act s tru ctures and their ration ally
,

o rdered p arts The laws o f s cience expres s only wh at the s cientist is

.

able to abstra ct pu rify univers alize and connect

, , , .

N either severally n o r together do s cience and perception present us

with s omething which is intrinsic ally dynam i c Percepts puls ate and .

s cientic hypoth e s es implicate To nd that which is vital e ff ective

.
, ,

sheer ongoing through out o ne mu st attend to events Events are hap

, .

enin s transitions proces ses E a ch is a realm o f sheer creativity in

p g
, , .

whi ch there are neither compulsions n or laws But for all their vitality .

events are only abstractions H e wh o s ays that one event is preceded

.

o r followed by o thers must go outside the given event The u x o f

, .

H eraclitus the Will o f S chopenh auer and the el an vi t a l o f B ergs on

, ,

a r e the result o f their expanding an event t o co smic prop ortions sup ,

p orted by the suppo s ition that the outcome is ultimately real .

Fo r a ction to o ccur there must be substantial bei ngs They mus t .

have an inherent vit ality not entirely sunderable from a r ational

,

structu re and perceptual qu alities A philosophy which stops short o f .

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

26

ideal t o be is olated in a strand o f importan ce running through the

, ,

entire common s ens e world

.

A common s ens e obj ect i s a subs tance i n wh i ch perceptual s cientic

-

, ,

e v ent ful and important elements merge i mperceptibly into one a n

,

other S omet imes o ne o f these elements i s dominant s ometimes another

.
, .

That i s o ne reas on why comm o n s ense obj ects are s o diffi cult t o keep

in clear fo cu s why thos e obj ects are s o lops ided s o irregular s o hard
, , ,

to understand The abs tract i ons we d er i v e from those obj ects are
.

freed from the a c cret i ons s o ciety i mp os es When we un i te those a h .

s t r a c t i o ns we forge an i ntell igible unity o f them They then become

, .

i ntegral p arts o f known subst ant i al natural th i ngs An obj ect i n .

n ature i s a c ommon sense obj ect purged o f i t s so c i etal components ;

i t i s known when we c omb i ne the perceptu al s c i ent i c eventful and , ,

valuat i onal elements that we had abstracted from the common s ens e

world .

The sp a ce time and becoming of nature are apprehended in p art i al

, ,

and qualied ways in perception s cien ce a ct i on and value To know , , , .

them we mus t synthesize the different guises which they e x h ib i t i n the ,

d iff erent s trands The synthesis results in a concept r ep ort ing es sential
.

features o f nature Known nature i s a conceived unity of d i stinguished

.
,

purged aspects o f the common sense world an intelligible abstra cted

,

unity o f s trands This does not mean that there i s n oth i ng ap art from
.

u s i ndependent o f o u r s o c i eties o u r modes o f apprehens i on and our

, , ,

syntheses N o t only i s con ceived n ature more obj ective than the c o m
.

m o n sens e world but it i s rooted in an i rreducibl e real i ty the domain

-

, ,

o f existence .

To learn what existence i s we m u st either sp eculate or create If we .

do the former we will know s omething o f i t s nature but w ill no t grasp

, ,

its texture or be aware o f i t s import f o r u s We turn to art to know .

about a real i ty more coherent than c ommon sense more c oncrete th an ,

what can be caught in percept i on s cien ce a ct i on o r e v aluatio n r i cher, , ,

and more fundamental than known n ature and m ore d i rectly and em o ,

t i o n a l l y felt than i s p os s i ble i n ph i los ophy E ach w ork o f art i s a .

creation wh i ch because it makes u se of the existence in and about

,

oursel v es enables u s not only to reprodu ce the texture o f a real sp ace

, ,

t ime o r dyn amics but to portray it in signicant sensu ous terms

, , , .
2 A C L A S S I F I C A TI O N O F T HE A RT S

IF is taken o f the f act that art i s ts have been a ctive in

A C C O UN T

almost every land and app arently a s long as man has res embled what
,

pas ses for a human today it is evident that there have been more works
,

o f art than anyone has had an oppo rtun i ty t o know The arts w i th
.

which we already have s ome a cqua intance di ffer considerably in ma

t er i a l stru cture content and method ; the rest undoubtedly d i ffer even
, , ,

more N o one could p os s ibly deal with even the s mall segment that has
.

foun d its way into the histories galleries and mus eums unles s he is
, ,

guided at leas t impl i citly by general pert i nent p rin ciples S u ch a

, , .

guide makes it pos s ible t o deal sys temat i c ally and steadily with what
otherw i s e would be an unmanageable mis cellany At i t s best it als o.
,

points up the important afliat i ons and d ivergen ces whi ch ex i s t among
the arts makes u s attend to the areas where further s tudy would be
,

desirable and throws light on art s tasks and a ch i e v ements There is

,

.
,

o f course c o n s 1 d er a bl e danger i n the use o f any gu i de

, The more s u c
.

c e s s f u l it i s the mo re surely is one tempted to turn its prin ciples intp

,

abs olute canons thereby m aking it difficult to recognize as arts what

,

i s not clearly warranted by thos e c anons The ga i n in control and

.

unders tanding whi ch a generally appl i cable p rin ciple provides is

counterbalanced by a tenden cy to u s e the principle t o bl i nd and rigid
i fy The bes t way o f avoiding these undes i rable results is n o t however
.
, ,

by refusing to make use of any prin ciples In that way we wil l but .

place oursel v e s in the pos i tion of having t o make only arbitrary con
ne c t i o n s among the arts It is better to make the needed pr i nc i ples
.

expl i cit while remaining alert to the dangers which ac company the i r
su cces s ful use .

There are many ways of dealing w ith the arts systematically and
i ntell i gently The most common i s perhaps one which makes reference
.

to the m il i eu o f the artists or to the t i me i n which they ourished ; arts

ine B a s ic Ar ts

re usu al ly grouped a ccordin g t o place and date S uch clas sication .

asts on the supp osition that the arts reect the world in which they

ere produ ced This they surely d o The arts o f a given s o ciety and
. .

is t o r i c period have much in common with one another with the ,

re v a il i ng mythology rel i g i on and ph i los ophy and w i th the dominant

, , ,

r uct ur e ,
the chara cter i st i c adventures and the typ i cal activiti es of
,

i e cultu re and day None o f these may have been c ons ci ously n oted
.

y the art i s t ; he m i ght e v en have s e t h i mself res olutely t o oppose all

f them Yet the preva il i ng p atterns make the i r pres en ce ines cap ably
.

al t i n the language the routine life the omnipres ent customs rules
, , , ,

ud h abits wh i ch chara cterize him n o les s than it does the other

e mber s o f the culture and period S till a wo rk o f art is mu ch more

.
,

ra n a funct i on o f a given time and pla ce The differences t o be found .

mong the works produ ced in a given place and time obviously cann ot
a explained s olely by making a referen ce to a common culture If it .

3 true that the main di ff eren ce between Ind i an and Fren ch p oetry o f

i e nineteenth century is that one ts inside Indi an and the other

'side French cultu re i t is als o true that both are p oetry They are
, .

ar t a i nl y at leas t a s closely a fliated with one another as p oetry a s

my are to the architectures that were p roduced in the s ame areas at

l a t time .

At the very bes t an historical or cultural ordering o f works of art

,

annot be of mu ch u s e except with respect to the arts o f the p ast Als o .

,

ew dis coveries in archaeology and new interp retat i ons o f histo ry w i ll

) r e e o ne to revise one s conclusions every few ye ars

More important .
,

0 h i storical or cultural approach t o works o f art will enable o ne t o

no w the di ff erence between a trivial and a bad work an important ,

md a go od o ne N o r will it en able o ne to tell what diff erence there is

.
,

a
y between a poem and a dance Indeed s uch kn owledge is p r e s u p
, .

o s ed by all thos e who deal with art from an histori cal o r cultural

ta ndp o i nt .

No one is
s o mu ch a p o s itivis t that he refuses to distingu i sh between
np o r t a nt and mino r works o r go od and bad ones Not every shard
, .

shovel turns up nds or ought to nd a place in a museum And no .

me is s o mu ch a contextual i s t that he refuses t o distinguish between

i ff er ent types of art not merely in terms of what the culture
,
 A Cl a s s ic a t i o n o f t he A r t s

29

rec ognizes to be distin ct but in terms o f a more compreh ensive under

,

s tanding o f the es sential features of the di ff erent arts Though a .

culture may have no word enabling one t o distinguish a poem from

a dan ce it would be folly to forget th at the one makes u se o f words
,

and silences and the other of movements and rests which we wit h our , ,

la rger vo c abulary ought to remark

,
.

A better appro ach t o the ordering of works o f art than that pro
vid ed by an histori cal o r cultural appro ach is one whi ch sign atures

o ff er What we n ow usually take to be a sign ature is the ma r k pla c ed

.

by an artist on his work to testify t o his having made it But this is

,
.

perhaps the leas t common of six types o f signature and i s o f import

ance primarily only for ready cataloguing and identication A more .

common sign atu re i s one which reects the techniques of a place or

time It is to t h is we refer when we remark on the s t yle of a work
. .

Although it is s ometimes deliberately produced as a rule the style is ,

not even known by the artis t or the contemp orary spectator A third .
,

s omewhat related signature is o ne expres sed in the m a nner of compo

,

s i t i o n by means of whi ch an individu al or his group usually without ,

deliberation organizes o r stru ctures a w ork in a chara cteris ti c way

, .

One manner may embrace many styles ; one style allows fo r m any
manners A fourth type o f si g nature is evident only to tho se who have
.

con s iderable his to ri cal knowledge and analyti c p owers This enables .

t h em to break down works of art into p arts and relations each h av ing
a dis tinctive s y mbo li c impo rt n ot necess arily intended o r noted by
t h e artist A fth type o f sign ature is inevitably and unknowingly pro
.

d u c ed by the artist becaus e he is a creature of habit and training who

,

always leaves evi d enc es o f hims elf in whatever he does N o matter .

h ow s elf cons ciously and deliberately a man may s et himself t o walk

-

h e will inevitably exhibit a characteristi c and long habitu ated way o f

holding hi s body hands and neck S imilarly n o matter how res olute
, , .
,

an artist is in trying to es cape his own habits he will inevitably ex ,

pres s s ome of them in a characteristic form Finally every artist ha s

.
,

a distin ctive o u t l o o k ; he takes a characteristic s t a n ce and allows this

t o dominate h is choices o f pitch o r c olo r m ovement o r in cident and
, ,

t h e way thes e are to interpl ay .

S ignature s tops w h ere spontaneity fres h nes s genuine novelty enter

, ,
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

30

in But a work o f art is thes e t ogether ; i t marries habit and originality

.
,

s t abil i ty and exuberance An ordering of works by signatures will

.

therefore m i s s an es s ential ingredient o f the works Als o an artist can .

,

leave the s ame s i xfold signature in a number o f di ff erent arts .

Picas s o s s culptures have the s ame signature a s hi s drawings and

paintings particularly in h i s cub i sti c period An order i ng of the arts

, .

by signatures will then n ot always en able us to dis tinguish d iff erent

, ,

types o f art .

A better and al m os t as long e s tablished a way o f ordering the arts

,

takes one art to s erve as a model a nd arranges the others o n the ba sis
o f a j udgmen t a s t o how clo sely they approximate t o it C ellini thought .

'

that s culpture was eight times as great a subj ect a s d r a w ing and
paint i ng because s aid he a st atue h a s eight v i ews which had t o be good
, ,
.

Leonardo da Vinci thought p a i nting w a s superio r t o s culp ture because

it w a s mo re intellectual B ut ea ch art h a s i t s own problems the s olu
.
,

tions t o which are as difcult t o obtain and as revelatory of the w orld

a s any other All arts are o f equal value They ought not t o be pla ced
. .

in a h i erarchy o f bet ter and worse A hierarchy of better and wo r se

.

properly relates t o the succes s a chieved by an arti s t in s ome work o r

other ; it is not pertinent to the arts a s su ch There are of c ourse .
, ,

long establ i shed arts and new ones s i mple arts and comp ound ones

, ,

arts which are favored by a multitude and others which i nterest but a
few B ut a s arts they are all on a level ; no one can t ake the place of
.
,

another ; each i s complete in itself offering a n al excellen ce and a

,

perspective ; each in its own way exhibits equally well the features
which mark o ff the arts from all other enterprises C ell in i w a s surely .

wrong in thinking that a st atue h a s eight sides and that a drawing

h a s only one A statue has an endles s number o f sides and a drawing
.
,

can be s een from an endles s number o f angles distances and po ints , ,

o f or i entation B ut e v en i f i t were true that a s culpture had e i ght sides

.

and a draw i ng only one i t i s als o true that both arts are irredu cible
, ,

and when su cces s ful equally exh ib i t beau ty and tell u s equ all y well
s omething of the n ature o f reality .

The p ositions that s ome art is superio r t o another or that as here

,

mainta i ned they are all on a foo ting are either arb i trarily as sumed
,

,

o r p resuppos e the u s e of prin ciples in terms of whi ch all arts can be

 A Cl a s s ic a ti on o f t he A r ts

j ustly evaluated B oth o f thes e alternatives attend to what i s e s

.

s ent i a l to an art regardles s o f why o r h o w it wa s p roduced E i ther

,
.

o ff ers a better approach t o the arts than i s provided by an ordering

o f arts ac cording to date pla ce o r signature An inquiry into the
, , .

k i nd o f p rinciples that can be used fo r clas sifying the arts will ,

though I think lead one t o recognize the superio rity of the second
, ,

alternative .

There are at leas t ve distin ct p rinciples formal trans cendental

, ,

motivating psychological o r o nt o l o g i c a l t o which one might have

, ,
u

recours e in an attempt to cla ssify the variou s arts E ach principle .

provides criteria in terms o f which all the arts c an be as ses sed inter ,

related and understo od E a ch is rooted in a d i s tin ctive theory of the

, .

nature o f art ; each requires a distincti v e ordering o f the arts .

A fo r ma l principle i s the obj ect of man s reas on It may be newly

.

p roduced o r extracted from mathemati cs o r s cience Tho se who invoke .

su ch a p rinciple often tend t o treat the arts as illusions produced by

passionately add ing obs curities t o what otherwis e would be clear and
dist i nct They tend to belittle the values ingredient in art to overlook
.
,

its rationale and to m i s s what it reveals It would be better t o view

, .

formal p rin ciples n o t as obs cured but a s c arried o u t by works of art

, .

Yet if one supposes that arts merely exempl i fy formal principles one
w ill ignore not only the con crete sensuous vital contours o f art but
, ,

the roles which the emotion s play in c reat i on and enj oyment .

A t r a ns cend en t a l pr i n ciple is no t as abs tra ct o r detached as a

formal one It refers us t o a God t o Platonic forms or s ome similar
.
, ,

reality whos e virtues o r p owers the arts are supposed to exh ib i t at

s ome remove The principle can be thought of as self manifes t ing o r
.
-

as bei ng elicited by the artis t In either cas e it is usually held that

.
,

the trans cendental principle is muted when it enters into the arts with ,

the result that it becomes indi s tinguishable from a purely formal

pri nciple This result can be avoided Jus t as one can with B erkeley
. .
, ,

V i ew the world as God s language God s intent made directly man i fest

, ,

s o o ne can treat a work of art as an expres sion o f a trans cendental

principle S u ch an appro ach will make it pos sible to deal with all the
.

arts from a single position B ut it will als o lead one far from the arts
.

themselves will tend t o make o ne neglect the role o f the artist and will
, ,
Ni ne B a s i c Ar ts

fail t o take acc ount of the a ctivity o f creation We need principles .

wh ic h are a s widely applicable a s the trans cendental ones But unlike .

t h ese they should ride on the ba ck o f the driving forces t h at govern

,

men s a ctivities .

A mo t iva t ing p rinciple i s o ne which takes art to be grounded in

e ff orts to bring about s ome end When one s ays that architecture .

aros e from the need t o worship s culpture from the need to c om ,

mem orate p ainting from a desire to reco rd appearan ces and s o o n

, , ,

us e is being made o f a principle o f this kind Th i s is als o the cas e when .

artists are s aid to be creatures o f a p atron s o ciety or p olitic al force , ,

.

Insu f cient attention i s then p aid to the fact that the work o f a rt i s
revelat ory of reality and that the artis t s ometimes ignores and even
,

dees the prevailing s o cial o r p olitic al p owers .

Most psychologists kn ow that man is not a mere avenue fo r the ex

pres s i on o f impers on al forces They therefore try to a c count for his .

art by attend ing t o s ome pecul i arly pers onal facet o r p ower In the .

light o f the pluraliz ation o f psy chology in recent times the i r p s y c h o ,

l o g i c a l e x plan atio ns o f art take m any fo rms They treat i t as an ex .

l
press i on o f an uncons cious of a w ill o f emotion o r of s ome d r iv e , , ,
e

S uch acc ounts fa il to show what i t i s that the uncons c i ous the w ill , ,

the emotion s the dr ives mu s t obtain and why i t i s that art can
, ,

pro v ide this If it is s aid th at the unc ons c i ous the w ill and s o o n seek
.
, , ,

pleasure o r s at i s fa ction it s t ill mus t be shown why it i s art that gives

,

th i s pleasure o r s atis faction .

M en are o rgan i c un ied be ings who are con cerned with many things
,

in addit i on to art They are motivated by a deeply rooted and con

.

s tant need to bec ome complete And they c an bec ome complete by .

mastering wh at is other than them selves Art o ff ers men one of a .

number of pos sible ways in wh i ch th i s completion can be ach i eved M en .

do no t del iberately engage in art to ach i eve this c ompletion ; the

completion is rarely c ons ciously s ought Nor is i t neces s ary that i t be .

O ne of Pl ta o s

b l ng h A
acc o u nt s d ing t h im t ig in t s
of a rt e o s er e . cc o r o , ar or a e

in a
p iv tr i nch t
a e, m t i n l d iv w h i h p d u s
oa e e o d i t t i n f t u t h nd
o a r e c ro ce a s or o o r a

a d i up t i n f p l iti l t b il it y A t t h f d s
sr o o o ca s t
s a b i t i i z d by ny n
. r e re o r e e e r ve o e cr c e a o e

wh o t k s t u t h nd p l it i
a e r i u ly B u t i t i q u t i n b l
a o cs wh t h
ser o t di t
s .t s es o a e e er ar s or s

ra th t h n p s nts t ut h
er a nd i t i q u
re e t i n bl w h t h
r ,
na u gh t t t k p l it i
s es o a e e er o e o o a e o cs

s i u l y t h t wh t v
o s er o s an ic t wi t h it m s t b
a e n
er c o d j ct d s u e ce s o re or re e e .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

34

in sp ace and sp ace sustains energy Time als o c an be treated as an

,
.

attenuated form o f the others ; it is space deprived of its con cretenes s

and made one directional energy denied p ower and volume
-

, .

From the perspective o f energy space and time are but expressions ,

it dictates their rhythms and breaks their contours and dimensions ,

.

Energy als o o ff ers a synthesis o f spa ce and time a way in which the ,

two are welded into o ne S pace here is the concurrence time the
.
,

sequential aspect of a unitary dyn amic s Energy is als o subordin ate .

to the other two ; it is the inside for which time i s the outside and
sp ace the synthesis Energy n ally is space made manifes t and time
.

reduced to movements with a consequent double lo s s o f vitality

,
.

S ince existen ce has three dimensions there are three types of art ,

spati al temp oral and dyn amic E ach type is o ccupied with the con
, , .

que s t o f i t s appropriate d i mension through the creation of works in

which that dimension is reproduced in a controlled and experien ceable
form S ince each dimension c an be treated as subo rdinate t o t w o
.

others ea ch type of art c an be subordin ated t o two other types o f

,

art But since ea ch dimension viewed in its own terms is als o irredu cible
.
,

each must be recognized as distin ctive and on a footing with the

ot h ers .

All the works o f a s ingle type create an appropriate dimension

a sp ace a time or a becoming The arts divide wi thin a type depending
, .

on whether they bound oc cupy or exhaus t the dimension Ar chitecture

, .

bounds s culpture o ccupies and p ainting exhau sts sp ace ; musi cry
, ,

bounds story o c cupies and p oetry exhau sts t ime ; music bounds the
, , ,

theatre o ccupies and the dan ce exhausts energy ' M usicry refers
,

.
,

among other things to the compo sition of music
, music to its per
f o r ma n c e see Chapter
E ach o f the spati al arts prots from a knowledge o f what is a o
complished in the other sp atial arts A p ainter lo oks about with an .

a rchitect s eye and treats all sp aces a s regi ons with boundaries Even .

t h e oriental p ainter with his desire to allow for n o well de ned limits -

either to the world or to his work does this The p ainter als o treats , .

obj ects a s s culptural unities when he views the spaces between them as
having a p ower t o keep t h em apart .

The s culptor works within an ar chitecturally dened environment

 A Cl a s s i ca ti o n o
f t he Ar ts

and enj oy s his own work as an element in a single self contained whole -
.

S imilarly the architect is alert t o the s culptur al and p ainterly aspects

,

o f nature and art . Instead o f attending ex clusively t o the nature of

a region which he is t o stabilize through the us e o f rigid materials he ,

notes the s culptural c omponents within that region a s well a s the

s culptural signic an ce o f the region itself Within th at region divi .

sions are made which harmonize with one another as well as with the
whole The ar ch i tect s mater i als both ll up and divide sp aces The
.

.

work with which he is o ccupied is always p art o f a larger sp atial whole ,

and in that larger whole hi s o wn a ccomplishment serves as a s culptural

unit sep arated from other similar units by a sp at i al interval H e als o .

s ees hi s demarc ated regions merging with others For him subd ivisions .
,

are s o many surfa ces sl i d ing into o ne another intersecting and s u p ,

l em en t i n to be solidied into a s elf s u f c i ent whole with integrated

p g
-

subordinate regions .

P ainting s culptu re and architecture als o nd a place for both time

,

and energy In the sp a ces o f P o l l o ck and Van Gogh a time and an

.

__

energy are us ed whi chj whil e not repeating el i cit and evoke the ,

rhythms explo i ted in other arts M oore s s culpture attempts t o cap

.

ture o r at least evoke the dynamic rhythms o f existence ; C alder s

mobiles try to cat ch the time intervals Energy is reected in modern .

bu ildings and bridges when thes e expos e the mus culature of the beams
,

time i s t o be found in the wa y in which movement slows and a ccelerates

in going forward a nd ba ckward upward and downward in the cours e
, ,

of a reorgan i zation o f variou s sp atial blo cks M ore evidently when .

,

arch i te c ture embraces city planning t ime i s prov i ded for in the trav
,

er s a l s of the arch i tectural spa ce .

The temp oral arts o f musicry story and poetry are irredu cible
, .

E ach a p erspective and a synthes i s for the others and ,

can be t o m o n ent in or as a res i duum o f them

p M usicry .

c reates sing t ime a time in which subdivi sions c an be

,

ma de and through which bei ngs can l i ve From its perspective s tory i s .
,

a specialized art indi cating the way in which certain effects are pro
d u c ed i n time while poetry by using wo rds in a more specialized way
, ,

than s tory is seen t o exh aust whatever time mu si cry made p os sibl e
, .

S tory ac centu ates the rhythms o f t i me point i ng up t h e mean i ng o f ,

N ine B a s i c A r ts

36

a world beyond dis course ; p oetry lls up the time which musicry
bounds and v iv i es what story has created
,
.

M usicry off ers a synthesis of p oetry and s tory balancing the one ,

by the other It i s in turn a component o f a synthesis expres s ed in

.
, ,

s to ry and of a synthesis expres sed in p oetry S tory supplements it .

with p oetry ; p oetry supplements it with story It is als o a residual .

phenomenon We begin by using langu age dram atically to expres s o u r

.

v i tal con cerns and only when its vit al edges have been worn away
,

through us e o r inattention do we have the broad gauged rhythms o f

music ry O u r initial use o f language reects o u r emotional grasp o f
.

the wo rld ; in the e ff o rt to communic ate we tone down the s tres ses ,

eliminate the p rivate nu an ces and c onnections in it and thereby m ove

towards the more univers al p atterns exploited in mu sicry .

S tory which in cludes short sto ries n ovels and s cr ipts for plays

, ,

o ff ers a primary perspective on the other a rts F rom its p osition .

musicry flattens out the ten sions o f daily l i fe and imagin ation and ,

does not answer to the vital involvements of men S tory sees p oetry a s .

being t o o s elf contained a s having to o small a canvas as to o oriented

-

, ,

towards the p oet and thus as not allowing v ital interchange between
,

men and the world For story poetry i s o ver p er s o na li zed a p art of a
.
, ,

total situation whi ch the story exhib i ts In c ontrast t o s tory p oetry .

,

verges on being the language of only one m an and mu sicry tends to be ,

the language o f an an onymou s group .

S t ory o ff ers a synthesis o f poetry and music ry Musicry provides .

it with a daily time in which we make contact and communi cate with
others wh ile poetry gives it a vitality and d imensionality nuance and
, ,

intensity S to ry is at once in dividual and common answer i ng t o the

.
,

nature o f men and the vital exper i ences they undergo O ff er ing a l an .

guage which appeals both to an i nd ividual and t o all men i t is als o , ,

as we s aw a component in the syntheses o ff ered by musicry and by

,

p oetry .

P oetry unites musicry and sto ry lling out the rhythms o f the one ,

with the ten sions o f the ot h er subdu ing referent i al elements by means
,

o f more univers al s elf contained rhythms It i s mo re pers onal than

,
-
.

mu sicry and les s involved in hum an aff a i rs than story It i s as we s aw

, .
, ,

an element in and a residuum of the other two as well

, .
 A C l a s s ic a t i o n o f t he Ar ts

N o one thes e temporal arts is pu rely temporal All t ake up and

o f .

exploit space ; all u s e and exhibit the nature o f energy Lewis C arroll .

and Guillaume Appolin aire bring out the sp at i al components of

poetry ; e e cummings brings out i t s vitality S tor i es are envis aged a s
. . .

taking pla c e in a sp ace and invol v ing vital interplay ; musicry is con
cerned with prospecti v e voluminou s tones requiring di ff erent expend
i t u r e s o f energy .

The performing arts of music theatre and dan ce ha v e spatial com

, ,

o nent s Mu sic lls the hall ; a ctors are on the sta ge ; dancing creates
p .

a s equence o f spatial regions All three als o h ave temp o ral components
. .

Indeed s o obtrusive are the latter that thes e arts are often taken to
,

be merely temporal arts But they are all more than spatial or tem
.

p oral : they are dynamic energetic creating new modes o f becoming

, , .

E ac h performing art c an be treated a s o ff ering a perspective on or ,

as a unity o f the two other performing arts ; it c an als o be viewed a s

a component in each o f the other two and as a k ind o f residuum left
behind by each S in ce they have these roles f o r reas ons an alogous to
.

thos e relevant t o the sp ati al and temporal arts there is perhaps n o ,

need to spell them o u t It i s in fa ct more imp ortant to recognize t h e

.
, ,

signal contribut i on made by each type of art and its subdivisions than
it is to recognize the fact that ea ch c ontains s omething o f the values ,

virtues o r interests of the others A painting e g m akes spa ce visible

.
, . .
, .

The architectural and s culptural aspects o f that spa ce are in cidental

and subordinate Eve nmore obviously the p ainting c annot do j ustice
.
,

t o time o r becoming Indeed it has no real con cern with either

.
, .

All men seek t o create existen ce in the form of a domain a claim or , ,

an epitomizing being The arts o f a rchitecture mu sicry and music

.
, ,

provide them with an answer to the need to create an extended region .

S culpture s , and theatre s ati s fy the need t o c reate a cla im t o a

sp ace time
, , ces s o f becom i ng P ainting p oetry and dan ce are
.
, ,

arts which e beings epitomiz ing the whole o f sp ace time or ,

becom ing B ec aus e each art stres ses o ne o f the d imensions o f existen ce
.

more than others and deals with i t in a d is ti n c t ive w a y it i s desirable ,

to deal w i th each art as th ough it attended to j ust o ne d i mension o f

existence and then only in one o f a number of p o s sible ways O ne can .

then als o make evident why it i s n ot p os sible to combine all arts to

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

38

obtain an all inclusive art B y comb i n ing a number o f arts o ne o b

.
,

tains a new unity o f the dimensions o f exis tence ; while this may il
luminate what separate arts left dark it will n o t be adequate to ,

what they i ndividually master .

E v ery one of thes e arts can have a relaxed fo rm P ainting relaxes .

into doodling s culpture into decoration architecture into engi
, ,

n eering ; p oetry relaxes into punning stor i es i nto tall tales a nd

, ,

musicry into metrics ; dan cing relaxes into gesture theatre into con , ,

v ers ation and musi c into melody The relaxed forms lack the concern
, .
,

dis cipline and re v elation ch ara cteris tic o f a genuine art

, .

O ther arts ser v e s ometimes a s s ources o f materials f o r the more

basic arts Thus textiles o ff er architecture c overings w alls and
.
, ,

textures cloths and clothing are material for s culpture ; they may als o
provide p ainting with the stu ff for montages The mat ching o f per .

fumes co oking and the like can be viewed as relaxed forms o f art
, .

But like those which produ ce materials they are more p roperly taken
,

to be subordinate o r mino r a rts ; they la ck the tension the v ital i ty ,

in any case the self s uf c i en c y of the maj or arts

,

.

We are n ow I think in a p osition to make a detailed examination

, ,

of ea ch of the nine basi c arts But a great deal o f benet can be

'

derived i f we rs t attend to s ome of the observations made about them

by s ome distinguished practitioners .
 S OM E O P I N I ON S O N A R T
3 .

P HI L O S O P HERS tend t o provide a ccounts o f art primarily from

the p osition o f spectato rs and in terms o f a theory o f knowledge
,

forged to deal mainly with issues raised in common experien ce and in

s cience Artists o n the other hand think primarily in terms o f the
.
, ,

a cti v ity of production its elf ; untra i ned and und i s ciplined in the use
o f abs tra ctions their dis cou rs e is o ften cryptic overly dogmatic and
, , ,

unorganized S tudents o f the arts historians connois seurs i cono

.

, ,

g pr a h er s collectors
, dealers ,
tend
to side with the ph i lo s ophers in
as suming the position o f spectators but balan ce this with a p r e fer en
,

tial u se of aestheti c categories Unfortunately they r arely have a way

.
,

of so expres sing themselves that they d o j ustice to what they

sensitively dis cern .

As a c onsequen ce o f thes e three limit ations there i s no clear a c,

count available about the nature o f a rt from the position of both

the creator and the spectator In the attempt to overcome thes e
.

limitations I have culled s ome arresting comments o n art from various

,

s ources and have app ended to them brief remarks of my own This i s .

a de v i ce peculiarly suited t o art and to mystical experience In a .

bo ok o u ethics there is no need t o call attention to what good men .

-

have s ai out virtue and obligation In p ol i tics one might with

.
,

Mach report the a ctions o f su cces s ful men of pra ctice but ,

will have no need to quote their comments o n compromis e law and , ,

j ustice In these elds the opinions of experts and laymen are about
.

o f equal value ; all seem t o have had relevant experien ces in these areas .

And much o f what i s not already known by la ymen c an apparently be

learned through reading and reection But art and myst i cal ex .

er i enc e seem s o o u t o f the way to most men and what one does not
p ,

directly learn from experience seems s o beyond the reach o f imagina

tion that all tend to look for guidan ce to thos e who are m asters in the
,
 zs ci A r ts

not true though that most men are entirely cut o ff from
is , ,

creation and mysti c experience No r is it true that speculation .

help o ne to move over the plains o f ignoran ce and inexperience

owl edg e o f the s tru cture meaning and value of art and mystic
, ,

uc e B ut it i s true that outs tanding p ra ctitioners in these sub

.

w e again and again c alled attention to factors which ordinary

i d t o neglect o r deny The following qu otations and c omments
. ,

3d according t o the s cheme of clas si cation presented in the

s cha pter and followed through the res t o f the book

. should ,

attend t o s ome m aj or i s sues relating to the artisti c pro ces s ,

lts and the way thes e are to be appreciated The appended com
,
.

ar e no t s o mu ch elaborations o r j u sti cations as res onances

h e quot ations invoked in me The present work I think s u p .

, ,

. md extends both the aper cu s o f mos t o f these artis ts and the

ed comments .

idli t z : An architect who c onsents to permit a lay
c ide the merit o f his work to gauge it correct it a ccept or
, , ,

it h a s alrea dy given up h is p osition as a pro fes sional man

.

i s t must be dictated to only by his art ; this h a s its own r e

ants whi ch he i s pledged to meet When he attends to what this .

gh t mean t o o ne uninterested in it as art he gives up his role ,

; t t o bec ome a c raftsman a tea cher a busines sm an a politician

, , , ,

1
g but a pro fes sion al artist But this does not mean th at he .

right t o ignore the others entirely A client who asks f o r a .

. ant church must n ot be given a mos q ue o r a factory ; a spec

.h o ul d no t be faced with a work which blocks o r di minishes

or b u s i er
Architecture is the m asterly c orrect and ma g ni
: ,

a
y of the forms o f light Ar chitecture i s a busines s a craft
.
, ,

art As the last it is con cerned with making reality visible in

.
,

s e o f environed volumes .

ir a d b u r y : Architectural theory is a bran ch of philos
L nd ex i sts purely fo r the s ake o f knowledge and n ot as a guide

ti ce Th os e i nteres ted in immersing themselves in a wo rk o f
.

nd a theo ry about art t o be to o general too detachable from ,

t i c u l a r work to o conceptual to be o f mu ch interest Theory

, .
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

42

ship o f its various parts It als o h a s measures dened by the attitudes

.
,

needs a ctivities and p ositions o f p ossible users and spectators

, ,
.

N either measure can be kn own through the help of any instrument To .

kn ow them a man mus t deal with the work as that whi ch c an represent
,

existence and thereby complete him .

A Rodin : Molding from n ature is copying o f the most exact kind
.
,

and yet it has neither movement n or eq u enc e Nature taken as a .
,

s et o f subs tances has vital elements But it still l acks the dyn amic
,
.
,

puls ative eloquent movement o f exis ten ce T o a chieve movement
,
.

o r eloquen ce one must turn away from nature and create an icon o f
,

a more ultimate vital insistent d i mension o f reality

, , .

E Falconet : N ature alive breath ing and p as sionate this is

.

, , ,

what the s culpto r mu st expres s in stone or m arble Even a s tati c

wo rk of art sh ould expres s the vitality which is at the ro ot o f all
being S culpture like every other art c aptures s omething o f the tex
.
, ,

ture and rep orts s omething o f the nature o f existen ce spatial tem , ,

poral and dynamic

, .

G L B ernini : S ometimes in o rder t o i mitate the original one must
. .

put into a m arble p o rtrait s omething that is no t in the origin al An .

imitation o f an obj ect mus t take a ccount o f the demands and limita
tions o f the med i um in wh i ch the imitation is to be embedded The .

work can convey what the or i gin al did only if it is unlike the o riginal ,

only if it subtracts from adds t o and trans forms wh at w a s i n i tially , ,

d i s cerned .

A C anova : S culpture i s but a language among the variou s lan

.

guages whereby the eloquence of the arts expres ses nature S culpture .

off ers one o f a number of p ossible ways of expres sing the n ature o f
existence It is a language whos e terms are l i ghts and shadows hol
.
,

lows and p rotuberan ces planes and s ol i ds whose grammar i s given , ,

by the es tablished techniq ues and whos e mess age i s expres sed in a ,

created beautiful work, .

A M aillol : I pursue fo rm in order t o attain that which is with

.

o u t form Art is pursued under res triction s ; there is n ot only a

.

technique whi ch mu st be mastered but a stru cture which must be ,

a chieved But th i s s tructure is achieved i n order to enable us to grasp

.

th at whi ch underlies all stru cture wh at i s at the root o f all forms , .

 S o m e O p i ni o ns on Art

43

L d a Vinc i : The air is full o f an innite number of radiating
.

straight lines whi ch cros s and weave together without ever coin ciding ;

it i s thes e whi ch represent the true form o f every obj ect s es sen ce
.

The spatial s tru cture of existen ce is complex ; it is a vas t m atrix b e

yond the reach o f any formal geometry For the s culptor this is .

the very stuff o f reality When he po rtrays an obj ect he congeals the
.

meaning of spatial existence within a n arrow comp as s s o a s t o make

himself con fronted with an ic on o f that existence .

H Lauren : E s sentially s culpture means taking pos ses sion o f

sp ace S culpture is a spatial art an art which presents the texture

.
,

and re v eals the n ature o f the spa ce O f ultimate reality by means o f

a newly created o ccupied space It p os ses ses the space it makes by
, .

s tructuring and tensing that ent i re regi on whether this be empty o r ,

no t .

N Gabo and A Pevsner : S p ace c an be as l i ttle measured by a
. .

volume as a liqu i d by a linear measure Depth is the uniqu e form .

by whi ch space c an be expres sed A s culpture i s v oluminous But it is

. .

not only voluminous It lays hold o f p os s es s es spa ce To deal with

.
, .

as a mere volume i s to overlook the manner in which the sp ace whic h

it creates is even in its empty p ort i ons o ccup i ed by the s culp
, ,

ture .

O Redon. pla cing the logic o f the visible at the s ervice o f

the are t w o kinds o f vis i ble and approp riate logics

t h e visible of common percept i on and that which the artis t m akes The .

rs t is put at the service of 1 nv1 s ibl e ex i s t enc e by bei n g trans _ ,

formed trans cended and utilized It fun ctions as a means by which

, , .

an art work can be produ ced The sec ond is put at the s er v ice o f .

invisible existence by s erving as its i con telling us what it i s like , ,

without i nvolving us in a direct interpl ay with it

h
h
.

'GT is no thing b u t an image of in corp oreal

e
things d spite the fa ct that it exhibits bodies What is exhibited in .

a p aint ing i s the n ature of exist i ng sp ace That sp ace o ffers an in .

corp oreal lo cus for bodies Any body p o rtrayed in a work o f art over
.

special i zes that in corp oreal region whi ch the body i s thought to
o c cupy .

F Goya : Color doe s no t exi s t in n ature any more than lin e

.
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

44

only advancing and receding planes exist Whatever the artist draws .

o r p aints are his creations H is colors and shapes p resent real space .

a s at once tensi onal vibrant vigorous and ultimate S trictly speak

, , , .

ing what is true o f his c olors and shapes is true o f h i s planes and
,

volumes N one of them exis ts in nature ; but all enable him to c om

.

muni c a t e what nature and the reality beyond this are like , , .

V van Gog h : C olo r in itself expres ses s o mething ; ne v er mind the

.

obj ect The pai nter works with colors he molds with them and draws
.

with them They are the material out o f which he creates a world If
. .

he unders tands their p ower he can dispense with a referen ce t o the role
they might have in ordin ary life fo r this o ff ers only a partial expres ,

sion of the power they actually have .

J B azaine
. there is a kind of ines cap able logic in the way
'

shapes and colors develop an inner obligation from which I can

not es cape and it i s o ften against all my in clinations agains t my
, ,

mo od my taste and my considered opinion As B raque s ays the can

, .
,

vas mus t kill the idea The immersion in the logi c o f the work r e
.

quires s ome denial o f oneself The c anvas mus t not only kill the idea .
,

but the inclinations mo ods tas te and individu ality of the a rtist a s
, , ,

well s o far as these make demands in opposition to thos e made by the

,

work .

G S everini : The sens ation p rodu ced in u s by a re ality which we
.

recognize a s being s quare in shape and red in color may be expres s ed

plas tically by its complementary shapes and colors in other words by ,

rounded shapes and shades o f blue

out of the dan cer and the .

a eroplane i s engendered the s e a The obj ects we rec ognize which i s to .
,

s a y the s ubstan ces o f common expe r ien ce are ultimate reality trans ,

formed by being subj ected t o special c onditions If the artist i s to r e .

c apture that ultimate reality he must subj ect the recognized Obj ects ,

t o new tran s formations In expres sing squ are as round the artist but .

returns to the reality o f which the squ are is a trans formation Round .

is not o f course the neces s ary form which the reality has It is a
, , .

round which i s als o blue that portrays the real i ty underlying the rec
o ni z e d red square
g .

G v a n Ha ardt
. colors are nei ther warm nor cold but simply ,

di ff erent a s colors The p ainte r i s no t an opti cian This i s wh y it i s

, . .
 S o me Op i nions on Ar t

45

useles s to invoke the la ws of c omplementary colors from a dis cipline

whic h has nothing t o do with p ainting Red c an be married as e ff ec .

t i v ely with green brown grey or red a s with any other color The
, , .

luminosity o f color in p ainting remains a myth The artis t us es .

colo rs or s ounds sh apes o r movements t o create a ne w entity N O one

,
.

o f these elements has an abs olute value ; no o ne o f them makes an a b s o

lute demand fo r j ust one c ompanion support o r contras t If it did , , .
,

there would be very l i ttle ro om left for innovation exper i ment imp r o , ,

v i s a t i o n The organ i c whole which is the work of art is not subj ect to
.

the rules that govern other types o f whole The art i s t is free t o forge .

new relations make new organic unities

,
.

R C has tel : My practical obj ect ive is to attain complete ab s t r a c
.

tion rej ecting precon ceived techn i cal s olutions A s the wo rk p r o

, .

g r es s e s
, the or i ginal v i sual emotion whether obj ective o r s ubj ective
, ,

suggests new relationships between colors and shapes which become

more and more abs tract as they take their pla ce w i thin the pattern

o f an inward illum ination A work o f art is produced not in ac cord
.
,

an ce with any set o f rules or technical dev i ces but i n terms o f ideas ,

wh i ch c ontinu ally require new a cts and constant alterations The .

terms are related abstra ctly in the sens e that they are not m ade to
con form to the nature o f s ome external obj ect Art is no nr ep r e s ent a .

t i o na l t o the degree that it is allowed to develop a cco rd i ng to its o wn

requirements i n abstraction from those wh i ch are t o be found in the
,

external wo r lM c o mm o n obj ects .

.P I
does not reproduce the visible but m akes visible A .

pa i n er i s not a reporter He o ff ers no reprodu ction o f what he sees

.
,

but makes s ometh ing to be seen S imilarly in the other arts : none o f
.

them merely reproduces what is experien ced ; all of them produce

s omething worth experiencing .

.A L a ns ko y : P aint i ng is always abs tract but o ne did n ot n otice it

, .

t u one no longer looks for apples trees or young girls in a picture

, ,

the word abstra ct will become redundant There is no radic al dif .

ference between clas sical and m odern art El Greco is a clas sical .

p ainter but h i s work is nonrepresentational Every art in fa ct works

, .

under lim itat i ons ; it has its own media materials limits and cannot , , ,

therefore r e present any obj ect in nature H e who lo oks for apples
-
.
Ni n e B a s ic A r ts

46

o r trees or girls impo ses o n the work condition s which are n ot germane
t o it O ne can nd apples trees o r girls there only by tearing pieces
.
,

o u t o f the p ainting and v i ew m g thes e as though they were substan ces

rather than fo cal p oints in a creation of an i con o f existen ce No art .

is e v er s i mply representational ; all are als o nonrep resentational ,

which is to s a y abs tract , .

P Pi cass o :
. the white I thought o f the green I thought of , ,

are in the picture but not in the pla ce foreseen n or in the expected
,

quantity M ore a ccurately they are n ot even the white and green

.
,

thought o f but rather are a new white and green made under the
,

guidan ce of a white and green remembered Where they are to be .

placed j ust what intensity magnitude relationsh i p they are t o have

, , ,

cannot be determined ex cept i n the act of producing the work .

P Picas s o : I get an indigestion o f greennes s I mus t empty this
. .

s ens ation in a p i cture In an aes thetic experien ce we is olate qu alities
.
,

free them from their in v olvement in the b urly burly o f th i s c onti ngent -

world We are enriched thereby B ut there i s a l i mit to this r i chnes s

. . .

B ey ond a certain po i nt the experien ce o f green becomes cloying

, ,

s atiating tiring He who m akes creative use o f green frees h i mself

, .

from th i s limitation gives it a new lo cu s being and function H e

, , , .

thereby purges hims elf frees himself from the ind i ges tion o f un sifted
,

em otion with the result that he has a mo re app rop r i ate attitude
,

towards exper i en ceable green thereafter The world is t o o mu ch f o r .

the art i st both becaus e it i s shot through w i th contingen cy and

,

becaus e aesthetic experience s o on comes to a lfm it He creates to .

a chieve a way o f dealing w i th the world more penetratingly wh ile ,

retain ing his distance .

P M ondri an : T O create unity art has to follow not n ature s as

.

,

p ec t but what n ature really i s

,

N ature s aspects are the strands we .

distinguish f o r various lim i ted purpos es The substan ces we dis cern .

are the grounds f o r thes e s trands lo c i Of a numbe r of them all , ,

intertw ined Art s task i s t o reveal n o t the strands o r the subs tances
.

, ,

but what lies beneath both o f them .

P K lee : The purer the art i st s work the les s well equipped he is
.

,

fo r the realistic rendering O f visible things The visible here is .

what is perceived An artist i s primarily concerned not with this but

.
, ,
 S o m e O p i ni o ns on Ar t

47

with exis tence His work i s pure j ust s o far as it is co smic metaphys
. ,

ical o ccupied with what i s outside the rea ch o f common s ens e

,
.

M S eup h o r : A p ainting is to be c alled abs tra ct when it is im
.

p os sible to recognize in it the slightes t tr ace o f that obj ective

reality which makes up the normal ba ckground o f our every day ex
p er i en c e no aspect o f the real world even if it is a point o f ,

departure should remain recognizable It is impos sible to remove
,
.

e v ery tra ce of the obj ective reality whi ch makes up the normal ba ck

ground O f o u r every day experience A work of art is not bound by .

the contingent stru cture and connections chara cteris ti c o f daily ex

e r i en c e But n e cannot entirely avoid connecting one s work with
p . o

that experien ce And if by obj ective reality o ne means the ir
.

redu cible modes of being behind experien ced substantial individu als
and events it is precisely th i s which should be p ortrayed and rec
,

o ni ze d in every art abstra ct or con crete

g , .

U B o c cioni : We must as sert that the sidewalk c an nd its way

.

o n to the d i ning room table that your hand c an cros s the ro ad all
,

by itself The connections between th i ngs in this world are largely

a matter o f happenstance They do no t bind the artis t T o fo cu s on
. .

what i s fundamentally real the artist makes things fun ction in relation
to o ne another ; he makes evident their p otentialities only s ome o f ,

everyday world The sidewalk in daily life

.

limited fun ction ; the artist deals with it a s

freed from these restri ctions
,
.

4G S everini : 3 7The whole universe mus t be contained within the work

of M bj e c
t s no longer exist Art is a self s uf cient domain ; ex
.

tended and puls ating it is a subs titute f o r a replacement o f the

, ,

domain of existence In providing an i con of existence the artist trans

.

c end s any Obj ects he m i gh t have initially distinguished and which ,

help him divide order and communic ate his work

, , .

H Matis se : The work o f art has its own abs olute signican ce im
.

p li c i t within itself and should c onvey this directly t o the beholder

before he stop s to wonder what the pi cture repres ents A work o f art .

i s a unity It should be appreciated as a single whole before there is

.

an attempt t o understand its themes and developments and the various

fo ci which make it po s sible for it to refer to ordin ary things A work .
 r ts

I be ac cepted as self s ufc ient complete in i t s own terms

-

here is an attempt t o reect on the n ature of the ultimate

ni c a l l y presents Ultimate re ality is in fact p ortrayed in
.

need not be s ought beyond it except by one who is n ot ,

merely en j oying art and would unders tand it , .

f
orth '

the p ainter does not p aint what he sees but

vs i s A reality mu st be e v oked

. not an illusion Art does
.

i s with illusion s Instead it portray s existence in i t s bear

.
,

at the s ame time that it exhib its exis tence s spatial

,

dynami c texture .

e : Exactitude i s no t truth Ex actitude i s n ot truth in .

ways If it r e p resents the familiar it fails to make the

.

,

d add i tion s which are needed in o rder t o c on v ey the real .

n s t o rules and techniques it hides what a free creation ,

e a l pertinent
, obj ecti v e existence
, .

Nature is only an hypothesis Nature in the guis e of .

lly apprehended strand i s the real under a special c on

L
y men wro ngly ac cept the hyp othesis that the real world
which s cien ce portrays More plau sible would be the .

hat real substan ces are like those we come to kn ow through

s o f strands within the body o f s ome gi v en o ne It is n o .

h a t the world i s existentially what the artist portr ays .

in : It is better to p aint from memory for thus your work ,

own When you want to count t h e hairs on a donkey ,

V many he has on each ear a n d determine the place o f each ,

1e stable It i s n ot the function o f art to provide dupl i ca
.

orts o f wh at particular th ings are M en wh o are p rima rily .

i t h obser v ing those p art i cular things and making reports

y have not i ced are n ot ar t i sts but p ra ct i cal men C reation , .

at one igno re the c ommands o f daily life and penetrate

o mm o n obj ects p resent .

1 p ing : If one is able to realize h o w the ancients applied
-

to the absen ce of bru sh and ink one i s no t far from reach ,

ine quality in p ainting

N egative spa ce the intervals

.
,

u s s ed items is as posit ive and as important a s the rest of

,

ar t But sin ce men are keyed to attend to things and to

.
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

50

context The determ ination s ac creted by natural Obj ects have how
.
,

ever to do wi th the i r roles in n ature The determ ination s which a

,
.

line achieves in a painting are of a di ff erent s ort having t o do with ,

what m akes the line s upport and be supported by the res t in a single
beautiful totality .

P Klee : Color has taken hold o f me fo rever
. Color and I are

o ne . I am a p a inter The p a i nter c annot di stinguish himself alto
.

gether from h i s work ; the behavior of his color is himself exter i orized
and fun ct i oning as a lo cus for beauty That color is no t the c olo r .

known t o optics It is a color with quite different p roperties reecting

.
,

the fact that it is an item in an em otionally s us tained creation ,

a fliated with other colo rs and with the variou s shapes and spaces
,

whi ch were produced by the p a i nter .

J C onstable : I am anxiou s that the world should be inclined to
.

look t o p ainters for information o n painting It would be go od t o .

turn to p ainters for information o n p ainting were they able to ex ,

p res s thems el v es p roperly and c ould they free themselves from com
,

m o uly ac cepted pr e supp ositions and catego ries regarding the nature
o f existence the v alidity o f s c i ence and the relat i on o f o ne art t o
, ,

an other In the meantime it is neces s ary als o to lis ten to philos ophers
. .

J Haydn : Art i s free and mu st n ot be conned by technical fetters
.
,

I feel myself a s authorized as anybody else t o make up the rules .

Art has rules but i t i s n ot subj ect to rules Its rules a re the residua
, .

which technique and habit leave behind in a work that h as been crea
t iv el y produced .

G Verdi : It may be a go od th ing to copy reality ; but t o invent

.

reality is mu ch mu ch better C opying is es sent i ally a s erv ile a ct ; it
, .

subj ugates one to c ond i tions wh i ch p revent the exerc i se o f v i tal

p owers The invent i on o f real i ty c alls upon man a s at h i s best and
.
,

ends w i th s ometh i ng he could never have obt ained by copy i ng a n icon

o f ex i sten ce having s omething o f that ex i stence s texture

.

P Mendels s ohn : The thoughts wh i ch are expres s ed to me by musi c
.

that I love are n o t too inden i te to be put into words but on the ,

contrary t oo denite The communication o f a wo rk o f art i s direct
, .

and concrete ; i t leaves over no marg i n f o r elaboration o r exeges i s If .

we are t o speak o f i t it must be at a d i s tance and in general terms ;

,
 S o m e O p i n i o ns on Ar t

51

thes e c annot claim to reproduce it but only t o explain it put it in ,

a setting make it available f o r dis c ourse and underst anding

,
.

F C hopin : Noth ing is more od i ous than mu s i c wi thout hidden
.

mean i ng An art without meaning would be ind i stinguishable from
.

decorat i on o r orna ment An art without hidden mean ing would be too
.

intellectual t o o formal The meaning o f the work is revealed in the

, .

course o f the enj oyment o f the work a s a self s ui c ient sensuous ex

, ,

c el l e nt whole .

F C hop i n : Creation i s n o t a thing o ne can learn Creation is an
. .

e x pres sion o f freedom o f the p ower to a ct with initiative sp ontaneity

, , ,

exu berance and control to turn an open partly indetermin ate future
,

into a den i te determ i nate result There are no prin c i ples wh i ch can.

e x haust i t s nature there is n o tra ining wh i ch can gu arantee i t It h a s

,
.

a n ature only when and as it t akes place Rules and habits can tell u s .

where i t s boundar i es are but it spreads to th os e boundaries o n its o w n

,
.

V Williams : The great men o f music clos e per i ods ; they do not
.

in augurate them The pioneer work the nding o f new p aths i s left
.
, ,

t o smaller men Innovators open up new aesthetic dimensions ; the
.

masters gi v e thes e an excellen ce wh i ch closes an ep o ch The excellence .

achieved by masters precludes anything but c opy i ng ; the greater the

a chievement the more neces s ary it i s t o begi n from another p er s p e c
,

tive.

C D ebus sy
. musi c is a very young art from the p oint o f ,

technique a s well a s o f knowledge E v er y a r t is a young art ; we are

.

always learn i ng more about it both as individual s and a s a group In , .

every age there are experimenters wh o are br eaking new ground that
i s as di fcult t o o ccupy as was the ground which was o ccupied yester
day f o r the rst t ime .

.I S tra v insky : D i s s on ance is no more an agent o f dis order than

cons onance i s a gu ar antee of stability Dis s onan ce emphasizes the .

ten sion c ons onan ce the a ccord holding among vari ous p arts of a
,

work A tensed whole may be stable p art i cularly in relat i on t o others

.
, ,

while an u nt en s ed one m ay have little order wi th the i tems in it merely ,

-

t ogether .

W P ater : All art constantly aspires t owards the condition o f

.

music E ach art h as its own integrity and its own aspirations None
. .
Nine B a s ic A r ts

52

aspires towards the condition o f any other Music .

more aware o f its value and rights fo r a longer p .

the other a rts It i s les s tempted than others t c

.

reportor i al o r useful All ought to aspire t o i t s s .

great works o f music follow o u t their own logi c a i

becaus e they do Every art in its own way ought
.

s ame independen ce boldnes s s el f development co rr, ,

-

appeal that music s o o ften h as .

H M iller : Writing like life itself is a voy age

.

, ,

ad v enture is a metaphysical o ne ; it is a way o f a

directly o f acquiring a total rather than a p arti

,
.

verse The writer lives between the upper and l o w

.

the p ath in order eventually to become that path it

any other artistic acti v ity tells about reality itself , .

a fres h and creative pro ces s The more one c o nc en .

out that pro ces s the more one becomes identical wi

,

posing the secret o f the universe .

G S tein : W h en a man s ays I am a n ovelist he

.

,

,

shoemaker The genuine artis t does no t stand a p

.

H e immerses himself in it The cra ftsman on the .

,

role and thus is one who i s di ff erent in rhythm from

,

on .

H Miller : Art i s only a means to life to the 1

.

,

It is no t in itself the life more abundant It mer e .

s omething which is overlooked n ot only by the p ul

by the artist hims el f In bec oming an end it defa .

riches man but it i s les s than he really is To be C

, . 1

is t o be c ontent with what is only a simulacrum

ic onic o f it but never identical with it
, .

H Melville :
. t h ough in many o f its a s p ec
was formed in love the invisible spheres were f o r r , .

world o f every day has its well marked b o u nd a r i

limits its p oints o f dep artu re and return Behind t

, .

world the c ounterpart o f ou rselves a s unprobed

,

in go od part overwhelming and threatening an c ,

 S o m e O p i ni o n s on Art

Through o u r art we make it visible with fo ci and boundaries which

,

are recognizable and enj oyable because made by us .

o t s o f art are at the ro ots o f man And art has its o w n r e

.

t o which the individual artis t mus t yield There is a .

rationale to the un cons ciou s which art exhibits and the artis t ines c a p
ably follows The truth in this observation should n ot be allowed to
.

obs cure the fa ct that the artist is an individual making individual

decisions ; that he evaluates and reorganizes ; that it is he wh o makes

the work of art The artist can be s aid to allow an art t o take
.

pla ce i f allow means
,
an a ctivity of continu al supervision and
,

modi cation Were there no su ch activity there would be nothing like
.

individual idio syn cra cies pers onal invol v ement exhaustion etc
, , , .

G S tein
. a blame is what arises and c autions each one to be

calm and an o cean and a mas terpiece A work of art has an import.

ance of i t s own demanding in the end th at one retreat into oneself

,

s o a s t o enable it to be on its own It is an o cean in whi ch every thing

.
,

nds its pla ce and which denes even the islands and c ont inents the
, ,

dry land o f every day to be but fo cal and terminal p oints When the
, .

artist falls short of a chieving a masterpiece he feels within him the

guilt o f having failed to do what alone j usties his hav i ng left the
c ommon world and its tasks behind .

P B audelaire : G reat poetry is es sentially s t u p i d ; it bel i eves and

.

,

that s what m akes its glory and force D o n o t ever confuse the .

phantoms o f reas on with the phantoms o f imagi nat i on : the former are

equations the latter are beings and memories Reas on at the s ervice
, .
,

o f s cience and mathemat i cs fo rms hypothes es comb i nes po ss ib il i ties

, ,
'

it does n ot afrm or bel ieve It is to o cautious too critic al t o o intel

.
, ,

lig ent Art believes afrms imagines : it is dogmat i c uncritical b e

.
, , ,

caus e it represents an irredu c ible reality which subtends all that we

encounter and wh i ch is als o t o be found at o u r co re In o u r innermo st
, .

selves we echo the nature o f an existen ce outside B y bringing ourselves .

to exp ression in ways other than through reas on we make be that ,

which alone o f all man s achievements i s at once glorious p art i cular

,

, , ,

and p os sess ed of cosmic signicance .

S C oler i dge : A p oem of any length neither c an be no r ought to
.
,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

54

be all poetry An art Obj ect i s an organism ; it requires articulation

,
.
,

diversication contrasts The pros a i c Offers a s et o f relati v e stops and

, .

silen ces f o r it Thes e are part o f the work W i thout stop s and s ilences
. .

we h a v e only artistic elements cr i ses at which we ne i ther arri v e nor,

dep art and thus no genuine well integrated artistic wholes

,
-
.

Ezra Pound : P oetry ought to be as well written a s p ros e Prose -
.

has a function : i t seeks t o commun i c ate in common terms To enable .

it t o fun ction properly it mu st be well written The task o f p oetry .

is t o present s omething whi ch cannot be presented in pros e I t s u s e of .

metaphor and rhythm alliteration and ass onan ce enable i t to create

,

a t ime which i conizes the n ature o f existential time Th i s task ought .

n ot to Obs cure the poet s need t o use words with the craftsmansh ip

employed in the e ff ect ive u s e of p rose P oetry ought t o communic ate .

,

and its counters though no t us ed in convent i onal w ays should never

, ,

t h el e s s be famili ar .

W Wordswo rth
. p oetry i s the spontaneous overow o f
p owerful feelings ; it takes i t s origin from emotion recollected in tran
q u il i t y ; the emotion i s contemplated till by a spec i es of rea ction the , ,

tranquility gradu ally d i s appears and an emotion kindred to that , ,

wh i ch was before the subj ect of contemplation is gradually produced , ,

and does its elf actually exis t in the mind The emot i ons expres sed in .

the c ours e o f a creat ive act are n ot del iberately eli cited N o r are they .

to be i dentied with the emotions elicited in the course of ord inary ex

p e r i e n ce They are
. new emotions which aris e only s o far a s o ne has

separated h imself O ff from the world The separat i on requ i res the .

subj ugation of ordinary em ot i ons by the tranqu ility o f det achment ;

the product i on o f the work o f art requires one t o vitalize oneself in
ways and w i th results sim ilar to but not i denti cal with those produced
by o rd inary events .

T S Eliot
. . p oetry excellent words in excellent ar
rangement and excellent metre Th at is what is called the techn ique o f .

vers e a p oem in s ome sens e has its o wn life ; the feel ing , ,

or emotion o r vision resulting from the poem is something diff erent

, ,

from the feel ing or emotion or vision in the m ind of the p oet At
, , .

best verse i s only the produ ct o f a technique o f craftsmanship ; a

, ,

poem is more than vers e i t is s omething created It adds to alters

.
, ,
 S o m e Op i nions on Art

55

qu alies subj ects to new conditions whatever might o r 1 g 1 n ally have

, ,

been in the mind of the p oet .

W B Yeats : We make out of the qu arrel with others rhetori c
. .
, ,

but o f the quarrel with our selves p oetry we sing amid u ncer ,
.

tainty ; and smitten even in the presence o f the most h igh beauty by
,

the knowledge o f o u r s olitude o u r rhythm shudders I think t o o that

, .
, ,

no ne p oet n o matter how dis ordered hi s life has ever even in his
, , ,

mere l i fe had pleasure f o r hi s end P oetry i s produced from within by
,
.

men who fa ce a dimly apprehended world beneath the world of c ommon

s ens e at the s ame t i me that they strive t o give a s ensuous body to an
ideal The p oem mus t be forged in the fa ce of the attempt to do
.

j us tice to reality and the ideal S o fa r a s it i s s uc ces sful its value o u t

.

distan ces that of mere pleasure .

W B Yeats
. . p oe t s are go od liars A work o f art qual
i es distorts resh apes and in th i s s ens e mis repres ents what the artist
, ,

otherwis e knows o r allows If one were to attend t o an artist s ex

.

p li c i t beliefs and a c ceptances one would have t o term the results o f

hi s a ctivity good lies .

A E H ousman : E xperience h a s taught me when I am shaving o f

. .

,

a morning to keep wat ch over my thoughts bec ause i f a l i ne o f

, , , _

poetry strays int o my memory my skin br i stles s o that t he razor ,

ceas es to act P oetry a ff ects a man deeply ; the di s turban ce i t ca us es
.

at the roots o f one s being has i t s repercus sions i n one s responses

,

routine habits the bo dy and mind ,

P Valery
. I did not wan t t O s ay bu t wan t ed t o ma k e

it was the i ntention o f ma king wh i ch wa n t ed what I s a id The

artist s pr imary con cern i s with creat i on The creat i v i ty makes de

.

mands o n h im dictates in fact what i t i s that wi ll be s a i d p ortrayed

, , ,

c onveyed In making the w ork be he m akes i t pos sible t o expres s h im

.
,

s elf most deeply and e ff ectively .

W B Yeats : The winds that awakened the s t a r s /A r e blowing

.

.

through my blo od The arti st calls on h i s mos t h i dden powers and
.

makes them to c ome to e x p res s i on in a context he has p rov i ded The .

very forces that move the world move him .

P S helley : P oetry defeats the curs e which binds u s to be subj ected
.

to the accident o f s urround ing impressions It creates anew the

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

56

universe after it has been annihilated in our ml nd s by the recurren ce

,

o f impres sions blunted by reiteration We must rs t es c ape the tire
.

s ome and routine the monotonous and uninteresting the merely c o n

, ,

tingent and adventitious before we can create We mus t turn away .

from them eras e their traces ; only then will we be able t o repla ce
,

that world with another which because freed from the blunting ,

barrennes s o f a law abiding world will do j ust i ce to the real

-

, .

E F enol l o s a : The moment we u se the copula p oetry evaporates
.
, .

Is the copula is u sed in pro s e t o make statements cla i m ing to be
, ,

true It is needed to relate abstract s ubj ects and predi cates in an as

.

s ertion and als o in s omething ap art from the as sertion P oetry in .

,

contrast directly unites wo rds to c onstitute single terms wh i ch p or

,

tray the unifying reality from which the subj ect and pred i cate were
derived .

M Arnold : Without p oetry o u r s cience will appear in complete
. .

S cien ce tells us what is the cas e under spec i al conditions But there are .

other special condit i ons in terms o f whi ch reality has other guis es .

And outside all special c onditions there is reality its elf ; this is com
p l et el
y what the conditioned items are incompletely The truths that .

s cien ce p rovides are p artial exp res sion s of the truth that art ex
pres s es .

C E Ives : When a new or familiar work i s a ccepted as beautiful
. .

on i t s rs t hearing its fundamental quality i s one that tends to put

,

the mind to sleep We are inclined not t o explore an alyze o r under
.
, ,

stand that which is qu i ckly a c cepted as being b eautiful We become .

aware o f the ri chnes s nu ances textures and s tru ctures only o f thos e
, , ,

beautiful works i n which we fully p art i cip ate and su ch participation ,

often demands that we attend to the works again and aga i n .

V Thomps on : N o element o f musical execution is more variable

.

from one interpreter to another than temp o Many musical .

authors beginning with B eethoven have indicated in time units per

, ,

minute their desires in this matter And yet interpreters do not .

hesitate to alter thes e indications when conviction based on reas oning ,

or feeling o r o n execution al ci rcumstan ces impels them to do s o , .

The truth o f the m atter is th at very few pieces require to be played

at a g iven speed in order to make s ens e A musical composition and .
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

58

ments could c on ceivably be manipulated by m a chines But a musical .

performan ce i s more than an aestheti c obj ect o r an interrelation o f

su ch Obj ects ; i t creatively interconnects s ounds to con stitute a new
dyn ami c excellent whole .

C P E B a ch : Good performance c an in fa ct impro v e and gain

. .

.
, ,

p raise for even an a v erage c omp osition A compo sition which w a s not

.

a distinguished work of a rt might be gi v en a distinguished perform

an ce Though that performan ce cannot make up f o r a p o v erty o f the
.

c omposition it can vitalize and s u b t l et i ze it It would be wrong t o

, .

p ra i s e the composer for the a chie v ement of t he performer .

C P E B a ch : Certain purposeful violations o f the beat are often

. .

.

exceptionally beautiful Every artis t ats hi s n otes o c casionally
.
,

delays his recurren ces fo restalls his climax in order t o heighten the
, ,

interest sharpen contrasts and thereby bring about a more important

, ,

res olution than is otherwise po s sible .

J J Rous seau
. . n oise can produ ce the e ffect o f silen ce and ,

sile nce the eff ect o f n ois e There are no xed p ositive and

negative spa ces in a wo rk o f art ; all have s omething to contribute ;
all are tens ional in nature ; each demands i t s o w n closure The kind of

closure o f a s ound may be su ch a s to m ake one aware o f the silence to

follow ; the clo s ure of a silen ce may reveal the fa ct that it is bounded
by noise Als o what is noise in one context may fun ction as a silen ce
.
,

in another and conversely , .

M Reger
. the art o f expres sion begins at the p oint where o ne

reads between the lines where the u nexp r e s s ed i s brought to light

F
'

, .

A comp osition o ff ers general guides fo r the produ ction o f a work

which h a s a meaning and value o f its own The performer produ ces .

stres ses and values whi c h never were before precis ely because they are ,

produ ced for a performance and not for a comp osition .

E S atie : As for the perennially cited nightingale his musical
.
,

knowledge m akes his most igno rant auditors shrug N ot only is his .

voice not placed but he has abs olutely n o knowledge of clefs tonality
, , ,

modality or measure Perhap s he is gifted ? Po s sibly , most certainly

. .

But it c an be stated atly that his artisti c culture does no t equal his
n atural gi fts and that t h e voi ce o f which he is s o inordin ately proud
, ,

i s n othing but an inferio r useles s ins trument

N o animal c an compete
, .
 S o me O p i n i o n s on Art

59

with an artist It has no creative ability no controls o r obj ectives no

.
,
-

understand ing of h o w t o use i t s powers t o produce a self s ufc ient ex -

c el len c e He wh o tries t o imitate a n i ghtingale denies himself the use

.

of the v ery capa cities which mark h im o ff as a man ; he does not a s ,

,

he should u s e the n i ght i ngale s notes in new creative ways to produ ce , ,

s omething beautiful
P H indem i th
. play f u g e s from B a ch s Wohl tem

e r i er t e s Klavier as string trio or string qu artet piec es You w i ll have

p , .

a queer and rather dis agreeable s ens at i on ; comp os i t i ons which y o u

kn ew as be i ng great heavy and as emanating an i mpres s iv e sp i ritu al
, ,

strength have turned in t o pleas ant miniatures M usical composit i on

,

.

and performan ce are di s tin ct arts S till the nature o f a composition

.
,

does requ i re a certain typ e of performance ; s o far as this is true ,

one can spo il a work of art not merely by performing it badly but ,

by perform i ng i t w i th i nappropriate i nstruments .

H Irving : The es s en ce of acting i s its app arent sp ontaneity

.

.

Perfect illus i on is att a i ned when e v ery e ff ort seems to be an accident .

N o art i s pure i mprovisat i on ; all rest on the master y o f a medi um ,

a dis cipl ined use of materials and a reco g n i t i on of what mus t be done
,

t o a chieve an excellent outcome E ach step in a produ ction might be

.

d elib er a t el y t a k en but i t must then be allowed to fall away from the

,

area o f w i ll a nd thought where the del iberat i on takes place to nd ,

i t s n i che i n the organic whole .

Lope de Ve ga : Always tri ck exp ect an cy

Expectat i ons are .

grounded i n p as t experience ; they reect the hab i tual temper o f con

v en t i o n a l da i ly life To l i v e up to these e x pectan c i es is to be caught in
.

the realm o f work techn i que s tab il i zed patterns A work of art i s
, , .

p roduced when the demands o f thes e is trans cended and a new world ,

c reated That world i s peopled w i th fresh creat i ons beyond the reach
.

of expectancy .

.B C oquel i n : The acto r i s his own material In art a wo rld i s

.

made wh i ch p o rtrays wh at i s outs i de the art i st To m ake that world .

he mus t make u s e o f p owers beneath the d i vi d ing and spec i al i zing

channels through which he usually expres ses himself In creating a .

work he expres ses the abor i ginal powers in new ways thereby r e
, ,

organ i z ing himself He remakes hims elf when and a s he makes a new
.
 no les s than the s culpto r the poet or the singer
to r , , , ,

over creatively recreates himself while creating a work

,

O ne c an never be really truly n atural o n the s tage
, ,

.

g o f tricks The thing t o learn is h o w to be unn atural

.
,

unn atural A building site a canvas an orchestra a
.
, , ,

a cts within whos e limits a work o f art is to be p rodu ced .

e of them m akes the work c ontras t with what nat
'

s in c ommon experience One mus t learn how t o live

.

Jd a r i es chara cteristic of a given a rt this kn owledge is

ie s

bag o f tri cks But an art is more than a m as tery
.

it p rodu ces a result which answers to a world beyond .

f unnatural a cts it does more j ustice to the real than
,

act can .

dramatic talent the power to proj ect c h ar

c ause them to tell an interesting s tory through the
alogue .D ramatic talent must be developed into
an t by hard s tudy and generally by long pra ctice F o r .

ant consis ts in the p ower of making your chara cters not ,

my by means of di alogue but tell it in su ch sk i llfully ,

and order a s sh all within the l imits o f an ordinary

,

r es ent a t i o n give rise to the greatest pos sible amount o f

,

k i nd o f emot i onal e ff ect the produ ct i on O f wh i ch is t h e

,

.c t i o n o f the theatre The art i st in the theatre orders h i s
.

the s ame independen ce and freedom a s any other artis t

attends more t o the need to make e O l e s h a r e i n hi s
p p
h a n m ost artists do He h as dramati c talent if he h a s
.

'

r i t i ng and produc i ng plays ; he has theatrical talent i f

i t for writing and produ c i ng plays which an audienc e

i lle A man o f genius w ill create f o r his theatre a f o r rr
:

ex i sted before h im and whi ch after him will suit no o nt

,

st s produce dist i nctive forms ; those who do n o t

p r o du u
re only craftsmen If the latter be termed artis ts t h t
.
,

be termed geniuses In any cas e those who produ c t
.
,

'
m s d o s o bec ause thes e are required by the topic m a ,
 S o m e Op ini on s on Ar t

61

t er i a l ,and i nspirat i on then ut i lized ; subsequent art i sts though taught ,

or inspired by thei r p redeces s ors must d o their o wn d i st i n ct i v e j obs

,
.

A Dumas l s
.
,
in t h e theatre there are two k inds Of
truth ; rst the abs olute truth which always in the end preva i ls and ,

s econdly if n o t the fals e at lea s t the superc i al truth whi ch consists

, , ,

O f cus toms manners s o cial conventions

, ,
S up ercial truth con
cerns the strands and subs tan ces which ll o u r daily world This is on .

the s urface o f a deeper truth with which art i s con cerned and which
remains after the convention s ha v e had their day .

E L eg o u v e
.
66
a play i s made by beginning at the end All .

a rt is invol v ed in a perpetual rec onstructio n a modication of what ,

has been done in the light o f what i s being done I t s creativity pre .

supposes s ome in i tial app rehension of the end o ne i s trying t o ach i eve

This prospective end w ill be modied in the cours e O f a mo v ement

towards it The end from which o ne takes one s start i s cons tantly
.

altered unti l it ap pears as an end at which one must t er ml n a t e

, .

B S haw
. res i stan ce O f fa ct and law to human feeling
creates drama All art i s dramat i c whi ch i s to s a y all art a chie v es
'

.
, ,

its end through a conquest o f obsta cles Art i s a struggle a nd makes .

,

this manifest in a grained work shot through with tensions .

W Archer : The drama may be c alled the art Of cris es A crisis
. .

is a turning p oint Every variation i s a minor crisis ; every crisis is

.

a m a j or variation All arts are arts o f crises determining when and

-
.
,

where maj or variations in themes are to o ccu r .

D Humphrey : The p erson dr awn to dance as a profes sion i s
.

notoriously u n intellectu al H e thinks wit h hi s mus cles deligh ts in ex

-
.
,

p res si on with body not words ; nds analysis p ainful and boring ; and
,

i s a creature Of physical ebullien ce Thinking i s one form of activity ;
.

dancing is another He who is con cerned with the o ne will pursue p aths
.

and engage in eff orts which do n o t interest and are not wi thin the
competence of the other He who is u n intellectu al though is n o t nec
.
-

, ,

es s a r il unintell i gent
y .

T S h a wn :
r the dance in cludes every way that men o f all races
in every period o f the world s history have moved rhythm i c ally to

expres s themselves N O restri ction ought ever to be pla ced o n the

.

material which an artis t may use Any m e ans for en compas sing sp ace
.
 riate to architecture S to ry can make u s e o f any in cidents and
.

me ters in any ways which en able it t o create and o c cupy time .

dan ce can m ake u s e o f any rests and movements whi ch make

he creat i on o f a subs tantial pro ces s o f becom ing .

np h r ey
CC
s tage areas w ill suppo rt and enhance v arious
u s or they will negate them
, H a v e a gure walk slowly
.

te r from back to front When farthest away he i s mys terious

.
,

gh dynamic and symboli c potential mu ch m ore s o than if he ,

ze nt e r A s he ad v an ces the electri cally charged center takes

.
,

he in creas es in stature and in power there are s ix weak

1 se v en s trong ones on a s tage N o a ctor h a s a chance
.

n that mag i c diagonal The subdi v i sions o f the s tage f o r the

.

e in go od p art antecedently dened ; the subdi v ision s for the

primarily functions of the plot The two stages are d ifferent . .

als o but in cidentally subdiv ides i t s s tage in the p ro cess o f

, ,

on ; the other als o but incidentally makes u s e o f p referent i al

, ,

on i t s s tage p o sit i ons which are denable apart from the

,

i
i r s c a no : The true duration o f a dan ce l i es i n the time o f
the image a long gradu al realization o f wh i ch the perform
,

he n al a ct N o t only is an actu al produ ct i on preceded by
.

ning and d i s cipline but the particular performan ce itself is

,

b v a series o f trial and error adventures engaged i n i m a g ,

mus cularly and temperame ntally T he wo rk o f art termi

, .

:l epitom i zes s olidies and completes the p ro ces s o f creation

,
.

last step o f an a ctiv i ty begun s ome time before .

i can : P antomime t o me h a s never s eemed an art There is .

e m t a t i o n on the p art o f an artis t to lo ok at other arts a s

.
p
f t s w i thout any fun ction but t o enl i ghten or amuse M any a
, .

wants painters t o produce only rec ognizable p ortraits land ,

nd O b j ects ; many a p oet wants dan cers to m ake unm i s takable

t s and gestures ; many a s culpto r obj ects t o n ovels poems , ,

7 s wh i ch have no recogniz able plot There i s a pantomime .

 S o m e O p i ni o n s on Ar t

63

in fact result in a work that i s a s sign i cant and revelatory as any

dance .

D Humphrey : M o v ement is the a r e between two deaths

.

the
death O f negation mot i onles s ; o n the other hand i t i s the death o f
,

des truction the yield ing t o unbalance

, All movement can be
.

co nsidered t o be a del iberate unbalance in order t o progres s and a ,

resto ration o f equ il ibrium for self protect i on Every art has w i th i n
-
.

i t em p
'

t i nesses shadows ,breaks ,holes which

, serve ,to a ccentuate its
cr i s es turns and peaks Without the negat i on ins ide the art there
, , .
,

would be only the monotonous This negat i on i s needed wanted pushed

.
, ,

towards and e v entu ally trans formed i nto an a frmat i v e element

, .

Every art i s als o b ounded ; beyond it l i es what it i s n o t The act o f .

produ cing i s the a ct O f pushing towards that wh i ch i t i s n o t and the n ,

cutt ing the act sho rt i n order to keep i t i ns ide the a ccepted boundary .

Art i s an adventu re fa ced with the pos sible failure o f becoming

pulver i zed into a plural i ty of diverse elements sep arated from o ne
another by an un as s i m ilated no thingnes s at on ce ins i de and outside
,

it .

Thes e qu ot ations and Observations all converge on the s ame point

a work o f art is a self s uf c ient substant i al reality creatively p r o

, ,

d u c ed and pos s es sing its own rationale

, .
 A R C HI TE C T U RE
4 .

A R C H ITE C T U RE i s the art of bound i ng and thereby creat i ng ,

mult iple spaces L i ke every other art i t exis ts over aga i nst it s creator
.
, ,

and over against the th ings o f c ommon s ens e and nature It is ex .

t e r i o r t o the art i st and bounded O ff from everything else that t h ere

may be .

In n o a rt are the worlds o f common sense and nature ever wh o lly put
as i de Not only does the artist t o s ome extent always live a ct and
.
, ,

th i nk a s a common s ense and n atural man but his materials medium

, , ,

and work are susta i ned by the wo rlds o f common sens e and nature .

The stones metal pa int s and canvas the beats i n c i dents s ilen ces and
, , , , , ,

words the s ounds act i ons movements and res ts us ed in hi s work are
, , ,

s ubj ect both t o the demands o f his art and to a w orld outs i de The , .

natural and s o cial sides of the mater i al used however have no s ig ni , ,

cant role to play in most arts In architecture they have great im .

portance .

Arch i tecture p roduces a complex wo rk whos e material has the

double role Of bei ng i n a nd outs i de what is created It is an art that
-
.

make s a sp ace i nseparable from o ne no t made In th i s respect i t i s l i ke ;

sto ry wh i ch makes u s e o f convent i onal grammar and mean i ngs wh ile

,

pro v i di ng new a fliat i ons f o r i t s words and l ike the dance wh i ch , ,

makes use o f mus cul ature gravity and d i stances to govern all move
, ,

ments and rest s even wh ile it creates new values and stres ses O ther
, .

arts take s ome a c count Of s i milar c onvent i onal and natural factors
,
-
,

but none does it s o conspicuously and ins i stently as thes e three In

'

arch i tecture alone though the art i st i c and nonart i st i c c omp onents
, ,

are not only held ap art as independent but are ac cepted as i mportant , .

The arch i tect makes the three d imens i onal sp ace o f da ily l i fe i nto
a const i tuent part o f an arch i tectural work He creates a new spa c e .

wh i ch men can us e wh ile als o o ccupying a relevant common sens e

space To share i n a story or a dance o ne must t urn away from

.
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

68

' though s till presupp osing ) the forces dominating the world of

common s ens e We c an enter the painter s space or the s culptor s
.

sp ace if we can push back the space of every day We enter the .

architect s created sp ace on sim ilar cond i tions but the space o f his

,

work is als o common sensical We truly enter his sp a ce only if while

-
.

attend ing to his created sp ace we als o m a i ntain a gr i p on daily sp ace , .

Architecture no t only makes us e o f property and c ostly m aterial ,

but keeps th i s fact in fo cus It exists w i thin a context dened by u n

.

skilled labor and such pra ct i cal a ctivities as excavation engineering , ,

and plumb i ng It mus t conform to build i ng c odes written with little

.

con cern f o r i t s artis tic needs N O other art is s o hemmed in by men .

,

tasks and conditions relati ng to n onaesthetic matters T o be sure a

, .
,

work o f architecture c ould concei vably be inexpensive unobtrusive ; ,

and be allowed t o develop in considerable freedom And on the other .

,

hand s uch arts a s musi c theatre and dan ce are often expensive
, , , ,

obtrus i ve and subj ect to hobbling conditions N o t only do they to o

, .
, ,

have t o deal with codes but they mus t be p rodu ced with the help of
,

unsymp athetic stage hands and mus t overcome the oppos i t i on o f ,

i nsens i tive i mp r e s s a r i o s dictatorial directors ckle audiences and

, , ,

inex ible cens ors The un created is not however an es sential p art of
.
, ,

them It is for a rchitecture

. .

Architecture has been s a id by S G Ward to be a tendency t o . .

organization Le Corbusier remarks that it deals with the play o f
.

forms under light and in his Jll o d u l o r uses the term t o cover even
,

the art o f typography as i t is us ed in the mak i ng of newspapers ,

periodicals and books S us anne Langer takes arch i tecture to dene
,
.

an ethnic domain B ecau se of her con centrat i on o n temples and her

.
,

unexamined belief that the real i s the p rovince o f s cien ce and not of art ,

3,
s h e holds that it gives only a semblan ce i llusion o f perceptual
66
, ,

spa ce None of these views does j ustice to the r i chness and reality of an
.

architectural work o f art A tendency to o rganizat i on falls short o f
.

an a ctual organization and in any case is found in s culpture and

,

p ainting story and dance And s culpture no les s than arch i tecture
, .
, ,

can exhibit a play of forms under light B oth i n add i tion i nvolve

.
, ,

the production of obj ects relevant to the sens e o f touch and movement ,

and exhibit forces moving in many direct i on s .

 A r c hi t e c t u r e

Architecture i s the art of creating spa ce through the co nstruction

of boundar i es in c ommon sense space O ne can bound that space
-
.

through intent alone but the result will fall short of what architecture
,

creates A man for example might see a clearing in the w oods If he

.
, ,
.

looked at it a s a p ro specti v e home he would in e ff ect wrench the ,

clearing from its natural setting and deal with it as an aestheti c o h

j ec t Thereafter he would look at the clearing largely under the
.

governan ce o f a F ibo na c c i a n series of dis tances in which the sum o f ,

tw o consecuti v e terms supplies the third If part o f the clearing fun c .

tions a s a foreground the cleari ng will be seen to have an endles s series

,

o f fra ctionally distant and darker ba ckgrounds As Giedion Observed .

,

In order to grasp the true n ature of sp ace the observer mu st p r o j ect ,

himself through it which is to s ay he mu st deal wit h it a s caught

,

within the newly imp osed boundaries The intended dwelling i s though .
, ,

not yet a work of art not yet a piece o f arc h itecture A work o f art
, .

must be ma d e not merely intended There is no building without the

, .

u s e o f mus cle acting on resis tant material to produce s omething

palpable and subs tantial Whoever ac cepts the clearing a s a pos sible
.

dwelling bounds it o ff from the rest o f the world But he who makes .

a dwelling not only bounds it O ff but produ ces roo f walls windows , , ,

doo r ooring ea ch o f which itself is a newly created tens ed spatial

, , ,

obj ect within a larger tensed sp ace .

Like every other art architecture p ro ceeds in go od part by trial

,

and error but under the gu idan ce o f established habits a cquired

, ,

tec h niques inherited traditions and desirable id e als It is an ad v enture

, , .

in the u s e o f available materials to make a sel f s u fc ient en compas sing -

sp a ce Architecture s aid F o c ill o n creates it s own uni v ers e Li ke

.

,

, .

e v ery other art it s eeks to m ake ex cellence ha v e a sensuous form

, .

More than most it is alert to the prevailing myt h s and thus attends
to tho se aspects o f the ideal which a re germane t o a people The .

organic whole it produ ces p rovides shelter priva cy storage and , , ,

protection o r more compendiously makes it p os sible for a number

,

o f sp atial obj ects to be together in newly created relations It need .

no t restrict itself to houses buildings or temples Cities lands capes

, , .
, ,

p avillions and parks pack aging o f all kinds automobiles cages air
, , , ,

planes and the like are als o products of an art of encl osing space
, , .
 as ic A r ts

a is es distincti v e problems 'The environment o f an automob ile

.
,

i m le
p , is gi v en by a constantly ch anging ro ad lands cape and , ,

1 8 none o f whi ch is in the control O f the automobile designer )

,
.

are architectural works with new created spaces .

2 e v ery other art architecture seeks t o make an excellent work

, .

t on ce humanizes reality and completes man by p ro v id ing him

,

n adequate terminus The nal s olution o f the peculiarly ar

.

, ural p roblem is a function o f the architect s suc ces s in s olving

ub o r din a t e ques tions H e mus t as was observed before make

.
, ,

i t to his creation the sp ace o f c ommon sens e This means he .

e s o l v e t ec hn o l o i c a l is sues raised by the fact o f gravity climate

g , ,

i nd u s e In addition
. he must dis cover the proper s c a l e by which
,

30 subdi v ide his work and determine the magnitude o f it b oth

,

i s t in c t obj ect and in relation to other works Thirdly he must .

,

ho w t o forge an a r t i cu l a t e d s p a c e o u t o f the s olid spa ce o f h i s

his inside space and the environment a s well a s o u t of the
, ,

i s subspaces whi ch ea ch Of these contains Finally he mus t know .

,

3 make an o r ani c a ll
g y u nied wo r k in which h i s created s caled , ,

and environing spa ces are integrated with his technically

re d relevant common sense spa ce Architecture takes this fourth
,
-
.

on to be primary answering the o thers in the cours e of the

,

o n of a wo rk organically con ceived and produced The result .

ub s t a n c e which stands between himself and the common sense -

le

r ough the u s e o f a s cale an architect p rop ortions the parts

,

vork t o the whole of i t in the l ight o f a pos sible appreciation

,

se o f both the p arts and the whole Hi s s cale o ff ers a method .

ea s u r i n the r el eva n t common s ense space the s o lid space o f the

g
-

grounds etc the ins i d e sp ace and the envi r o nmen t a l sp ace All
, .
, , .

spaces are trans formations of a portion o f daily space after

'

a s been dislo cated from the space used in the course o f c o m

y and con v e ntion al life R e l eva n t space i s a technologically con

.

spa ce o f which the architect takes account in his en g ineering

L tes and which men o c cupy when engaged in conventional tasks .
 A r c hi t e c t u r e

The s o lid sp ace of the walls et c i s daily sp ace intensied by materials

,
.
,

and proport i oned in the light of the variou s uses to which they might
be put the places they will o ccupy the grain o f the material and
, , ,

above all the size of man I ns id e sp ace is daily sp ace creatively

,
.

articulated s o a s t o a cc ommodate man the being w i th a b ody mind , , ,

emotions and will organically interconnected E nvi r onmen t a l spa ce

,
.

is that portion o f daily sp ace which begins at the boundaries o f a work

and extends t o s ome outside limit and which is creati v ely arti culated ,

to accommodate man the being w h o i s to enter u s e and dep art from

, , ,

the bounded world which the architect h a s created for him .

S tri ctly speaking the s cale en ables a man as a unity o f spiritu al

, , ,

physi cal pr i vate and public n atures to deal with an arch i tectural
, ,

work in a four fold way As a physic al being he measures the work

-
.
,

quantitati v ely in units which are divisions multiples or duplicates o f , ,

his a v erage size ; a s a spiritual being he measures it qualitatively a s ,

that whi ch promotes the fulllment o f hum an promise ; a s a private

being he measures it emotionally a s that which does more or les s j us ti ce
to h i s interests ; as a public being he measures it s o c ially f o r a being
engaged in v arious tasks The unity of all thes e measures i s himself.

a s a single four fold s cale measu ring the ex cellen ce of s olid boundaries
-

inside space environmental space a relevant common s ense space and

, ,

,

above all the unity of these

, .

If w e t a ke the u s e o f a fo ur fold s c ale to be d eni t o r y o f ar chitecture

_
-

at i t s bes t we can s a y that architecture ideally viewed i s an art

, , ,

whi ch creatively synthesizes created with common sense sp ace The -

.

architect might make u s e only of a spiritu al emotional o r s o cial , ,

s c ale If he does he will alter the role that his s cale has as part o f a
.
,

single four fold s cale He will then engage in ar chitecture only in a

-
.

minimal way If instead the architect attends only to a quantitative

.
, ,

s cale he will d eal properly o nly with the result o f craftsmanship and
,

technology i e with the relevant common s ens e spa ce which i s cor

, . .
,

relat ive with hi s created sp ace O nly if all four s cales are used to .

gether c an he produ ce a work of ar chitecture at on ce excellent and

us able created and common s ensi cal
,
-
.

B uildings whi ch answer primarily to one of man s needs h ave a

diff erent s cale from thos e whi ch answer primarily to another Thus .
,
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

72

a s chool building mus t t ake account o f the physical s 1 ze and number

o f the pos s ible students and teachers ; but this consideration mus t be
subordinated t o that which regards the s chool a s a place o f m atura
tion a place where communi cation o f knowledge and insight are
,

promoted A business building a toll st ation a fa ctory though o c

.
, , ,

c u p i ed by men with s ecret pas sions fears desires and ambitions , , , ,

ought to be treated primarily as imp ers onal areas in which quantita

ti v e repetitive w ork i s performed A home becaus e dominated by a
,
.
,

s et o f values sh ared by a family has a s c ale that i s p rimarily emo ,

t i o na l though of course i t has a spiritu al physi cal and qu asi s o cial

, , , , ,
-

dimension as well A city hall c ourtrooms railro ad terminals nally

.
, , , ,

are in intent i f no t in fact public places They cannot o f cours e be

, , .
, ,

made without a u s e of quantitative measures ; they cannot be freed

from all referen ce t o what men might be and t o the values which men ,

cherish B u t their primary s c ale i s a s o cial o ne a measure exp res sive

.
,

of the kind o f tasks to be done inside and outside the buildings .

A building ought to allow f o r a number of a ctivit i es at the s ame or

subsequent times A s cale fo r it without losing its de nit enes s ought
.
, ,

t o be exible en ough to permit o f the creation of a work which can

outlast any pres ent purpose Als o though the distances from wall to .
,

wall in e g a s cho ol a factory a home and a courtroom are quite

,
. .
, , , ,

dis tin ct yet sin ce it i s one and the s ame man wh o i s in all they
, , ,

ought n ot to be entirely alien unrelated to o ne another Whether a , .

s cale is exible or n ot whether it is app ropriate t o different types o f

,

buildings o r not it i s as G S cott Observes a ff ected by light by the

, , .
, ,

colo r o f the materials us ed by ou r expectations and by our proj ects

, , .

And it is forever invisible beyond the reach O f any photographs , ,

elevations plans mo ck up s and th e like It exists only when vitally

, ,
-

, .

measuring a building in relation to intera cting men .

The architect o ften u ses a module This is an explicit observable .

unit mea sure usually provided by s ome part o f the work the size of -

a m at a brick o r a column multiplied and divided throughout A

, ,

.

module is what a s cale becomes when identied with a part o f a work

and then used without regard for men s spiritual needs values and
, ,

s o cial purpo ses It is n ot to be confus ed with a s cale fo r a s c ale is

.
,

not observable and n ever repetitively used .

 sher . T o i mpose a f orm on what i nitially was n ot
orm is a sign o f greatnes s .

0 06 8

Nagy d i stingu i shed six types o f sp ac e defensive

,

temporary s torage and working Were thes e in

, , .

e they would have chara cteris tic boundar i es magn i ,

tures and s c ales But they are primarily chara cter

, .

in terms o f various functions whi ch it can hous e A .

Hl ld be between boundaries which cut o ne o ff from a

d boundaries wh i ch help enclose a space The bound .

of an enV 1 r o n1 n spa ce will always cut one o ff from

g
w ant daily sp ace that l i es beyond ; a wall helps de

re o f the environ i ng sp ace as well as the spa ce ins ide ,

indows and do ors are at on ce double boundar i es and

help cut O ff and enclo s e the environmental as W ell
=
y
space and allow ea ch O f these spaces t o a ct o n one
,

ra l work usually ha s a created enclosed inside spa ce , ,

res ult by another sp ace E a ch part o f the building .

,

nd the sp ace env i roning it have their own strains and

1 subd i visions and s omet i mes subo rd i nate boundar i es .

s produced as a s i ngle unit The arch i tect l i ke every .

,

ks organically mod i fying one p art in the l i ght O f t h e

,

l demands Of others .

of environ ing spa ce is given by the limits o f the eu

ther by the architec tural work The limits of t h a t .

the horizon 'as it i s in Vers ailles ) to convey the ide a

r
i r o nment Usually though it is at a short d i s tanc e
.
, ,

g and ends at neighbor i ng build ings garden walls

, ,

li ke B oth the env i roning lim i ts and the walls roofs

.
,

work its elf are components o f the environment It i : .

ect then to s ay simply with Wright th at the roon , ,

to be l ived i n is the great fa ct about the bu ild ing

, .

i s als o an es sent i al p art of an architectural work .

a ff ects and i s affected by what i s outs i de itself Th .

.
 A r c hi t e c t u r e

limits o f that outside can be given by n atural obj ects The Greek .

temple a s Vin cent S c ully has stres s ed took ad v antage of this fa ct

, , .

It was s et o n a hill and o r i ented towards a distant p eak whi ch a cted

as a lim i t fo r the temple s en vi roning sp ace S u ch a limit can als o be

.

deliberately made by an architect This is done by means O f land .

s caping with hedges walls and similar de v i ces

, , , .

B oth tho se who speak o f producing works in dean ce of and tho se

wh o speak o f produ cing them in cons on an ce with nature intend to ,

speak o f the way their works are rel ated to their en v i ronments When .

it i s s aid that Wright worked i n sympathy with n ature what in e ffect ,

i s meant i s that he produ ced an environ i ng sp ace f o r hi s buildings

which w a s n ot to o d i s continuous in s tres s and qu ality from the mural
cage and its inside sp ace Le C orbusier for all his insisten ce o n m ath
.
,

em a t i c a ll
y dened measures does n ot really di ff er from Wright 'In
,
.

his brilliant N otre D ame du Haut at R on champ he s eems to have

- -

largely dis regarded his theory o f the module As he rightly remarked .

,

the foot and in ch and metre are numbers not measures in a r c h it ec
-

ture ) B oth he and Wright made works which stand over against
.

n ature Hi s enV 1 r o n1 ng sp ace als o i s cons onant with the cage and the
.

spa ce within .

It is d ii c ul t to make a dis tant limit wh i ch will completely b ound an

en v ironing sp ace Nature insists on intrud i ng itself pres enting u s
.
,

with distant Obj ects which we through an intent implicit in the

'

a cknowledgment of thos e obj ects turn i nto limits overriding those ,

made by the architect Even when a bu ilding is completely surrounded

.

by hedges trees and gardens it has an environment beyond thes e

, , , .

S unlight and moonlight rain wind and sn ow show that the environ
, , ,

ment extends beyond the limits whi ch an architect produced or en

d o r s ed even where the limit is set at the horizon The architect mus t
, .

always place his environment in a setting whos e n ature he cannot

entirely control but which he must a c cept if he is to have an environ
,

ment that all the rest can acknowledge in intent work and a p p r e c i a , ,

tion It is therefore important for him t o attend t o the kind o f l i mits

.

whi ch are available and t o a c cept these a s c onditions which help h im to

, ,

dene the extent and ch aracter o f the en v ironment and the placement ,

o f hi s walls and other surfaces .

Ni ne B a s ic A r t s

76

When the idea o f the en viron m ent is extended to embrace the entire
artifa ctual world in whic h men li v e it bec omes e v ident that it i s ,

desirable at times to stres s and a t o ther times t o minimize the c ontras t

between building and envi ronment D i ff erent ty pes of building need .

d i ff erent types o f env i ronment If d ifferent types of environment are

.

used without regard for the role the build ings play in the community
o r what kind O f a unity they together make the b uildings will confront ,

u s w i th a m lange o f s tyles If the community is to be properly dealt

.

with fa cto ries will contras t with their environments since they are
, ,

des igned to bring about limited ends which will no t be pursued outside
the connes o f the fa ctory But s cho ols will not make a sharp c ontras t
.

between themselves and their environments The work done inside .

them will be but a concentrated form o f what goes on outside A .

s chool p repares students t o live in a wo rld beyond ; it mu s t hold them

apa rt from that wo rld but only in order t o enable them to t into it
,

better Nor will dwellings m ake a sharp contras t between themselves

.

and the community ; the li fe led inside them is but a p rivate fo rm o f

'

what t a k es p l a c e in the publi c world A dwelling i s o ccupied by men .

whose lives are continuous with the li v es they live in s o ciety S i nce .

inside the dwelling in the home they l ive only quasi pr i v ate lives that
, ,

,

inside sp ace i s n ot to be treated in complete dis regard o f what takes

pla ce outside .

The total env i ronment provided by the c ommunity imp oses condi
tions o n the m ore lim ited architectural en v ironme nt ; th i s in turn im
p os es conditions o n the ou ts ide o f the build i ng whi ch in turn c onditions ,

the sp ace inside If what is done in that inside i s to be integral t o wh at

.

i s done in the other pla ces in spirit s tru cture and meaning the
, , , ,

a rchitect should make the fact e v ident on the outside and in the en
v i r o nment A fa ctory should be placed in an environment ; a s chool
.

sh ould be centered by an environment ; a dwell i ng should interplay

with i t s environment .

The spa ce i n side a building is partly dened by t h e outside of the

building A s alo on or funeral parlor ought not to have the fa cade o f
.

a cathedral a s cho ol or a b ank The out side raises expectations r e

, .

garding the inside and thes e expectations ought not to be entirely

,

deed But they cannot be simply met The inside s h ould s atis fy the
. .
 A r c hi t e c t u r e

demands of the outside in a way n o one could have entirely expected ,

knowing the outside The expectations which the outside raises are t o
.

be an swered dealt with and developed n o t merely yielded t o o r o p

, , ,

p osed .

C ollegiate Gothic the Greek po rticos of banks and courthouses and

, ,

the like which overwhelmed u s suddenly a few decades a g o and which

, ,

recently h ave a s suddenly been repla ced by an odd mis cellany of s tyles ,

had the virtue of providing outsides that answered t o the textures ,

ten sion s themes and grains of the insides They lo oked familiar stable
, ,
.
, ,

conservative and quieting They were n o t the outcome o f b o ld a d

,
.

venturing but unlike mos t of the adventuring today they came to su c

, ,

c es s f ul termin ations 'It i s hard t o believe that Yale s Gothic was
.

produced n o more th an s ome thirty years ago ; its architects could

have led the way into the future which was j u s t opening up They
-

failed to do this bu t they did not fail to m ake the result attra ctive )
,
.

The problem f o r t oday is t o know what a university a b ank a court , ,

hou s e and a church are to be on the inside and to see that the outside
, ,

is s o made a s t o allow f o r the inside needed .

S p a ce should be contoured in di fferent ways depending on the ,

purposes to which it is put l

This is the truth in fun ctionalism B e
.
ae
.

c au s e the inside sp ace is to be o ccupied it ought to be s o organized by ,

the sides as t o make o c cup an cy po s sible In almos t every inside sp ace .

a number of a ctivities o c cur The simplest hous e should have pla ces for
.

cooking eating sleeping r efuse S us anne L anger is surely mistaken

, , , .

in her supp osition that ues s toves chimneys have no thing to do with , ,

the a rt o f architecture They are subo rdinate area s whose presence is

.

dem anded by the use t o which the ro om is t o be put and whos e place ,

ment and stru ctu re a re p artly dictated by the walls o or and , ,

ceiling of the ro om .

Scu lly tly s ays o f th e Gu ggenh ei m M u s eum b y W r i ght

r i gh o nce t h e

d s i gn w as accepte d a s a mus eum 'a d eci si o n o f d ou bt fu l wi s d om ) i t m ay b e t h at

e ,

t h e au t h o r it ies would h ave b een we ll a d vi s e d t o f o ll ow W i ght s i nt ent i ons th ou gh r

r

t o t h e l et t e r T h e p r es ent s o l uti on o f p r o j ec t ing t h e p i ctu r es f r i nt o t h e r amp on

. a

met al b ar s o f p a int i ng t h e wall s and c i l i ng a ound t h em wh it e a nd o f i ns t ll i ng

, e r , a

u o es cent l i gh t s i n W i gh t s c l eres t o i es and i n t h e c eil i ng a s w e ll not o nly d oes

r r

r ,

t h e p i ct u es l i t tl e g oo d b u t s evere ly i nj u r es t he b ui ld ing i t s elf b y s u b s t it ut i ng a

r ,

d p artment store har s hnes s of g la e comp res s ive up on t h e sp ace f o r t h e nat u r ally
e -
r

c h angi ng an d ex ans i ve l i ht t h at t h e r m s d em an d
p g p a
 N ine B a s ic A r ts

78

O rg a ni c Uni t y

The in side limits o f a ro om by v irtue of their reference t o one

,

another produ ce a tensed unique inside sp ace To speak o f a hous e

, , , .

as a ma chine f or living is to tempt one to overlo ok this fa ct A ma chine .

is a set o f externally related p arts intended to fun ction together ; a

hous e i s a single unitary spatial whole It clos es in and clos es o u t .
,

enabl ing men to engage in various enterpr i ses free from the intrus i ons
of nature and o f other men Together with the environment the hou se
.
,

presents u s w i th a new real spa ce a sp ace in wh i ch o ne can l ive w i th

,

body and m ind in spirit and in act Endles sly plast i c cap able o f be ing
, .
,

oc cup i ed i n countles s ways it i s an icon re v eal ing to u s the texture

,

and meaning of the sp ace of existence .

Just a s surely a s the outside walls and sp ace o f a building make

demands o n the ins ide walls and spa ce s o the ins ide walls and spa ce ,

make demands on the outs i de walls and sp ace The outs ide sp ace f o r .
,

e x ample s hould be or i ent ed towards a s ou rce of l ight a nd heat no t

,

necess ar ily d emanded by the outs ide alone A completely encl osed .

i ns i de sp a ce i s w i thout l ight ; i t i s an i n v is ible sp ace T o be us ed i t .

must be l ighted ; i f l ighted from without i t w ill share an en v ironment ,

w ith the outs ide walls and both mus t be made w ith th i s c ons iderat i on
,

i n m ind The s i te o f a hous e i s then not t o be determ ined s olely by

.

what w ill interplay w i th it s outs ide walls but in v ol v es cons iderat i on o f

,

the l ights and shadows produ ced on the ins ide spa ce by s u n moon , ,

h ills and water If the bu ild ing i s illum inated from the ins ide 'a s i t
, .

mus t als o be unles s u sed only at very spec i al times ) the l ights and
, ,

shadows must be controlled The ins ide space w ill then med i ate the
.

very s ide s wh i ch const i tute i t g iv ing them new values and thereby
, ,

acqu i r ing new v alues o f i t s o wn .

If a bu ilding i s mo v ed t o a new site i t s nature i s inevitably changed

, .

In modern c i t i es where there i s a m i n imum O f pl ann ing bu ild ings are ,

pla ced w i thout cons iderat i on of the space produ ced by the en v i ron ing
l im i ts that di ff erent bu ild ings O ffer one another The e ff ect need no t .

be bad The skys crapers o f New York are placed s omewhat h a p h a z

.

a r dl
y ; Ro ckefeller C enter is des igned B oth are su cces sful perhaps
.
,
 A r c hi t e c t u r e

bec ause the p ower o f the vertical thrus ts overp ower the horizontal
inuen ces .

The failure exhibited by the New York skys crapers i s n ot the failure
t o exhibit beauty but the failure to provide adequ ate traf c c o m
, ,

muni c a t i o n and transp ortation facilities Ro ckefeller C enter has i t s

,
.

o w n failures it does no t t inside i t s surround ing It i s intern ally well

.

o rganized but lacks a proper en v ironing spa ce The fault o f course .

, ,

lies no t with the C enter s designers fo r they had control only o v er

,

the spa ce o f the C enter They knew that the surroundings would be
.

changed in the near future and perhaps e v en hoped that th i s would

,

be done in the light o f the boundaries which the Center c ould provide
f o r them .

Viewed as environing spa ces the intersp aces between the New York
,

skys crapers are most inadequate B ut the sp aces between them su c .

c es s f ull y s er v e a s intersp aces leading t o the space which their towers

make with the sky The John H an co ck skys craper i n B os ton due t o
.
,

the fa ct that it has n o nei ghboring skys crapers has no proper inter ,

spa ce with other build i ngs S in ce i t is an ugly building a t leas t when

.

seen close by and from the ground i t would h ave proted from the

presen ce o f other skys cr apers nearby wh i ch would make the space

between them function a s an intersp ace pointing towards the s ky and ,

s omewhat hide from view i t s outside walls 'D oes any area of com .

p arable size have three su ch ugly build ings as the J ohn Hanco ck s ky
s craper Memorial Hall in C ambridge and the J ewe t t art bu ilding at
, ,

Wellesley ? The rst two seem largely a matter o f a ccident sheer ,

chance in the s election o f architects and p r o j ects The third th ough .

, ,

is eviden ce o f the fa ct that p oo r architecture might be the result o f

too many rather than to o few ideas The J ew et t building at Wellesley
, , .

O ff ers a m lange of unintegrated s tyles devices m aterials and , , ,

v i stas ; Rudolph s later build ings e g h i s splendid S aras ota H igh

, . .
,

S chool are s ustained from a single po i nt o f view which subordinates

,

the various components more completely to the demands o f the whole .

N O o ne I th i nk has made su ch stupendous s tr i des in recent years as

, ,

Rudolph There is a great dis tance between Wellesley and S aras ota )
. .

The theme o f the architect i s u sually a purpose which can be served

by s ome part of the work This purp os e is m odulated even in the a ct
.
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

80

o f merely repeating it in the s ame grained material ; it is modul ated

further when the s ame m aterial is integrated with di ff erent materi als ,

and s till further m odulated when multiplied and d ivided at di ff erent

places in the work Every boundary and every bounded sp ace has
.

subo rdinate interspa ces ; the termini o f th ose subordin ate sp a ces have
the role o f fo cal a reas In both intersp a ces and fo cal points there
.

a re tensions each with i t s o w n magnitude and value Architecture

,
.

tends to have clearly dened fo cal p oints which subdivide the whol e
rhythmi c ally in a ccord with the grain of the material Resistant hard .
, ,

abrasive m aterial demands smaller whereas s oft smo oth material , ,

needs larger fo c al points M etopes p a ss ageways windows p r o t u b er

.
, , ,

a nc es, and reces sions s erve to spa ce the work and in turn may als o
,

fun ction a s fo cal points None i s is olated There is a bleeding from

. .

shadows t o light and from light to sh adows from voids to s olids and ,

s olids to voids from tensions in the boundaries to tensions between

,

the b oundaries and convers ely

, .

Architects s ee t h eir buildings as organically c onnected s olids and

voids S ome o f the parts of their buildings such as the windows
.
, ,

fun ction a s both O thers su ch as the doors s ometimes fun ction as the
.
, ,

one and s ometime s as the other depending on whether they are clos ed
,

o r open B oth windows and doo rs c an be m ade p art o f the limits o f an

.

environment inside o f which the building proper is t o be pla ced When

, .

a doo r i s ush with the s treet and connected by a foyer or vestibule

to the inside o f a building it fun ction s no t a s a p art of a building
,

but as p art o f o n e o f the limits o f the environment The foyer or .

vestibule in this c as e is an intersp a ce p art of the environment o f the ,

building If the do or is p art of the building we have a building en

.
,

v i r o ned by a building beyond which there is s till another en v ironment

,

in the usual s ense The environing building will have its inside limit at
.

the inne r mo st pl ace where the foyer or vestibul e ends ; the outside limit
o f that environing building will be given by the door But be y ond this .

will be a further environing sp ace with l imits at a distan ce from the,

environing building .

Architectural works are ines ca p able We need n ot look at s culptures .

and paintings listen to stories or music watch plays o r dan ces but
, , ,

we cannot es cape archit e ctu re The front o f a building is usually the

.
Nin e Ba s ic A r ts

82

s crapers lack dignity strength s cale and light that t h ey are j ust
, , , ,

t owers r i sing t o extreme heights He thinks that where the New .

York skys craper went as tray was in the exaggerated us e o f the to w er ,

with i t s intr i cate mixture of pseudo his to rical reminis cences and its -

ruthles s dis regard o f i t s surroundings a s well as o f the entire s t r u c ,

ture o f the city H e overlooks the fa ct that the towers are needed in

.

order to provide housing f o r water elevators and heating app aratus , , ,

and that the towers make c onspicuous the relat i on of the build ings to
the sky .

Ro o fs are not u sually readily seen B ut with the development of .

terraced bu ildings and the in creas e i n airplane travel more and mo re ,

attent i on will be given t o the fa ct that roo fs have a role of their own .

Needing a distin ctive mater i al bec aus e they usually take the brunt
,

of the changes in weather they need a di ff erent theme and develop

,

ment from that characteris ti c o f the sides Used as sto rage pla ces .
,

observation points and playgrounds they c an be extended into the

, ,

environing sp ace s omewh at in the way in which a garden extends a

,
,

house But whereas the garden usually comes to an end at the gate
.

o r not fa r beyond th i s in s ome a ccepted natural cleavage or obstacle ,

the space bounded at the ro of has no proper lim i t but the sky S in ce .

one cannot lay hold o f the sky one can do no more with respect to the
,

upper environ ing space than to a cknowledge it to have a distant limit .

Lo oked at from below howe v er the s ky is not far distant and the
, , ,

problem of coping with it is no t mu ch diff er ent f r o m the problem o f

x

coping with the l i mits of a garden or pathway But as had already .

,

been obs erved architecture ideally sh ould be s een t o be beautiful

,

from any angle and under any c ond i t i on though there 1 5 n o ques tion ,

that as a rule preference mus t be gi ven t o daylight and t o a p er s p e c

,

t ive from below .

O r g a ni c a lly Unied S p a c e

The i nside and env i ron i ng sp aces wh i ch architectu re p rodu ces mus t
be harmonized An emphas i s o n the rs t w ill involve a neglect of the
.

publ i c i mport o f the wo rk ; an emphasis on the second will involve a

neglect of i t s pr ivate us e Thes e created sp aces mus t be i ntegrated
.

w i th a common s ens e technologically ut ilized sp ace The architect

-

, .
 Ar c hi t e c t ur e

c ombines the created and utilized sp aces to mak e a bu ilding whi ch is

rm a s well a s beautiful us eful a s well a s enj oyable The architect i s
,
.

guided by a myth by means of whi ch h i s s ociety refers to basic divis i ons

o f an ideal , germane t o all i t s members These di v i sion s expres s the .

meaning o f a beginn ing turning po i nt o r end O ne rarely fo cu sses o n

, , .

these with any clarity ; we s ee them usually in the gu i s e o f s ome limited

pos sibility Those who attend prim arily t o the basic subdivisions
.

produ ce monuments ; those w h o attend primarily t o the delimited

versions o f them work in the l i ght o f transient meanings Together
, .

they yield monumental mean ings meanings which while germane to ,

W hat is then and there o f interest makes men aware o f basic values ,
.

A myth i t s subdi v i sion s and their delim i ted forms are all so cial
, ,

ideas which the artists ideas delim it and pers onal i ze He who attends

.

only t o the s o cial i deas produ ces works of a nat i onalisti c cast ; were .

he to attend s olely to his o w n ideas he would produce works reecting

only an indiv i du al interest The recon cil i ation o f the t w o yields r e
.

g i o n a l l y appropriate buildings i e nation al ones with lo cally d i s t in c

, .

tive s tyles.

Like every o t h er a r t architecture reects the sp i rit o f the times

'

,
.

Were a Greek temple made today it would sh ow in i t s en v i ronmental ,

and inside sp ace in its technologi cal treatment o f common s ense

,
-

space in i t s u s e o f various s cales in it s relation t o the pre v a iling s o

, .
,

c i a l i deas and to the individu al ideas o f the a rchitect s omething o f ,

the fact that it w a s m ade i n a quickly mo v ing twentieth century ,

-

urbanized c iv ilization S till there i s a great d i ff eren ce between the

.
,

architect who today seeks to make buildings similar t o thos e made at

s ome p reviou s time o r in s ome other civilization and o ne wh o is abreas t ,

o f ou r time It would be unfortun ate

. though i f an architect were t o , ,

try to make up h is mind as to j ust what our civilization i s like and then
set ab out t o create a work wh i ch will embody th at i dea and presumably
through it the meani ng o f the p reva i ling myth Architecture n ot only .

reects the spirit o f the time but contributes t o it , .

We know who we are in pa rt by seei ng what the ar chitect c reates

, ,
.

M ore generally the nature o f the myth which characterizes our time
,

i s in its concretenes s formed and displayed by all the di ff erent a c t ivi

ties works con cerns and creations whic h men today in s ome inde
, , , ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

84

p en together
d en c e , produce H e who makes a work which.is intended
to catch the pre v a iling spirit will not only overintellectualize it but ,

will fail t o contr ibute as he ought to its determination

, , .

The arch i tect l ike every other artis t mu st exh ibit within a spirit
, ,

u a lly signi cant valu ationally imp ortant

,
s o ci ally useful and physi , ,

cally v i able sp ace the ideals to which s o ciety s myth and his own ideas

refer If he does this he will present us with an excellent work which

.
,

reveals not only the nature but the import of the real sp ace in which
all o f u s live and die .

At e v ery stage o f its history a rchitecture creates sp ace This spa ce .

i s s elf contained with its o w n stru ctures te x t ure and tensions It is

, , , .

a voluminous empty bounded space within whose areas other works

, ,

o f art are t o be produced and whos e nature can be known only by

,

o ne who appro a ches it in terms of an appropriate s cale The spec .

tator no les s than the architect must to see the space which the archi ,

t ec t c reates s ee the wh ole o f it in terms provided by man s body mind
, , ,

a ctivities and spirit

, .

An adequ ate study of architecture should deal with the m ain types
o f boundary and space that men have created in the p ast It will tra ce .

ar chitecture s his to ry and indi cate where it might experiment and

grow The enterpris e would require a s tudy at least as large as thi s

.

entire wo rk It would no t be amis s though t o remark that the h i st ory

.
, ,

o f arch i tecture does n ot seem to have had many great tu rn ing p oints .

There seem to be few great adventurers among the architects perhap s ,

becaus e they are s o overwhelmed by j udges cr i tics cl i ents and prob , , ,

lems relating to engineering city planning and s cales What a r c h it e c

, , .

ture badly needs today are laboratories where students are no t only
trained and dis ciplined a s they now are but are als o en couraged to
, ,

experiment with the bounding of all s orts o f spa ce in all s orts o f ways , ,

with all s orts o f materials They should have periods in whi ch they do
.

n ot c are that their work may not interest a client or that no o ne m ay

ever bu ild it or th at it m ay not t in with prevail ing s tyles Not unt il .

they t ake seriously the need to explore the p os sib ilit i es o f bounding
spa ces in multiple ways will they become alert t o architecture as an
art a s respectable revelat ory creative and at least as di f c ult as
, , , ,
.

any ot h e r .
 S C U L P T U RE
5

a result of his study o f dis tinguished works in the his tory o f

As

s culpture Herbert Read observes in his A r t of S c u lp t u r e that A very
,
.

real confusion has always exis ted between the arts o f s culpture and
p ai nting The confusion ha s now been dispelled N o one would

.

.

today I think deny that s culpture and painting are distin ct arts But
, , .

a rch i tecture and s culp ture are n ot yet widely recognized t o be dis tin ct .

M any c ontemporary s culptors and s ome contemp orary architects in ,

considerable cons onan ce with trad i tion deny that a sh arp line can o r
,

ought t o be drawn between s culpture and architecture O ne mus t show .

that their denial is unwarranted or give up the pres ent claim that s culp
,

ture i s a di s tinct basi c art o n a fo oting with all the others

, .

J M Ri chards has observed that Victorian architecture w a s thought

. .

of as large size s culpture and there is no radical break between the

Vi ctorian period and other periods The fa ct though that at s ome .

, ,

period o f time architecture and s culpture were not distinguished does

n o t p rovide a good reas on for holding that the two are o f the s ame

kind The ques tion to be decided is whether or n ot they o ug h t to have

.

been d i stingu i shed .

A H ildebrand has s aid that s culpture is a set o f paintings around

.

wh i ch we walk In his own w ay he broke down an es s ential distinction

.

between p aint i ng and s culpture Granting him his p osition his thesis
.
,

would in effect s ay that a building to o is a series o f p aintings around

, ,

whi ch we c an walk This would make it all surface and deny it its
.
,

three dimensionality environment and interior space , , .

The mo ck u p s of a rchitects s eem t o be s culpture n ot architectural

-

obj ects But is it not absurd to speak of an ar chitect as engaging in a

.

distinct art o f s c ul pture in order t o prepare f o r an architectural work ?

Would it not be better to s ay that he i s doing s culpture or architecture
in both cases the one in the l arge the other in the small ? I think not
, , .
An artis t can do many things on the way to producing a wo rk o f art of
a given type S ome of thos e things will have mu ch i n common with other
.

types o f art but they will nevertheles s be qu i te d i stinct from them

, .

Architects make drawings a s well a s models Th i s does n o t mean that .

they are painters The models are no t s culptures the drawings are no t
.
,

paintings Neither is a work o f architecture They are pieces o f crafts

. .

mansh i p involving no creativity though they do demand considerable

, ,

i ngenuity .

S culptures are frequently des i gned to be p arts of ar chitecture But .

if they are works o f s culpture they are s o far not works o r p a rts o f
,

works o f architecture Walls and do ors can be made to p ro v ide places

.

in which s culpture c an be p ut The s culpture w ill then be tted into an

.

appropriate environment but it will s t ill be independent o f that en

,

v i r o nmen t It cannot therefore be a wo rk o f architecture

. .

P arts o f an architectural work can be s culptured Gargoyles are . .

That does not m ake them pieces o f s culpture Gargoyles are sp outs as .
,

mu ch parts of a cathedral as are the runways the facings and the , ,

buttres s es : The fact that they are s culptu red is an additional fact
about them Like carved doors they have been dealt with aesthetically
.
,

without compromising their roles a s integrated elements in a single

a rchitectural work Like the carvings o n the do ors they c an be related
.

to other parts o f the architectural sp ace over an interval which with ,

them can constitute a s culptural work M ore generally any parts o f

, .
,

an architectural work c an with the interval be t ween them con stitute

, ,

a work of s culp ture but only bec ause thos e p arts and o ften their r e
,

l a t i o ns have rs t been abstracted from the architectural work Thos e

, .

wh o would m ake the s culpto r attend to the needs and desires o f the
architect are e i ther wrongly ask ing the s culpto r to ceas e be ing an artist ,

o r are making the exciting suggestion that the s culptor and the archi
teet should work in s ome third a rt in wh i ch each l i stens to the o ther and ,

i n which ea ch art w ill have a role dist i n ct from that which it had by
its elf S u ch a third art o f cou rse does n ot preclude the independent
.
, ,

pursuit of what it treats as subservient .

We c an deal with a wall by its elf We can als o u se it as a canva s or .

take it to be raw material f o r a s culpture The great cathedrals were .

once p ainted ; murals have a long his tory If we make the o rn aments o r .
 S c u lp t u r e

gures insep arable from a building by hammering them o u t o f a wall ,

we will introduce a s econdary art to supplement a primary one A wall .

,

whether p ainted or carved is as wall a s integral part o f an a r chit e c

, ,

tu ral whole ; that it may have a secondary function as m aterial for the
art of p ainting o r s culpting does no t aff ec t its p rimary role any more
than photographing it or using it as s omething to lean agains t would .

It is s ometimes hard to tell the di ff erence between a piece o f s culpture

and a work o f ar chitecture The Pyramids and the S phinx have o c ca
.

s i o n a ll been treated a s either one o r the other H owever though they

y .
,

may have intricate interiors thos e interiors are n ot dened by their ex

,

t er i o r s o r even by their interio r walls The S tatue of Liberty is pla ced

.

in a xed site and is quite clearly hollow T hi s does no t m ake it a work

, .

of architecture It is j ust a piece o f bad s culpture Its ins ide i s an unused

. .

common sense area limited but no t en comp as s ed o r dened by its walls

, .

In theory like any other work o f s culpture the statue c ould be pla ced
, ,

anywhere fo r it has n o environment A piece o f s culpture of course

, .
, ,

needs t o be placed s omewhere o r other But when we specify the pla ce .

,

we merely sharpen the imp ort o f the s culpture as at that pla ce The .

Pyramids the S phinx and S tatue o f Liberty all la ck features es sen t i al

,

to an architectural wo rk The tombs of Nap oleon and Grant in con

.
,

tras t are architectural produ cts They are designed t o en clos e a

, .

denite type o f sp a ce Any elaboration that o ccurs o n the outside or

.

i nside walls is in cidental and does not sufce to turn them into s culp
,

t u r ed obj ects The Wash i ng t on Monument is als o a work of a r c h i t e c

.

ture though this is not s o readily evident for the paradoxical reason
, ,

that the architecture is s o s imple both on the inside and outside

, .

The surfa ces of a work m ay be painted o r c arved and yet the work ,

may be j us t a work o f architecture Murals and ornaments do no t .

convert an arch itectural work into p aintings o r s culptures The archi .

t ec t u r al work merely p rovides thes e other arts with opportunities It .

is n ot the u se to which walls are put f o r s ome other art but their in ,

ability to bound an inside sp a ce and an environment which shows that

they are not p arts o f an architectural work .

The main di ff erences between architecture and s culp ture can be

brought under the following six headings .
N ine B a s i c A r t s

88

I n t er i o r S p a c e

The inside sp a ce o f architecture is voluminous and empty The in .

t eri o r sp ace o f s culpture is voluminous but o ccupied ; it is a p art o f the

body o f the s culpted thing The surfaces o f a building are boundaries
.

w h ic h endow a volume o f empty sp a ce with newly created tensions and

relations ; the surfaces of a s culpture are no t boundaries at all but the ,

s culpture s volume made manifes t E ach prole s aid R odin i s
.
, ,

actually the outer eviden ce of the interio r mas s ; each is the perceptible
surfa ce o f a deep section the reality o f the model s eems t o

emanate from w i thin A w ork of s culpture materially pres ents u s with
.

a newly created voluminous o c cupied sp a ce

, , .

When the brothers Naum Gabo and Antoine P evsner s a y The
, ,

volume o f mass and the volume o f spa ce are not s culpturally the s ame

thing they are two di ff erent materi als they are not denying , ,

but in fact supporting the view that s culpture is the art of o ccupying
spa ce The s culptured work is not merely its material ; it is the entire
.

volume whi ch that material makes p os sible and thu s all the holes in , ,

dentations rece s ses and protuberances within the ambit of the nished
, ,

work Empty sp ace for s culpture is a region s culpturally o ccupied

.
, ,
.

S culpture geometrizes a sp ace in a p alpable form It is i t s o ccupied .

sp ace ; the shape o f it is the geometry o f that space a new way in which ,

spa ce is made to be Even when a s traditionally was the case the

.
, ,

s culpture resembled a hum an o r ani mal form t h e s culpture s erved ,

~

primarily not to rep resent a human o r an animal but to make manifest

, ,

how a living thing alters the dimen sions and relations o f the spa ce it
o c cupies .

The inside space o f an architectural work is more or les s empty ,

u sually visible and always tensed ; the enc omp as s ed spa ce of a s culp
,

ture is lled rarely vis ible and always powerful The openings in an
, .

architectural work are pass ageways relating ins i de and environmental

spa ces ; but in s culpture there are no openings there a r e only intervals ,
.

Thes e even when in the guise o f empty holes are mas sive cont rolled by
, , ,

and controlling the res t of the work They are j ust as termin al and j us t
.

as relational as are other p arts of the s culpture The architectural .

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

90

sp ace This is an irregularly bounded region with variable stres ses and
.

uses produced by the s c ulptor for the benet o f the spectator When .

and a s the s culpto r makes his work he makes the spectator area He , .

himself works in that area exam ining and e v aluat ing what he hims el f
,

i s doing in the light o f wh at he dis cerns from there Painters look at .

their works from various distances and various angles but they do this ,

primarily to dis cover aws and problems which might ha v e been over
looked in the more familiar p ositions S culptors s t a nd a t di ff erent dis
'

tances appro ach their works from multiple angles because those works
,

are the fo ci o f all thes e po sitions .

The s culptor views hi s work fro m di fferent distances and angles and ,

t o the degree that he alters that wo rk in the light of what he then dis
cern s he c ons titutes th at dis tance and angle as part of a spectator area .

Ideally he should o c cupy every p art o f an area in which a spectator

,

might s tand ; a ctually he c ontents himself and mu st content himself

,

with taking signal p ositions m aking h i s wo rk in the light of these and

,

thereby dening crucial pla ces from where his work might be a p
r o a c h ed a nd which will help determine the n ature o f the other p osi
p ,

tions which could con ceivably be o ccupied .

The spectato r mus t st and at a dist an ce from the s culpture I f the .

outer limits o f the environment of a building could be made up o f spec

t a t o r s the building would have a humanly dened limit to its environ
,

ment If the bodies o f the spectators were treated a s limits o f an area

.

in which the s culpture i s to be lo cated the s p ec t a t o r s p a c e o f the s culp

,

ture would have a b odily limit H umanizing the limits o f a building s

.

environment o r treating spectators a s walls h a s no e ff ect o n the status

o f the works but only on the way in whi ch men can fun ction a s spec
,

t a t o r s in the one cas e and as bodies in the other

, .

Unlike architecture or p ainting a work o f s culpture is surrounded

,

by a spectator sp ace By ch anging one s distan ce and p osition in that

.

sp ace o ne changes the import o f the s culpture A work o f s culpture de

, .

m ands that it be s een from every p os sible s ide and from every pos sible
distan ce ea ch one of which makes ev i dent a new meaning Th i s is not
,
.

the c ase with architecture A work o f architecture remains unaltered

.

no matter where o ne stands even though there may be things seen from
,
 S c u lp t u r e

o ne po sition that are no t evident from other p ositions It is the task o f .

s culpture t o make an o c cupied sp ace whi ch has different values from

di ff erent p ositions in a spectato r spa ce It i s the task o f architecture
.

to encompas s an inside sp ace and limit an en v ironing o ne A work of .

s culpture as it were sheds a d i ff erentiated radiance over an external

, ,

area ; a building is the focus o f a xed environing region .

L o c a t i on

An environment is determined by the way in which a limited external

region i s m ade t o terminate a t the boundaries of a work ; a m ade o r
xed extern al region not bounded by the work is no t an environment
, ,

for it The spa ce surrounding a work o f s culpture though m ade and

.
,

x ed does not fun ction as its environment Conversely a work of archi

, .
,

tecture does not lose its environment even when this constantly ch anges
in magnitude and contour and is limited by intent rather than by a ct ;
,

buildings may have environments wh i ch are neither made nor xed .

A building is pla ced in an environment architecturally dened Any .

p osition in that environment offers a p roper perspective from which t o

grasp th e nature o f that building and any p osition outside t he environ
,

ment offers a proper point from whi ch to approa ch both the bu ilding
and the environment But a piece of s culpture h as no environment The
. .

s culpture can be pla ced anywhere without its elf being altered for the ,

surface and spectator area o f the s culpture alone dene what i s germane
t o it .

C o mm on S ens e S p a c e

Architecture infects t he three d imensional sp ace o f daily life with

-

new meanings and tasks and divides it into an environing and an i nside
,

sp ace S culpture takes the three d imens i onal sp ace o f daily life and
.
-

trans forms it into an oc cupied sp ace wh i ch it s ets inside an unformed ,

irregularly bounded spectator spa ce L ike architecture s culpture sub

.
,

m i ts to the laws restraints and geometry o f the three dimens i onal

, ,
-

space o f everyday Unlike architecture though it imp oses determina

.
, ,

tions o n th i s in the shape o f the s culptured obj ect thereby o ccupy ing , ,

using up this common space Arch itecture synthesizes un created and

.
 i c s ic A r ts

d sp ace ; s culpture does no t Architecture allows daily s pace t o

.

on f o r it ; s culpture subordinates that sp ace within it s own newly

d spa ce .

cann ot avoid standing in natural and common s ens e sp aces when -

L kes a p osition in architectural sp ace for the enj o ymen t o f the

,

ze c t u r a l sp ace requires the p resen ce o f a m an w h o is at once a

al and a common s en se substan ce A spectator o f a piece o f s culp

.

s o f cours e als o a natural and a common sense man ; the s culp

, ,
-

t o o is ins epa rable from its elf a s a c ommon s ens e and as a n atural
,

an ce But the s culpture c ontains the latter as abstra ctable aspects

.
,

can be is olated only by ignoring the new determinations which

ul p t o r introduced The various d i mension s o f a s culpture a re the
'

dimension s o f common s ense spa ce rad i cally trans formed and

-

by dep rived of an independent s tatus in the work O nly abs tra e .

from the s culpture wi ll yield the kind o f spa ces which in archi
r e exist together with the spa ce that the architect creates .

e geometry o f a s culpture i s the geometry o f common s ens e sp ace

L

rt e d b
ythe s culpture its elf The being o f the s culpture denes the
.

re of its geometry The s culptor intensies curves and dis sects

.
, ,

p a ce of common sense substances to produce a new substantial

o c cupied by the s culptured work A s culpture i s thu s s omewhat .

.h e matter o f relativity di ff ering in that it curves space not in

, ,

o r t i o n t o mas s but in p rop o rtion to the degree that the m aterial

,

een creatively transformed

' .

c h i t e c t u r e un i tes a created spa ce with a common s en se spa ce It

'
-
.

art which makes prov i s i on for a p ossible u se S culpture does not .

i s If a piece of s culpture were made for use as was the New Yo rk

.
,

ra l Park s tatue o f the creatures in the Alice bo oks this would be ,

c i d en t a l addit i on al fa ct about it Its us e is no t es sential t o the

, .

of a s culptural work There are to be sure common sens e nec

.
, ,
-

y conditions which must be met before s culpto rs can produce solid ,

va hle obj ects S culptors make us e o f armatures a nd take a c count

'
.

e need fo r support and of the fact that their materials mus t be

ed over in c omm on sen se ways B ut the common s ense things and
-
.

a which architecture a ckn owledges is a comp onent o f the work i t

no t merely a c ondition which makes it po s sible .

Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

94

as organi c beings alert t o the ta ctile values of wh atever is s een and the
, ,

v isual values of what is felt B ut in s culpture the ta ctile values are

.

brought o u t and made visible made evident t o the eyes o r what is

,

the s ame thing the visual values are made sensible evident to a delicate

,

tou ch The s culpture visually exp res s es ta ctile values a ctually ex

.
,

hibi t s v isu al values to the s ens e o f t ou ch I t s sp a ce i s at on ce palpable

.

and visible .

Touch and sight are s enses employed in perception S in ce perception .

yields only abstra ctions from substances no sen sing or perceiving will ,

enable u s t o make adequate contac t with the created subs tan ce whi ch
i s art The abs tra ction s we can obtain from a work of a rt enable u s to
.

know it but the work i s als o to be enj oyed It i s better then not to c on
, .

tras t a rchitecture and s culptu re on the basis of p erceptual qualities

but o n the way they maintain themselves a s substan ces B oth have ir .

reducible p owers and integrity but they m aint ain thems el v es in di ff er

,

ent ways Architectu re o ff ers a work which holds inside and environing
.

spa ces in equip oise ; the work and the spa ces t ogether make a single
s table unity S culpture o ff ers a work which h a s i t s sp a ce within itself ;
.

i t s s tability i s the result of the way in which its parts s olid and p orous , ,

are interrelated S culpture means s ays H enri Lau ren taking p os

.
, ,

s es sion o f spa ce the constru ction o f an obj ect by means of hollows

,

and volumes fullness and voids their alternations their c ontras ts

, , , ,

their constant and recipro cal tension and in n al fo rm their equi , ,

librium .

Despite these s ix di ff erences s culpture and architecture 'with p aint

,

ing ) can be dealt with together as basic spatial arts They allow fo r .

the abstra ction o f four ab stra ct sp aces the spa ce o f perception

,

s cien ce events and value And they p resuppo se three others the space
, , .

o f c ommon sens e substan ces the spa ce of natural substan ces and the
-

, ,

spa ce o f existence The fact that o ne cannot either move o r a ct in the

.

abs tract spaces or the sp ace of a s culptu re o r p ainting does n ot des

troy their sp atiality S pa ce is an extensive doma in o f c o ord inate inter
.
,

related extended subregions at a distan ce from one another It m ay .

en compas s a few o r an indenite number of dimensions or directions .

The sp aces of works o f art t h e inside and environmental sp ace of

 S c u lp t u r e

architecture the o ccupied sp ace o f s culpture etc are genuine spa ces
, ,
.
.

though they di ffer in dimensions properties and powers , , .

The space o f natural s ubs tan ces is never directly encountered in its
purity but only in the guis e o f common s ens e spa ce Common sens e
.

obj ects and common sens e sp a ce are natu ral substan ces and natural

spa ce p artly dis torted p artly infected wi th extraneous materi al and

, , ,

only vaguely app rehended T o kn ow what n atu ral substan ces and spa ce
.

are l ike i t i s neces s ary to take the v arious abstra cti ons which o ne can
derive from c ommon s ens e obj ects and sp a ce , and synthesize them
-
.

Exis ting sp a ce the sp a ce o f ex i s ten ce itself is a c osmic sp ace the

, , ,

sp a ce in which natural subs tan ces ex i st together We c an con ceive o f .

th i s sp a ce in speculative philos ophy and we can reproduce it in art But , .

c on ceived o r n ot reprodu ced o r n o t it is an ultimate irredu cible fa cet

, , ,

o f an irreducible mode o f reality The sp at i al arts have the p ortrayal .

o f it a s their primary t ask The real sp ace whi ch lies beyond the reach
.

o f c ommon sense and which is p res upp os ed by n at ural subs tan ces a s
,

a eld in which they can be together can be concretely grasped only ,

if o n e turns away from the world o f exper i ence and engages in an art .

More than any other art s culpture h a s been haunted by the temp ,

t a t i o n t o rep res ent n o t i t s proper obj ect the real sp ace of exis tence
, , ,

but p art i cula r famil i a r things It ne v er really su c ceeds o f cours e

, .
, ,

and n o s culpto r stays v ery long with the idea o f doing s o A living being
_
.

is a being o f esh and blo od and bone pla stic s elf m oving changing , ,
-

constantly whereas s culpture is dead stable ; if it m

, oves it is because , ,

it has been a cted on externally and mechani cally O ne can conceivably .

take advantage of the recent advan ces in cybernetics and make a piece
of s culpture which i s s elf guiding C ould o ne arrive at the p oint where
-
.

it c ould imitate all the a ctions of men one will have arrived at the p oint ,

where the s culpture has been trans formed into a man like machine -

who se s culptured features play only a sec ondary role Until that day .

s culpture will desp i te any imitation it might offer have features whose
, ,

magnitudes placement and roles will be dictated by m aterial themes

, , , ,

and textures and the s culptural p roblems thes e s et and not by a need
, ,

t o a ct as though it were human .

The suppo s ition that s culpture is representational and particularly ,

Nine B a s i c A r ts

96

of the human gure brings o ne agains t a central p roblem raised by

,

Les sing He s aid that s culpture could n ot exp res s anguish o r more
.
,

generally that it must con ceal certain ugly expres sions if it i s to a chieve
,

beauty He in fa ct raised two distin ct ques tion s but failed to distin

.
,

guish them : C an s culpture expres s anguish ? Are there limits to what

s culpture can expres s ? Hi s rs t question is s o unmistakably answered
in the a frmative by statues of C hrist on the C ros s that it is hard to
see how he could ever have th ought a negative answer pos sible .

In contras t Les sing s second question does have a negative answer
, .

There are no limits to what s culptu re c an expres s Anguish weeping .

, ,

any em otion o r state c an be exhibited in s culpture but no t as i s olated ,

items T h ey are p art of a context revealing a reality having imp ortan ce

.

for man an imp ortan ce usually indi cated in ord i nary life by means of
,

the emotions Les sing was content to take the p osition of a spectator ;
.

b e suppo s ed that su ch an a ct a s crying left noth ing for the imagin ation
t o work o n and therefore p resumably had n o aesthetic role ; he believed
,

that ob j ects which were side by side had to be repres ented by signs ex
i s t ing s i de by side ; and he thought that s culpture c an sh ow only what
happens at a s ingle m oment He was therefo re un able to a cknowledge.

the r i ch potent i al i t i es of even the s culptu re of his o wn day .

Les s i ng took a rather simple m inded view of representat i onalism ; he

-

s eemed to belie v e tha t art mu st a ctually m i rro r an obj ect If it is mir .

r o r in that o n e is s etting o u t to do Les s i ng would be right o n e ought

g ,

then a s o ne does in l i fe con ceal s ome things to m ake others more prom
, ,

inent But art is no t a mirro r An artis t neither c onceals n or e x p o ses ;

. .

he makes s omething be by maximizing here and min im i zing there What .

i s maximized and m i n i mized are not em otions or featu res but themes , .

O nly o c c asionally are these exh ibited a s ent i re features ; they rarely
po rtray emotions The emo tional e ffect is p rodu ced by the work as a
.

whole Anguish fea r crying can in fa ct all be conveyed without mak

.
, , , ,

ing a resemblan ce of a man And if a man were p ortrayed and in one of

.

thes e states the result despite Les sing could st ill be beaut i ful B ea u t v
, , , .

can be a chieved by making the meaning of anguish permeate every part

o f the work .

Igno ring the spectator space of s culpture and the varying pos i tions
and dis tan ces wh i ch it allows one c an readily as sume with Les sing that
,
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

98

any other purpo se but t o make more evident what the s culpture had
revealed One c an reas onably expect that s culptors will so on be p oly
.

chroming their wo rks again .

The s i mples t theme of a s culpture is a curved line N o p erfectly .

str a ight line i s p os sible not only because t h ere a re n o perfectly even
,

rulers o r steady hands but becaus e every line i s pulled by the lines
,

alongside above below and beyond it There are n o perfectly at

, , , .

planes fo r the s ame reas on The lines and planes of the cubists are but
.

lines and planes of minimum curvature whi ch inters ect and supp ort one
another s o as to p roduce newly created extended regions At the edges .

of a work one can see how strongly even an emphati c two dimensional

a rea i s pulled in o r pushed out from within and by the planes with
which it is themati cally related Go r din s s culptures with their right
.

,

angled bla ck and white steel strips mathemati c ally pla ced o n a simple
vertical bar vary in distan ce p res s in o n one another and pull away in
, ,

unpredictable ways And as one shifts one s p osition the relations b e

.

,

tween the parts change in value as they ought The works despite , .
,

their app arent simplicity and rigidity a re highly c omplex and vari ,

able .

The mos t lumin ous themes are simple curves of s ome magnitude Tiny .

curves are not noticed and very large sweep s defy the single glan ce
, .

The shapes o f su ch natural obj ects as eggs and waves o f su ch m o v e ,

ments as a walking step o r the stret ching o u t o f a hand and such c om ,

m on directions as up and down front and ba ck are u nr e ec t iv el y used

,

by both s culptor and spectator to p rovide unit pun ctuating curvatu res
in a continuous set o f lines and planes thereby enabling one t o read the ,

newly created sp a ce .

Themes which reect our common us ages o ff er helpful ways of see

ing a s culpture B ut if treated as the only themes o ne can or ought to
.

produ ce they will prove to be restrictive and s tultifying The curves

, .

o f a s culpture are newly made and ought to suggest not repres ent
, , ,

thos e with which we are fam iliar and then only s o far a s this will en able
,

us t o see the s cul pture properly .

Every part of a s culpture is related to the other parts in two dis

tin ct ways E a ch part is related to every other t o constitute the surfa ce
.

of the s culptu re E a ch p art is als o related t o every oth er t h rough the

.
 S c u lp t u r e

body of the s culptu re to constitute an innite number o f planes and

volumes The whole is o ne modulated c ontinuum and this whether the
.
,

s culptu re is built up piece by piece carved out o r put t ogether by , ,

combining things There are no denite resting pla ces or climaxes in

.

the work ; every region is sust ained by and terminate s in others E a ch .

part sp a ces every other pa rt ; what is terminal is also relational what ,

is relational is als o terminal And since there are c ountless planes and
.

volumes in even the simples t s culpture every s culpture has great com ,

p l ex i t
y .

The overwhelming stres s of a s culpture is o n unity All p arts all .

,

themes all dis tin ctions are sub ordinated to this The work mu st there
, .

fore omit mu ch B ut mo re important it mus t be pursued by men who

.

have a sure s ens e of closure A s wa s noted Rodin took ex ception t o the

.
,

idea c ommon at his period that a s culpture should be nished given a ,

look o f c ompletion which it in fa ct does no t deserve The limitations o f .

the s culptor fa ce him with a need to stop his work before it is perfect .

S u ch s topping precisely becaus e it c onicts with the drive to p rodu ce

,

the excellent is always resisted by a rtists to s ome degree B ut it i s r e

, .

sisted p articularly by s culptors t o whom it is always evident that s o

,

much more work always needs to be done .

Whatever the s culpto r a chieves is but a p art of what is still t o be

a chieved S t ill at s ome p oint he mus t call a halt If he goes beyond
.
, .

that p oint he will sp oil his wo rk The s culptor who does no t con ceal
.

the p oint where his c reative a ctivity has come t o an end makes it p os
sible for others to s ee the work not only as having the function of po r
traying a p artially expres sed p ower of the real space o f existence but ,

of exh ibit ing the limitations of the artis t The unnished s culpture s ays .

that it is unable to do full j ustice t o real space because the s culptor is

a man limited in power and perhaps in insight C ould he complete the .

work he would be perfect able t o rep resent perfectly the n ature of

,

spatial existen ce by means of an o ccupied created sp a ce .

During the last fty years p ainti ng has undergone revolutionary

change after revolutionary change Architecture though slow moving .
,

and only recently not t o o far in a chievement from what it on ce was in

the t ime of Greece has suddenly begun t o see how endles s are the pos si
,

bil i t ie s whi ch a re open t o it Today i t i s able to meet the challenges of

'

.
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 00

c ommunity busines s and fa cto ry a s i t never could before S culpture

, , .

has lagged behind thes e two But in j us t thes e las t years it has become
.

charged with new energy F o r s ome time it h a s been aware of the a d

.

v ances made by painters s ome of whom were als o s culpt ors Matis se
,

,

P i cas s o Modigliani B raque and Degas But only in the p resent gen
, , , .

e r a t i o n h a s there been a clea r and c on certed attempt to break away

from clas sical problems and s olutions There is a spirit o f adventure .

,

a boldnes s in the u se of new materials a will ingnes s to experiment among,

the younger s culptors t oday wh i ch indicates that we are entering a

new era There i s good reas on to expect that there will be as great a
.

development in s culpture in the next years a s there h a s been in its sis ter
spatial arts in the las t decades .

Until the early p art o f this century E urope led the Western world ,

in architecture s culpture and p ainting ; but this is tru e n o longer A

, , .

growing p opulation sprawled over a continent and a sudden demand

f o r s kys crapers highways automobiles and housing have catapulted
, , ,

America s architects beyond the edge of kn own a chievements and forced
them to st a nd alongside the Europ eans The restriction on travel due .

t o the war c ombined with a rea ction against s cenic p ainters and a
,

quickening indu ced by P ollo ck s genius helped American painters ,

s tand on their own feet They now have a place among the leading
.

painters of the wo rld And today Amer i cans have suddenly assumed a
.

daring leadersh i p in s culpture At the present moment it would not be

.

amis s to s ay th at while the Rus sians c ontinue to lead in the perfo rming
arts and Europe t o lead in the temporal arts it is Ameri ca that is
, ,

assuming the lead i n the spat i al arts I see no reas on why these align .

ments may not shift at any t ime in all kinds of ways B ut m ore likely .
,

we will continue to see maj or developments in the spatial arts clos e at

hand f o r qu ite s ome time .
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 02

which we daily li v e In the latter but n ot in the former we move ab out

.
, , ,

a ct and make The sp a ce o f p aint i ng i s als o distin ct from the sp ace o f

, .

natural obj ects The former but n o t the latter i s directly en countered
.
, ,

and s ensuously en j oyed And the space o f p ainting is also dis tin ct from
.

real existing sp ace The fo rmer but not the latter is made by u s and
,
.
, ,

tinged with o u r emotion s .

No o ne of a p ainting s dimensions is identic al with the dimensions of

any o f thes e other sp a ces Painting spa ce i s extended and h a s multiple

.

dimensions ; but it i s n o t con ceptually gra sped o r available for o c c u

pancy by full b odied men This does not make it an ill us ory spa ce To
-
. .

be real a spa ce need no t ha v e the dimensions of a common s ens e a natu

,

,

ral o r an existential spa ce ; it need no t be a sp ace in which one c an walk ,

o r which can be intellectually gra sped After all the tree dealt with in .
,

common sense i s sp at i al Yet one cann ot walk in it and it i s doubtful if

.
,

anyone i s able t o understand it We u sually do not walk in substan ces .

,

but in sp a ces between them And the only substantial spa ce we really .

understand i s the c on ceived sp a ce o f nature The uno ccupiable sp ace .

o f a pa i nting c an be grasped only by tho se who s ensitively deal with

the p ainting .

The space of a painting is dis tin ct t o o from the space o f perception , , .

B oth spa ces are en countered ; in neither c an one walk or a ct But the .

space o f p ainting is exclusively visual and i s the lo cus of a beauty whic h

a man h a s creatively p roduced The spa ce of a painting i s distinct als o .

from the sp a ce a ckn owledged in s cien ce The spa ce of a p ainting i s .

voluminous the sp a ce of s cien ce i s but a lo cus of numbers v ectors vari , ,

ables and distan ces The sp ace o f a p ainting i s distinct t o o from the
,
.
, ,

spa ce of events of ongoings ; the latter i s m ade up o f chang ing com

,

b ina t i o n s o f somewhat independent regions whereas the former is a ,

single unied whole in which every region i s but a delimited dependent

part Finally the spa ce of a painting is distin ct from the spa ce o f i m
.
,

p ortan ce ; the latter is a matter o f hierarchies and a il i a t i o ns inten si ,

c a t i o n s and subj ugations in capable o f being s en sed o r obs erved Per

, .

c e t u al s c i e nt i c a ll y known eventful and imp ortant spa ce are all

p
-

, , ,

abstra ctions ; all are derived from c ommon sense sp ace by acts whic h -

cut away the irrelevan cies and the additions that common sense men -

c onventionally introduce into t h e data they con front The space o f a .

p ainting in c ontras t is without i rrelevan cies ; it is als o sub stantial
, , ,

con crete and con sti tutive

, .

A p ainting i s a substan ce di fferent in kind from common sens e and -

n atural s ubstan ces That i s why i t s sp ace is distin ct from their sp a ces
. .

C ommon sens e and natu ral s ubs tances t inside a larger sp ace but
-

there i s n o su ch larger sp a ce for a painting A p ainting exhaus ts in .

side itself the only sp ace that is relevant t o it All other sp aces are .

simply cut o ff .

A p ainting i s a visible spa ce p os ses sing the texture and revealing the
n atu re o f the sp ace o f existen ce as relevant t o man Take away v ision , .

and y o u take away the sp a ce of a painting There i s then no painting .

when n o o ne i s looking at i t though t o be su re it can c ontinue t o exist

a s a common sense subs tan ce a s an obj ect o f touch of s cience and s o

-

, , ,

o n The real spa ce which the p ainting visibly i conizes of course exists
.

whether or not the p ainting does b ut if the p ainting i s n ot seen real , ,

sp a ce i s n o longer made vis ible .

A p ainting i s sp a ce subs tantial and visible It is not a semblance

, .

o f a s cene , or a p rimitive form of photography developed before the
age o f cameras and inertially c ontinued until today It ha s many co or .

din a t e dimensions all equally real all created by the p ainter Any two
, , .

directions in it c an be treated a s c onstituting a single plane n ot nec ,

e s s a r i l y at, and what int ersects this c an be dealt with a s a third di

mens m n When then B erens on s ays that a picture has only two dim en
.
, ,

sions and that we read into it a third by proj ecting o u r tactile sense ,

he makes ev ident that he i s inter ested in identifying p aintings by per

s p e c t iv e date
, s tyle p rice and p ainter but not interested in lo oking
, , , ,

at them S leuths su ch a s he have mastered the difcult technique o f

.

is olating clues to histori c fa cts but they ignore p aintings as works of ,

art with their own s tru ctu res values and sp aces M atiss e is a better
, , , .

g uide The work o f art h as its own abs olute signican ce implicit within
,

itself
Visu al perspective is a well ac cepted way of getting into clas si cal -

paintings ; it i s n ot the only way a nd often is not the best way The , .

th i rd dimension i s not distinguishable as a dimension which moves

s tra ight from front to b ack It is rarely that one nds a simple m ove
.

ment of that kind p os sible o r desirable P erspective is not only un .

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 04

es sential t o painting a s is evident from the p aintings of O rientals

, ,

E skimos cave dwellers and many moderns but it h as been mis con ceived
, ,

even where it has been employed .

Perspective is primarily a tea cher s device f o r getting s tudents over

the as ses bridge of two dimensionality ; it makes them s ee that there
are m ore than two dimensions in a p ainting At times it o ff ers a quick .

way to tea ch comparatively ba ckward students It ought n o longer to .

be allowed to blind men t o the richnes s o f even the mo st routine paint

ing even o ne deliberately created wit h the rules o f perspecti v e in mind
, .

A painting contains a c omplexity o f directions O ne can move through .

a painting from front to ba ck from back t o front ; o ne can mo v e

,

s traight o r in a curved line zig zag o r by j ump s and s tarts O ne c an

,
-

, .

leap and one can move gradu ally All depends o n what is there and h o w
.

the various parts are afliated .

There need be no xed frontal planes n o neces s ary points o f o rien ,

t a t i o n no ines capable connections made among the parts o f a p aint

,

ing Every part is connected in hundreds o f ways with all the o ther
.

parts Any one of the pa rts can be fo cus sed on and used as a p oint from
.

whic h perspectives o n the rest are t o be taken The perspective may be

.

geometrical orienting everything with respect to s ome p oint taken as

,

foreground o r ba ckground Alternatively it may be a gradient of i n

.

tensities and tonal values forcing everything else t o be supplementary

,

to what i s being taken as p rimary M any modern p ainters p refer the

.

latter appro ach t o the former N ot only do t h ey a s their predecess ors

'

.
,

did look at their p aintings from multiple dis tan ces squint at them
, , ,

and hold them up befo re mirro rs but they als o turn them upside down
, ,

and lo ok at them from below and from the side They want n ot only to .

free them sel v es from conventional j udgments but t o be able to s ee nu

an o es and tones otherwise obs cured A mus eum to do j ustice to the.
,

painter s spirit should hang paintings o n swivels If it permits spec
, .

t a t o r s t o turn the p aintings around at will it will do the spectators the ,

great service of enabl ing them to es cape from the haz ards o f p er s p ec
t ivi s m representational i sm and the l ike
, , .

Every wo rk of art must be dealt with as a single unied whole Any .

part o r element distinguished within it must be understood as a com

ponent w h ich a ctually aff ects and is a ff ected by all the oth ers But there .
Ni ne B a s ic A r ts

1 06

tone and the most rigid straightest ruler available we would have made
, ,

s omethi ng quite diff erent We would have created a vibrant squirming

.
,

thing As we moved along the line the later p arts would be seen t o be
.
,

mo re o r les s intense and would refer u s back t o the ea rlier parts Every
, .

po i nt o f a painted s traight line is o n an innite numb er of circles ,

ell ips es curves of all s orts and sizes relating it to all the other points
, ,

o n that line We have t ime and sensitivity t o c on centrate o n only a

.

few o f thes e curves As a rule we like t o be led from p oint to p oint on

.
,

the straight line through the agen cy of denitely demarcated auxiliary

l i nes whi ch trace a few of the p aths along which the di ff erent p arts of
,

the s traight line act o n one another O ften we are able to dispens e with .

su ch auxiliaries ; we c an at times directly n ote how the line varies in

intensity a s we move along it .

The va riation in intensity of a c olo r is in the line and the line i s in ,

the p ainting It is tempting to suppos e that the variation in inten s ity

.

is due t o the intrusion o f what we remember from our encounter with

other p a r t s o f the line But then it would be hard to see why the vari
,
.

ation does not persistently in crea se o r decreas e Di ff erent colors have .

di ff erent rates at whi ch they vary in inten sity ; the s ame color di ffer
ently placed will have a di ff erent rhy thm o f intensi cation ; a change _

in magnitude will alter the intensity adding t o it up to s ome p oint and ,

then muting it after a while in unpredictable w ays This is no t the way

, .

in wh i ch memo ry a ff ects things It is s teady a c c u nl u l a t ive particula rly

.
, ,

for a sho rt span Nor need we to a c count for the variation in intensity
.
,

o f a pa i nted l i ne invoke a theory o f empathy

, the view that inanimate

obj ects are aesthetically signicant only when one proj ects one s feel

i ngs and attitudes into them That theory will help us to deal only with
.

the mo st obvious phenomen a aspects of a w ork w h ich echo famil i ar

shapes and movements and then only o n the supp osition that we actu
,

ally encounter dead items and have to read s ome kind o f life or feeling

tone into them Prall was closer to the truth when he s a i d that the feel
.

ing wa s in the picture S trangely enough he d idn t r eally see it there

.
,

,

but since he was a kind o f p os i tivist he allowed himself the p ositivist s ,

chara cteristic privilege of deducing that it ought to be there P ortu .

n a t ely he dedu ced c orrectly

, art is s o often s a i d t o be the em
.

bodiment o f spirit in matter But think i ng can have no intercours e .

 with mira cles And sin ce the simplest t h inking nds t h at works o f art
.

do exp ress feeling we are fo rced by the obvious chara cter of our data
,

t o look f o r feeling wi t h in the p resented content o r a s its unitary qual ,

i t a t ive nature a s a whole But the reas on we should s ay that the feel
.

ing is within the presented content is not becaus e we think it should
be there but bec ause we in fa ct n d it there The p ainting has a quali
, .

t a t iv e emotional tonality directly experien ced .

A painting ha s a design an a rrangement ; it is a c omposition of

,

di ff erent shapes and colors S ometimes it i s s aid that the early p ainters
.

rs t made drawings on canvas and added colo rs later If they did t h is .

,

they produced either a kind of s cript or ca rtoon i e a p reliminary , . .

,

sketch o f a p ainting or les s likely they made two p aintings the rst
, , , ,

a d rawing and the s econd a colored work If they m ade both a drawing .

and a colored wo rk they p roduced only one compo sition al stru ctu re
, .

In ea ch there would be similar focal p oints but in the one these would ,

h ave di ff erent tension s values and roles from what they have in the
, ,

other .

A p ainting ha s dominating and reces sive colo red areas ; these have
weights and insistencies unlik e thos e which lines in a drawing have If .

a p ainting is n ot properly comp osed the colored areas will reduce one ,

another s capa city to reveal the texture o f real space A go od c om .

p osition enables the p ainting to do j u stice to the values of the colo rs ,

and through their mutually supp ortive interpl ay t o t he structural

, ,

c omplexity o f space a s well It is true a s Delaunay remarked that

.

, ,

Colo r i s bot h form and subj ect but it is n o t the only form and not

,

the only subj ect S hapes gures dimensions tensions als o function
.
, , ,

as forms and subj ects .

Th e unit component of a work of art is a theme This is a pivotal item .

which is repeated with or wit h out modi cation throughout a work .

Usually it is expanded and contra cted inverted attened and stres sed , , ,

in di ff erent ways at diff erent pla ces A typi cal theme in a painting is a
.

short colo red l ine of s ome brightness Th i s need not be of primary in .

t er e s t to the p ainter n or need it be m ade by him deliberately A theme

, .

need not be arresting and may be kn own only to a spectator But if the .

spectator is to see what the p ainter wishes him t o s ee the p ainter must ,

m ake s ome t h eme evident thereby enabling t h e s pect ator to analyze the
,
 which
the things with which the spectato r i s famil
'

ble in varying forms throughout the wo rk if ,

be able readily to read the p ainting s omewhat in the

ould like to have him read i t A painter may o f course
.
, ,

in helping the spectator ; the themes t o be found in

residu a of hi s s truggles with the work a s a whole ,

e themes through the wo rk will in effect be a tra cing

h the p ainter in ad v ertently and uncons ciously left
this be s o o r n ot the spectato r ought not t o is olate
,

it from the rest of the work He ought t o see it a s a

.

s in conspicuou snes s magnitude detail and role

, , ,

and which can serve as a guide in the vital

the work in i t s parts and a s a whole .

an have many themes Mo st p ainting ha v e a thematic

.

atic color wh i ch develop in considerable independe nce

themati c color need not be the color of the themati c
r e it is it need not vary in str i ct c ons on ance with the de

though to be relatively bright The fa ct that a p aint

, .

I l y dull colors means only that o ne of them though not ,

I ous will be s o relative to the others Were a p ainting t o

, .

' e color there would strictly sp eaking be no thematic

, , ,

the color will inevitably change in intensity and tonality

: s to keep it at and m onotonous one w ill be able to s u b
,

e the result as a theme which varies in a more o r les s

yu
gh o u t .

a tter how arresting are but abs tra ctions A painting is

, .

The features o f a painted lands cape o r face whether ,

or combinations of these are no t aggregated elements in

,

ere s tres ses have been put and which c anno t except by ,

work be really held apart from one another Wh at i s

,
.

e makes demands o n what is done in other places ; after

'

worked o n those other pla ces he i s usu ally called ba ck

did in the rst place .

n a painting h a s a grain This results from the quality

.

) m the way in w h ic h t h e p aint h a s been put down from ,

Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

110

to the ground are po sitive elements even in the most realisti c p ortrait .

They must be s o treated if the p ortrait is to be read as a p ainting which ,

i s to s a y as more than a record of a face

, .

A theme c annot be simply repeated Repetiti on results i n an inevitable.

intensic ation o r diminution But this inevitable alteration of a theme

.

is rarely suf cient to give the theme the career it needs Themes mus t .

be developed A theme contra cted in one pla ce should exp and in

.

another As one moves through a work o ne should find it varying in

.
,

magnitude stress and internal detail These signi cant variation s

, , .

n eed no t be concordant .

A work has a s tructure to be traversed in a c ountles s number of

ways Any p art o f a p ainting can serve as a starting point o r end o r
.
,

a s a pla ce in between Given o ne starting p oint and o ne mode o f trav

.

er s a l
, s ome o c cu rrence o f a theme wi ll be climacti c The work will .

develop t o it and then des cend As a rule the intended climax is m arked.
,

by a sign al element o r c olo r and o ne is led up to it by means o f the

,

cha ra cter of the c omp osition A powerful p ainting is one in which the
.

spectator is compelled to attend to the clim ax that the p ainter prefers .

In su ch a c ase n o matter where the spectator takes his start and there
f ore n o matter what climax he m ay a rrive a t he is s oon forced by the , ,
.

work as a whole t o retra ce hi s steps make s ome other area the proper
, ,

starting p oint and arrive at the desired cl imax along a route s elected
,

by the painter .

The controlled development of a theme r es ul t s in a stru cture ; the

development o f a number of interrelated themes results in a c o mp l

stru cture Thes e stru ctures are insis tent and reces sive from di ff erent p o
.

s i t i o ns ; what is foreground from o n e po sition is s een to be ba ckground

from another E ach has a fabric of its own p rodu ced by an interplay
.
,

o f thematic grains The texture of a S eurat i s intended t o be and almos t

.

is the outcome of a mere combining o f gra in s ; the texture of a Renoir

i s i ntended to be and is the outcome o f an a ct in which grain mutes
, ,

grain As a rule a texture o f even a plurality of s tructures i s s omewhat

.
,

uniform or has a kind of c ontinuity Where this is not the cas e the .
,

stru ctures are related through interva l s or intensities In either way .

o ne is enabled t o s t r es s the comp atibility o f a plurality o f distin ct

.

stru ctures All the structures of a painting cohere wh ile they c ontrast
.
,
 vary in all s orts of ways without c omp romising the fa ct that they b e
long together Ideally they are not cap able o f uni cation except a s
.
,

total s tructures ; sho rt of the whole they oppos e one another in multiple
ways T h e resulting tensions are res olved only in a single conguration
.

of them all .

N o p ainting attempts to duplicate an obj ect N o r could it for it .

,

and the obj ect a re involved in di ff erent types of space and are comp osed ,

o f di ff erent materials Emphasis o n a s tory or s ubj ect matter is usu ally

.

the outcome o f a stres s on s ome complex t h eme inside of which s ome ,

fam iliar aspect fun ctions a s a climax for a subo rdinate theme S ince .

'

a p ainting is not and canno t be identi cal with an obj ect it must t o con , ,

vey the nature of an obj ect omit features o f that obj ect Even the mo st
, .

realis tic p ortrait dem ands the omis sion o f irrele v ant con fusing mis , ,

leading parts and a concentration on the import of the whole

, .

There a re paintings which can fool the eye and s ome it has been , ,

s aid have fooled birds This shows that eyes and birds are not the best
, .

j udges of paintings Pictures made to fo ol the eye are in e ff ect attempts

.

at making one in cap able o f lo oking at a painting But this is p aradox ; .

'

if t h ey a re p a in t ing s t h ey c an be seen a s such though one in opp osition

, ,

even to the p ainter may have to resist a rather strong impulse to m ake
,

easy references to daily experience .

A theme sets a problem The s olution of that p roblem s ets another

.
,

and s o on through the work The perfect work would o ff er a s olution

.

of all the problems raised within it But there is no perfec t wo rk There

. .

comes a time when the painter must let the work go and make another ,

distin ct attempt t o make spa ce visible He must stop his wo rk short

.
,

aware that h e must make still an other full bodied e ff ort to get a grip

on the real If he goes on rening and altering his p ainting beyond

.
,

the p oint of insigh t he but slicks it over o r c ompli cates it and in the
,

end hides from himself the texture the stres ses and the p romis e of real
, ,

spa ce .

Redon spoke fo r all artists when he s aid M y originality consists

,

in making incredible beings live humanly ac cord ing to c redible laws ,

as far as p os sible placing the lo gic of the visible at the s ervi ce o f the in

visible By the incredible I unders tand him to mean obj ects shapes
.
, ,

directions not found in daily life ; by credible laws the stru ctures ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

112

whi ch c an be experien ced without undue strain ; by the logic of the

visible the demands which s ome embodied idea entails ; and by the
,

invis ible the space whi ch underlies all subst an ces A painting plau
, .

s ibl y interrelates the un conventional to reveal the nature of a real ex ,

i s t ing space .

A painting i s a lo cus of signican ce a place where a pers onal o r ,

s o cial idea of s ome ideal prospect permeates visible extended textured , ,

stru ctures Without the i dea a wo rk could no t be beautiful All a rtis ts

.
, .

pro v ide stru ctu res connecting unfamiliar entities in the light of s ome
idea The idea need n ot be c ons ciou sly entertained N o r need it be di
. .

v i d ed in the wo rk i n a c co rdan ce with any prin ciples or logic appropriate

to ideas In putting the logic o f the visible at the service o f the invi si
.

ble that logic i s changed in con fo rmity with the need t o do j us tice to the
,

i n v isible .

The dis tin ctions through which we have gone are but a ccents in a
single whole The mos t compendiou s statement to be made about a
.

p aint i ng a s about any other work of art is that it is a unity E a ch

,
,
, .

painting o ff ers a unied space made visible in a dis tin ctive way E a c h .

us es ideas colors sh apes themes and stru ctu res to make a unique pro
, , , ,

du ct to be enj oyed in and of itself and revealing the nature of a sp ace

, ,

exist ing outside it It tells u s what the real space o f existence is like s ub
.
,

j e c t to the condition that it is to be s een .

E a ch painting o ff ers a singular way of exhibiting existing spa ce .

When enj oying it a s a dis tin ctive sen suou s obj ect we h old it away from ,

the world and emotion ally p os ses s i t O u r emotions are not exhau sted in .

that a ct ; they c ontinue to operate spending themselves in a movement ,

over the painting We are thereby enabled to enj oy the painting a s

.

that whi ch s atises o u r emotion s in the way in which only what i s ulti
mately real can The painting emotionally a ccepted by us is a represent
.

ative of a s p a t i al ized existen ce pertinent t o man In its o wn way ea ch .

painting p ortrays what every other does the nature o f s p a t i al ized

existen ce This underlies all substan ces has the p ower to affect man
.
, ,

and through the p ainter the ability to become sub stantialized and

visible Through an emotional s olidic ation of the p a inting with our

.

selves the painting tells u s what existen ce means to u s

,
.

A p ainting is a substan ce Its sp ace contrasts wit h the spa ces ex

.
 m e B a s ic A r ts

a e This fact brings us up against one of th e most inuential ideas in

a e .

io der n aes thetics

Bullough s theory of psychical distance

.

B ullough seemed to use the term psy chical distance primarily to

pres s the fa ct that a work of art is cut off from the wo rld He thought .

I a t the cutting o u t o f the practical sides of things and of o u r p r a c t i
-

al attitude to them was es s entially a negative inhibitory a ct and , ,

i a t i t gives to dramatic action the appearan ce of unreality B e .

aus e he took reality t o be identical with what was en countered every

a
y he sp oke as if the p ositi v e a ctivity of holding a wo rk ap art were
,

pur e negative withdrawing a ct He was mistaken The feelings

, . .

hich we expres s every day and which must be inhibited in order f o r

'

s to be able to enter the world of art are p ositively manifested in side ,

ha t world B ut if the realm o f common s ense is alone taken to be real

.
,

o r m a t i ve or basic the r e expres sion of the feelings in the world o f

, ,
-

rt w ill of c ours e have to be viewed as negative illus o ry distortive n ot , , ,

l t o g et h er real .

Bullough u sed the term psychical distan ce to refer also to a dis

c c o r d between a feeling and a work o f art F o r him to cut o ff to frame .
, ,

n obj ect wa s at the s ame time to produ ce a distance between oneself

nd obj ect It was this idea that he had in mind when he wrote that it
.

s most desirable to a chieve the utmost decrease o f Distance without

t s d i s appearan ce This idea is quite distinct from the idea he had in
.

mind when he spoke of negative inhibitory a cts Bullough thought the , .

w o mean ings o f psy chical distan ce were the s ame because he thought

hat the only app rop r i ate obj ect of a feeling was s omething in the f a
mil i a r world B ut th i s is not s o Art o ff ers most appropr i ate obj ects fo r
. .

ee l ing s .

O ne cannot overdo the deta chment of an a rt obj ect from the world ;
here can never be too great a d i stance between one s d aily feelings and

hose app ropr i ate to the world of art Distance as relating to the dis .
,

'

r e a nc
p y between one s daily feelings and those

appropriate to an a
p
) r e c i a t i o n o f a work of art ought n ot t o be decreased sin ce it res ults
, ,

r o m the a ct o f mak ing the work into an obj ect of enj oyment But while .

h i s d i stance ought no t t o be decreased the distance between spectato r ,

.nd pa i nting ought to be decreased through an emotional participation ,

.f the spectato r in the p aint ing .

 The theory of p sychical distance i s not peculiarly pertinent to art

It relates to aesthetic obj ects obj ects which are to be enj oyed f or their
,

texture and design which are to be lived with for a while ap art from the
,

world He who does n ot make wo rks o f a rt into aesthetic obj ects will
.

never app reciate them ; he will deal with them merely a s things t o be
shipped and hung b ought and s old Yet to take them t o be onl y aes
, .

thetic obj ects is to do for them what one does t o a ower o r a sunset
when one is olates these from the res t o f the world and takes pleasure in
their immediately sensed qualities The appreciation of wo rks of art
.

requires s omething more It demands the enj oyment o f meaningfu l

.
,

revelato ry substan ces s omething richer more illuminating and trans

, ,

formative than merely aesthetic obj ects can be .

B ullough did a great s ervi ce in making men s ee how aesthetic obj ects
stand over against o rdinary things But the more inuential he w a s
.
,

the more he made men overlook the di ff erence between merely aesthetic
obj ects and works o f art Als o mo st of his illustrations were taken from
.
,

the theatre which he interpreted a s presenting a story that needs to

,

make a quick appeal to its audience ; this is why he wanted at one and
the same time to pla ce ordinary feelings at a distan ce and yet keep that
distan ce to a minimum But the theatre l ike any other art does n ot
.
, ,

demand of us that we decreas e the distan ce between our daily feelings

and appreciative feelings I t a sks us t o abandon o ur daily feelings to
.

participate feelingly in what is taking pla ce .

In a rchitecture ou r feelings are directed towa rds a building ; in

,

s culpture they await directing by the obj ect In pa i nting the feelings
, .
,

enter the work and are thereupon sent along paths which the p ainter has
produced in his created visible spa ce The p ainter therefo re makes u s e
.

only of an emotional s cale That s cale i s implicitly us ed in the course

.

o f the painter s e ff ort t o expres s within the body of his painting cher

i s h ed ideal meanings interwoven with the emotionally p roduced space .

When the word art is used without qualic ation it is n ormally ,

t aken to refer to p ainting P ainting is then u su ally p aired with musi c

. .

Thes e two seem to arouse greater interest and p as sion than any other
arts though there are times and places where story and p oetry theatre
, ,

and dance have had overwhelming appeal s ometimes even crowding out ,

an interest in p ainting or music B ut only p ainting and music written

.
,
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

116

and perfo rmed at once require a radical s ep aration from everyday in

,

t er e s t s are open to ready p arti cip ation by everyone and make one sig
, ,

nally aware o f the nature o f m an s destiny Ar chitecture and s culpture

.

h ave an immediate appeal but do not s tand strongly in opp osition to ,

everyday l i fe nor pro v ide mu ch insight into the great central p roblems
that bes et m an S tory poetry theatre and dan ce are most revelatory o f
.
, , ,

what exis tence means t o man but thei r u s e of the common c ounters of ,

da ily speech and a ct i on make them seem no t to o alien in spirit no r t o o

fa r beyond the cap a city o f ordin ary men Pa inting and music al c om .
,

p ositions and performan ces p rompt p articip ation and elicit admiration
and irritation love and antagonism to a degree others rarely do And
, .

their creato rs share with thei r audiences violent emotion s o f affection

o r oppo sition particularly with respect to distinguished workers in
,

their eld It is hard t o nd an outstanding ph ilos opher who though

.
,

dis agreeing with Plato Aristotle K ant or Hegel would s a y that they , , ,

simply did not know how to philos ophize 'An exception i s S ch open .

hauer who among other pleas antries c alled H egel an intellectual

,

,

C aliba n ) It is hard to nd a religious man who would readily s ay that

Abraham o r S t Francis Mohammed o r Buddha la cked religious sen

.
, ,

s i t i vi t
y But El
. Greco s ays that M ichelangelo is a dauber ; Ingres s ays

Rubens and Van Dyck belong t o a bad s chool of c olorists the ,

s cho ol o f lies Redon in turn remarks of Ingres that his mind is
s terile h i s works are n ot true art
H is low op ini on is shared by .

D elacroix who s ays of Ingres wo rk that it i s t h e c o mp l e t e expres sion

of an in complete intell igence ; Ens or speaks o f Fren ch impres sion
i s t s who remained supercial daubers suffus ed with traditional recipes
, .

M anet and M onet certainly reveal s ome s ens ations and h ow o h

tuse C ourbet calls T i tian and Leon ardo arrant ras cals
. .

S l nim sk y s L exi on of M u s i l I nvec t i v e o ff e s m at ch es f o r th es e w ith T ch i

o c ca r a

t h t s c ou nd e l B h m s W h t a gi ft l es s b a s t r d J F R unciman s
k ov s k y s
a r ra . a a . .

I S i nt S n wi t h h t t h t i p f t ; V i gi l Th m n I f und t h
h at e a -
ae s a a e a s er e c

r o so

s o e

S nd S ymph ny f S ib l i u v l g
e co o lf ind ul g nt nd p in i l b y nd ll d
o e s u ar, s e -
e , a r ov c a e o a e

s cript i n ; R i h
o

d St 'wh i h h l t
c ar t t d t h e i l ly t m f
r au s s s

l i c e a er r e r ac e as

s o o o er e s

o f ll w h lb y ) S i gf i d w b min b l N t t
a ca o sc oo o

f h e nt m l od i s
r e as a o a e . o a r ac e o co ere e e .

I t w uld k i ll
o t nd w ld t u n k i nt
a ca am b l d gg M y s bu z d
ou r r oc s o s cr a e e s ea r z e

f m th
ro b ti n f h d
es e a or nd R o i ni ss W gne h g d m m nts
o c or s a os s

a r as oo o e ,

b ut b d qu t dd M nd l s hn s B li z lly

a h u s T th
ar e r n n-
o r . o is es e o e ca a e e so er o re a

u lt u d g b l m n nd y t mp v y b dly Th uti n i s s ti ll

a c re , a r eea s e a a e co o s es o er a . e exec o

m or e mi b l ; n wh
s er a sp k n w mt h ut t f l i hn
e o er e a c nt i d p sin ar , o ar , er oo s e s s, o r ve a s o
7 M U S I C RY

A R C HI TE C T U RE s culpture and painting make a triad o f spatial

, ,

arts This triad is matched by two others : a triad o f temp o ral arts
.

mu s i cry s tory and p oetry and a triad o f dynamic arts music thea
, ,

,

tre and the dance The members o f the rs t triad create spa ces the
, .
,

membe rs o f the s ec ond triad create times and the members of the third ,

triad create ways of becoming All imp ose conditions on a common s ense
.
-

w orld to p roduc e works o f art which cap ture s ome o f the texture while ,

revealing the nature of an es sential dimension of existen ce in its bear

,

ing on man .

The main c on cern of this and the next two chapters is with the tem
poral a rts : The investigation demands an unders tanding o f at leas t
ve types of t ime The time created by musi cry story and p oetry is
.
, ,

c r e a t ed ; it is t o be dis tinguished from indi vi d u a l time c o mmo n time , ,

a b s t r a c t time and ex i s t en t i a l time An examin ation of thes e will pre

, .

pare u s fo r a knowledge o f the dis tin ctive features o f the time which
the tempo ral arts create .

I N DI V I D U A L T I ME : E ach of u s lives through his own individual time ,

hav i ng its o wn p a ce and qual i ties We tend to think of su ch a time a s

.

the exclus ive p roperty of men and as oc curring only in the dark reces ses
o f o u r be ings o r in our sub cons ciou s selves But individu al time is n ot .

neces s ar ily a human t ime Ea ch being ha s a time peculiar to it Indi

. .

vidual time is chara cteris tic o f every being whats oever cons cious or ,

un cons cious human o r subhuman The fa ct is often overlooked for

, .

two reas ons In daily life we us e certain obj ects as clo cks which meas
.

ure a time pertinent to all and we s o on come t o view them a s marking a

,

time exterior t o all obj ects We are constantly tempted to suppos e that
.

the clo cks themselves are subj ect t o the very time by whi ch they meas
ure other things we tend therefore to overlo ok the fact that the clo cks ,

as well as the other things have d i stin ctive unshared times o f thei r
, ,
o wn . S econdly , we are aware that many things c onc ordantly pas s
through a p resent to o ccupy subs equent m oments Physicists are today .

in clined to think that there are many su ch p resents each governing the ,

p as s age o f a limited number o f beings M etaphysicians usually supp o se

.

that there i s only one present for all a ctualities and that the p resents ,

which c oncern the physicists are but specializations of this Both the .

physic i s ts and the metaphysicia ns in different ways tempt u s once ,

aga in to supp ose that individual lo cal times a re not real
, , .

C O MM O N T I M E s : All beings have d i stinctive times We are able to d o .

j us t i ce to their t ime s a nd to o u r own only if we can s omehow mesh

theirs and ours This c an be done in four ways
. .

1 ) We can make ou r o wn time c onfo rm t o a time chara cteristi c o f

others We impo se on ourselves the metric of a p u bli c c l o c k s o a s t o en
.

able u s to be in gear with the beings for wh i ch that clo ck provides a

measure Here we fun ction primarily as bodies in a public s ocially de
.
,

ned time .

The time o f o u r a c cepted clo ck is a s peculia r to it a s ou r o wn time

i s peculiar to us This is but to s ay that any obj ect could have been
.

used as a clo ck measuring all others It is because the beats of mo s t.

obj ects are s o irregular to j udge from the way they fail to match

pulse and heart beats observable s tarts and stop s and conspicu ou s
, ,

recurrent phenomena su ch as night and day ra iny and dry sea son s
'

that we never treat them a s clocks The clo cks we nd helpful to use
.

a re beings whos e distin ctive times have obtrus ive recu rrent beats These .

alone make it po s sible fo r u s to live and wo rk together with others

.

in publ i c .

2 ) We are cons tantly aware o f ou r own i ndividual time the di s ,

t in c t iv e form time has in ourselves And s ometimes we i nsis t o n this

.

and us e it to measure other times It is then a p er s o na l t ime

. .

If we accept s ome obj ect as a clo ck and treat this alone as being
worthy of offering a measure for t ime we will ha v e little recourse when
, ,

we refer t o our o wn t ime but to speak of it in psychologi cal terms as ,

though i t were unreal o r unus able We will be content t o s ay that we are

, .

bored excited that we lo st track o f

, , time Reference to our .

boredom or exc i tement should be recognized to terminate in a time a s

ult imate a s ou rselves and a s c apable as any other time of dening a
,
 ts
'

Were we t o u s e ourselves a s clo cks though we will not

, ,

=
r s t o agree with us unles s we are abs olute s overeigns wh o

L conform to our rhythms B ec ause s o ciety i s o u r s o v ereign

.

ects which it a c cepts a s p roperly measuring what o c curs

1 ally impers onal inanimate ones are public clocks for
,

:e c onta ct with other beings by changing o u r p ace to keep

theirs and where we can altering theirs to keep abreas t
, ,

m e t im es we merge o u r time with theirs t o c onst i tute an

u s t a ined t ime which belongs t o neither one o f us That .

no n time dis cerned by all men It is through this common

, .

live when we love and symp athize hum or sing o r dance

,

n es we keep di fferent individual times dis tin ct while en

l em within a more c o m r eh en s i ve o r d er This we do when
.

p .

is i o n we make overriding plans t o deal with the world b e

,

. r a c t i c al efcient ways O u r rules of investigation our

, .
,

tests and o u r c odes offer di fferent harmonizing neutral

, ,

ting ours elves and others adj us ted to o ne another .

the four common times resulting from the u s e of public

,

sisten ce o n ou r pers onal times the merging of o u r times

,

) r from the decisive o rdering o f ind i vidual times i s pro ,

ately From the very beginn ing of ou r lives we engage in

.

I g h irregularly without mu ch u nd ef s t a nd i n o f what we

, g
L C ll results from a union o f ou r individual times w i th the

5 But in every cas e we continu e t o retain s ome hold on ou r

'

l r indi vidu al times are able therefore t o interp l ay w i th the

a
y help constitute Not. only fo r example
, d o we make our ,

ne s submit t o the rule o f s ome s o cially a cceptable clo ck ,

i t u t ing a c ommon public time but we intrude o n and are

,

a by this publi c time We j oyou sly live through a quickly

.

mb l i c hou r ; the beat o f the public c l o c k b r e a k s into ou r

'

ive them new temporal units The result i s a complex daily

'

bj e c t iv el y s tated : ou r daily time is o ne in which various

3 inters ect and intermingle rather h aphaz ardly .

time in which we live is a confused a rtifa ctu al u nc o n , ,

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 22

existence This is relentles s impers on al all in clusive a sequen ce o f u l

.
, ,
-

timate units only faintly dis cerned b eneath all other times We c an
, .

make direct c ontact with it only s o fa r a s we lose all reference t o our

s elves and o thers a s distinct beings But then what we rea ch is s ome .

thing we do no t know We c an o f cours e get to understand it in a spec

.

ul a t iv e philo s ophic system But then we end with only an idea of it

, .
,

and enj oy nothing o f i t s texture n or sens e what hea r ing it h a s on man

, .

C REATE D T I ME : There i s no better way of grasping the nature o f

existential time than by r s t turning our attention away from it and-

then by making u s e o f it a s it surges up within ourselves creating a

, ,

temp oral art The temp oral arts p ortray existential time and convey
.

o m et hi n
g o f its texture It i s to t h ese a rts we must turn if without lo s
.
,

ing all hold of ours elves we are to sens e the nature o f existential time
, .

O nl y if we engage in the temp o ral arts c an we become aware o f it a s a

single time wh i ch all individu al times specialize c ommon times blur and , ,

abstra ct times partially expres s O nly if we engage in the temporal arts .

can we come to have an emotionally signican t a cquaintance with

temp oral existen ce a s the ultimate warrant f o r ou r deepest hopes and
fears .

The concern of the p resent chapter i s with only o ne temporal art It .

deserves a special name I revive an old one and call it musicry It
. .

c reates a time speci al i zed in musi cal comp ositions and presupp o sed by
both story and p oetry .

M usicry has three p os s ible meanings Ideally it refers to a created

.
,

neutral common time in which we would be perfectly adj usted t o all

,

els e T o a chieve it we would have to synthesize the common times deter

.

mined by public clocks private rhythms emotional unions and c om

, , ,

prehensive decisions N o one to my knowledge now knows how to pro

.
, ,

du ce su ch a synthesis But the ideal o f it i s nevertheles s signicant

. .

Keeping it before u s will prevent us from suppo sing that public clo cks ,

private rhythms emotion al union s o r comprehensive decisions enable

, ,

u s t o obta in comm on t imes free from bia s The rst puts stress on our .

submissivenes s the s econd o n ou r insisten ce the third on our sympa

, ,

thies and the fourth on our c onstruct i ons An ideal c ommon time will
,
.

n ot favor o ne of thes e over the others .

Musicry als o refers to any of the bia sed forms o f a created com
mo n time Ea ch o f these biased forms puts a s tres s where the others do
.

n o t E ach is a topic o f a special dis cipl i ne C o s m o l o g y i s c on cerned with

. .

the comm on public clo ck like time that results when we submis sively
,
-

subj ect our individual times t o the time o f others I t s chara cteristic .

feature is the dominance o f metre ; by means o f this it makes evident

what are a cceptable obj ective beginnings and endings An hi s t o r i c a l .

na r r a t i o n insists o n imposing our times o n others Its chara cteristic .

feature i s rhythm by means of whi ch it makes evident the ways we

,

bun ch together what o c curred outside u s A mu s i c a l c o mp o s i t i o n .

stresses the emotional merging of times I t s characteristi c feature is

.

the dominan ce o f mel o dy thereby making ev i dent the way in which we

,

and others are symp atheti cally in cons onance A r ec o ns t r u c t ed t ime .

s tres ses the decisive uni cation o f t i mes Its ch ara cteristic feature is
.

the dominan ce of harmony by means of which it makes evident the

,

comp atibility of dis t i nctive time qual i ties and p aces E a ch o f thes e .

created c ommon times nds a subordinate pla ce within itself fo r the

features o f the others B ut this does not overcome the bias th at is char
.

a c t e r i s t i c of it .

Mus i cry can als o be u sed t o refer exclusively to musical compo si

tion Desp i te the fa ct that the ab ove rst use of the term musicry is
.

ideal and despite the fa ct that a u s e o f it to refer to any one of four

,

created comm on times makes p ossible a consideration of otherwise neg

l e c t ed fa cets it is this third meaning which is to be p referred p a r t i c
, ,

u l a r l y when dealing w i th art A musical compo sition i s the best means

.

we have fo r creating a single c ommon time biased though this is t o ,

wards a n emotional union o f ou rselves and others It alone makes no .

claim 'as c osmology h i storical narrative and reconstru cted time do )

,

to be plausi ble u s eful or true Its empha sis on the emotional unication
, , .

o f our o wn times with the times of others als o makes conspicuous the
, ,

s ensu ous quality of both the times and leads us mos t d i rectly t o an
,

awarenes s of temp oral ex i stence as at on ce obj e c t ive c on crete ultimate , , ,

and all en compas sing

.

A musical c omp os i tion as a rule i s produ ced for performers When

, , .

it is the musi cal comp osition is o ff ered as a s cript He who is content

, .

to do only this is a craftsman who provides material s cores whi ch , ,

other men are t o convert into a work o f art It is wrong then to speak .
, ,
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 24

of compos ers a s merely writing s cores But it i s j ust a s wrong to take .

the opp osite tack and claim that the c omp os er alone creates A per .

f o r m a n c e ha s a dis tin ctive kind of t ime Though it may have the s ame .

rhythm a s the compos er s it c an be p rodu ced by one wh o i s no t sensi
,

tive t o the time created by the compo ser .

A mus i cal performan ce does more than rep roduce in an au dible way

what the c omp os er on ce produ ced in hi s mind The term musi c when .

applied t o the performance has a meaning d i st i nct from what it has

when appl ied to compositions O n ce the distin ct i on is recogn i zed it .

will be easier t o s ee that mu si cal comp osition and musical performance

a re both genuine a rts the o ne being con cerned wi th the creation of a
,

time and the o ther with the creation of a becoming It will als o m ake .

i t p os s ible for one t o recognize that musical comp osition is only a spe
c i a l though highly developed form o f musicry alongside c osmology , ,

histori cal narrative and a reconstru cted t ime , .

B oth in the guise o f mu sical comp ositions and otherwis e musi cry is ,

the art of creating time This time i s new quite distinct from any time
.
,

exper i enced or known in other w ay s E a ch p art o f that time makes a .

di fference to other p arts N o p art h a s a m agnitude wh i ch c an serve as

.

the measure fo r the rest N or is there a measure which can be applied

.

ind i ff erently t o them all N othing can measure the time o f music ; its
.

time is o n e within which all mea su res all notes all subdivis i ons are to , ,

be lo c ated Primarily melodic it o ff ers a su cces sion of emotion ally sus

.
,

t a ined ways o f o r g a ni zm g experien ce inseparable from a subordinated ,

obj ecti v e s e t of measures 'or beat s ) rhythms 'or a dis tribution o f ,

a ccents ) and harmony more prec i sely c ounterpoint 'or supp orting
,

,

contrastive tones and melod i es ) .

M us i cry is the art of creating an emotion ally sustained silent com , ,

m o n t ime Th i s t ime is p resupposed by s tory and p oetry j us t a s s culp

.
,

ture and paint ing p resupp os e an architectural spa ce The fact that .

story and p oetry are not forms of mu sical c omp o sition that the time ,

they pres upp os e i s als o o c casionally attentive to c os mologi cal hi s t o r ,

ical and reconstru cted times p oints up the existence of other types of ,

mu sicry than that exhibited by a mus i cal c o mp o s i t i o n S till musical

l
.
e
,

B e c au s e we ha v
e no t ye t a ch i e vd e an i d l mu ic y w
ea s r , e are f o r ce d to l fy
c as s i

s t o r i es a nd
p o et r y as e ss e nt i al ly e p i c, na r r a t iv ly i l e, r ca , or d id act i c . The ly ic l
r a
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 26

dened and he as a cons equen ce does n ot fully control through an

, , , ,

appropriate s tru cture the time he emotionally shares with o ther be

,

ings .

The composer mus t therefore write o u t his composition n ot only ,

because he otherwis e would no t h ave communicated what he had in m i nd

and would not h ave provided eviden ce that he had created anything but ,

because he would not really have had the notes and their sp acing until
he wrote the compo sition It is no t enough to o rder melodically a c o m
.

m o n emotionally tinged time ; the time mus t als o be metrized recognized

-

t o ha v e an empty s tru cture which could be lled I n many ways The

.

c omp os er s notes are variables parameters p ositions where it is rec
, ,

o mm end e d that audible stres s es should eventually be placed .

Reference to the c omposer s u s e o f emotion s should no t lead to the

suppos ition that he mu st be excited o r must remember s omething which

moved him The emotions which the c omposer u ses are el i cited and ex
.

h a u s t ed when he comp oses they a re ways o f producing the matter of
the time that h i s notation i s formally stru cturing Hi s emotions gi v e him .

a resistant grain with wh i ch he must s truggle to p roduce a time enc o m

p as sing him and others a time in which h i s emotions are given melodic
,

length and thereby reordered and purged His composition i s at once

, .

hi s and external to him it is a mediato r enabling him to hold on to and

,

interrelate the times of others with his own It i s n o mere set o f n otes on .

paper bla ck m arks organized but the very stru cture o f an em otionally
, ,

c reated sequence a s indispens able to that sequence a s that sequen ce is

,

to it With out the emotionally c reated time the compo sition would be
.
,

j ust a notation But without the written comp osition the emotionally
.
,

created time would be without a controlling stru cture .

The c omp osition mathematizes a common emotional time Another .

can recover that time only by reading the c omp osition n ot a s marks ,

o n paper but as the es s ential structure of a vital melodic int er c o nn ec

,

tion between himself and obj ective occurren ces The reader must see .

it a s dening how he is to appro ach the world emoti onally and thu s ,

not only as a s e t of related n otes but as spreading t o the world beyond

, .

It is this spreading c omm on time that we articulate when we read the

comp os i tion p roperly The emotions enable us to subs tantialize it and
.
,
place i t over against other t imes The t i me o f a composition s tructures
.

the emotions when and a s tho se emotions vital i ze give body t o it , .

The time of a c omp osition can be perceived When it i s we approa ch .

,

it from a p osition outside it from a p as t It can als o be s cientically

,
.
.

c ogn i zed It i s then g iven a measure treated as a sheer s tru cture a

.
, ,

purely formal pattern which can be exhaustively express ed in m athe

m a t i c a l terms If we are to treat a m u s i c a l comp o sition a s though it
'

were an e v ent we must immers e ours el v es in i t And i f we are t o treat

, .

it a s s omething i mp ortant we mus t deal with it a s a pla ce where a de

,

s irable prospect h a s been made vivid and p res ent The t ime of perception .

e x aggerates the past t he t ime o f s c i en ce exaggerates the stru cture

, ,

the t ime o f the e v ent exaggerates the p resent and the time o f imp o r ,

tan ce exaggerates the future o f m u s i c r y s time M u s i cr y s time i s o ne

.

wh i ch uses the p ast acts on the future p roduces a p resent and ex

,

, ,

h ib it s a stru cture It i s a time with p ower with a forward and outward

.
,

thrust resulting from the fa ct that it is subs tantial .

The creat i on of a substantial c ommon time i s a great a chievement .

The result prov ides an excellent mean s b oth fo r grasping the n ature o f
an ex i stent i al t im e otherwise impervious t o u s It als o allows u s t o ex
,
.

bib i t ou r emot i ons in a controlled and d i rected way B ut this i s only a .

part o f what musicry does and can do I t s t ime i s lived through a s self .

sufc i ent a s excellent in itself Because i t makes us aware o f what i t

,
-
.

means to be a man caught in the onrush o f real t ime it re v eals to u s ,

s ometh ing o f the t ime o f existence O u r emotio nal in v olvement makes us

.

ac centuate real t ime a s being pert i n ent t o ou rs elves Existence i s a per .

.

e t u a l coming t o be and p as s i ng away a t ti mes om i nous and at t i mes

p ,

ben i gn M usicry reveals th i s quality of ex i stence t o us a quality to be

.
,

pers onal ized by story a s tragedy o r comedy and s ol i died by p oetry ,

as a l ived j o y o r s orrow
'
'

There i s n o environment for a compo s i tion and no spectator spa ce ,

.

To grasp i t one must i dent i fy ones elf w ith i t It i s a world i n wh i ch all .

p arts function b oth a s terms and spaces The rests are never to be res ted .

at but rested through Time pres ses through them a s surely as it

, .

pres ses through the terms The rests are p art of the work itself ; they
.

a re una ccented rather than empty pa rts o f the t ime A go od reader will .
 l i ne B as ic A r ts

28

. ls oattend t o the a f liations between mo tif and motif phras e and ,

) hrase theme and theme These c onstitute a complex o f en clos ed curves

, .

> f varying lengths altogether exhibiting a time a s intern ally rich a s

,

t is s ubstantial .

A meaning in the form o f a desirable pro spect provides a denite

i nd su c ces sful app ro ach to the task of creating time the denit enes s
'

zo r c in
g one to begin and the su c ces s forcing one t o end The p rospect .

l oes not clos e o ff that time from an external past pres ent or future , ,

from the time of the world about That was a c c omplished in the act .

of engaging in the product i on o f the work of art S tarting inside that .

clos ed o ff area the prospect s tretches from the end t o the beginning
, ,

a t the s ame time that it div i des into pivotal points and meas ures When .

a musical wo rk i s produ ced the p rospect is g iven lodgement through

,

o ut A s the p rospect s eeps through the work it is broken down into

.
,

a c cents loci o f values Were there nothing but the p rospect the work
, .
,

would pres ent u s with only a bit o f a ccented time Without the pro spect .
,

there would be n o reas on ever to begin or end B ecaus e t he work is

'
.

grounded in exis ten ce it has an appeal and a comp elling rhythm and
, ,

becaus e it has a meaningful stru cture it h as measures and notes The .

penetrat i on of the prospect into the rhythm makes the whole beautiful ,

an o rdered whole perpetu ally res olving a disequ ilibrium a time which ,

lo ses nothing o f i t s m ovement by being given a beg inning and an end .

A mus i cal c omposition has a unity in w hich rhythm and metre nd a

pla ce he ighten ing one another s e ffects The s tretch of t ime it contains
,

.

ha s already ended Before it ended i t s beginning was but a denite way

.

o f starting out B y arriving at the end its beg inn i ng is made into the
.
,

beginn ing fo r that end The un i ty o f the work i s atta ined only when we
.

rea ch the end of the piece .

The comp oser here answers what is in es sence a problem that has
p erplexed philo sophers over the centu ries Has t ime a beginning and .

end o r not ? Aristotle s aid it did no t ; Augustine s aid it did ; K ant s aid
,

the question had no answer But comp os ers show that meanings stretch
.

time to a beginning and end C arried over to philos ophy the i r answer
.
,

leads to the rec ognition that a p rovidentially governed time s tretches

between a denite beginning and end internally dened 'A t ime not s o , .

governed would begin and end at every m oment in a p ro ces s which had
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 30

M usic h a s always been p art o f

an educated man s life This i s not

.

true to the s ame extent o f any other art Not even story o r p oetry
, , .

h a s captured s o mu ch of the attention and the p o cket b ook of students

-

i ns i de and outside s chool walls N ow that educ ation h a s been made

.
,

a v a ilable to the multitudes we can ex pect s ophisticated and subtle

music to become more widely known And that it i s to be hoped may
.
, ,

p rompt comp os ers t o exhibit more unsuspected c ontours of time .

8 . S T O RY

language we u s e every day i s n o s ingle seamless whole with

T HE , ,

well d e ned p r i nc iples s tru ctu re o r p o int o f v iew Rather i t i s a m ix

-

,
.
,

ture o f a number o f d i st i ngu i shable sublanguages each w i th i t s o wn ,

gramma r usages and roles: The langu age o f worsh ip work sports
, , , , ,

a ct i on refl ect i on are p arts o f everyday language E a ch o f these lan

, .

guages makes demands a s str i ngent a s thos e made by the language of

the s c i en ces The sublanguage o f r elig i on i s highly techn i cal ; a fa i lure
.

t o use I t i n appropr i ate s i tu at i ons or t imes entrains the charge of blas

p h em
y The .sublanguage o f w ork m akes d i ff erent demands and i s it ,

s elf broken u p int o a number o f subord inate languages ea ch w i th i t s

o wn pecul i ar vocabulary and requ i rements The butcher ma kes a dozen .

d i stin ct i ons wher e the plumber makes only o ne and con v ers ely B oth , .

share o v er aga inst the us ers o f the sublanguages o f re flect i on and wor
,

sh ip a sublanguage of work o f do ing and mak ing To v i olate the r e

, .

u i r em en t s of th i s language or its subord i nate spec i al i zat i ons i s to be

q
gu ilty o f amateur i sm R efl ect i on h a s a sublanguage o f its o wn and in
.
,

th i s t o o there are subord inate languages Ph ilos ophy ,mathemat i cs law .

,

share a s ublanguage o f reect i on a nd ex p r es s it i n spec i al i zed ways I m

J
.

proper u s e o f the sublanguage o f reect i on o r its spec i al i zed subo r ,

di n a t e s opens o ne to the charge o f pretent i ousnes s and p i tiable i g n o r

,
'

an ce .

The most obtrusive commonly used p ortion o f everyday language

,

i s a sublanguage which relates t o matters of ord in ary i dent i cat i on ,

man ipulat i on and c ommun i c at i on Th i s h a s n o more r ights than the

,
.

sublanguages o f r el l g i o n work o r re flecti on Als o it i s a s ublanguage

, , .
,

pecul i ar to o u r culture In other cultures there ar e other languages

.

used for i dent ication man ipulat i on and commun i cat i on with di s
, , ,

t i nc t i o n s wh i ch we do n o t oursel v es a cknowledge The E sk imos a s .

,

Whorf observed have n ames f o r d i fferent types o f snow ; hunters and

,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 32

medicine men have their o wn vo cabularies and u sages Their languages .

a re n o t devo i d o f p rec i sion n o r are they i n constant What they la ck

, .

i s the formal stru cture and applicability wh i ch cha racterize the lan
guage o f reecti on that is u sed in o u r mathemat i c s in o u r cou rts and , ,

i n o u r philos ophy ' They als o specialize a trans cultural language o f

.

ges ture and a ct which makes it p os sible fo r men in di ff erent cultures to

communicate wi th o ne another This tran s cultural language should
.

guide ou r translations from the language of o ne culture to that of an

other However i t has no dis tin cti v e voc abulary o r grammar unles s it
.
, ,

be that wh i ch is p rovided by human a cts o f symp athy and love which ,

emotion ally unite the times o f ind ividuals with one another ) .

The variou s sublanguages in o u r s o ciety are n o t well bounded Men s .

interests and a ctivities their roles and needs u ctu ate too mu ch and
, ,

a re t o o vaguely separated one from the o ther to make it p ossible for

any man to be a language pu rist i ns i sting on the rules o f s ome s u bl an
,

guage f o r long Again and again sublanguages are united in a rough

, .
,

and ready way to c onstitute the going language o f everyday And what .

i s true of o u r s o ciety seems to be true of others t o o Even the daily lan

, .

guage o f primitive s o ciet i es seems to have s ome place f o r sublanguages

o f religion work and the like
, , .

S ome men try and urge others to try to s tay within s ome sp ecialized
, ,

sublangu age They think that this i s mo re true or germane to reality
.

than any other and they want t o keep it pure But every sublanguage
, .

is in fected by and infects other sublanguages O nly by making use o f

, .

all the maj o r s ublanguages can we d o j u stice t o what we do and know

everyday Ev i dent though this observat i on seems to be it is one which
.
,

is s ometimes overlo oked Today s ome thinkers urge u s to u s e only the

.

language o f s cien ce ; others s ay that we should use only the language o f

mathematic s ; s till others s ay that the only proper language is the
mos t obtru s ive c ommonly u sed p ortion of da ily dis cours e The p red
, .

ec es s o r s o f thes e thin k ers in s i s ted with equal fervor o n the exclusive

rights o f the language of work ; thes e in turn were pr eceded by others

who held that only a religious language was p recise clear and referred , ,

t o what was genuinely real It would be c ras s and wrong t o s a y that n o

.

o ne of these ph ilos ophers ever read a story o r a p oem but it surely is ,

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 34

treat the usual type o f s entence a s a c ompleted unit either true o r fals e ,
.

That semanti cs is not s uited to s entences which are inside a story s
frame S ometimes the sto ry s frame i s created by a device designed t o
.

alert one to the fact that what o ccurs w ithin the frame i s to be c on

s i d er ed apa rt from i t s conventional u s e O n e su ch devi ce is O n ce up on a
.

time It means At s ome time or other for the old and for the young
.
, ,

signalizing the fact that wh at i s to follow i s to be understo od in detach

ment from i t s role in o rdin ary pra ctice S ometimes the frame for the .

story i s given by as signing to the s tory a time o r pla ce with which we

c an ha v e n o acquaintan ce This i s the de v ice employed in R o bins o n
.

C r u s o e Gu ll i ver s T r a vel s A li c e in Wo nd e r l a nd S ometimes it i s pro

, , .

d u c ed through the u s e o f archaic expres sions a s in I v a nh o e And s ome , .

times i t i s conveyed by the attitude o r tone o f the speaker o r the kind ,

o f situ ation in which the story i s told B ut the mo st certain way in which
.

t o frame a s tory a way which if properly pu rsued will en able o ne t o

, , ,

dispens e with the others i s by making e v ident that the s tory s sen
,

t enc e s even when grammatically impeccable are incomplete The reader

, , .

i s then fo rce d to move o n t o the subsequent s entences thereby a v oiding ,

the temptation to u s e anyone a s a design ation f o r s ome common s ens e -

o c curren ce .

Even when all a story s words are identical with thos e o f a c omplete
rep ort the senten ces o f the story are inc omplete n ot to be dealt with
, ,

i n is olation If I write
. T o m Jones broke a r ib on the l 4 t h o f July
, ,
x

I wri te a rep ort It can be true o r fals e It can be taken out of

. .

o n e dis course and put into another without seriously a ff ect ing i t s truth

o r meaning And it could be made part o f a s tory

. But if it i s it will .
,

change i n nature ; it will then ceas e t o be a rep ort t o become ins tead an
incident in the story of a rep orting That s to ry of the reporting c o n .

ta ins indications that it i s a framed story n ot a rep ort in fact The i n , .

d i c a t i o n s are of many s orts An ea sy and evident one . and therefo re

o n e that c an be abus ed i s that of invert i ng the usu al order o f the

words If I write On the l 4 t h o f July 1 86 4 T o m Jo nes broke a r ib

.

, ,

, ,

my sentence h a s every word i dent i cal w i th those o f the in i tial rep ort If .

I hold th i s inverted exp res sion over aga in st the wo rld of e v eryday by
an expl i c i t o r understood u s e o f a frame I have evidently begun a s t o r v, .
 S t o ry

The inversion o f the u sual order o f the words has made the reader ex ~

p e c t a t iv e re v eal i ng that this s entence i s t o be followed by another

,

which will help complete it I ha v e given it a s tru ctu re wh i ch shows that

.

it i s no repo rt and therefo re i s n o t to be taken a s an i s olatable s en

,

tence true o r false Inversion i s a maj o r device fo r ind i cating that the
, .

senten ces are no t to be understood t o belong ins ide da ily language or

one o f i t s sublangu ages but only ins ide a framed created o ne
, , .

I do n ot a c cept an inverted sentence a s making a c ompleted as sertion ,

but look from it to other senten ces The sentences o f a sto ry make n o .

claim se v erally but only together O nly together d o they o ff er a unity

, .

which could be used to refer t o a reality outside the dis course It is a .

s e t of senten ces in a sto ry that makes a statement That statement .

,

whi ch may c over a p aragraph a chapter o r an entire book makes us , ,

attend to man a s having c e rtain features a nd promise and thus a s being

m ore than an agent o r patient of a ction s The sto ry u ses c onvers ation .

and dialogue p res ents incidents and o c curren ces and expres ses dis
, ,

positions and hab its t o reveal the ground o f man s intents decisions
, , ,

su spi cions fears and hopes

, , .

M en are unit i es sustaining and exp res sing disp ositions and habits .

A s et of thes e disp osit ion s and habits cons titutes a c h a r a c t er ; an es

s en ce is exha u sted by a number o f chara cters But no character o r s et .

o f chara cters e v er exhau sts the n a t u r e of an actual ind i vid u a l Indi .

v id u a l s a re determinate unduplicable irredu cible beings Dispo sition s

, , .

and habits are general in imp ort exhausting only the repeatable gen , ,

eral aspect o f individuals the es s enc e o f a man Any man which a story
, .

might name des cribe or p ortray i s p artly indetermin ate having only
, , ,

an es s ence which is there arti culated by showing h o w his c h ara cters

fun ction
An a ctual individual expres ses his chara cter in distinctive ways in
di ff erent circumstances adding to it an irreplac able v itality and avor
, .

No matter how dis t i n ctive the expressions o f his cha racter he is ne v er ,

fully caught within it for he always ha s some being in reserve He is

, .

never fully explicit never fully real i zed never fully public H e is b e
, , .

yond the reach of a story A story is n ot concerned with p ortraying

.

him ; n or is it c on cerned with des cribing characters It u ses c h ara cters .

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 86

to make evident what man in es sen ce is like This it does by showing how
.

a m an if he had su ch and su ch a chara cter would respond in su ch and

, ,

su ch a circumstan ce .

A single sto ry h a s a single time th ough this m ay cover generations

,

and embrace a great number o f d i stinct o ccurren ces Ideally that time .

i s made up o f atomic m oments ea ch o f which sp ans a s tep in the form

,

ation of a chara cter Thes e m oments follow hard o n one an other there
.
,

by mak ing p os sible a sm ooth mo v ement in which in cidents are related ,

effects a ccumulated and chara cters re v ealed S ince the chara cters the
, .

sto ry deals with are those which a m an might ha v e and sin ce the in ci ,

dents and interact i ons o f the chara cters expres s the act i on o f exis ten ce ,

we can learn from story what existen ce imports f o r man .

In side the s tory the wo rds and senten ces m ake p oss ible the treatment
o f chara cters in a time wh i ch i s produ ced when and a s thos e characters

take ac count o f thems el v es and o ne another in convers ation and action .

The convers ation and a ction are s teps in the unfold ing of a plot over ,

the course o f which the characters are formed developed and exhibited , , .

The develo pment need not follow the routine courses o f ordin ary things
i t may subj ect its chara cters t o adventures and elicit rea ctions which
have no place in ordinary ex perien ce B ut there mu st be a plausible con
.

n e c t i o n between what i s supp osed and what i s m a de to follow o n it a ,

c onnection which w a s origin ally dis cerned in common experien ce The .

words and senten ces in the s tory are n ot entirely freed from the mean
ings they h ave outside i t It is these outside meanings that give the s tory
.

i t s environment an en v ironment which i s indicated by having the

,

characters speak and act in a plausible w ay .

A p oem in contras t has no en v ironment B oth story and poetry

, , .

h ave t o be sure often been lumped together a s d iff ering only in degree
, , .

E ach i s u sually broken down i nto subspecies s ome of which are given ,

subspec i es o f their o w n There i s con siderable value in distinguishing

.

short stories and n ovels ; p ol i tical so cial and historical plays ; epic
, , ,

narrative lyr i c and didactic p oems E a ch type rais es p arti cular prob
, , .

lems of technique s truc ture,history interpretation and evaluation

, , , .

B ut o u r c l a s s i c a t o r y s cheme indicates that these di ff erent types of

story and p oetry do n ot raise distin ctive questions of prin ciple What .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 38

story bigger than we know and we read a s to ry smaller than that which
,

w as made but we could c onceivably kn ow it all the way through Though

, .

a story may n ot be more complex than a grain o f s and i t but not the ,

s and c an c onceivably be thoroughly kn own

.

Through the u se of emotion ally charged words the storyteller makes

a s tory into a work o f art The words make p o s sible the p ortrayal o f
.

chara cters in a series o f interrelated mutually supp ortive in cidents ,

and a ctions The result i s a s equentially produced time in which an

.

i dea is vitalized and m ade to stretch ba ckwards over the whole story .

This time di ff ers from mu s ic r y s There the time is primarily rhythmic

.
,

governing the operat i on of a metre In s tory the oppos i te is true ; an .

i rregula r metre constituted by in c idents and a ctions governs the

, ,

rhythm .

A mu sical c omposition cannot be c ommun i cated in words or c oncepts ,

f o r the ideas it us es a re exhau sted in i t ; but a s to ry c an be ret old with

di ff erent words and even c on ceptualized by pull ing the ideas o u t o f
, ,

the vital emotion ally charged movement in which they were imbedded
, .

O f c ours e when the idea s o f a story are extra cted from it the s tory
, ,

ceases t o be a work of art ; rhythm and metre emotion and ideas are , ,

a s in p oetry and mus i cry interl ocked with in it , .

E a ch word in a s tory as wa s pre v i ously remarked has t w o primary

, ,

sens es ; it is p art o f the tissue of the s to ry and is in s ide the env i ron ,

ment o f the story It als o has two subs idi ary u ses ; it helps constitute
.

the texture of existence and i t exp res ses a me an ing No o ne o f these .

senses o r u ses can be c ompletely cut o ff from the others Becau se t h e V .

cannot be separated a story i s n ot only someth ing that c an be under

,

stood by a number of men but i s comi c or trag i c for all

, .

A sto ry makes vivid and immed i ate the trag i c o r comic import o f
exis tence not in outl i ne a s mu s i c ry d oes but in the shape o f chara cters
, ,

and incidents wh i ch embody po s ses s and c ontrol the movement o f that

, ,

time R i chard S ewall has recently shown how the tragic story both in
.
,

play and n ovel form provides u s with a vision a n awarenes s o f the
, ,

blight man was born f o r With great sens i t iv i ty and considerable

.

subtlety he makes evident h ow the tragic story is keyed t o the fact

,

that we men live s urrounded intruded up on challenged and infected , , ,

by a remorseles s unheeding existen ce sweep ing along with no regard

, ,
 S t o ry

fo r us , threatening o u r continuan ce and the continuan ce o f our values .

The tragi c vision calls up out o f the depths the rst 'and last )
o f all questions ; the question of existence : What does it mean to be ? It

recalls the o riginal terro r harking back t o a world that antedates t h e

,

c onceptions o f philos ophy It rec alls the o riginal u n reason the -

terro r of the irrational It s ees man a s questioner n aked u na c c o mm o

.
, ,

dated alone fa cing mysterious demonic forces in his o w n nature and

, , ,

outside and the irreduc ible fa cts of suf fering and death
, E ach age .

has di ff eren t tensions and terrors but they open on the s ame abys s ,
.

James F eibl ema n supplements S ewall with a stres s o n the ideational

comp onent in tragedy Tragedy depends he writes on the fact
.
, ,

that values a s a ctual affairs c annot persis t forever Hi s observation

.

p oint s up the need to dramatize the traged y W e would be only s addened

by the kn owledge o f the p assing of values and not feel it t o be tragic

if it were no t high lighted The tragic idea in a s tory is a dramatized
.

idea It i s traditional t o s a y that it relates to the dis c o v ery of a single

.
,

fatal aw i n man A tragedy though need n o t fo cu s o n a single aw

.
, , .

Its tragi c hero may have many aws O thello is n ot only j ealous ; he is .

als o bombas tic im petuous n aive gullible M ore imp ortant its tragic
, , , .
,

hero need n o t have a aw at all unles s it be the aw o f being an exis tent

,

man Is ambition a aw and lazines s not ? Is j eal ousy a aw and indif

.

ference not ? Is doubting a aw and ready belief no t ? E ach o f these i s

a aw but only because it i s a vital part of man weak frustrated con
, , , ,

fused incomplete ine s cap ably awed

, , .

Any side of man any featu re or virtue, a ccomplishment o r eff ort

,

c an become the pivot around which a tragedy c an be swung The tragedy .

that fa ces m a n is the very tragedy that fa ces a rt itself and any o t h er
thing that he m ight p roduce There is no wall s o a rtfully contrived be
.
,

it in the shape of man himself or any o f hi s works through which ex ,

i s t enc e w ill not surge There is n othing he can make of himself o r o f

.

other things which it cann ot blot o u t overturn submerge To make , , .

the tragedy more p oignant mo re v i v i d it i s often desirable to remark

, ,

on s ome outstand ing feature which tes t i es t o the fact that a man is
about t o be suc ces sful in the arduous task of existing Tragedy s trikes .

more vi v idly when it cat ches a man who h a s j ust managed to build up
a fortre s s in w h ic h h e can live as a full man bounded o ff from nature , .
 N i ne B as ic A r ts

.
1 40

The t r a g i c s t o r y makes the fa ct o f tragedy unmistakable by giving it

'

a substantial being o f i t s own .

When Aristotle s aid that neither a morally excellent man no r a

v illainous one c ould be topics fo r tragedy he overspecialized and there ,

by distorted a penetrating insight The mo st virtu ous o r a c c omplis h ed .

man can be suddenly overwhelmed and h i s values and a c h ievements ,

snu ff ed o u t Aris totle thought that the sto ry o f such a man would n ot
.

be truly tragic and could only s h o ck Yet Oed ip u s L ea r and S t J o an

, .
, , .

a re good tragedies And there c an be a tragedy in a s aint s fall from

.

gra ce a great general s failure of nerve a rich man s lo s s of fo rtune We
, ,

.

want of c ourse to see s omething in them that invites this fate enabling
, , ,

u s to s ense s ome modicum of j us tice in the overturn But the tragedy .

mains even if no j ustice can be dis cerned .

Aristotle made a stronger p oint when he s aid that the overthrow o f

a genuine villain i s n ot tragic that it merely assuages our et h ical s ense
, .

This I think i s due to the fa ct tha t the villain is s een to be o ne wh o i s

, ,

n o longer a man like the res t of us In a p revious tragic o ccurren ce he .

changed from ordinary man to villain ; n ow he n o longer shares 'a s a

merely bad m an would ) in the common human e ff ort to p erfect himself
s omehow His ambition greed con ceit brutality have already con
.
, , ,

quered him The tragedy s o far a s he is concerned is over ; he can

.
, ,

fun ction in the s to ry only a s an instrument of existen ce Iago wa s .

already almo st wh olly undone before the play began ; in the play his
villainous nature i s un covered n ot really develo ped , .

The values which are extinguished by existen ce are precious and

i rrepla ceable This fa ct is at the centre of the controversy a s t o whether
.

o r n ot there c an be a Christian tragedy If men are denied and defeated .

only a s preliminary to their being rais ed and ennobled there is n o ,

t ragedy in their overturn But if they are denied and defeated by a

.

p ower which a cts with out ap ology preparation o r ex cuse tragedy , ,

results from its operation There is then no tragedy for o rthodox

.

Christianity with its day o f last j udgment a nd p o ssible s alvation f or

,

all There is tragedy though in a Christianity which takes his t ory

.
, ,

s eriously w h ich sees Go d wo rking through time guiding but not c on

, ,

trolling the fo rces of nature There is tragedy t oo in a Christianity

.
, ,

wh ic h speaks of God s arbitrary elections and rebu ff s In t h ese latter

.
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 42

and then exaggerates the punishment i t should recei v e t o make it fear

ful and pitiful They c ontra st it with c omedy a s that which distorts a
.

aw by c aricatu re and then reduces pun i shment t o di s c o m t u r e s and

mo r t i c a t i o n But what c ould be meant by tak ing a aw l i terally if
.
,

aw there must be ? In what s ense is a pun i shment exaggerated ? D oes

j ustice demand that M a cbeth not d ie ? D oes o ne leave a tragedy with

one s sens e of j ustice outraged ? I think n o t Is it the case that a comedy .

distorts a aw ? O r i s it not rather that a defect i s made consp i cu ous

in order to be dealt with dramatically ? The latter seems to be the c as e .

Tragedy and comedy can be contras ted But I th ink one cannot w ith .
,

Co ok do it by s etting the wonderful aga ins t the probable imagination

, ,

against reason ethi cs again s t manners s oliloquy against the aside

, , ,

the hands ome agains t the ugly a ctor Any of these c an be found i n e ither
.

tragedy or c omedy The contrast between the s ol iloquy and the aside
.
,

howe v er , does bring one quite close t o the heart of the di fference b e
tween tragedy and c omedy In tragedy we have a man om inously in
.

t r u d ed upon ; we mus t go to h im to know what he i s l ike what the de ,

s truction will encomp as s This the s ol iloquy helps u s do In c omedy

. .

ex i stence i s ben ign and in the as ide one can represent it wh ile st ill
,

rema ining part of the sto ry The as ide enables a man to emphas ize the
.

fact that he is not a be ing w i th a den i te character ha v ing a limited

role in the story but o n e who is fun ct i on ing o n behal f o f ex i stence Hi s
, .

as ide can therefo re relate to h imself a s well as t o others Tr i stram .

S handy and the characters i n VVil de r s M a t c h m a k e r never step out o f

'

the story no matter h o w often they talk to the aud ience And s o far
, .

as they remain in the story they a re themselves m ade the creatures o f

the ben ign existen ce wh i ch they allow t o be manifested through them
selves .

In a comedy there are pla ces reserved for repres entat ives of o r r e ,

as ses sments by existence all serv ing t o free men from a mistaken set o f
,

values The clown and bu ff oon function p rimar ily a s loci fo r existence
. .

They ad v enture in ways the res t o f men would no t gett ing i nto d if ,

c ul t i es because they a re n ot a s p rotected a s others are by habit con ,

v ent i o n o r good fortune As is s ometimes s aid they are
, . comics b e , ,

ings wh o already exh ib i t the outcome of a comedy Already freed from .

o rd inary conventions a fact usually unders cored by the i r bizarre

 S t ory

1 43

attir e they point up what can be s aid and done without fear But

.

they fun ction merely as avenues through which existence will make its
benign nature known When they are beaten they are beaten not a s
.
,

characters but a s man and only a s a way of exp osing the p ower and
,

irresponsibility o f an ex i stence which though benign i s ind iff erent to , ,

what men think i s good o r desirable As p art of a story they open up .

,

in other chara cters ways in which these can attain authenticity o n a

more s ober le v el The clowns and bu ff o ons in the circus have a different
.

role serving there only a s reminders o cc as i ons a v enues for es cape

, , , ,

w h o by their freedom and es cap ad es el i cit laughter but no understand

ing They de mand no t an appreciation of comedy but only of the

.
-

p owers which a comedy should clar i fy ut il i ze and a rtistic ally present , , .

In the sto ry the comi c chara cter makes ev ident what we have hidden
,

from ours el v es and p ro v ides an opp ortunity f o r exhibiting a neg

,

l e c t ed truth He need n o t in word o r station in cha ra cter o r mien be

.
, , ,

lower than ordinary men any m ore than a tragic hero need be higher
, .

That he h a s pretensions a wrong sen se o f values must be made clear

, , .

B ut thes e he can have no matter what hi s nature station o r role N a , .

t i o n a l leaders and mighty s overeigns t h e s aintly and the heroic have , ,

been su cces sfully made the butts o f comedies .

In the war between men and women existen ce is us ed t o challenge ,

and o v erturn the pretensions o f the mere m ale or female In L y s i s t r a t a .

existence help s females conquer males ; in the T a ming of t h e S h r ew it

helps a male master a female A t hous and stories on television and in .

the movies tell of the c onversion o f an irritable elderly male o r a spin

s t e r l y female by mean s of the vital existence in children girls or lovers , , ,

t o become like them human in n ature and appeal

, , .

Insistent p owers impose conditions to make men no t what they would

like t o be and ev en ought t o be but what they must be in this cosmos , .

C omedy makes men aware o f what would be an authenti c s tate of being

for them It reevaluates men recovers better v alues f o r them and thu s
.
, ,

at on ce frees them from improper restra i nts and enables them to expand
in new ways It ends with an opened world Happy reconc il i ations r e
. .
,

newed determin ations the j oyou s meet ings of lovers and the l ike serve
, ,

to mark the fa ct that men have es caped from unnecess a ry restraints ,

and are ready t o live fully and well Comedy closes with rising turns .
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 44

towards a life which ha s been freed from en crustations that have weigh ed
it down before ; tragedy instead shows us relentles s forces at work ,

forces that do not take a c count o f o u r needs From comedy we learn how .

men ought to live ; from t ragedy we learn what exis tence will d o to them .

Values a re recovered p rodu ced revealed in comedy repla cing thos e

, , ,

which are irrelevant t o man s true n ature Authenticity i s a chieved false

.
,

values are pushed a side The p ro ces s may prove s obering It is laugh
. .

able though while being gone thro u gh Through erro r and s tupidity
, , .
,

con v ention and tradition men come to identify thems elves with values
,

which d o n ot do j usti ce t o the vitality and richnes s of existen ce either

a s manifest in them o r in the world bey ond Circumstan ce pers onalized .
,

o r indi ff erent sheers o ff the p retense ; men are buoyantly reas sessed
,

through the a ction o f existen ce We who by the privilege of being audi

.
,

en ce are p rivy t o the false values which the author is exposing adopt
, ,

the p osition o f existen ce to o If the pretensions are thos e which all of

.

u s share a wry comedy results ; we smile as philo s ophers not as men

, ,

c aught up s uddenly .

Comedy calls up emotions and energies which either h ad n o t been

u sed or which had been directed elsewhere and abruptly releas es them , ,

lets them explode a s laughter The laughter i s n ot directed at any char

.

a cter,o r even at a situ ation ; it i s j u st elicited j us t a way in which a ,

story makes it p os s ible f o r the energy o f existen ce t o be suddenly made

manifest through us With j ustice it c an be s aid that it is existen ce
.

which here laughs using and shaping u s to resp ond to a presentation

,

o f its elf a s ben i gn We u s e up energy when we laugh but are renewed b e

.
,

cause we are thereby readied f o r further a ction The energy we u se .

when we su ff er the course o f a tragedy in contras t serves only to , ,

make u s more c ontrolled more ready to stave off the exis ten ce whos e
, '

threat the story exposed When we cry at the t ragedy we are a ctually
.
,

exhibiting how existen ce i s prepa ring us t o deal with it a s ominous .

The pity and terro r that tragedy elicits are pu rged by being
directed at the story s ic on o f om in ous ex i s ten ce Ha v

ing learned what .

the world is like we are made wary able to deal w i th the world better
, ,

than we h ad Comedy als o purges Lane C ooper h a s s uggested that it

. .

purges u s of the feelings o f envy and malice but more often and more ,

c onspicuously it s eems to pu rge u s o f feelings of superiority and de

N i ne Ba s ic A r ts

1 46

r enc e s that follow after i t It ties them together and they in turn sus
.

tain it making it no t a single oc curren ce but the entire plot epitomized

, .

The climax has a maturat i on period ; it is arr i ved at Different move .

ments can begin at di ff erent p arts of the work and can end before the
climax t o help start or c onstitute s ome other h aving a d i rect bearing
,

o n the cl i max .

In o rdin ary life a cru cial o ccurren ce c an take place in an i nst ant A .

man s life c an be cut short without warning In the story there are no

.

o ccu rren ces o f this s o rt If there i s a cru cial e v ent referred to in a

.

sto ry for which no p reparation has been made and which leads to n oth
,

ing i t can be only s omething referred to It c an never be m ore than a

, .

m in o r in cident in that s to ry A ch ild s story in cludes a hundred deaths

.

,

all of which a re of mino r import There c an of course be inadvertent .

, ,

s tatements mis chan ces c ontingen cies ; there surely are unpredictable
, ,

events and out comes in a s tory but every o ne of thes e must be prep ared ,

for and have e ff ects in other in c idents and o n the chara cters of men .

S ince we do n ot know the men in a story except s o far as they are

revealed to u s in it and s in ce a sto ryteller ha s but a limited time he
,
-

mus t use only those items which have a contribution to make t o the
p rodu ct i on of the chara cter plot and climax Whatever ac cidents he , .

allows to happen have an es s ential not an ac cidental role in the story ; ,

the i r o ccurren ces express s ome p ower ca rrying o u t s ome des ign The .

a cc i dents in a story are thus inevitable and therefore n ot genu ine a c ,

c i d ent s at all precisely becau se they c ontribute es sent i ally to the mean
,

ing of the whole .

We can be c aught unawares in daily l i fe and forced t o expres s ,

emotions we never wanted to exhibit or imagined we had ; but even the

mino r incidents in a s tory are intended t o bu ild up emotions which

c ome to expres sion in a clima ctic o ccu rren ce O n the other hand the .
,

emot i ons in daily l i fe usually need s ome preparation whereas the ,

emotions elicited by a s tory can be quickly awakened and as qu i ckly

dispelled M any o f the in cidents in daily life are met by mos t ina pp r o
.

r i a t e emotions and mu ch o f the preparation in a s tory i s irrelevant

p ,

to the kind strength and durat i on of the emotion the reader is ready
, ,

t o expres s But ideally we prepare for what is to come both in and out
.
, ,
 t ory

1 47

side story the o ne through an habituated readines s to a ct the other

, ,

by an elicited readines s to exp res s elicited emotions .

Poetic j ustice is the p rodu ct o f a n existen ce which inj ures men pro
.

o r t i o na t el y to their vices and therefore their presumed des serts It

p ,
.

would not be poetic j usti ce if a man were killed by a gun he bought to

sho ot a p rowling animal o r t o protect the money o f an orphanage H e .

i s neither go od nor h a d when he does the fi rs t but is go od and not bad ,

when he does the second There w ould be p oetic j ustice though if he

.
, ,

were killed by a gun he bought t o kill an inno cent man S u ch j ustice .

could n o t be exhibi t ed in a story if one merely recounted the fa cts O ne .

mus t s h o w that the man has vices and what these are making this
'

evident in the way in which he buys the gun loads it waits for the vic , ,

tim and s o on Ideally the vi ctim in turn must be shown to be inno cent
, .
,

through analogous a ctions .

There ought t o be a s many themes in a story as there are pivotal

men in it E ach through his a ctions should further the plot I f he
.
, , .

does n ot he i s where not wrongly intrusive merely b ackground The

, , ,
.

devel opment o f the many themes together yields a complex stru cture .

This allows for protuberances and hollows straight aways and turns ,
-
.

It does not allow f o r breaks anywhere If it did the sto ry would n o .

,

longer be o ne Countles s omis sions and an imp osed clo sure are p os sible
-

s o long as thes e are consistent with the permeation o f a verb alized time

by vit al ideas .

S hort stories di ff er from novels no t in size bu t in the operation of

incident on chara cter The sho rt s t o r y keeps I n focus a single in cident
.

' o r at mo st a few ) and has this reverberate throughout showing its ,

e ff ect on chara cter but not having time enough t o develop the char

a cter The n ovel u ses many incidents in order to make man s ess ential
.

nature clear E th a n F r o m e is a sho rt st ory though longer than s ome

.
,

n ovels Ca t c h er in t h e R y e is a n ovel though shorter than s ome short

.
,

stories .

In short s tories and n ovels existen ce operates primarily through

i n cidents but i n a written play existence is expres sed primarily through
, ,

the a venue of chara cters and a ction s In short sto ries and novels the .

prima ry focu s is on the e ff ect which existence has on c h ara cter ; in

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 48

plays the primary fo cus is on the action of existence The former shows
.

existence in operation in o rder to show its eff ects ; the latter shows
existence s e ff ects in order to make evident the n ature o f it s operation

.

A written play but no sh ort story o r n ovel can fun ction a s a s cript

.

The novels used by playwrights are raw material from which incidents
o r chara cters c an be extra cted ; written plays can themsel v es imme

d i a t ely function a s cons tituents of th e quite di ff erent art o f the theatre .

S to ry i s the art which readily appeals to both young and old ig ,

n o r a nt and wis e Like every other art it must be entered into o n i t s o w n

.

terms the most important one o f which i s that it is t o be written and

,

read in a new langu age quite dis tinct both from the a t footed pro se of
-

everyday and the high o w n turn s of s cho olgirl p oetry It i s a language

-
.

c ompres sed between emot i on and idea and exhibiting in its rhythm
, ,

metre and texture what a temp oralized existence imp orts f o r man It
, .

can be mas tered without going through a period of p rofes sional train
ing S tudents are a ff ected by the stories that are r ec ommended t o them ;
.

they are imp res s ed with n ancial and histori c su c cesses and o v e r im ,

pres sed with the need to u se words i n a litera ry way They forget .

the illitera cy of Moli ere and S hakespeare Anders on and Faulkner
, ,

Di ckens and D ostoevsky who knew h o w to tell a sto ry becau s e they

,

attended p rimarily to the demands of the s tory itself This is what .

every s toryteller and reader ought to do .

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 50

but be Ho w could it no t mean ? Bec au se a p oem i s it means That is

.

, .

what it means f o r a p oem to be .

The mean ings o f hi s words are created by the p oet but n ot with out ,

regard fo r the meanings they h a Ve outs ide the poem He begins by o c .

c u y i ng a p os i t i on i n common time usually a s it i s grasped in da i ly

p ,

language and s ometimes a s it is u sed by story The da ily language is a

, .

condi t i on which is allowed to reverberate in the new language wh i ch that

daily language made p ossible The poet does n ot as the comp oser does
.
, ,

live wholly within his created time ; n or does he as the storyteller does , ,

recognize a time which supplements the time through wh i ch his crea

tures move Poetry and Story make entirely d ifferent uses of langu age ;
.

the two remain dis tin ct even when the former tells a tale and the latter ,

is put in vers e .

The poet is aware o f common time as a c ounter movement ins ide hi s

created work Theodo re Weis s writes me Part of the basi c drama o f
.
,

poetry lies in its c ounterp oint to the established metric The p oet
uses time against time H e must never allow c ommon time o f da ily

.

language t o have any but a min or role ; but als o he mus t never try to
erad i cate it c ompletely If the rst o c cu rs his p oem is banal ; if the
.
,

second he fails to c ommunicate

, .

Poetry contrasts n ot only with story but als o with pros e Pros e , .

makes use of the words gramma r and rhythms o f da ily l i fe to rep ort
, , ,

signal cue guide and stimulate men t o respond t o one an other and the
, , ,

world about in c on cordant ways In Sto ry th i s u se is supplemented by.

another where it is made subservient t o the needs of the characters

and plot In ne i ther case need the p ros e be at o r uninteresting
. .

Pros e does not allow i tself t o be guided by metaphor except i n ciden

tally ; it does not emphasize the clues wh i ch s ounds p rov i de n o r allow ,

a c cent or rhyme to d i ctate what is next to b e put down It does no t us e .

a steady beat throughout It has no xed metre It makes use o f rheto ric
. .

to gain elegance subordinating th i s and other devices t o the need to

,

ach i eve s ome end such as persuas i on or pleas ure B ut whatever poetry

s ays i s integral to it Any rhetoric o r other ornament it might us e i s

.

as much an i ntegral p art o f i t as its wo rds and s ilen ces are It need not .

persistently follow any rhyme s cheme n o r move at any pres cribe d ,

pa ce it may make use of a s teady beat o r it may a ccelerate and hesitate ,

 oe t r y

at and slu r its terms and a ccents S ometimes it pursues a regular

.
,

s ometimes an irregular course depending on what must be done to

,

overcome tendencies towards monotony triviality and c onventi on , ,

ality All that matters is that it c reate a substantial irreducible time

.
,

qualitatively rich freely developing and endles sly pla stic

, , .

The writer o f a sto ry als o desires to avoid monotony and attempts ,

to do j ustice to the nature o f t ime But he is n o t con cerned with creat

.

ing a time whose entire be ing i s contained in a created language ; lan

guage and time f o r him have another role outs i de the language and
time which he u ses t o exh ibit chara cters and plot They there a ct as .

mea sures o f what i s p laus ible and mean i ngful t o the chara cters and
plot The p oet in contras t without denying a role to ordina ry lan
.
, ,

guage and t ime u ses determines and subj ugates them Even a purely
, , , .

narrat ive p oem has thes e features ; its plot development and climax , ,

are c arried in go od part by the created mean ings and the s ounds o f
wo rds and not a s in a work o f n arrati v e p ros e s olely by in cidents
, , , ,

a ctions and the interplay of chara cters

, .

D a ily language i s s omet imes s aid t o be an attenu ated p oetry a ,

p oetry attened out become stale with u s e But it is n ot a genuine

, .

p oetry Nor was it ev er s o It wa s never creatively produ ced ; never ex

. .

i s t ed a s a fresh union of stable n i te forms and cosmi c meanings ; never

was set apart from t he world of everyday When in puns little rhymes .
, , ,

in attent i on to the quality o f our speech we take o u r daily language ,

to be s olid and subs tantial we turn i t not into a work o f a rt but only
, , ,

into an aesthetic obj ect We then do no t l i ve I n I t actually make a new

.
,

t ime out of it ; we merely s et it over aga ins t the res t of daily language
a s s omething to be enj oyed .

Every word o f a p oem is primar ily part o f a language wh i ch exists

only i n the p oem That langu age has layers up on layers of meaning
.

wh i ch n o external use o f it s terms c ould ever express S t ill every word .

,

and meaning in a poem can be i s olated and des cr ibed but of course ,

not wi thout reducing the p oem los i ng the unexpres sed connect i ons
,

which make the poem the p art i cular substant i al unity it i s .

There are no rules wh i ch tell o n e h o w to u s e the words in a poem We .

can br i ng them in s olely for their tones ; we can u s e them to make a s

s er t i o n s we can make them carry s cienti c religious o r moral truths , , .
 B a s ic A r ts

c an turn them into paradoxes make them expres s s ome quaint ,

y u s e them to pro v i de una c cented c onnections Every p o em does

, .

f these th ings and o ne might for a while con centrate on any

,

them If by poetry we mean the lyrical the he ightened unusual

.
, ,

e s o f words and phrases then no poem a s C oleridge obs erved

,

i s all poetry But the poet i c side of the p oem the fresh created
.
, ,

of i t must stretch o v er the n onpoetic elements t o make them inte

,

parts o f the poem The nonp oet i c u s ages must be subordinated to

.

ti c to make a universe o f language revealing s omething o f the ,

id e s omething of o u r deepest s el v es and s omething o f our

, ,

asp i rat i ons .

poet does n o t necess arily like the characters or events h e

es except a s in that context He produces a qualitative whole
, .

its own rat i onale and value thereby enabling u s to see what in ,

i s and to face p r i mary issues in an appropriate way His poem

, .

n ot exclude any ass o c i ations no t e v en the banal His words have , .

zh e meanings that they i n fa ct elicit when they are brought into r e ,

on with on e another in the poem S ome of these t h e

p o et might r e
'

were they s tated expl i citly .

lvery poem tells a l i e for it changes the form meaning and role
, , ,

he words which we use when we speak truthfully in ordin ary life In .

l
eper s ense every poem tells more truth than daily dis course p ermits
, ,

e even when i t sings of rout ine th ings it re v eals what existen ce is ,

s elf for the p oet and what i t p rom i ses all o f u s i W i s

, , p s of old mean
cl ing to the p oet s wo rds S omet imes the old meanings almos t over

.

l m the new Depend ing on the side o f e x i stence t o wh i ch they were

.

L c h ed o r w i th what dark o r l i gh t words they were as so c i ated the ,

d s i n a p oem are themselves l ight o r dark They h ad a bias towards .

s ide or the other of ex i sten ce before they were parts o f the poem .

y and spring and birth are usually l ight ; death and

g h t ,
s i cknes s and weaknes s are usually dark In between are .

d ,
but if and then In the p oem the meanings and colors
, , .

t l l o f these change ; shadows fall a cros s what had been l i ght ; rays

c e the words whos e meanings were quite dark Death can be wel
'
.

le d and l i ght d i sdained and yet b asic truths revealed

,
.

du ce a p oem is many moments many incidents even the poet s en , ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 54

word in the poem mu st be seen to a ff ect others by virtue o f the meanings

it shares and opp os es and by virtue of i t s s ound As sonances and all it er
, .

a t i o ns paradox and rhyme timbre and p i tch must be used to help him
, ,

t o a fliate ea ch word with others If he reads it properly he will nd .

the p oem to be s olid thick one cont inuum of rhythmic metred v er

, , , ,

b a l i ze d revelatory time at on ce overwhelm i ng and in v iting po sses sed

, , ,

and defeating s atis fying and frustrating Robert Lowell writes me :

, .

I think o f a p oem a s s omething that can reach almost t o the innite o r ,

sa
y , to W a r a n d P e a c e in i t s inclusion o f experien ce ; at the other ex
,

treme i t i s a musical organization bound together by s ound motion

, , , ,

v oi ce tone imagery syntax etc and all but v erbally meaningles s

, , , , .
, .

The poem is a life and death struggle between the lived experience and

the organizational apparatus .

Here i s the sixth s tanza of Yeats A mo ng S c h o o l C h il d r en

Plato thought nature but a spume that plays

Up on a ghos tly p aradigm o f things ;
S olider Aristotle played the taws
Up on the bottom o f a king of kings
World famous golden thighed Pythagora s
-

Fingered upon a ddl e stick o r Strings -

What a star s ang and c areles s M uses heard

Ol d clothes upon o l d s ticks to s care a bird .

This stanz a i s very ri ch An entire chapter would not be enough to do

.

i t j ustice B ut it will help u s s ee how rich it i s if s ome o f the more ob v iou s

.

as s ociations in it are s et down Plato ha s obvious verbal aili a t io ns
.

with plays and played and obvious as s o ciated meanings with

Aris totle and Pythagoras Through plays it h a s an ideational .

bearing on ngered ; it als o h a s an ideational and faint verbal r e

lation to s ang while ngered h a s s omewhat sim ilar relat i ons to
,

s ticks and ddl es t i ck s All fou r are related primarily by meaning
.

and s ome als o through s ound t o s trings s tar and muses
, , .

Thought i s related to things and taw s in one way and to

spume Ari stotle
, Pythagoras and Plato in another Na
, .

ture ,
s olider Aristotle, star bottom , bi r d belong in , ,
 P oet r y

one world of meanings S pume goes wi th ghostly
. upon golden , ,

th i ghed , careles s muses
, clothes ; through the agency of
,

thought it was part o f a p revious s et P arad igm moves through .

an other group o f terms S ome o f the as s ociat i ons of the words are
.

c ontrolled others are advent i tious All are legitimate but only the
, .
,

c ontrolled ass o c i ations g ive the root meanings of the p oem and then ,

only s o far as thos e mean ings are gr o unded in a vision o f the whole
o f things and expres s s omething of the deepest reces ses of ex i sten ce

in man and outside him .

A p oem is more than wo rds as s o ciated ; i t has a stru cture and an

organ i z ation And i t s words expres s i deas Plato Ar i stotle and P y
. .
, ,

t h a g o r a s are here c ontras ted as th i nker tea cher and student o f mus i c , , ,

a s otherworldly mater i alistic and art i stic ; all three o f them are set
, ,

in opp osit i on t o the spindly body they despite their achievements ,

eventually po s s es s and wh i ch i s n o w app arently p o ssess ed by the p oet

, .

The p oem tells us what nature w a s for three philos ophers and what in
fa ct is the cas e that all men in the end a re frail thing like in looks

,

and ways and yet strong enough to challenge the free winging and
,
-

un conned : thoughts boys mus i c s ongs and birds

, , , , .

The last line of the Sixth stanz a helps us j ump a s tanza to the
brilliant eighth
'

Labour i s blos s oming o r dancing where

The b ody i s not bruised to pleasure s oul
'

Nor beauty bo rn out o f i t s o wn desp air ,

N o r blear eyed wisdom out o f midn i ght o il

.

O ches tnut tree great ro oted bl o s s o m er , ,

Are y o u the lea f the blo s s om o r the b ole ? ,

O body swayed t o music 0 br i ghtening glance , ,

How can we know the dan cer from the dan ce ?

S ound alone a ili a t es blo ss om i ng with body bruised beauty , , ,

born , blear eyed
bole ,br i ghtening dan cing and dance
, , , .

Its mean ing is o ff ered oppo s i t i on o n the next three lines ; it reappears
in the fourth and fth and in another guise in the last t w o The whole
, .

s ays something but what it s ays i s not to be found by treating it a s a

,
 ue of as sertions Nor c an it be found by n oting the various r everb er
.

i ns o f the words and phrases o r the development of a meaning

, .

.anne Langer ha s made the point splendidly though the

fe r i a l o f p oetry is verbal i t s import i s n o t the literal as sertion made
,

;h e wo rds but t h e wa y t h e a s s er t i o n i s ma d e
, and this involves the ,

md the temp o the aura o f as s o ciations o f the wo rds the long or

, , ,

r t s equen ces of ideas

v the wealth or p overty o f transient imagery
,

t contains them the sudden arrest of fantasy by pu re fact or of

, ,

mil i ar fact by sudden fanta sy the s uspens e of literal meaning by a

,

t a ined ambiguity res olved in a long awaited key word and the uni - -

ng , all embra cing arti ce o f rhythm Sh e gives body to Eliot s

.

; er v a t i o n that the poet dislo cates language i nto mean i ng break i ng ,

wn the fam il i ar us ages and s tructures real igning words to m ake them ,

ments in a new meaning That new meaning i s a new t ime in wh i ch

.
,

ar e i s n o separat i on p os s i ble between dancer and dance between leaf , ,

i s s o m o r ho le .

The early I A R i chards ma int a ined that the s tatements which
. .

pear i n poetry are there f o r the s ake o f the i r eff ects upon feelings ,

t f o r the i r o w n s ake to ques t i on wh e ther they deser v e ser i ous

tent i on a s s t a t em en t s c l a i m i ng t r u t h i s t o m i s take the i r fun c ,

-n many if n ot most o f the sta t ements i n p oetry are there a s

, ,

n e a u s to the man i pulat i on and e x pres s i on o f feel ings and att i tudes ,

t a s contr ibut ions to any body of doctr ine o f a n v type whate v er

.

i e negat i ons here n ot the a f rmat i ons are defens ible A p oem ma v
, , .

nt a in a s s ert i ons p ropo s i t i ons ; i t may e v en be written t o expres s a

,

e nt i c o r commonplace truth B ut i t n e v er allows s uch cons i derat i ons

.

be o f a p r imary c on cern If a s i t s omet i mes does a poem includes

.
, ,

ts o f sh ips shards o f nonsens e and pla in factu al announcements it

, , , ,

es s o by m ak i ng them parts of a r i cher whole Als o i t is not alto .

,

ther correct to s a y that i t i s a fun ct i o n o f p o et r v to a ff ect feel ings

at t itudes We look to i t t o pres ent u s w i th a real ity which i s tem
.

ral sensu ous humanly important And th i s i t can do because it

, ,
.

1 18 w i th language and i deas em o t i o n a l l v .

A poem i s produced w i th the help of the emot i ons A s a consequence .

,

is an obj ect c apable o f el i cit i ng emot i ons from tho se who follow the
d o f i t s language The emot i ons are the i ns truments for poetry as
. .
Ni n e B a s i c A r ts

1 58

is a present O ver i t s sp an both p ast and future stretch the one carry
.
,

i ng the emotions the o ther meanings to m ake time at on ce per ceptible

, ,

and important Unread the poem i s sheer structure a formal time ;

.
, ,

read it h a s the urgen cy and boundar i es of a unitary event

, .

Time has a varying thi cknes s whose most sudden dips and swells
are made evident in the p oem by a ccent and rhyme st anza and s trophe , .

D i d time merely o w had it no beats it could n o t be enj o y ed O ne would

, , .

be swept along by it at s e a dis oriented and dis commoded Like the

, , .

musician the poet als o makes u s e of a metre Poetry s aid B ridges .
, ,

s elects certain rhythms and makes systems o f them and these repeat ,

themselves and this i s metre M etre promotes a purchas e o n the poem

.
,

f o r without breaking the poem s continuity it sp aces it and thereby
p aces it .

M etre and sim ilar devices are the topics o f a s cien ce of pros ody ,

the only aspect o f poetry that can be taught The rules o f pros ody s erve .

t o tell us th at time poun ces and springs moves up and down as it moves ,

along Unlike music which a cknowledges an extern al clo ck like time

.
,
-

p oetry keep s its measure wholly inside The rules o f pros ody are n ot .

impos ed o n it ; they are exemplied by it Time s beats are determined .

by what time contains When Aj ax s trives s ome ro ck s vast weight to
.

throw /the line t o o labors and the words move slow

, .

P oems have di fferent rhythms and metres ; they speak o f di ff erent

topics ; they have di fferent lengths And a s we move from country t o .

country we nd that they have diff erent forms The ques tion which .

every art inevitably raises how can di fferent instances all exhibit the
,

s ame reality therefo re becomes a cutely insistent in a dis cus sion of

,

poetry Time c annot at on ce be both fast and slow smooth grained

.
,
-

and rough hewn tens e and loos e ; yet poems are times which di ff er one
-

from the other in thes e resp ects It seem s reason able therefore to s a y .

that each p oem cat ches one facet o f time and that we need all the p oems
that man can make in order to catch them all But were this true it .
,

would be hard t o understand why we do no t feel dis s atised wh y we ,

do not feel s omething lacking w h y we do not having enj oyed one type
, ,

of p oem move on to another p articularly one of a c ontrasting type

, , .

It is true that a proper enj oyment is exhausting and that we h ave not
the energy or the time t o engage in another adventure s oon B ut we .

ought t o feel that such an adventure should be made We do n ot A . .

poem is enj oyed as complete s elf s ui c i ent ,

-
.

It i s no more s atisfa ctory in answer to the question a s to how dif

,

f er ent instances o f art can exhibit the s ame reality t o s a y that ea ch in ,

stance presents the whole o f reality in o ne o f a number of pos sible

guises If time is really slow o r co ars e gra i ned a poem which exhibits
.
-

i t as fas t o r smoo th is dis torting it m i s cons truing it not presenting , ,

i t at all If it be s aid that the poem may give time a special twist as
.

testimony to the fact that it is a ti me made by man what reas on would ,

we h ave for rej ecting any bit o f wri ting a s a way o f pres enting ti me ?
There would be no real need to go to poetry to learn what exis ting time
i s l i ke ; we could nd that o u t by mak i ng the s i mplest statement in
p ros e O r rather we would no t be able to nd out anything about time
.
,

from either p ros e o r poetry since the only time we would be presented
,

with on the hyp othesis would be a t ime which can be unlike real time
, ,

i n quality stru cture p a ce and beat

, , , .

A dilemma neither of whose alternatives is a cceptable is o ne which

, ,

has been p o orly forged An altern ative must have been overlooked The
. .

t i me in a p oem like the sp ace in a p ainting is neither fragmentary nor

, ,

unl i ke the real It is all time given a verbal huma nized form with an
.
,

emphasis o n one aspect in one poem or in o ne l i ne and an emphasis o n ,

another aspect in a nother p oem o r l i ne The poem is never merely .

smooth or co arse slow or fast It is a smo oth time within which a

, .

c oarsening can be dis cerned a slow movement riding on the crest of ,

a faster one and s o on The p oem pres ents us with one or t wo sides o f
, .

t i me uppermost but als o nds a place f o r an in nit u d e o f other sides

, ,

not immediately evident O u r initial d ilemma was framed for a time

.

supposed to li e evenl y inside a poem j o i n ing the rs t syllable to the

a

las t in a stra ight and S imple way But t ime sw i rls ; it has eddies and .

cro ss currents ba ckwashes and waves The p oem exh ibits this i n an
, .

ind iv i dualized humanly relevant verbal form

, , .

The time o f da ily life h a s an e x ternal past That pas t is relevant both .

f o r the cr i t i c and the p oet It is t o th i s past L i v ingston L owes turned

.

in order to account for the images and ideas in C oleridge s Ku bl a K h a n

.
Nin e B a s i c Ar ts

1 60

That pas t provided him with clues to as s o ciations obs cure meanings , ,

and ways o f reading the p oem But n o one can hope fully to understand
.

the p oem from this perspective alone N o study o f the poet s p as t will .

explain his p oem N o t only are the power and meaning o f the p ast trans
.

muted in the pro ces s o f creation but the act of c reation adds s ometh ing
,

t o that transmuted p ast .

If we are t o understand how a poem comes ab out we must take note

n o t only o f the pas t which the poet uses but o f the present in whi ch the ,

poet is wo rking and of the future meaningful pro spect he is concerned

,

w i th making real When account is taken of all three the p oem is of

.
,

course an inevitable p roduct But the creative pro ces s exis ts only in
.

the present time through which it goes We c annot lay hold of that .

creative pro ces s to explain the poem s presence o r n ature without going

,

through it and its now dep arted p resent all over again , .

The poem als o takes a ccount o f a p os sible reader who is to be vital

i zed through the a ction o f the poem The p oem is made to be read and .

i s made therefore with a reader in view We can s a y th at the poem exists .

while no t read becaus e we attach it to the pro spect of its being read
, .

S u ch a prospect must h ave a being outside the p oem and outside the
poet It can be no mere thought for it would then expres s only a hope
.
,
i

that the p oem will be read and n ot the p os sib ilit y o f su ch a reading
, .

Nothing will happen unles s it can happ en and what c an happen is the ,

pos s ible E ach poem p oints to a p articular type of reader now and to
.
,

mankind eventu ally Though at times deliberatel y wr i tten fo r ch ildren

.

and lovers f o r other poets and critics fo r state o cc as i ons and decl a
, ,

mat i on p oems are in roo t written f o r all men

,
.

The standard o f excellence for a poem is obviously outside it Were .

there no such s tandard poems could no t be sign i cantly j udged to be

,

better or worse su c ces ses o r failures It may n ot always be pos sible to

, .

speak wi th surety o n th i s quest i on but it should always be pos s ible i n

,

pr inciple to provide an answer We mus t afrm that there is a s tandard

.

even though we m ay n ot know it in full deta il o r how to apply it well .

That standard c annot be given by ethics rel igion o r s o ciety These , , .

provide conditions al i en to the central meaning and value o f wo rks of

art Nor c an the s tandard be existential obj ect ive cosmic time This
.
, , .
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 62

make it p art o f ones elf below the level where public ob servation and i n
,

t er p l a y o c cur N o w this is j ust where poetry has its e ff ect The p oem
. .

does in one s tep what other enterpris es do in t w o i t s meanings are never

stabilized s omewhere between author and reader .

The poem can o f cours e be dealt with in a two s tep way We do ha v e .

s ome unders tanding of the words the p oem uses Remaining with thes e .

we can identify a meaning which might be shared by a number o f men .

That meaning i s s omewhat imprecis e a s i s to be expected from terms

,

employed in ordin ary dis c ourse and a ff airs But a hard nucleus i s rec
.

o n i z a bl e en abling o ne man t o share hi s knowledge o r opinion with

g ,

an other through i t s agen cy The nu cleus i s charged with a p ower which

.

words d o n ot usu ally have in ordinary life Without the help of the .

p oem i t i s imp os sible t o take the second step and vi v ify the Shared
,

terms to the degree or in the manner which will d o j us tice t o the meaning
o f the p oem B y stopping at the rs t s tep we lo se the grain and vitality
.

o f the poem s time In reading a p oem therefore o ne ought ne v er to

.
, ,

do more than hesitate at the point where philos ophy mathematics or ,

s cient i c c ommunication i s content t o stop f o r a t ime The entire for ce .

o f the unity o f the p oem mus t be put behind the wo rds a t which one

hesitates thereby giving their meanings a trans forming dynamic c o n

, ,

text .

The dis co v ery that people di ff er widely in the i r interpretation o f

poetry a s they do in their interpretation of other arts i s a testimony
, ,

to the fact that they either ha v e not read properly o r that when asked ,

to report what it i s they have learned they turn into termini the terms
at which they hesitated We can repeat wh at a s cience has learned
.

becaus e it s communication stops at j ust that point lea v ing to the i n ,

di v i dual to decide for himself j us t how to make that knowledge h is

own B ut we cann ot repeat what the poetry h a s con v eyed ex cept by
.
,

e x ter i or i zing ourselves and then only in the guise o f the langu age which
,

the poetry originally provided .

O ne interpretation o f a poem i s no t a s good a s an other O ne man .

may mis s what another sees We do no t check the adequacy of men s

.

understanding o f the poem a s we d o in mathematics by making them

, ,

draw consequences and s eeing whether they come out with the results
which a trained s tudent does We check their p araphrases and how
.
,
 o et r
y

they read the poem with what a trained s tudent o f p oetry s ays about
,

it and by the way he reads the poem The meaning o f a bit of m athe .

m a t i c s als o i s given by the consequences whereas the meaning of a

, , ,

p oem is gi v en by going through the poem itself .

Just a s one can tea ch a man t o infer better s o one can tea ch a man to ,

read better He who did not s ee how Plato
. plays and Aristotle ,

a ff ect o n e another in Yeats s t a n z a c a n be taught t o see that Yet there

comes a point beyond which s ome men s intelligence sensiti v ity energy
, , ,

or i nteres t does not g o Those w h o mo v e beyond that p oint d o not mo v e

.

into s ome es oteri c realm but into o ne in which a limited number of men
,

persist in using the s ame p rocedures that had been used by a larger
.

group f o r shorter s p ans .

The interest expres sed b y s ome critics in communicating a poet s

intent is often b ased on a double mis conception They suppose that .

the poet had a denite intent and that the poem s meaning can be r e

p e a t e d in other words B ut the p oem contains more than the poet in

.

tended and it conveys this directly and more o r les s completely t o the
,

reader who reads i t as a poem The more we attend to a p oem and the
.

more we le a rn fro in it about the structure the rhythm the texture , , ,

and the i mport o f time the more we know either that the p oem i s
,

superio r t o other poems which yield les s or that we ha v e a capacity to , .

extra ct from it what others do not but which they may perhaps ex ,

tra ct from other p o ems We can Show why M ilton is a greater poet
.

than P o e ; we c an conv ey t o s tudents s o m et hing o f the way to r ead both

'

s o that the d iff eren ce is quite clear B ut we cannot surely s ay that

.

M ilton wrote better p oetry than Wordsworth o r Yeats ; there i s an

i n n i t u d e to be extracted from ea ch and none o f u s has gone s o far in
,

the understand i ng o f any one of them to be sure that the others ha v e

been left forever and in every way behind
, , .

There are no terms peculiarly suitable t o a p oem O n the other hand .

,

there i s no doubt but that the words i n a p oem aff ect o n e another E ach .

operates in the domain o f others This I S of course als o true o f the

.
, ,

terms we use in daily life Thes e have at lea st an o ccasional e ff ect o n

.

one another It i s hard to rem ain con centrated in one area to exclude
.
,

all as s o c i ations to keep a language pure free from all admixture It

, , .

i s perh aps impos sible Almos t every term in living dis course and in
.
 N i ne B a s ic A r ts

1 64

poetry is in e ff ect a met apho r S tri ctly speaking a metapho r is an .

,

expres sion where words known to have a preferential o r primary u se ,

in one context are expli citly employed in an other Read a s though the
*
, .

wo rds h ad literal appli cation in that other context the metaphor con ,

veys a falsehood .

Wh at alliteration and rhyme do f o r words somewhat s eparated ,

metapho r does in one pla ce ; it as s ociates meanings and emotions which

otherwis e would not have been rel ated M etaphor t o o breaks through .
, ,

diff erent segments o f dis cours e and interes t normall y kept s eparate , ,

thereby enabling o ne t o p resent truths n ot readily within no rmal reach .

Fo r these reas ons metaphors are favorite devices of poets But n o poet , .

need make use o f them ; metaphors are not es sential to poetry Indeed .
,

no particular words or combin ations o f words no ways o f manipulating ,

o r using them are But since metaphors are constantly in u s e in poetry .

,

their nature ought to be dis cus sed .

An old metaphor and an easy o ne w ill help make e v ident the nature , ,

o f all Richard the lion hearted w a s of course not at all lion hearted
.
,

, ,
-
.

He could not have had the heart of a lion without bei ng a lion But .

then if he were a lion it would n ot increase our knowledge much to s a y

, ,

that he had a lion s heart By means of the met aphor we want t o s a y that

.

Richard is brave but als o s omething more The metaphor enables u s , .

to expres s two truth s at the s ame time starting from opposite sides ,

Were Ri chard an anim al he would be a lion and W ere a lion human

,

it would be a Richard The rs t s ays that Richard i s courageous t h e

.
,

second that lions are rulers It would n o t therefore be a s go od a met .

a h o r to s a y of Richard that he w a s t i ger hearted or elephant
p
-

hearted n o m atter how courageous these were We tend to s a y n o t .

s trong hearted or lion but lion hearted to indicate the lo cus o f
-

It is s om e t i m e s s u p p o s e d t h a t m e t ap h o r s h a v e no p l ace in s ci e nc e . Y et i f as ser

t io n i nvo lv s c nvi ct i n ' nd t h us m t i on) s i nt i c d i u

e o o na l s th n th e o , c e sc o r s e, o es a e

i nv lv s t h u s f m t p h i l l ng u g H vy nd bi g d in y
p tioe c, o e e e o e a or c a a a e . ea a a r e or ar

t ms
er ch i vi ng ci nt i c i mp
a e t by t h w y i n wh i h t h y
s e l t d t or th e a c e a re re a e o o er

ms i ns i d t h w ld f ci n Th y m t ph l t h n li n h t d
ter e e or n o s e ce . e are e a or s o es s a o -
ea r e

is .I n

p s it n
o ,

w ld l i n

o l i ght w v
ro

nd t h
,
l ik
or m th n m

e,
-
a e

a e e a re or e a e re

co u nt s in n i mp
er s n l d is c u a Th y n t only f t t h bj ct s f s ci nt i c
er o a o rs e . e o r e er o e o e o e

e xp s s i ns
re b ut t t h t mi ni f s ci nti c i nq u i y wh
o , o et h y fu n t i n i n w y s
er o e r , ere e c o a

n t o sc t i n bl b y
a er a n wh k n ws only t h f m l d niti ns A mm n s ns
a e o e o o e or a e o . co o -
e e

t m s u ch s h vy i s n m o re nd no l s s c i nt i v c bu l y

er a ea m t ph in o a e s a e a or a e c o a ar ,

th n s m c i nt i i n i s i n t h l iv in g d i s u s

a u ch
o t m
e s s s e c f ci nt i s t
er a o , e co r e o s e s .
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 66

with what lion hearted does with the result that courageous king
-

l i ne s s acquires a new emotional value .

The metaphor s ays that Richard i s courageous and lio ns are rulers ;
i t als o s ays s omething mo re by referring u s t o what is common to both
R i chard and l i ons t o what makes po s s ible their status as rulers and
,

the i r character as courageous This i s taken t o underlie them both The

. .

po i nt can perhaps be made more evident by attending t o the fact that

an expres sion su ch a s Were Richard an animal he would be a lion is
a conditional contrary to fact S u ch conditionals explic ate mark out
-
.
,

the outlines o f a potentiality the core o f a substan ce : Were I king I
,

would s et all pris oners free i s intended to remark on my generosity
,

o r wisdom It talks about me and about me n o w it tells about a cap acity

.

I have but wh i ch I cannot o r do not now u s e Were Richard an animal
, .

he would be a lion tells u s that Richard is n atively courageou s a nat
, ,

ur al ruler ; Were a lion human it would be a R i chard tells us that a
lion has the ri ght t o rule The t w o together then tell u s th at Richard
.

and l i ons ar e rulers by nature in the double sense o f having a native

gift t o rule and a native right t o rule They are s ubstantial beings .

pos s es s ed of gifts and rights who deserve t o rule bec aus e o f the rights
,

and who now rule becaus e o f the gifts .

A metaphor can serve as a theme ; s o can a word a phras e a line , ,

and even phoneme It would be best if the theme were suddenly illu
.

mina t ing o r obtrusive with a grain that d i stinguishes it from a grain

,

characteristic o f ord inary words M olded by t he needs o f the entire .

poem spaced by other themes syn categoremat i c terms punctuation

, , , ,

and metre developed in i dea o r fo rm over the entire work the theme
, ,

has a pla ce where it s tands o u t most c onspicuously a climacti c p osi ,

t i on towards and from which the other us ages and variat i ons c an be
s aid to lead and proceed There is never though even in the simples t
.
, ,

poem j us t a s ingle theme Every poem exh ibits themes of many di ff erent
, .

ty pes all o f whi ch should be i n harmony t o cons titute a stru cturally

, ,

complex whole .

The brev i ty of even the longest p oem forces the poet to omit far
more than the storyteller can allow B ut the metaphorical and intensive .

u s e o f the poet s words enable him t o retain what he had omitted though

,

in an adumbrated not in an explicit form Every fa cet o f the p oem

, .
 P oe t ry

rhyme and metre paradox alliterat ion etc plays a role t o constitute
, , , , .

a unity in which all are together in new created u nduplicable ways

, , .

Thes e characterizations o f the es sential properties of poems as was ,

the case in connection with the works of other arts refer to an ideal ,

work One poem may exhibit s ome features of the ideal superlatively
.
,

another poem m ay fa v or a di ff erent s et S ooner o r later the poet mus t

.

force a closure end work on the poem before the poem has been per
,

f e c t l y made All the while he will be guided by the prospect o f a per fect
.

reader who will measure the su cces s the poet has had in making an idea
permeate the p oem .

The poet stands out for all as the superlative maker a true artis t ,

who strains to make a wo rk o f art and nothing more He is not alone . .

There are compo sers and p ainters s ome s culptor s and actors an archi
, ,

te e t or two many dancers singers and condu ctors who als o p as sionately
, ,

seek to produ ce works of a rt B u t p oets appear to be more numerous

. .

S ince the poet s language s eems t o have an apparent immediate relation

to what we d o every day and su rmise in between times it is inevitable

, ,

that the p oet should stand out in his tory and in education a s one who
c an lead us qui ckly into the world o f art But like every other art.
,

p oetry mo st inspires and enriches i f taken t o be an art and nothing

,

more We lose the value o f poetry and the value it has for us if we r e
'

fuse to accep t it o n its own terms and thus if we forget that the time
,

o f t h e p oe m is real time verbally displayed .

IO M USIC

E XI ST I N G space is di v ersely intensied in indi v iduals ; existing

time is pulverized by them ; energy i s channelized through them Exis t .

ing space and the indi v iduals s aid to be in it d i ff er in degree Existing

, , .

t ime and the pri v ate times into which it is subdivided by individuals
, ,

d iff er a s a o ne and a many Exis ting energy and the indi v idu als wh o
.
,

transmit it di ff er as prin cip als and agents The individuals in all

, .

three c ases ha v e beings o f their own E ach is an independent reality an

.
,

irredu c ible sub stan ce which publicly interplays with others E ach .

p artly exhibits what it is by the way it intens i es existing Space indi ,

v i d u a t es exis ting time and transforms existing energy Living beings

, .

mo re disti nctly qualify these diff erent dimensions o f existence than

n onl iving things do and men do it better than other living beings c an
, .

Artists stand o u t among men by their conspicuous individual ex

pres sions of the existence which i s within th em Their creations are .

the outcome o f a cts that make the existence in them take the form o f
Spaces times and energies representing the whole o f the existen ce out
, ,

side them S in ce all o f u s are artists mo re or les s for rather sh ort and
.

s eparated periods all of u s are ee t ing ly aware of the reality which

,

underlies and p artly controls the destiny o f the things which make up
the spatio temp oral dynamic world
- -
.

D a ily sp ace is an emptines s dotted with palp able obj ects In the .

course o f the creation of a new spa ce architecture s c ales the daily

,

sp ace s culptu re o ccupies it and p ainting trans cends it The res ultant
, , .

created sp aces h ave their o wn geometries and exhibit the texture and
signican ce o f the exist ing space that underlies daily space That exist .

ing sp ace can be fully enj oyed only by p articip ants in the sp atial a rts .

D a ily t ime i s a produ ct o f the multiple adj us tments of individu al

times t o one another The temporal arts s elect and rene one o r more o f
.

thes e produ cts Music al composition s s tru cture an emotion al j uncture

.
Ni ne B a s i c Arts

1 70

and prej udiced But he is ready to enj oy what is vital particularly if

.
,

it is able to rea ch to him and pull him along .

The inno cence o f ordinary men is precious Training and study .

,

attention and devotion ought not to be allowed to extinguish it They .

s h ould instead s erve to protect it from corrupt i on and to make it

quicken an interest in the s ubl et ie s which the arts in fact contain T o .

day all men have an opp ortunity as they never had before t o make
, ,

go od music part of their lives and thereby mas ter existence in a most
relevant vital form I refer not merely to the availability of records
.

of high delity but t o the fact that great comp os ers like S travinsky
,

seem a s readily app reciated by men with little as well as by men with a
great deal of mu s i c al knowledge and experience H e h a s provided s cores
.

fo r c ondu ctors who have then p rodu ced a musi c s o di fferent from the
musi c o f the pas t as t o permit newcomers t o s tand s omewhere near the

others in a common listener s sp ace This is a great epo ch f o r any man
.

who would like to enter quickly and t o live fo r a while in the wo rld of
music .

M usic p erhaps alone o f all the arts both makes a great immediate
, ,

appeal t o uns ophis ticated men and gains in worth the more techni cally
,

p ro cient and knowledgeable o ne is This does no t m ake music an art

.

greater than any other ; it merely unders c ores one o f its peculiar fea
tures the ready appeal mo s t of its works m ake both to cultivated and

uncultivated tastes M usi c is on a footing with all the other maj or arts
. .

Like them it p roduces a substan ce which stands o ver against all others
, .

Its w ork is as ex cellent and a s revelato ry a s theirs They do not a spire .

to be l i ke it any more than it aspires t o be like them

, .

M usi c is the art o f creating a stru ctured audible becoming It is to .

be contrasted with mu sicry the art of s tructuring an emotionally sus

,

t a ined common time usually in the guis e of musical compositions

,
.

M usicry contains no s ounds But when o ne speaks of music a reference

.
,

to s ounds is ines cap able Where music takes ac count of musicry it

.
,

treats it as a s cript The musical composition is no t then lled in by

.

the mu si c put in a form whi ch will enable others to share in it but is

, ,

m ade subs ervient to the requirements o f the music .

Music involves problems techniques values and outcomes not char

, , ,

a c t er i s t i c o f musicry It is futile therefore to ask a performer to be

.
 M us i c

faithful to a composition Were he really faithful he would ha v e noth

.
,

ing t o play No t only doe s no composition conta i n s ounds but none

.
,

even tells j us t how loud or s oft j ust how long o r short j us t h o w inter , ,

lo cked o r separated the s ounds must be If one j us t plays the music .

as it is written s aid Wu C h en o ne will not be able to expres s the
,

,

s entiments o f t h e c ompos er A wo rk o f musicry guides directs in

.
, ,

s t r u c t s illuminates but in the end gives way before the music which is
, ,

performed .

Musicry deals s olely with time S pace i s utilized in i t s s cores but .

,

this i s a s irrelevant t o the compo sition a s the space over which a minute
hand moves i s to the time th at hand i s intended to pun ctuate M usi c .

o ccupies a volume ; it is spatial a s well a s temporal But i t is more a .

well It is expansi v e insistent a sheer becoming in the shape of s ound

.
, , ,

produ ced by man and answering to a primitive aboriginal striving force

eff ective everywhere N ot as n oiseles s as S chopenhauer s will better
.

,


structured than B er g s o n s el an vi t a l more complex than Whitehead s ,

c aus al ef cacy it relates musician and listener carving out its own
, ,

place where it can be en j oyed .

M usi c is a c ontrolled audible force creati v ely produced It m ay make .

u s e o f s ounds produced by various daily obj ects it may als o u s e s ounds

whi ch are produ ced by a cting on variou s ins truments ; and it may us e
s ounds produ ced by man S ounds are peculiarly suited to convey the
.

dynamics o f existence because they are at once d e t a ch a ble vo lu mino u s , ,

ins i s t en t d i r ec t i o na l s elf i d en t i c a l in t e r p ene t r a t i ve and in t e r r e

, ,

, ,

l a t a bl e .

D E T A C HA B I t I T Y : The tones o f a work o f music are distin ct from any

heard outside even when produ ced i n the s ame way If one introdu ced
, .

a street sound into a musi cal piece one would rad i cally trans form that ,

s ound It has been s aid that B eethoven s P a s t o r a l S y mp h o ny imitates

.

the s ongs of birds his B a t t l e S y mp h ony the s ound o f cannon M en

, , .

d el s s o h n s Ove r t u r e t o a M id s u mme r s N ig h t s D r ea m is s aid to include

in it the braying of an as s We are told that the bleating o f lambs c an

.

be heard in Richard S t r a u s s s D on 'u ix o t e There are pieces which in

.

their titles seem t o pro claim that they will reproduce the humming o f
bees the s ounds o f waves the tumult o f the circus and s o on And today
, , , .

we can tape the s ounds of winds automobiles and market and make , , ,
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 72

the tape part of a wo rk o f music We can produ ce s ounds by means o f .

machines ; we can s elect out of a large collection of noises bits t o be

spliced and rearranged These facts do not change but rather emp h a
.
,

s i ze the tru th that s ounds in music are different from what they are
ap art from it Even when it i s the case that s ound f o r s ound the two
.

could no t be told ap art a sound in musi c i s other than a s ound outside

, .

It h a s di ff erent a i li a t i o n s different fun ction s and reveals a di ff erent

, ,

Side o f reality We blur this truth when we remark that the music must
.

h a v e a certain qu ality if it i s to s er v e in a funeral a march a modern , ,

dance and s o o n f o r we then suppo se that the music i s adj ectival to

, ,

a world outside The dis t in cti v e nature which a piece o f music h a s might
.

p romo te some extraneou s purpose but this fact would tell u s nothing ,

about the music as a work o f art When music i s made t o function as .

p art of a non artistic whole or i s a part o f s ome other art it i s no

, ,

longer treated a s a distin ctive art but a s a piece o f craftsmanship or , ,

a s a cons tituent of a larger art in which i t s nature i s trans formed .

C olors touches and tastes l ike the s ounds we hear are deta chable
, , , ,

from the daily world S mells in contras t seem t o be nondetachable We

.
, , .

do to be su re encounter smells a s at once extern al to u s and ap art

, ,

from any obj ect But they decorate the spatial region relating us and
.

other things No art o f smells will be p os sible until one is able to h old
.

them o ff over against the sp atial regi on they n ormally qualify and ,

then i s able to create and interrelate them t o constitute a s elf su f -

c ient substance .

Tas tes s ounds and colo rs are detach able n ot only from the daily
,

world but from the things encountered there Tastes though are no t
,
.
, ,

separable from things altogether We enj oy tas tes within oursel v es .

,

but a s adj ect ival t o s ome obj ect o r other They termin ate in qualities .

adhering to o bj ects with in u s as surely a s touch terminates in qualities

,

adhering t o obj ects outside us .

S ounds and colors are peculiar in be ing deta chable both from the
world of everyday and from all obj ects internal o r extern al S ounds , .
,

to be su re deco rate a regi on between u s and their point o f origin But

, .

they can be separated from this region When s o s ep arated they to .

, ,

gether with newly created s ounds become inseparable from a new ,

region then and there created C olors t o o are inseparable from a .

, ,
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 74

than deep tones ; shall we s a y that sp ace as a whole contracts in high

tones expands i n l o w tones ? But then o n the other hand high tones
, , ,

seem to come from far away low tones from nearer s o that one migh t
, ,

speak of a greater transp aren cy rarefaction of sp ace in high than

, ,

in l o w tones . spa ce i s di fferently alive in high and low t ones
thes e di ff erent modes o f sp atial al ivenes s are rel ated to the sp atial


qual i ties above and below
By spa ce Z u ckerkandl seems to be
.

referring t o a forceful voluminosity of which both space and time are

but fa cets what he s ays i s therefore mos t pertinent He makes evident .

that the p itches no t only s tand in relationsh ip t o one another as above

and below but that a pit ch which is above c omes from a far wh ile the
,

ones below move a s omewhat shorter distance Tones arrive from dif .

f e r e nt places on d i ff erent le v els to make a volume in which di ff erent p arts

move at different rates and over diff erent r outes .

I N S I STE N C E : S mells are i nsistent and s o are s ounds O c casionally

, .

our v i s i on and tou ch more rarely o u r tastes are insis tently intruded

on B ut i t i s smells and s ounds that make irres i stible demands They

. .

force u s t o submit to them S mells though are rather atom i c ; they

.
, ,

do no t refer t o one another S ounds insist no t only on their own n atures

.

but form l inks determ in ing our expectan cies They make patterns
, .

wh i ch we are compelled t o follow They insis t on m aking us pursue a

.

logic wh i ch they thems el v es cons t i tute In accepting a s ound as p art

.

o f mus i c, the l i stener expectantly rushes beyond it t o the place where

another allowable subsequent tone i s to o ccur Hi s expectat i on grounds .

the tolerance he Shows towards what m i ght be allowed to be subs equent

i n that particular wo rk .

D IRE C TI O N A L IT Y : Z uckerkandl remarks the ear knows S pa ce

only a s that which c o mes fr o m w i thout as that which is d i rected to ,

ward me streams toward me and into me a s that which i s given in n o

, , ,

other way than a s a boundles s i ndivisible onenes s in which noth i ng can ,

be d iv ided and nothing measured a s placeles s owing spa ce And

.

s o far a s i t i s one in it
,

there is no dis t i nct i on of h igh and low ; all tones
are heard a s coming from the s ame place from all places from every , ,

where Th i s last as sert i on is no t in compatible with the as sertion that
.

d i ff erent p i tches come from d iff erent d i stances for ea ch o c cupies the ,
 M u s ic

whole volume but with a centre o f gravity at a dis tinctive pl ace within
,

th i s
.

A tone in short h a s an inherent directionality It is no t merely that

, ,
.

from which o r towards which o ne ha s moved ; a tone in and by its elf

a ctually moves away and towards It does more : it moves above and
.

below forward and ba ckward by its elf ap art from the eff ort s of
, ,

the l i s tener t o attend t o it and its accompaniments A single tone is .

always rs t heard a s mo vi ng on away from and towards because it has

,

a l i fe o f i t s own w i th vectors rad i ating o u t in all directions over s ome o f

, ,

wh i ch it no w i s in fact moving .

If a tone remains constant it s oon overruns the limits o f its own

vectors to become s ometh ing n o t l i s tened t o but su ff ered We then .

wa i t f o r it to stop A tone mus t ch ange w i th i n a certain period and in

.

a certa i n direction o r we w ill nd oursel v es lagging beh ind n o longer

, ,

having i t as a heard tone Accomp an i ed by o r followed by an other tone

.

i t s vector i s challenged intensied altered t o help determ i ne a v ector

, , ,

f o r the p attern of the two tones If the root o f a chord i s one which had
.

a predeces s o r i t s vector is s omewhat d iff erent from wh at it would have

been had it been s o unded alone ; i t i s this fact wh i ch makes it i mp os sible
to determ ine in advance j ust wh at other tones a gi v en t one does in fact
allow There is a vaguely dened gap between a gi v en tone and what
.

the l i stener thereupon expect s When h i s expectation reaches to the

.

l imit of the mus i cal w ork he b ounds it S in ce the s atis fa ction o f h i s

, .

e x pectati on usu ally grounds st ill another expe ctat i on the boundary of ,

h i s mus i c i s not o n ly lo os e but mo v able A p attern of tones a s surely

, .
,

a s a s i ngle tone ,const i tutes a d i st inc t ive d i rect i onality wh i ch is to be

creat ively pursued .

I D E N TIT Y : Tones o f the s ame pitch and timbre may d i ff er in loudnes s .

One can s tr i ke the p i an o key hard o r gently No o ne can ever really be .

told h o w hard he sh ould hi t though i nd i cat i ons can be g iven that at

,

th i s place o r that the tone should be loud or s oft or louder or s ofter

-

, .

Nor i s anyone e v er really told wh at the durat i on of a tone should be ,

though the notes are wr i tten s o as to i nd i cate their comparat ive dura
t i ons A p i ece of mus i c i s a s i ngle continuous whole but the notes no
.
, ,

matter how many wr i tten l inks there be put beneath them are always ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 76

d i s ti n c t . H ow s o on a note should be s ounded after s ome ot h er is

c at e d in the metre But only an amateur would look to the met
.

tell him when to make a s ound .

E ach tone ha s an identity on which it insis ts The s ame note 5 .

by a piano and a vi olin have di ff erent timbres O ne i s round and .

the other sh arp and brittle Though the compo ser a s he S its d o w
.
,

write does not hear thes e he does know what they are like and h o w
, ,

can support and coni ct with one another He has to pitch then .

fe r ent ly at times to make them work bes t in harmony .

A chord is a unied combin ation of tones S ingle and u ndivid .

lls the whole audible wo rld within a loosely tting frame E ach .

tones maintains itself con currently with the others E ach has its a ' .

r i a t e individu al volume a dis tin ctive height and a tension al rel

p , ,

t o others E ach als o h as a depth ; ea ch t one moves at its o wn p ac

.

over its own chara cteris ti c distan ce t o m ake the chord a set o f l .

in whi ch narrower and bro ader movements from di ff erent dist

o c cur .

I N T E R P E E E T R A T I O N : Though ea ch tone maintains i t s i nt e r i t

g ;
o ccupy the s ame pla ce A color h a s no simil ar tolerance for other 0 1
.

If we had a bit o f red in a sp ot we could no t put green there too e : ,

by radically altering one o r both o f the colors There can be n o bl .

green in its own right where red i s though t o be sure a neig hb , , ,

green may bleed into the red o r the red may be one through wh ,

green m i ght peer But a t one tolerates the presen ce of other tones
.

and where it is Though each is voluminou s and s elf identic al t l

.
-

each intens i es and is intensied oppos ed by and opposes others , .

st ill allows room fo r all the rest .

Musi c embra ces a plurality o f volumes all in the s ame place .

and as the tones m aintain themselve s they act on one another and ,

they do they produce a new unity differing in color and s o met ir ,

volume By lling up the volumes o f one another they make a

.

volume h aving its own timbre pitch and loudnes s There is c a c o p

, , , .

no i se when the interpenetration goes to o far or when the volu m

, ,

not in consonance Though there are well known combinations o f s

.
-

whi ch have been found to support o ne another as e g the r o o , . .

,

th i rd o f a common chord there are perhaps none which do s o in

,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 78

tings The qualities they h ave as dis tinct items are often subdued in
.

the cours e o f that interrelating The tones of a piece o f musi c als o are
.

interrelated items But each tone has i t s distin ctive pitch and timbre
.

which i s usu ally reinforced rather than subdued by o ther tones .

Di ff erent tones qualify the s ame area ; each ma intains its o wn n ature ,

indeed insis ts upon it at the very s ame time that it helps constitute a
, ,

c omplex qualied volume S omewhat in the way in which architecture

, .

synthesizes common and created S paces to m ake a new architectural

space and story synthesizes common and created langu age to make
,

a new language o f s tory musi c synthesizes a plurality o f tones t o

,

make a single dyn amic v oluminous music al whole B ut music does not
, , .
,

a s these other a rts do combine what is created with what is n o t for

, ,

as was previously observed even when music makes use of familiar

,

s ounds it deals with them a s part o f a single creation in which they

,

have roles similar to those exercis ed by freshly created tones .

The becoming th at music creates by tak i ng a c count of the fore ,

going chara cteristics o f s ounds moves in three ways simultaneously , .

The tones which o ccu r together as in a chord interpenetrate at dif , ,

f er en t rates and with di ff erent degrees of force t o yield a pro ces s of

becoming having multiple heights and depths The tones whi ch o ccur .

in s equence as in a melody move at di ff erent rates and overlap to s ome

, ,

degree to yield a pro ces s o f becoming which is restles s tensional with , ,

innumerable endings and beginnings throughout Bo th forms of b e .

coming move towards the listener with an insis ten ce and appeal which
m akes him s ubj ugate h i s own pro ces s o f vital becoming to that of music .

In arts other than music the spectator s n ature interests desires

,

, , ,

and temperament c ontribute a great deal to the determination o f what

the appreciated result will be M usi cal works of c ourse als o depend fo r
.
, ,

their appreciation on the nature training concern and alertnes s o f , ,

those who hear them But musi c i s able to overwh elm the listener and
.

force him to follow its c ontours rather than h i s Own ; in the other a rts ,

the pers onal equation has a more c onspicu ous role .

The emotions which music provokes are more than in any other art , ,

a product o f the operation o f the art on the spectator B ecaus e music .

subj ugates the listener the provoked emotional response i s singularly

,

relevant to it In compens ation musi c often prompts the listener to

.
,
 M us i c

abandon his awarenes s o f it for reveries and sentiments w h ich while ,

p aced by the mu sic have c areers o f their o w n ; when men deal with other
,

types o f art largely becau se they must initially show a greater ante
,

cedent willingnes s to p articip ate they tend t o s tay with the works and ,

follow the paths that c an be dis cerned within them But the di ff erence .

between musi c and the o ther arts in this regard s eems t o be only o ne o f
degree .

Despite its insis ten ce ea ch tone allows other tones to make their
,

presence felt Tones desp ite the i r deta chability from everything els e
.
, ,

occupy an extended region ; desp i te their volumes they do n ot d i splace ,

any obj ects Despite the i r direct i onalit i es tones do n o t ha ve a g e

.
,

o me t r ; despite their sel f identities they interpenetrate

; despite their
y
interpenetration they do no t neces s arily give up anything o f wh at they
,

themselves are ; and despite their interrelation ship they have dis ,

t inc t i v e values of their own To say th at tones are ins i stent detach
.
,

able voluminous directional self i dentical interpenetrative and inter

, , ,

,

related is but t o s ay that they are active forces together constituting a ,

new world .

M usic o ff ers u S a subs tantial vibrant volume through which we can ,

live In it we experience a for ward thru st guid ing an expectation o f

.

wh at is to come We als o experience a b ackward thrust through which

.

every p art is reas se ss ed as more or les s important for the whole ; a

structure a p attern ing a rule of caus al i ty which governs the relation
, ,

o f part to p art ; and an eventfulnes s a sheer ongoing a freedom a , , ,

com i ng to b e cut o ff from all else The p as t is operative in it n ow moving

, .
,

through it as a cause ; the future is operat ive in it now moving through ,

it as a plan ; a pattern is operat i ve in it now moving through it as a ,

divider ; the pres ent is operative in it n ow a nite stretch internally de ,

ned In music p art i s related t o p art by a freely exerc i s ed stru cturally

.
,

conned persistently as ses sed c aus ality whi ch relates d i stant as well a s
,

nearby p arts Mak ing use o f the rhythms myths and measures that
.
, ,

mus i cry m ight exh ibit repeating mu s i c r y s bleed ing modulat ing and
,

,

the rest it di ff ers from musicry by virtue o f its s ound That s ound ha s
, .

a v i tality and a texture which answers to a phas e o f existen ce beyond the

cap acity of anything not heard It expo ses existence a s a vital p ower .
,

p romising good or ill to man .

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 80

The substan ce that man creates in the guis e of musi c is dyn amic N ot .

only does it h ave formal properties o f interest to s cien ce sensible ,

qualities evident t o perception values open to a sense of importance

, ,

and an event like aspect also it is a self s ufcient unity The sub
-

,
-
.

stance which i s mu sic is a n irredu cible becoming within which one

can is olate stru ctures qualities value ali g nments and a sheer ongoing
, , ,
.

When that music is ac cepted as s elf s ufc ient as s omething with w h ic h

,

we can live for a while it no longer h as the role o f a mere substan ce

,

standing over against ot h ers but becomes in addition a representative

,

o f the dynamics o f existen ce .

The dynamic whole that is music is a s ubs tance produ ced when t h e
musician creatively u ses the existence within him to organize forceful
s ounds These permeate the physical and spiritual distan ce between the
.

musician and audience E ach o f the s ounds h as a dis tinctive power N one
. .

is a p art of a wo rk of music until it h a s been creatively united to others

by a musician usually under the guidan ce of a musical comp osition
, .

Th i s creative union involves the use of energy ; it is produ ced by m ak

ing use of one special form o f the dynamics o f existen ce .

Despite the fact that musi c cons titutes a s elf s uf c ient world it does -

n ot p reclude the p resence o f language o r gesture The language and .

gesture may despite their o c cupan cy o f the s ame volume be independent

, ,

o f it in s tructure and value They are then together with the mu sic
.
, ,

components in a more complex art su ch as the opera or ballet But they .

c an be made t o permeate and t o be p ermeated by the mus i c a s in Greek ,

drama o r as in the modern dan ce .

At rs t glance it s eems o d d that a s olid work with an insistent ch ar ,

a cter su ch a s music has S hould allow a place f o r s omething as insistent

,

as language It would seem reas onable to s ay that the silences but no t

.
,

the s ounds o f the music allow ro om for the words of a play S o far as .

the words spoken in a play are together with the s ounds of mus i c they ,

would s eem to be abs orbed and qualied by the music or to be s o over ,

against the mus i c a s to require synthesis with it in some other art O ne .

o f these consequences would be ines capable if the play did not have a

power o f its own Music can fun ction as a background and guide for a
.

play without absorbing o r qualifying it And since the silences in a .

musical piece are heavy s olid no more and no les s permeable or per
, ,
 HE T HE A TRE

rHE A T R E a building in which plays are performed T h e

is .

s a world o f theatrical performances Directors and actors .

themselves a s in the theatre e v en when they are out o f

eir minds their interests and their l ives gravitate about per
, ,

as They know that they are p art o f the theatre e v en though

.

n o t then and there a ctively p articip ating in it When s tage .

leak o f the theatre they refer t o the building in which they
ir e c t o r s and actors als o speak in the s ame way o c casionally ;

y a s k one to meet them at the theatre or after it O rdin ary .

the term the theatre a little more consis tently since they ,

n u s e it to refer to a theatre When they s a .

y they are going
beatre they usu ally mean that they are going to s e e a per
,

) lay in which for a while they intend to los e thems elves

, But .

I men do not s ee s o clearly what i t i s l ike t o be in the theatre .

did they would be more pun ctu al and appreciative and les s
, ,

I en they enter into a theatre t o be p art for a while of the , ,

hea t r e never takes place in a theatre It i s only placed there .

,

lo cated there s o that o ne can appro a ch it know where and

, ,

is that o ne must change one s s tatu s from that o f a common

L l l t o th at of a member o f an audience The theatre i s a realm

.

r m e d plays ; it i s a dynamic world aud ible affective revela

, , ,

here is no physical relation n o geometrical connection be

,

spa ce and the space o f a theatre To go from o ne t o the other

.

t ch ange one s attitude n ot one s pos i tion

, .

s pace time and movements o f the theatre are produced

, ,
 T h e T h ea t r e

i s t e nc e indeepes t recess es It has more stable and familiar points

it s .
,

as well a s a sharper clima ctic fo cus than music ; i t allows the makers
o f it ,
as dan c ing does not to hold themselves ap art from it while
,

they are in it and thus allows them to s ee j ust wh at it is they are

,

producing .

A single theatr i cal performan ce is an instance and can be taken ,

as representative o f the theatre I shall refer to it indi ff erently as a

, .

performance a play or the theat re B oth h i stori cally and analytically

, ,
.

i t presupposes mus i c o c curr i ng a s it does inside that forceful volu

, ,

m i nous ongo i ng subs tan ce reaching t o and engulng the l i s tener

, , ,

wh i ch was won for us by music To enter the theatre we must n o t only .

,

g o t o a theatre and then ignore

,
it but must a ccept the d i mensions ,

o f a world produc e d by mus i c M us i c provides the dyn am i c area wh i ch

.

a play lls o u t E v en where there i s no musical accompan iment

.
,

the theatre utilizes an area that musi c provides It is music that h a s .

taught men to be appreciat i v e o f certa i n rhythms to be alert to ,

certain myths to be aware o f the nature o f e x i sten ce i t s power

, , ,

texture and import f o r man Not all musi c of course prov i des the
, .
, ,

proper volume f o r the theatre The musi c may be t o o intrusive At the. .

dawn o f the theatre music 'wh i ch w a s then not sep arated from the
,

dan ce ) forged a real i ty which was punctuated by the chara cters and
the plot that the theatr e p rovided Today o c cas i on al u s e i s made o f .

musical a ccomp an i ments p art i cularly in connect i on with p oet i c pl ays

,

and mus i cal comed i es But in the former the mus i c and i n the latter
.
,

the acting are no t really integral a s they apparently were i n the days
, ,

of the Greeks .

The theatre subdivides the world o f mus i c at the s ame time that it
reverses the direct i on which mus i c t akes towards the l i stener The .

music exists f o r the l i s tener rea ching t o him from a d i s tan ce He awa i ts
, .

i t is engulfed by it i s carried by it He m ay be and ought to be lost

, , .

i n i t but only as that which comes t o him from a d i s tan ce The theatre
, .
,

in contrast does n ot reach o u t t o the spectator He mus t move i nto i t

, . .

It ex i sts only for a man who h a s abrogated the d i stan ce from seat t o
performan ce It makes n o di ff eren ce t o hi s role a s spectator whether
.

he sits in the second balcony o r o n the stage for he s ees a performance ,

only s o far as he h a s gone to it B o th musi c and the theatre require .

Ni n e B a s i c Ar ts

1 84

the spectato r t o give hims elf to it the o ne where he is the other , ,

where it is It is a mistake to suppose then that there is a fourth wall

.

through which a spectator looks He i s that fourth wall and not until .
,

he appears is there a performan ce .

A S a rule a perfo rman ce makes u s e of a written play The play that

,
.

i s performed is not th at written play The written pl ay is j ust a s cript .

,

a s to ry which though const i tuting substantial time lacks the force and
, ,

the body o f a substantial becoming There are great stor i es which do .

not make good theatre It i s doubtful tha t the Cru cixion could be
.

given a su cces s ful theatri c al rendering ; its s to ry is overwhelm ingly

impres sive without further dramatizat i on Als o a go od s tory m ight .
,

be badly a cted ; it would then be p oo r theatre in fact though perhaps ,

not in p rin ciple High s cho ol students make bad theatre o u t of go od

.

S hakespearean plays O n the other hand good theatre might be p r o

.
,

vi d ed for a medio cre play Thornton Wilder s revis ed M a t c h m a k e r is

.

a trivial play ; acted by Ruth Gordon i t became great theatre M a c .

L ei s h s J B o ff ers a fair s cript made by an outstanding director into

. .
,

a p a ss able play Indeed if M a cL ei s h had p repared a better s cript it

.
,

might not h ave been a ctable Poets as a matter o f fa ct r arely s uc ceed

.
, ,

in the theatre ; they no t only f ail t o kn ow what a ct i on is l i ke but they ,

overcharge their words with overtones which prelude their eff ective use
in dramati c interchange Goethe S helley B rowning Eliot all tri ed to
.
, , ,

write f o r the theatre but all fa iled qu i te badly There are of course
, .
, ,

exceptions S hakespeare lls h is u sual role of defy ing all generaliza

.

tions The Greek dramatis ts and S chiller are als o e x ceptions But the
. .

as sertion I think remains true o n the whole

, , .

A play can be dealt with in at leas t two d i stinct ways Treated as .

a story it is to be read in o ne voice and manner ; performed in the

theatre it demands another voice and manner E a ch yields a complete .

work of art The one c annot be understo od without an en vironment ;

.

the other cannot be produced w i thout a ctor and aud i en ce An environ .

ment given by the usu al v alues of words and Statements i s one

, ,

through which a reader can appro ach a story ; an audience i s already

at the play As a fourth wall it keeps in dynamic a ccord with what
.
,

takes pla ce Clayton Hamilton I think p oints to the s ame c o n:

.
, ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 86

the play and makes himself o ne w i th the audience by as suming a

,

position at the fourth wall from which he can lo ok at what i s happen

ing inside .

The a ctor as sumes a role The s tatement takes u s right into the
.

heart o f a c ontroversy begun by Diderot and carried o n to this d a y .

D iderot held that the actor e v en in the most p as sionate of roles must
, ,

remain calm and detached ; S tanislavsky h a s been interpreted a s b old

ing the opposite thesis and maintaining that the actor must become
identi cal with the being he p ortrays I d o no t think that S tanisla v sky
.

h a s been correctly interpreted but hi s dis ciples do seem t o speak at

,

times as though th i s were hi s view .

The brilliant C oquelin s eems t o be o n D iderot s side o ne can

.

only be a great acto r o n condition of a complete self m astery and an -

ability t o expres s feel ings which are no t experienced which may ne v er ,

be experien ced which from the very nature of things ne v er can be

,

experien ced The a cto r i s within hi s creation
. makes up his
pers onage borrows from his autho r from a s tage tradition
fro mnature in short he s ets himself a t ask Hi s task once .

s et, he h a s hi s p art it does not belong to him but he inhabits ,

i t s body is fairly it
, the true a ctor i s always ready for a ction
. .

He can take up his part n o m atter when , He need not wait .

until he experien ces these emotions himself Indeed when the ,

a ctor Talma learned of the death o f hi s father he uttered a piercing ,

cry ; s o piercing s o heart felt that the art i st always o n the alert in
,

,

the man ins tantly took note o f it and decided to make u s e o f it upon
, ,

the s tage later o n Yet C oquelin h a s als o s aid th at the actor i s
, .

hi s o wn material T o exhib i t a thought an image a human portrait

.
, , ,

he works upon hims elf He is his own pi ano he strikes his own strings
.
, ,

he molds himself like wet clay he pa i nts hims elf And again The
, .
,

actor creates there i s always a considerable dis tance between

the type dreamed o f and the type a ctually liv i ng and breathing ;
becaus e it is not enough t o create a s oul a body mus t be p rovided

for i t as well .

The no les s brilliant S tanislavsky s ays an actor mus t put himself

into the given circums tances You mu st s a y to yourself What would
.
,

I do if what happens t o this ch aract er , h appened t o me P Find


all the reas ons and j us tic at i ons for the character s actions and then ,

go on from there without thi nking where your pers onal a ction ends
and the character s begins His a ctions and yours will fus e automat

.
-

i c a ll y if you have done the preceding work ideas ,

thoughts and events of the play must no t only be perfectly under

sto od by the acto r but als o lled with emotion al content of den i te
p ower I have been tell ing you all along that every feeling i s the result
.

o f the actor s thoughts and a ct i ons i n the given circumstances

S tep an ova 'an actres s 'y o u mus t be terr i bly frightened when F a mu s o v

nds you w i th M o l ch al im in your ro om early in the m orning The .

young actors are shy o f li ving their roles o n the stage .

I th ink there i s no genu ine dis agreement between D iderot or Coque

lin on o ne s i de and S tan i slavsky Lee S trasberg o r other p r a c t i
, , , ,

t i o n er s o f The S tanislavsky method o n the other S t anislavsky i s , .

try ing to get h i s young charges t o a ct t o make them ll o u t the i r ,

roles to take these s eriously as dem and i ng all their attention energy
, , ,

and creat ive p ower He knows as surely a s Coquelin does that the
.

a ctor should remain a master o f hims elf He doesn t want an acto r .

dres s ed like O thello t o s trangle another actor called D esdemona He .

wants the actor t o take the r o l e o f an O thello ; he doesn t want him

to be O thello The a ctor is to u se real pas s i ons to get himself in v olved

.
,

caught up in a character ; he i s not t o allow himself t o act a s tho ugh

h e were a d i ff erent man e v en when i t i s an other real indiv i dual th at
he must try to p res ent .

Let an actor be asked t o s ay Pleas e s it do wn

f
This mus t be s a i d
,
.

in s ome tone o r other and accompanie d perhaps by s ome gesture It

, .

precedes or follows other statements There i s a s i tuat i on i n wh i ch i t .

o ccurs and wh i ch it should serve to clar i fy fo cus o r further It should , .

contribute s ometh i ng t o the development o f the plot t o the dr ive ,

towards the res olution o f the tensions n ow present Were the a ctors .

*
E a r ly i n my e x p l o r at i o ns i nt o t h e nat u r e of a c t i ng , I as k d J
e a ni c e Ru l e to
t ea ch me h ow t o s ay,

M r s G u nd e l nger,
. wi l l yo u s i t d ow n ?
I t h ou gh t I h ad ly
on
to mas t er a s im p l e p r o bl em o f e nu nci at i on o nc e t u r n e d t o m e a n d a s e ,
. B ut s he at kd

Wh o i s M r s Gu nd el nge r ? D o you l ik e h e r ? I s s h e t i r e d ? I s i t a w a r m d a y o r a
.

c o l d o ne ? D o u w n t t m k l n h t h ? W h i c h ch a i r s h ou l d s h e s i t
y o a o a e a o s
g p ee c o e r

on ? et c , e t c
.

I a m gr at e fu l t o h e r f o r m y r s t s igni c a nt i ns i ght i nt o t h e c om
.

p l ex na t u r e o f a c t i n
g .
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

1 88

in real life to be in the situation expres sed in the play if t h ,

gone through the s i tuation wh i ch had preceded it if they h a d ,

through the situation which w ill follow it and if they had t h ,

l

a c t er s which they had already d i splayed one actor would have ,

to the other Pleas e s i t down at that j un cture and he w o ul
, ,

t o s a y it in a certain way showing that it had j ust the past

,

and that it is rightly followed by what comes after .

The actor s role is a c ond i tional stated c ategori cally int er l

, ,

with other similar conditionals which are provided by other r o .

by the ways in which the roles interplay This if the m a g .

S tan i slav s ky called it Like every c onditional the role serves to

.

late a state o f a ff airs a nature o r a p ower by showing ho

, ,

manifes ted in a plurality of ways o r contexts In ordinary .

s ometimes name the state of a ffa i rs nature or p ower and the n , ,

to show how it is to be explicated The man s dog names a s .

a ff airs which may o r may no t have any answering fact To ex .

thi s state o f a ffairs we as sume a condition s ay If he were
, , ,

front it and then s tate the kind o f consequents whi ch would ex
,

that condition if the man s dog named a s tate o f affairs

answered t o a fa ct If he were to confront it it would wag i t s
.
,

i f he were to c onfront it he would s ee his name on its collar :
,

were to confront it it would lick his hand in di fferent ways ex
,

the supposed state of a ffairs the man s dog O n that very s arr
.

o f affairs one could bas e another array o f conditionals : If 1
,

to command it it would obey h im ; i f I were to hit i t it would b

, ,

i f he were t o hit it it would cower ; i f the man and I were to 1

,

would follow him etc This array explic ates the very s ame s
,

a ff airs the man s dog as the previou s array did but each I
,

, ,

o f it relates a d i fferent condition t o its approp riate dis tinctive

quent .

The full meaning o f the man s dog a s that which c an b e
,

fe s t ed in a plurality of p art i cular s i tuations is given b y the t ,

-

o f pos sible cond i t i ons and their cons equents S in ce a d o g is m .

a being in and of itself but i s als o a specialized c as e of ex i s t enc

union o f antecedent and consequent will explicate the n ature
i s t ence in a specialized f orm The totality o f all p os sible c o n
.
Nine B a s i c A r ts

1 90

dialogue A n arration articulates s ometh i ng in ea ch as sertion but

.
,

a dialogue arti culates s omething no t yet fo cus s ed on A narration in .

i t s subs equent as s ertions claries what had been initially is olated ; a

dialogue in i t s subsequent ex changes enables u s t o further demarcate
an area which had been opened up in the initial exchanges To write .

This is the man s dog in a n arration i s to as sert s omething ; to put

i t in a dialogue i s t o alert s omeone In the narration I ask y o u to take

.

f o r granted tha t the dog belongs to the man In the dialogue I a s k .

you to be aware o f a state o f affairs o f which the dog may n o t e v en

be a p art I f the preceding dialogue were to end with It i s the man s
.

d o g we would con clude that the boy i s mis taken confused o r lying , , .

A narration lo oks at a denite state o f a ff airs from o ne p osition ;

a dialogue o ff ers a number of positions by means o f wh i ch we are
enabled to make denite an indenite s tate o f a ff airs A dialogue can .
,

o f course be given a narrative guise ; the narrative will then be multi

,

toned p resented in a plurality of styles A n arrative can be s tated

, .

in a dialogue form ; the dialogue will then be informative didactic , ,

pres ented f rom one p oint o f view The look of the page pun ctu ation
.
, ,

and similar devices never su fce to dis tinguish the t w o forms Their .

dis tin ct i on is a function of the knowledge as to whether o r n ot one

is as suming a xed distance from a denite situation or obj ect o r ,

i s taking up di fferent positions demanding d i stin ct antecedents at dif ~

f er ent dist ances from s ome gradually demar cated situ ation o r obj ect .

The logi c o f a play i s d i stinct both from the l ogi c o f a narrati v e

and the logic o f a d i alogue Like a dialogue it o ff ers multiple p oints
.

o f V iew and often through the agencies o f di fferent verbal resp onses
,

o n the p art o f di fferent men But through ges ture and act the play
.
,

like a narration fo cuss es immediately on a state of affairs Like a

, .

narration the pl ay at each step deals with s ome denite topic ; like
,

a dialogue it moves on in order t o determine that topi c properly The .

play t o o i s concerned with explicating chara cters It will n ot

, , .

therefore leave open a s many altern atives as a story s dialogue will

,

even apart from all gestu re and incident If the foregoing interchange
.

were p art o f a theatrical performan ce it would serve to make ,

evident that the boy is s o strange that his dog a cts strangely towards
 T h e T h ea t r e

him Where the given dialogue when p art of a story expl i cates no t
.
, ,

the boy s dog or a pecul i ar b oy o r a pecul i ar dog the s ame d i alogue

, , ,

in a play would expl i cate a pecul i ar boy w i th hi s d o g We would n o t .
,

in the play ques tion the boy s ownership o f the d o g n o r would we

,

,

suppos e that the d o g w a s strange Had the d i alogue ended w i th Th i s .

i s the man s dog

but been part o f a play we would h a v e suppo sed

, ,

that the b o y was confused or that h i s interrogato r w a s try ing to

confuse him If it had been the pl aywright s intention t o make one
.

aware that the dog did no t belong to the boy he would ha v e o ff ered
a di ff erent dialogue
This i s my do g .

But M r Harris s ays it is his

. .

I tell y o u i t s my dog ,

.

But don t y o u s ee it has M r Harris name on

, .

it s c ollar .

If he had wanted t o show that the b o y w a s lying about a normal dog ,

the dialogue would have had t o be quite d i ff erent and perh ap s more
extended It would have to follow given antecedents with thos e c o ns e
.

quents which are r elevant only if the boy i s lying The preceding .

d i alogue which already in forms u s that the dog does not belong to the
,

boy could for ex ample continue :

, ,

I put that c olla r on .

Ho w c ould you get a collar with M r Harris name .

on it ?

Hi s n ame wasn t on it j us t a minute

In another s etting s a y one of fantasy or mystery s ome other s u p

, ,

position would be made ; but in the ordinary presentation of su ch a

dialogue on the stage the supp o sition would be legit i mate that the
.

boy is lying The rest o f the pl ay would tell u s why o r would lead
.
,

us to new s i tu ations in wh i ch h i s lying would pro v e t o be a vital factor .

We seek t o learn s ometh ing about the b o y and n ot about the dog .

Consequently when accept ing the as sert i ons a s true we eliminate part
,

of the indeterminatenes s which a s tory would allow Ha d we s ought to .

know s omething about the dog in a play the inter change would have ,

had to be di ff erent
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 92

This is my dog .

I know ; but it ought not to bite y o u when you speak to it .

I t s not really biting

.

B ut it does growl when you p at it .

This tell s u s that the dog i s strange The dialogue in the story like .

an altern at i on o f this interchange and the pre v iou s o ne allows either ,

the boy or the dog t o be strange B ut it als o allows one t o suppo se .

that the dog does n ot belong to the b o y Either ex ch ange in the play .
,

in contrast requires one t o s uppo se that what i s being explicated is

,

that the dog belongs t o the boy the one exchange p ointing up the ,

s trangenes s o f the boy and the other the s trangenes s of the dog .

A play dis courses about s ome denite existen ce ; a story allows o ne

to explicate the ex istence o f s omething or o ther The di ff erence is due .

t o the fact that whereas the story progres sively species a common
time the theatre i s con cerned at every stage of its development with
, , ,

po rtraying becoming though only a s this comes t o expres sion

,

through particular channels From the very beginning of a theatrical

.

performance there is an expli cation of the n ature o f chara cters ,

whereas in the story there is only a s etting provided o u t of which ,

ch ara cters are eventu ally to emerge The theatri cal performan ce .

progress es towards an awareness o f the existen ce with which s tory

begins ; the story progres ses t owards an awarenes s o f the reality of
individuals with which the theatrical performan ce begins The p r o g r e s .

sion in each cas e adds depth and richnes s to w hat is supposed in the
other If we are to know what man and existen ce both are we must
.
,

attend to stories a s well as to plays But only a few a S hakespeare .

o r a Moli ere can write a dialogu e which can be u sed both in a play

and in a story and in both places reveal what temporal dynamic ex

,

i s t en c e and time bound vital man are like

-
.

In a play every one o f the as sertion s in the initial dialogue could be

known to b e false a s is shown by the added observations
,

This is my dog 'It is not ; it belongs to the management '
. .

I s ee 'H e really doesn t s ee as hi s sneer and shrug show '

.

, .

Why then does it bite you ? 'It do esn t bite him ; if it did he would

s ue the man agement

' .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

1 94

All of them together should expl i c ate s ometh ing not to be found in
any of them The entire play o ff ers one single expli cation and the
.
,

chara cters i n it are fo cal po i nts s ources and termini of what happens , ,

there who se explication should be incidental to the one expli cation o f

,

the play Constantly check all the actions thoughts and feelings of
.
, ,

your a cto rs s aid S tanislavsky wi th their over all problem the idea
, ,

o f the play .

A play contains no h i dden no unexplored powers o r n atures It is , .

j ust what i t appears to be We do no t lo ok outs i de it ; we give our

.

selves u p t o i t We do not contrast i t s as s ert i ons with thos e m ade

.

about the everyday world of fa ct We know it is n ot the world of .

e v eryday but we als o know it is no ct i on no s emblance n o mere

, , ,

make bel i eve We are a ff ected by it cheered or s obered by it We learn

-
.
, .

mu ch from it Jus t attend i ng t o s emblances o r ctions would no t have

.

this eff ect We do know that the play is not fa ct ; we do know that the
.

a ctors have a ssumed roles ; we do know that s ome of the th ings they
sa
y or do may not be p os s i ble els ewhere Yet for all that we m ay come .
,

to know that this or that play is truthful dis cerning through its a id ,

the n ature of existence in its beari ng o n men s lives

.

A play exhibits existence as that whi ch is being manifes ted through

d i vers e but con cordant and supp ortive chara cters actions and inci , ,

dents By holding the play o ff from the world about and l iving through
.

it for a time as s elf s u f ci ng we are enabled t o grasp existence as a

-

humanly pert i nent v i tal becoming The mean i ng o f this existence is

, .

g iven by the ent i re play ; its te x ture i s exh ib i ted by the plot the p rops , ,

the a ctors and the audience

.

The audien ce is es sent i al to a play The word play s aid S arcey .

, ,

carr i es wi th it the idea of an aud i ence To th i s one can add W illiam .

G illette s observat i on that a play is wo rthles s that is unable to p r o

v ide itself w i th people to play t o Thes e remarks c ould be interpreted .

a s supp o rt i ng M ol i ere s

There is no o ther rule o f the theatre than

that o f pleas ing the public If this means that o ne must attend t o
.

the demands o r tastes o f an audien ce and mu st change the s tory or ,

the mode o f a ct ing to s uit them in the fa ce even o f the requirements o f

the play it surely is m i s taken Presumably M oli ere i ntended to stres s
, .
,

the fa ct that a play i s addres s ed t o an audi en ce That aud i en ce may .

c onsis t o f only one man who then as S arcey remarked repres ents the
, , ,

mult i tude .

The audience does no t act in the play it does not help explicate any ,

cha racter o r the exis tence which is being manifes ted through the
cha ra cters and the plot 'When an a cto r addres ses an audience with
.
,

an as i de o r e v en when he sits with it he i s s till ap art from it He i s in,

.

the play addressing or j oining not that pa rticular audien ce but a , ,

play audien ce ,conceived of a s lo oking at the res t o f the play ) There

-
.

can o f course be an audien ce p art i cipation but this turns the spec ,

t a t o r s either into props or into actors who in turn need an audience

,

of the i r own The audien ce though help s constitute the play chang
.
, , ,

ing the quality of the play on d i fferent days The a cto rs bec ause they .
,

c onfront different audiences consequently learn over the course of

,

a run s omething about the complexity of the texture o f exis tence which
they otherwise could n o t have known O ne o f the great s atisfa ctions .

and rewards of the a ctor i s that he gets through the help o f the ,

aud i ence a feeling for the mult iple nuan ces o f exis tence
, .

S tr i ctly sp eaking there is n o a cting o f a play in rehears al f o r a

, ,

rehears al h a s n o audience A stage hand might watch i t ; the director

.

and s ometimes the autho r and produ cer do B ut n one o f them pro v ides .

the play w i th i t s needed aud i en ce The stage hand is no t noticed .

,

whereas the others where they are not try i ng to ant i c ip ate the com
,

ments o f criti cs are trying to proj ect themselves into the p osition
,

o f member s of an audien ce They are not members of an aud ien ce but

.

men who are try i n g t o a ct a s though they were and als o were crit i c s .

Rehears als a re o c casions f o r readj ustments f o r the mastery of t ech ,

niques ; they are p eriods during which a cto rs can learn the strength
and l imits of their parts S tanisla v sky even urged his a ctors to overact
.

s omewhat in rehears al By overacting actors have learned how far
.
,

characters would go if they were n ot restrained by the conditions o f

time by the surroundings by the line within which the chara cter
, ,

grows and by an artis tic sense o f proportion The overa cting i s a
, .

way o f allowing for new circumstan ces wh i ch will enable one to s ee

from a new angle what i s being explicated in the play It o ff ers a new .

array of antecedents and consequents for the s ame reality that the
acting exhibits .
Nine B a s ic A r ts

1 96

There a re many themes in a play recognizable items which are ,

repeated and developed throughout They may ha v e the form of .

gesture speech incident or other read ily recognizable factors that

, , ,

can recur in s cene after s cene a ct after a ct throughout the play , ,

Thes e themes have a grain to which the audience contributes s ome

,

part though i t i s primarily an outcome o f the manner in which the

,

a ctors speak and move .

The play to be more than a s eries o f episodes must pro v ide

, ,

agencies for carry ing actors and audien ce from p oint t o p oint This .

i s partly don e by speeches which demand a response ; partly to o by

the persistence and r e u se o f p rops ; partly to o by p ortraying the

c ons equences o f actions We the audien ce pu sh ahead on o u r own

.
, , ,

a ff ecting subsequent events by what we now unders tand thereby intro ,

d u c i ng changes in the themes But the play itself has its themes in
.

interplay ; they bleed into one another affect one another At the end , .
,

the beginning has become claried and i t s mean i ng abs o rbed , .

E L eg o u ve amusingly remarks A play is a railway j ourney by an
.
,

expres s t rain forty miles an hour and from t ime t o time ten minutes

,

st op s for the intermis sions ; and if the lo comotive ceas es rushing and

hissing you his s The interm i s s i ons though are not really p art of
, .
, ,

t h e play ; they are but devices enabling the aud en ce and s ometimes
i
the a ctors to rest Usually the a ct after the intermis sion begins with
.

a speech o r incident supp osed to o ccur at s ome interval after the last
speech o r in cident o f the previous a ct But th i s need no t be ; the play .

can c ontinue where i t had left o ff Whether th i s be the case o r n ot .

,

the intermis sion does not interrupt the play a s a wo rk o f art but only ,

a s an oc curren ce inside a publ i c c ommon s ense t ime There are h o w -

.
,

ever real rests genuine spa cings inside a play S ilences pau ses
, , .
, ,

periods of waiting : these negative spaces a re palp able and s ome
times the most exciting p arts of a play M inor p arts minor p ositions .
,

can als o p rovide spa cing f o r thos e in the forefront o r between maj or ,

in cident and maj o r inc i dent All are integral to the play and freshly
.
, ,

creatively produ ced in it

, .

M o st p ra ctitioners in the theatre seem to agree that the most im

p ortant features o f a play are the created tensions and their res olu ,

tion s in crises and eventually in a maj or climax W Archer : A great . .
N in e B a s i c A r ts

1 98

a humanly important beginning turn ing p oint o r end o r s ome , , ,

combinat i on of thes e The play is an idea mediated textured sensu

.
-

, ,

o u s l y enj oyed meaning carried along the cours e of a s elf sufficient

-

v i tal pro ces s and iconizing existen ce benign o r omin ous A playwright
, , .

rarely has the meaning clearly in m ind t o begin with O ne of the .

funct i ons o f the director is to identify it and then to see t o it that ,

the actors become more and mo re aware o f it as an es s ential component

o f the play In the course o f the play both they and the audien ce c ome
.

to live with it .

The words o f a play are caught almost wholly inside the play They .

are in th i s respect d i ff erent from the w ords used in a sto ry and to , ,

a les s er degree from thos e used in a poem O n e cannot enj oy a story

, .

o r a p oem wr i tten in a language o ne does n o t understand But plays .

can be enj oyed t o s ome extent by men who d o no t unders tand a word
that i s sp oken What the c onvent i onal as s o c i at i ons o f words do f o r
.

them in the s tory or poem is done f o r them not only by the acted
,

in cidents but by the c onventional as so c i at i ons of the tones ges tures , ,

gr ima c s a ctions and p rop s i n the play D ramat i c readings s in ce

, .
,

they make u s e o f these as s o c i at ions are a s the theatre well knows

, , ,

n o t st or i es made aud ible but plays performed The i r p roduction r e .

quires the s olution o f the same k ind of p roblems that beset all a ct ing .

M any o f those who do read dram atically inc i dentall y d o not l i terall y
, ,

read hav ing memorized the s cr ipt a s tho roughly a s actors u sually d o
, .

O n the other hand i t i s pos s ible t o wave one s a rms gest i culate change

, , ,

tone and s o o n and yet in n o way app ro ach a dramat i c p erfo rman ce
, , .

An e ff ective teacher i s no t an a ctor in any sense for he does n ot ,

function a s an integral part o f a created world to be ac cepted as ,

substantial and s elf su ffi c i ent -

.

S in ce the conventional as s o c i at i ons o f a ctions etc and the spoken , .

,

wo rds are s omewhat independent what i s c onveyed through the help

,

of the as s o c i at i on s is u sually s ometh i ng quite d iff erent from what i s

c onveyed by means of the words alone O ne man says n o to an other . .

The two are related in the play by a negat i on When the n o i s .

dramat ized it immed i ately reveals t o all that o ne o f the men i s hold ing
himself over aga inst the other It tells u s s ometh ing else a s well A
. .

no pounded o n the table s ighed shyly o r shaped i nt o a barricade
, ,
in a play makes us a cutely aware that it i sexisten ce a s well as another

man which is being deed By living through the no dramatically .

p rodu ced we thereby not only learn t o face exis ten ce o n o u r o wn terms
, ,

but t o know what it i s like apart from the play .

Aristotle h a s taught all that by means o f the play the emotions are
purged He c on centrated on tragedy 'h is work on c omedy having ap
.

been lo s t and therefore sp oke o f the purging o f the emotions

p a r en t l
y )
o f pity and terror His i nsight deserves extension What he s aid o f
. .

tragedy i s a special case of what can be s aid o f every type o f play ,

a nd i nd eed of every art

'

There is a purging o f emotions s a d and

.
,

j oyous quiet and violent in s culpture and p ainting in musi c and

, , ,

dance in poetry and architectu re All these o ff er controlled c ontexts

, .

in which emot i ons can be spent freed from the rasp ing debilitating , , ,

diso rganized eff ects t h ey have in da ily life All o f them turn raw emo .

tion into rened emotion All replace an outbu rst into the world
.

which may as read ily inj ure a s help o ne may a s readily mis s i t s ,

obj ect as rea ch i t by a stru ctured expres sion which i s made into part

of a substantial work revealing man s destiny

.

N ot only are the emot i ons of spectators purged ; the artists emo

tions are purged a s well F o r both spectators and artists the a ct of

.

entering the world o f art i s the a ct o f subj ecting emo t ion s t o res train t .

By living with the art the restrained emotions are expres sed in a
,

controlled way The outcome o f a purg ing i s a changed attitude

.
,
_

towards t he univers e an insight in to its n a t u r e a nd cut ; f o r a while

'

at leas t it makes one sensitive to the g o od and ev i l that existence

contains S ometimes we win su ch an insight through a direct struggle
. .

When we do the e ff ects are longer lasting than those p rodu ced by art
,
-
.

B ut they are u sually als o s omewhat cataclysm i c shaking u s t o o u r ,

foundat i ons M ore often than not to o a d i rect struggle i s not well
.
, ,

guided and is without go od issue The emotions elicited by things help .

u s adj us t ours elves to them and wh at lies beyond bu t only in a rough ,

way ; the emotions el i cited by and used in the arts both help u s t o make
the arts be and help us to have o u r l ives and values enhan ced Though
, .

art does not a ff ect u s a s deeply a s life it does a ff ect u s in a m ore ,

su c ces sful and s atis fying way Art however is not therapy ; it is n ot
.
, ,

to be engaged in in order to rene the emotions The emotions are .

Nine B a s ic A r ts

2 00

rened only in the c ours e of an a ct in which the wo rk of art maintains

itself a s a world while making evident the bear ing which the ultimately
,

real has o n human life .

Actors u tilize their emotions t o ll o u t the stru cture o f a play t o ,

carry it from p oint t o point ; the members of the audien ce provide it

with an emotionally sustained wall The one lives inside a v italized .

ongoing the other off ers this a boundary The a cto rs are in the play
, .
,

the audien ce only at it S in ce acto rs als o in cidentally as sume the posi

.

tion o f an audien ce they purge n o t one but two s ets of emotions O ne

, , , .

s e t i s purged in the p ro ces s o f a cting the other in the p ro ces s o f ,

making the work s tand away from pros ai c day giving it body a , ,

substantial being of its own The latter proces s is undergone when the
.

a cto r a cknowledges the roles o f others ; it is then that he lo oks at them

in the spirit in which the audien ce faces all Let an a ctor take the part .

o f a father and another the role of s o n The two together might inter .

play with o ne an other to c onstitute a play The audience status o f .
-

ea ch a ctor rides on the b a ck of this interplay ; it is n othing more or

les s than h is comp rehen s ion o f w h at it is that t h e ot h er is doing S in ce .

a ctors grasp what the roles of others are when and as they dynamically
live ou t their own roles they are able t o p urge themselves audien ce
, ,

wise when and a s they purge themselves a c t o r wi s e

, .

There was a time when the audien ce made its plea sures and dis
s atis facti ons clearly known throughout the performan ce and u nmi s
t a k a bl y afterwards M en were aroused to sho ut t o ght t o s cream
.
, , .

Audiences today a re usually better mannered they do no t j eer o r yell

ex cept on rare o c ca sion s They do not move i nto the a cto rs world a s
.

readily as they on ce did But plays are made and broken by audiences
.

t oday a s they always have been In addition they are made and broken.

by theatre groups who buy out or refus e to buy out hous es by t h eatre
, ,

brokers wh o buy o r refus e to buy seats before the play has found its
audien ce and by critics wh o in a hurried hour between curtain and
, ,

deadline lend the play a helping hand o r deal it a s taggering blow

, .

Thes e are unfortunate developments Though the audience has a right .

to be considered since it is a constituent of the play the others are

, ,

outside the theatre s provin ce They stand at a distan ce helping o r
.
,

hindering a ready entran ce into it This is an imp ortant function but .

,

HE DA N CE

ERE s eem to
' be at leas t a half dozen p revalent interpretation s
atu re o f the dance It ha s been c alled an a c comp animent of
.

type o f a ct ing a series of gestures o r p antom imes a set o f

, ,

o r pa int ings a w ay o f d i s cha rg i ng surplus energy and a

, ,

s elf express i on Every one o f these interp retat i on s can be

.

1 illustrat i on i n s ome dan ce But none I think does full j ustice

.
, ,

ic h ne s s of the art .

nay a s Cage and Cunningham have sh own c reate music to

, ,

wi th the dance If the two are really c o created they w ill

.
-

te a new comp ound art As a rule though ea ch at di ff erent

.
, , ,

5 , s erves a s a s crip t or guide fo r s ome development in the

nd at the end the music i s made to g i v e way and bec ome s u b

to the dan ce A dan ce i s usu ally p receded by a per i od o f

.

and where it is not there is a referen ce t o music in the pre

,

7 swayings gestures and movements The music here i s at the

, , .

of the dan ce , played in advance only t o enable o ne t o pla ce

i nside a created controlled puls at i n g wo rld The fact i s all
, , . .

e remarkable s ince men enter into the dan ce t o a degree they

enter i nto any other art O nly in the theatre and in mus i c do
.

0 move i nto the art in the esh as well a s in the sp i r i t B ut in .

i tre they d o i t only by dividing thems elves i nto roles and

o f these roles and in music they do it only a s agents o f s ound
, .
 The D a nc e

a ction I know o f no more s ensiti v e phi los ophical and persuasive

.

, ,

writer on the dan ce than D oris Humphrey B ut here I think s h e is .

les s per ceptive than s h e usually i s There i s no music that m ight not .

be used to a c c ompany a dan ce S ome wo rks of music are insistent .

,

s ome are limited in range s ome are dis tra cti v e B ut all mark o u t areas
,
.

in which a dan cer c an fun ction T o deny t o s ome wo rk of music a .

po ssible function f o r s ome dan ce i s t o delimit the p ossib ilities o f dance

unneces s arily .

It i s als o true that dance i s independent o f music D ance h a s i t s own .

space time and form of de v elopment A dan ce need n ot in fa ct be

, , .
, ,

a c companied by music at all M ary VVig m a n who originally dan ced .

,

t o music s ays E a ch dan ce i s un ique and free a sep arate organ i sm
, , ,

whos e form is self determined

M y dan ces o w from certa in s tates
-
.

of being di ff erent s tages o f vitality which realize in me a vary i ng play

,

o f emotion I nd my dan ce parting company from the music .

This does n ot mean that the music does n ot have a most important
presuppositional role L ike the play the dance i s performed within an
.
,

area which is won fo r us by mus i c .

A s is often the ca se in the clas sical ballet the dance can serve t o ,

tell a sto ry Intentions and designs are high lighted by gesture and the
.

,

whole i s then p res ented as a kind of s ilent play with a ba ckground o f

-

music But the dan ce i s n o t even here an a c comp an iment or form o f

.
, ,

a cting The a ctor supplements his words by hi s m ovements Were the

. .

dancer t o speak he would a ccomp any hi s movement s by his words The .

m ovements of the o ne add tone and volume t o the words the movements
of the other have sufcient tone and volume o f their o wn and therefore
need n o wo rds The a ctor s wo rds precipitate a ctions ; the words o f
.

the dancer would summarize a ct i ons o r translate them into another

medium That we attend t o the act or s words and t o the leap s and
.

pirouettes o f the dancer is not therefore an irrelevant fact about them .

It is true of course that one can enj oy a play even though one does
, ,

not understand the words but that is bec ause the incidents wh i ch the
,

words require are interesting in themselves The mo v ements o f the .

dan cer do not require words at all ; they suffice to make a work of art
be.

I s the dan ce a s eries of pantomimes ? The idea is s o s h ocking to

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

204

some that t h ey go to the extreme of denying that pantomime could

ever be an art Is adora Duncan befo re the days of Charles Chaplin
.
,

and M arcel M er c ea u had perhaps s ome little j usti cation for s aying
,

pantomime t o me h a s never seemed an art but it i s hard t o under ,

stand why a t this late date S us anne Langer feels s h e mus t echo Duncan

and s a y I als o c onsider p antomime n ot a kind o f art at all Panto
, .

mime i s a form of a cting though o ne which does not u s e wo rds For

, .

the pantomimis t the gestures like the movements o f the dancer have , ,

su ffi cient volume and tone o f their own to make a work o f art be .

But he unlike the dan cer as sumes a role acts o u t a p art The gestures
, , , .

o f the dan cer in c ontrast are p art o f the dan cer s movement ; the slope

of his shoulders his shrugs his looks of surp ris e and despair his
, , ,

prepa rations for arrival and depa rture and all the rest s erve only , ,

to s et limits to the m ovement and perhaps t o cue the audien ce helping ,

it in the light of familiar o c cu rren ces to nd its way through the

, ,

dance .

Doris H umphrey observes : The normal handsh ake lasts a second

or two By prolonging this through timing o r repetition we are im

.
,

mediately in the area o f dan ce and not mime S h e does n ot h ere

.

intend to s a y I think that we can by thes e devices convert a p anto

, , , ,

mime into a dan ce As was j ust observed p antomime i s a form o f

.
,

a cting ; no elaborat i on o f the art o f a cting by a ny dev i ce turns it into , ,

a dan ce In any ca se by p rolonging a p antomime we do n othing more

.

than make it a prolonged p antomime Pantomime i s a temporal art ; .

dan cing is a dynamic one S pectators are merely at the former but
.
,

p articip ate in the latter Pantomime i s dramatic a role taking art in

.
,
-

which energy is sluiced through limited channels so a s to provide a

s equence of in cidents which reveal the n ature of existent time a s

mediated by men ; the dan ce in contrast is a world in which the indi

, ,

vidual becomes one with the dan ce pou ring hi s energy into a single ,

whole o f energy which thereby iconizes with hardly any mediat ion , ,

the nature of an existential becoming .

N or is the dance a s eries o f pictures or paintings This would make .

it primarily a s et o f s tills and leave motion the task of taking u s

,

from one still to the other Even if one were to attend to a design at its
.

best complex involved with a plurality o f tensions and multiple

, , ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

2 06

pursuit of music and story as arts s eems t o come late in history and
to be characteristic o f only highly developed cultures .

In the dance the human body i s at its freest and fulles t i n clos est ,

h arm ony with the vitality of existen ce The dan ce has no need t o tell.

a sto ry t o communicate to do anything but make a wo rk o f art

, ,

be It es c apes the s ep aratenes s the rigid i ties the sharp breaks of the
.
, ,

theatre and the intangi bility and d i stances of music It lls up gives
, .
,

body t o an energetic voluminous ongoing thereby contrasting with

, ,

music which merely presents su ch an ongoing and with the theatre ,

which pun ctuates it Music strives towards continuity ; the theatre

.

insists on va riou s pivotal chara cters and inc i dents ; but in the dance
the pivots are c ontinuous with the movement Act ing i s a dan cing in .

res tra i ned and awkward movements under the gu idan ce and pres s ure
o f dis cours e ; music is a dan cing in wh i ch the performers are tones .

D ancing as an art ha s two basic f orms : the classical and the free .

The latter is the older Though there are xed forms in primitive
.

dan cing it is als o true that it is more open less c ontrived than the
, , -

cla ssical The clas sical is today exhibited in the ballet the free in the
.
,

modern dance The di ff eren ces between thes e are les s interesting or
.

impo rtant than their similarities They di ff er p erhaps s omewhat a s

.

traditional differs from modern painting The cu rrent movement in .

both painting and dan ce emphasizes its revolt agains t the older genera
tion by claiming to be an entirely new adventu re But in both old and .

new forms dan cers make u s e o f similar instruments their bodies and , ,

f o r the s ame ends the produ ction o f a new dynamic world

, .

This view is explicitly rej ected by John M art i n He s ays that the .

modern dan ce h a s a ctually arisen in fulllment o f the ideals o f the
romant i c movement It has set itself agains t the art i ce of the ballet
.
,

making its chief aim the exp ression o f an inner compulsion ; but i t ha s
als o seen the necessity for vital forms for this e x pres sion and indeed ,

has realized the aes thetic value o f fo rm in and f o r itself a s an adj unct
t o th i s exp res s i on In carrying o u t this purpo se it has thrown aside
.
,

everything that has gone before and s tarted all over again from the
,

beginning His p oint seems well taken p articularly whe no ne recalls

.
,

that N o ve r r e s a i d A ballet is
, a s eries of pictures connected
one with the other by the plot which p rovides the theme of the ballet ;
 T h e D a nc e

the stage is the canvas the choice of the music s cenery and , ,

c ostumes are his colors ; the compo ser is the p ainter A ballet i s .

either the likenes s o f a nished p ai nting o r the original It i s o f .
,

cours e als o true that in the modern dan ce in c ontras t with the clas
, ,

s ic al ,
there is more freedom o f mo v ement a greater readines s t o ex ,

er i m ent and imp rovise a greater willingnes s t o ac commodate the

p ,

dance to new rhythms and a greater des i re t o make u s e of n ew types

,

o f deco r and music B ut both are fo rms o f dance and dance ha s a

.
,

single essence When D oris Humphrey who is certainly a modern

.
,

dan cer and who thinks o f her movements a s es sentially experiments in

,

unbalan ce or attempts to organ ize tensions into a unied whole says

, ,

all movements can be consider ed to be a

deliberate unbalan ce in
order to p rogres s and a res toration o f equilibrium f o r s elf p r o t ec
,
-

ti on s h e speaks fo r both the clas s i cal and modern dancers There is .

o ne dance and it has many di ff erent guises

, .

Energy is employed in all motion s in the arts and outside them , .

But the dance employs energy i n a dis tin ctive way for a distin ctive ,

purpose It comp rises all forms o f movement swinging walking run

.

, ,

n i ng j umping fall ing challeng ing and mainta i ning equ il ibrium bend
, , , ,

ing holding and letting g o rising and fall ing S ometimes s ays Merle
, , .
,

Marsicano I feel that I am des cend ing below the level of the o or
, ,

and at times I feel suspended in s trata above me The feel o f the oor .
,

i t s p rimary attraction need not o ccur under my feet alone The space
, .

about me as I w ill it to do s o c an po s ses s t h e s a m e tang ible resis t

, , .

ance It also includes rests D or i s Humphrey wittily remarks M any

.

.
,

a time I have used the revers e o f the o l d admonition to my students

and s a id D on t j us t do s ometh i ng s tand there '
,

,

There are s ome who speak o f the dan ce a s pr imarily an exhibit i on

o f man s attempt to defy o r deny gravity They p oint t o the fact that
,
.

the dancer stands on his toes leaps wi th gra ce seeks in mult iple ways , ,

to convey an impres s i on o f being without we ight There are others wh o .

s a y instead that dan ce i s an art wh i ch s eeks t o accommodate util i ze

, , , ,

explo it the fa ct o f gravitation The one group attends primarily to .

the clas s i cal dance the other to the modern dan ce They are n ot
, .

rad i cally oppo sed The one contrasts the movements in side w i th thos e
.

which o ccur outs ide the dance ; the other contras ts the product of
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

208

t he dan ce with the raw material which was provided for it What i s .

outside the dan ce i s t o be put a side but the raw material which i s ,

gravitation cannot be denied o r deed .

The dan ce is no t an exhibition o f a futile e ff ort to make o ne believe

that gravitation does not exis t o r t h at it can be can celled o u t It
, .

transforms the raw p ower of gravitation and makes it operate in new

channels The dan ce seeks to master to make u se of t o p os ses s gravity
.
, ,

in a new setting The man who makes the dan ce is in the dance ; he gives
.

to the a rt n ot only his emotions mus cles words s ounds attention but
, , , , ,

himself When the dancer stands on his toes or leap s he moves in

.
,

a new world a cc ording t o a new logic He rises and falls subj ect to the .

very laws o f cours e that govern every man in and outside the dan ce
, ,
.

But his rises and falls in the dance are not rises and falls aga inst o r
wit h gravitational pulls but with and agains t other rises and falls
,
.

The gravitational pull is an integral part of the dan cer s movement ,

having dis tin ctive relations t o other movements in that dan ce .

The dan cer not only stands on his t oes o r leap s but twirls about is , ,

t h rown c aught and carried lies down twists ; he c an m ove heavily

, , , , ,

lowly take short strides crawl be dragged pull ed crushed brought

, , , , , ,

suddenly down to the ground There is no more yielding t o gravitation

.

in thes e last acts than there is a deance of gravitation in the rst

ones In all o f them the dan cer is using his body to help constitute a
.

realm o f bec oming When he moves with heavy s tep crawls o r falls
.
,

to the ground he moves with j ust a s mu ch freedom and aesthetic

,

purp os e and result as he does when he j umps with apparent e ff ort

les snes s glides with ease o r moves weightles sly
, , .

The gestures of the dancer are c ontinuations through his limbs of , ,

the movements carried o n by his body D oris H umphrey divides them .

into four categories : s o cial fun ctional ritual and emotional il
, , , ,

lustrated by a handshake the combing of one s hair bowing and the

,

, ,

exp ression o f grief by putting one s hands before one s eyes or face
.

The fo rm thes e have in common experience s h e remarks must be , ,

c onsiderably altered before they c an become part of a dan ce S he .

suggests that this is to be done by changing the initial rhythms ,

s tres ses timing design thematic meanings and emotion al values H er

, , , .

fou r categories are in cons onan ce with the divisions made throughout
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

21 0

s equen ce of movement and any length o f stillnes s c an take place It
, .

i s n ot true o f c ou rs e that a ny l eng t h of stillnes s can take place but ,

it is surely true that the length cannot be p res cribed in advance The .

time o f rest i s a tens i onal t ime demanding a movement after a while ; ,

it is a c cumulative calling f o r an end j ust a s surely a s a movement does

, , .

Although a dan ce c an be put o n the s ame platform where a play has

been performed it will u s e a completely di ff erent stage from that u sed
,

in the play The natural meanings of stage space D oris H umphrey

.

,

observed are unique in the dan ce The dancer s tarts with a stage
, .

subdivided into various p o sit i on s and then pro ceeds to vitalize them
all simultaneously though with a p rimary stres s on limited p ort i ons
,

o f it The a ctor i n contrast s tarts with a plot and then vitalizes s ome
.

region within the single undivided area required by that plot The a cto r .

creates a pla ce in a single whole pres cribed by the idea o f the play ;
the dan cer creates a whole from a p osition p res cribed by the idea o f
the dan ce Every m ovement o f the dan cer c overs the entire dan cing
.

sp a ce E a ch i s a ffiliated with whatever other movements and rests there

.

be If t h e d a n c er i s alone he dan ces not o nl y wh er e his body is but

.
'

_
,

in the entire dan cing space Like the s ounds of music the movements .
,

and rests of the dan cer are voluminous ; if there are a number of
dan cers ea ch o c cupies a di ff erent dimension o f the s ame single volume
, .

The wo rld o f the dance i s endlessly complex ; in it every m ovement goes

at on ce ba ckwards and forwards up and down sideways and ir , ,

regularly to ll the entire dan cing space

, .

The a cto r i s a man wh o as sumes a role ; he is s omehow two men in

o n e The audien ce o f the theatre
. o n the other hand gives up the side , ,

o f itself whi ch h ad a being apart from the theatre in order to function

as a fourth wall In the dan ce the t w o position s are almost reversed

. .

The dan cer i s in the dan ce He does n ot as sume a role ; he gives him .

s elf with out reserve But the audience though it als o a cts a s a w a ll o r
.
,

lim i t of the dan c ing spa ce fu nct i on s at the s ame time a s the environ
,

ment f o r the dan ce That env i ronment i s not the wo rld of n ature but
.
,

an artifa ctual area ins i de o f wh i ch the dance takes place The aud i ence .

adopts the rhythm given by the music 'i f any ) at the s ame time that
it help s constitute a dan ce area where the dance v itally lls out that _

rhythm The audience i s where the ac companying music arrives at the

.
,
 T h e D a nc e

s ame time that it is where the a ctual dan c ing takes pla ce It can be .

in both places because the rhythms i t exhib it s in the former capa city
are th os e wh i ch are lled out by the d a nc i ng in the latter
'

D an cers l i ke mus i cians and a ctors exp res s thems elves dynamically
, ,

to produce an icon o f a v i tal all en comp assing pro ces s o f becoming

,

.

The mu sician s i con i ze that becoming by means o f s ounds ; a ctors

iconize it by means o f interrelated dyn amic roles ; dan cers icon i ze it
,

by turn ing themselves into represent a tives of it The icon that the .

musicians p rovide reaches o u t to in clude the listener ; it abs orbs the

audience as well a s the musician in the role of listener The ic on that .

the a cto rs prov i de i s susta i ned by the aud i en ce ; it i s bounded by the

audien ce and by the a ctors a s they take c ogn i zan ce o f one another s
roles The icon that the dan cers provide i s themselves a s dan c i ng ; the
.

audience c an bec ome p art o f it only by dan c i ng in spirit o r in fa ct .

The simplest themes o f a dan ce are movements which a chieve max

imum luminos i ty when performed w i th eas e and gra ce E a ch of these .

has a grain p roduced by the qu al i ty o f the dancer s body the force o f

,

grav i tat i on the resistance p ro v ided by o t h en d a n c er s and movements

,
x
r
q
,

and the audien ce Th e theme i s carri ed by t he aud i en ce from place to

.

place and t ime t o time and thereby made t o change in value The move
, .

ments o f the dancer i nterpenetrate the m ovements whi ch he thereafter ,

and which oth ers then and later p rodu ce The dance i s therefore never .

a mere s equen ce of movement s and rests It i s a s i ngle whole within which

.

themes and mo v ements c an be d i st ingu i shed but are not t o be isolated .

The dan ce i s molded from the start a s a s i ngle o rgan i cally i nter
c o nn e c t e d u ni t y .

The dan ce conta i ns both negative and p os i t i v e c omp onents S ince .

there is no uno c cup i ed sp ace or t ime i n it s i nce its res ts and stillness es
,

are themselves tens i onal and dynam i c i t s p os i t i ve and negat ive com
,

p o nen t s ev i dently d i ffer only in degree M os t c ompend i ously there i s

.
,

only dom inat i on o r foreground and reces sivenes s o r ba ckground and

, ,

these n ot sharply d i st inguished S ome movement o r res t i s fo r a t ime to

.

the front and then only s o far a s i t dom inates and gu i des ; what is then
mo st reces sive s erves t o sp ace it to relate i t t o whatever els e there be
, .

B oth the dominant and reces sive movements and rests o c cupy the
entire dance volume ; each i s a ffiliated in multiple ways with every other ;
Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

21 2

ea ch media t es and i s med i ated by the rest Thos e who con centrate ex .

c l u s iv el y on the main dan cers or o n outstand ing motions and rests will

s ee the entire world of the dan ce but they will not s ee all the relations
,

that o c cur in it They will mis s the fa ct that recessi v e movements and
.

rests n ot only have an intrinsic value of their own but are a ff ected and ,

aff ect the dominant The world o f the dan ce is a s olid world in which
.

the slightest of elements is an integral comp onent relating and related , ,

functioning as a ba ckground only in relation t o what has been a c

c e t ed as f oreground
p .

A theme is developed throughout the dance ; in su cces sive appear

a n c es i t is m od i ed inverted changed in p a ce and pla ce S ome c c
, , .

c u r r enc e s a re pivotal others minor ; and though the dance is not a

,

piece of theatre there is a climactic p oint a pla ce where the theme

, ,

c omes t o c onspicuou s expression and towards which and from which

other instan ces of the theme are directed o r initiated There is of .
,

c ourse more than one theme But all the themes mus t be interlo cked to
, .

yield a single c omplex theme As this is developed different subordinate

.
,

themes bec ome c onspicuous at di ff erent times .

A theme pursued throughout a dance provides it with a s tru cture .

A plurality of themes yields a structure which weaves in and out

throughou t the dan ce to produ ce the an alogue of a series of incident s
,

lo cked in a plot But the dance has n o plot Precisely bec aus e it has n o
. .

dramatic story to tell the dan ce c an easily be mis c on strued as present

,

ing n ot h ing but a s et o f s tru ctures There is mo re t o the dan ce than

.

this It ha s a meaning imbedded in it If the themes and stru ctures are

. .

harmonized the meaning can permeate every pa rt of the dance to make

,

it excellent beautiful The mean ing imbedded in a dance all to o f r e

, .

quently ha s been sp oken of a s being es sentially religious in import .

Only such a meaning it is felt is old bro ad and vague enough to be

, , , ,

relevant to the origin fun ction and appeal of dan ce But this is to
, , .

overlo ok the role o f myths Like every other art the dance makes
.
,

evident t h e nature of a myth This is a cultural ide a referring t o and

. .

m aking relevant an obj ective meaningful ideal It celebrates the mean .

ing of a beginning a middle o r an end When entertained and embodied

, .

in a dan ce it h as a fo rm wh i ch is even more amorphou s than that

,

utilized in music o r the theatre in good p art because the dance i s ,

Ni ne B a s i c A r ts

21 4

t oo the choreographer and his dancers mus t c all a halt in the endles s
e ff o rt to make a perfect work A s a result the dan ce music and theatre
.
, ,

will not be altogether well integrated one with the other and w ill no t ,

either severally o r together make a perfect whole B ut in this respect .

they will no t be unlike other arts All artists s top and ought to st op
.

before perfection i s attained fo r beyond a certain p o i nt they are

,

bound to substitute technique o r artines s fo r genuine creati v e work .

The dance mu st be charged with emotion c onstantly in the effort to

gi v e it substan ce enough t o push all els e aside It then constitutes a .

world of i t s o wn which s atises becaus e it contains within itself the

texture and nature o f a mos t rele v ant ultimate reality The texture is .

gi v en by the b odies of the dan cers in interplay wi th o ne another the ,

audien ce and gra v ity ; the n ature i s gi v en i n the proces s of the dan ce
,

its elf B y l i v ing through the dan ce o ne lives through a c ours e o f v ital
.

becoming a reality whos e being cons i sts in it s c oming t o be The dance

, .

tea ches u s what the imp ort o f a world o f p ro ces s i s We learn from it .

that existence i s at on ce relentles s and supple insis tent and persistent , ,

ruthles s a nd V italizing that it forges over an un charted p ath a world

, , ,

big with the p romis e o f good and ill .

Were Hegel right that the highest art i s o ne in which there is a

,

perfect con formity o f form and matter the dance in addition to being , ,

one o f the oldest and m ost widespread, would als o be the m ost perfect
o f arts This theory of Hegel s i s I think mis taken Although the

.
, , .

virtues of the dan ce are great and d i st i nctive they do n o t sufce to ,

-

make it an art superior to the other maj o r arts M usic makes a wo rld .

which we can remember ; the theatre pun ctu ates a world which we can
understand In the dance man tou ches the depths o f reality more pro
.

f o undl y but what he thereby gra sp s he can ha rdly remember o r u h

,

d er s t a nd And because the dance involves a whole man who apart from
.
,

the dan ce has a volume a m ode o f becoming a public sp a ce and a

, , ,

temp oral life i t is hard to a ccept and to remain with a s an art It de

,
'

mands a great and c ontinu ous e ff ort on the pa rt of the dancer ; and on
the p art of the audien ce to hold the dance away from the world of
everyday .

The dance a s a ne art i s of c omp aratively recent origin And in .

Ameri ca it has only in the las t decades won an interest from more
 T h e D a nc e

than a few B ut recently because o f the work o f s uch distinguished

.
,

choreographers as D eM ill e B alan chine and Robb i ns more and more

, ,

people ha v e begun to s ee that the dance is an a rt B alanchine is

.

tempted at times to put in little tricks wh i ch he as sumes will h elp

maintain the interest of the audien ce ; B obbins is s omewhat impres sed
with grand i ose theatric al affects ; D eM il le seems o v er a nx m u s t o pro
du ce an i nd igenou s form o f dance But thes e are mino r and remed i al
.

faults The imp ortant th ing is that they ha v e made the dance an art
.

fo r many B ecaus e of them there will be a greater and greater a ccept

.
,

ance o f the M artha Grahams and M erce C unn inghams We seem t o .

be on the verge of a new era in the dance .

 S O M E C O M P O U N D A RT S

H U N D RE D S of p os sible c ombinations can be made from our

of arts Only s ome of t h es e have been explo red by artist
.

bines s culpture and painting ; Joyce combines musicry and

; t r el s combined sto ry and music ; the H omeric molpe c o
r
y and dan ce 'or a cc ording to s ome interpreters st ory
'

, ,

dance ) the opera combines music and the theatre ; and Ga

sner have sp oken of themselves as producing a new art Wh f

es architecture s culpture and p ainting These combinati '

, .

i lly brought about by subo rdinating o n e or more arts t

linant one In the opera the theatre is clearly a subordina '

t Ideally though it should be p os sible to give equal weigh

.
, ,

c onstitutive a rts B ut whether one does this o r n ot t h e

.
,

be either a thicker p ortrayal o f existen ce or an intensi ,

ome dimension of it In the molpe time and becoming are I

.
, .

plement one an other thereby enabling o ne t o grasp the na

,

;tence a s more than either Photography do cumentari '

.
,

f ies are a rts in which sp ace time and the pro ces s o f b e
, ,

iev e inten sicat i on through a use o f a number of arts .

Ph e photographer approaches the world with an aestheti c

lert t o its lights and shadows its interrelation s its m ul t ip l
, ,

es and its spatial congurations He is ready t o attend

, .

y in which light opp os es and merges into darknes s c olor Me ,

I alters colo r shape contrasts with and pass es into sha

,

zkg r o u nd stands over agains t and is continuous with t l

'

.und He is prep ared to follow the development o f a theme t

.

a s i tuation t o attend to the way in which what is here a ff ec

,

here .

This approa ch of his is not characteris tic of the p ainte r

il t o r Thes e have little and s ometimes even no r ec i a t i o
p . a
pp .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

21 8

a print He must know not only that the camera tran sforms but what
.

kind o f trans formations a re p os sible by mean s of it The photographer .

must master the technique of operating it in o rder to a chieve the

result he anticip ates and desires T o do this he mus t frame the .

aesthetic experience by intent change it into an aesthetic obj ect held

,

ap art from the world The aesthetic experien ce wa s enj oyed by

.

ign oring the res t o f the daily wo rld ; the aestheti c obj ect i s p roduced
by pushing that world aside The photographer by making himself
.
,

a camera before the fact p rodu ces an intentionally f ramed a es t h e t

, ,

i c a l ly s atis fying whole an obj ect who se internal content ha s been

,

a ff ected by the way in which it has been made to stand over agains t
the daily w orld .

A c amera provides prints n ot photographs Prints are the p roducts

, .

o f craftsmanship ; they p resupp os e skill technique the ability to ma , ,

nip u l a t e a ma chine On e need n ot therefore be an artist to use a c amera

.

with brillian ce It i s c on cei v able that it c ould be manipulated by

.

ma chinery with greater a c curacy and s atis fa ction than by a man

on ce gran t ed that a man h a s rst is olated and framed and thereby
c on v erted an experien ce int o an aes thetic obj ect .

The tran slation of p rints into photographs i s usually treated a s

a special craft That work can als o be done by a machine But the
. .

photographer who i s an artist charges the a ctivity o f translation

with c reativity The results o f the camera are manipulated in the dark
.

ro om s o a s to m odify i t s e ff ects and values The outcome is the world

-

o f every day fou r times trans formed r s t by the aestheti c e xp er i

,

en ce then by the photographer s conversion of this into an aesthetic

,

obj ect then by the conversion o f this into an other aes theti c obj ect by
,

means of the camera and nally by the conversion o f the camera s

,

product into a work of art .

An artistically p rodu ced p ortrait o f an aes thetic ally experienced

world the ph otograph i s dependent in p art on what the world hap
,

pen s to p resent and allows t o be confronted It str ess es planes and .

c ontrasts in the way s culpture does but it lls up sp ace in a painterly ,

way It i s a s culptured p ainting with a distin ctive s tru cture and

.

values .

A do cumentary lm does fo r time w h at ph o tography does for sp ace .

 S om e Co mp o und Ar ts

21 9

Like the photograph it is olates an aestheti cally s at i sfying content ,

frames this by intent m an ipulates cameras in order that the outcomes

,

c an be preserved and then subj ects the result t o alterations in order

,

to enhance the aesthetic values which the c ameras were able to carry .

The t ime it provides is a lled u p time a time of p oetry but o ne -

, ,

who s e elements are no t words o r phra ses but inc i dents and e v ents .

Although photographs may deal with art ifactual obj ects and even
with su ch art obj ects as bu ild ings s culpture and p aint ings they , ,

are usually n ot s o employed D o cumentaries on the other hand s trive

.
,

to p rovide a ccurate rep orts bot h o f natu ral and art i factu al events It .

i s rarely that their artist i c potenti alit i es are exploited A splend i d .

exception is the recent lm N ew Yo r k N Y And in that subdivision

, , . .

of do cumentaries which we have c ome to call rec ordings there i s
promis e for a radic al development of do cumenta ries a s an art D o c .

u ment a r i e s live in a p oetic time but one which has been m ade to c arry
,

a story They are c ompounds o f two arts but po s ses s ing a character
.
,

i s t i c avor o f their own .

'

Mo st recordings o ff er s kill ful r ep o r t s of such artifa ctual events a s

instrumental and v o cal mus i c The value o f th i s enterprise ha s made
'

men overlook the p os s ibilities o f creative rec ording n o t only o f natural

events but of artifa ctual ones Wi th an i ncrease i n the use o f tapes
.
,

s tereophonic devices splicings the deliberate disto rtion o f o l d s ounds

, ,

and the introdu ction o f new s ounds there will undoubtedly be a ,

greater and greater readines s t o rec ord even great mus ic in a creative
spirit And the dev elopment of an art o f audible do cumentat i on w ill
.

undoubtedly have repercus s i ons o n visual do cumentat i on s o that o ne ,

may expect in the not t oo d i stant future an a rtisti c u se of vis ible

natural and artifa ctu al s itu ations montages splicings and s ounds , , , ,

result ing in a n art obj ect which ha s n o t los t c onta ct with actual
'

experience It will be diffi cult at t i mes to dist i nguish su ch d o c u men

.

taries from movies B ut the two are qu i te dis t inct The one i s c o n
. .

cerned with creating a time ; the other is c on cerned with the creation
o f a becoming .

The movies make u s e of cameras But they d o n ot thereby become .

a bran ch or fo rm o f photography M ovie and photograph i c cameras .

are quite di ff erent in nature and use The movie camera s move back .
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

220

and forth up and down ; they yield a s equence of happenings and

,

n ot a sp atial area A photograph i s always s tatic ; the movies mo v e

. .

Movement o n the s creen i s no t real movement we will be told It , .

i s only the appa rent mo v ement of a moving picture the result ,

o f p as sing a number o f st il ls s o rapidly before the eye that they

cannot be distinguished What is s een is only a s emblance o f a move

.

ment an illus ory motion s omething imagined no t motion in fa ct
, , , .

It is o f c ourse true that we d o n ot s ee an a ctual man then and there

move ; we s ee a p ortray al of this Just as the man we report in .

biology i s not a real man s o the m an and the movement which we

,

s ee on the s creen are not ultimate real i ties Biology and the movies .
,

however o ff er di ff erent kinds of p ortrayals Biology characterizes a

, .

man under c onditions which make his vital fun ctions intelligible Thes e .

chara cterizations are not similar t o imitative of what a ctually takes ,

pla ce B ut the movement s een on the s creen is the perceivable move

.

ment o f a common sens e obj ect subj ected rst t o c amera distortion s
-

and then to montages splicings t i ntings d i s c ontinuities in the e ff ort

, , , ,

to make the s een movement iconic of a real existential m ovement The .

biologi cal a cc ount in sho rt is o ffered a s iconic of an abs tra ction the
, , ,

portrayal o n the s creen is o ff ered as i conic of a reality Bi ology .

claims to rep ort wh at is s cient i c ally the c ase ; the s creen claims t o

rep ort what is ont olog i cally the case The former has left ontology .

behind even though what it speaks of are not qualities ac cidents but ,

the es s ence of a man ; the latter leaves appea r a n c es to a side e ven -

when it c onfronts us with a pictu re and n ot with what i s being

pictured The s uppo sition that the movement o n the s creen is an il
.

l u s i o n indu ced by the quick p resentat i on of a number o f stills

, ,

c onfounds the causes or c onditions f o r an art with what the art

itself presents To suppo se that there is no movement o n the s creen
.

is but to make a special use of the falla cy that all art is illus ory a ,

mere s emblan ce There is m ovement on the s creen but it is n ot t h e

.
,

m ovement of a physical b ody in physical sp ace .

The m ovies are no t do cumentaries D ocumentaries relate events at .

different places and t imes What they relate they keep distin ct and
.
,

they relate thes e dis tin ct items a cc ording to the logic of every day .

But the movies merge incident with incident and what is more im ,
N i ne B a s i c A r ts

2 22

B ecaus e pantomime i s no t ges tu ring with the wo rds omitted but a ,

distinct art needing no wo rds audible movies cannot be treated as ,

pantomimes with s ound The introdu ct i on o f s ound required a radical

.

trans fo rmat i on in the nature of the gestures Thenceforth they ceased .

to supplant s ounds and instead supplemented emphasized and a c ,

c ent ed them .

The movies do no t need a ctors ; no r d o they presuppose s omething

which moves They can make u s e o f cartoons ; dub in sounds ; a chie v e
.

motion through montages and change the pa ce at will by changing

,

the speed o f the camera When a ctors are used when a s c ript i s bor
.
,

rowed from the theatre o r when a ction i s conned t o a limited space

,

and s o on there i s no radical change in the nature of the mo v ies The

, .

movies a re n o t theatre no matter h o w simila r the t w o may be in

,

pers onnel and plot .

The movies a re s omewhat like the dance and this in a number of ,

ways The a ctors d o n ot have roles ; they are what they s eem to be
. .

The audience on the other hand h a s the double role o f pr o v iding the
, ,

movies with an environment a realm in which it can e x hibit its elf and
, ,

with spectators wh o can move through the environment to arrive at

and be with what i s o c curring in the movies And as in the dance

.
,

there is an exhaus tion of the realm of bec oming in the movies ; the
becoming there i s full bodied d i ctat ing the shape of spa ce and the,

pace o f time But the movies are als o unlike the dance Not only does
. .

the movie audien ce fail t o contribute t o the textu re o f the work but ,

the movements and pro cess es in the movies h o p over vast regions o f
sp a ce and time s tres s dramat i c and climactic in cidents and de v elop
, ,

chara cters and plots Perhaps it is best to s a y that the movies o ff er

.

a new form o f art resulting from a marriage of theatre and dan ce

,

i n sho rt a theatrical version of the dance

,
.

Wagner env i s aged a s ingle all inclusive art resulting from a mar -

r i a e of the variou s basic arts C ould this single art ever be achieved
g .
,

the nature of existence would be p o rtrayed n ot only as en compas sing .

spa ce time and becoming but a s having each o f these in a triply

, , ,

intensied form S u ch an all inclusive art like any succes s ful comb ina
.
-

tion o f arts would have its own chara cteristic texture themes stru e
, , ,

ture and beauty It would als o have distin ctive p roblems demand
.
,
 S o m e C o mp o u n d A r t s

22 8

distin ctive techniques and yield a distinctive experience It would not

,
.

be superior to the arts i t synthesized .

The separation of the d iff erent d i mensions of existen ce from one

another and the p ortrayal of them by arts which pos ses s o r ll them
o u t is a s imp ortant a s their combination The arts taken singly make
,
.

evident deta ils we oth erwis e would n o t be able t o d i s cern ; in combin a

tion they make e v ident h o w di ff erent features o f exis tence t together .

Nothing les s than all the arts singly and in combination c an convey
, ,

the whole o f existence in all its dimen sions .

Becaus e each art makes a distin ctive c ontribution there cannot be ,

a single all inclusive a rt A syn thesis of all the a rts would have over
-
.

against it all the arts s everally If we synthesized these with the

.

synthesis of all the arts we would produce a new art and still would
, ,

have indi v idual arts outside this second synthesis An opera which .

succes sfully combined music and theatre would n ot make a separate

music o r theatre unneces s ary And if that s eparate music or theatre
.

were comb i ned with the opera it would turn the opera into a di ff erent
,

art ha v i ng over a g ainst it a s eparately fun ctioning m usic theatre

, , ,

and opera .

The mo re we synthesize the arts the m ore surely do we multiply

,

them The number o f arts i s endles s ea ch tea ching u s something new

.
,

about the imp ort o f existen ce for man E a ch i conizes existence exhibit
.
,

ing it s texture and conveyi n g its signi can ce N one of c ou rse repla ces
.
, ,

e x is tence None is a s rich a s it i s All p ortray i t but only inside the

. .
,

area a m an has won by creatively using his emotions to pr odu ce a self

s u i c in
g substance
. E a ch exhibits existe nce with delity but not ex
h a u s t iv el y ; ea ch enables us t o learn what th e texture of existence i s ,

but not with all it s nuan ces ; each makes us s ensitive to the challenge
and prom i s e that ex i sten ce h a s fo r man .

We cannot produce an art wh i ch will make the pursu it and enj oy

ment o f other arts unneces s ary We cann ot synthes i ze the arts without
.

forego ing some of the v i rtues they p o ss es s by themselves The only .

way in which we can have the benet o f them all is by part i cipating
in them all se v erally and together E ach will then have an effect on
, .

ou r attitudes towards life ; ea ch w ill make a diff erence to the quality

of our experience ; ea ch will have distinctive res onances through our

N i ne B a s i c A r ts

2 24

beings But since we are single beings we will be able to do in and

.
,

fo r ours elves what we could not d o by art We will be able t o bring .

the arts together in ours elves .

We can turn experien ced pluralities into harmonious totalities o f

that single unity which is ourselves At n o time do we derive a s much
.

benet from su ch a un i cation a s when we make a single experience

o u t o f all o u r en counters w i th art E a ch art alters our attitudes
.
,

changes o u r rhythms and modies o u r s ense o f values inside a s ingle

,

attitude rhythm and s ens e o f values produced when and a s we give

,

each a rt i t s s eparate status and role A s in us they have a texture .

which i s a s much o u r o wn a s it i s that o f exis ten ce becaus e it is the ,

two o f u s together interlocked and intera ctive

, .

In ours elves we are s omewhat like a realm o f music where each tone
maintains i t s i ntegr i ty at the s ame t ime that it i s part of mo re
in clusive melodies and harmonies interacting with other tones Jus t
, .

as ea ch tone o ccup i es an ent i re mu s i cal space and yet allows ro om

f o r others s o ea ch work of art lls our entire being and yet permits an
,

enj oymen t o f other works o f art Unlike mus i c though wh i ch grants

.
, ,

room at variou s times for only certain combinat i ons of tones we s eem ,

able t o make room f o r any c ombination of arts We experien ce cer .

tain combination s o f s ounds a s dis co rdant but app arently no dis ,

harmony neces s arily results in u s when we c ombine any number o r

types of art .

There are many arts All can be made part of a single world by
.

being enj oyed by a s ingle being When this o ccurs they will together
.

tell u s of a single reality the cosmic c ounterpart o f nite man The

, .

world of a rt sh ows us what it mean s f o r u s to be in existen ce There is .

mu ch more to kn ow but this alone j usties a career devoted t o the

,

creating of and a living in the wo rld of art .

A b h ra a m, 1 1 6 l
A p p o i n ai re, 9, 3 7
A b st r a c t i o ns , 1 5, 24, 26, 84, 92, 95 , 1 02, A p p r e c i a t i o n, 1 0, 4 7 , 53 , 1 1 4 1 5, 1 53 , 1 69
1 08, 1 21 , 220 7 0, 1 7 7 7 8, 1 82, 1 93 , 2 1 7

A c c e nt s , 1 2 4, 1 28, 1 5 8, 2 1 3 A p p re h e ns i o n, 1 3, 26
A c ci d e nt , 5 9, 7 9, 1 46, 220 A ra b qu
es e, 1 09
A c co m p a ni m e nt , 1 83 , 203 , 2 1 3 A r c h a i c, 1 34
A c cu m u l a t i o n, 2 1 0, 213 A r ch e r , \V , 61 , 1 96 .

A c hil l e s, 1 65 A r ch it e c tu r e, 9, 28, 32, 34 35, 3 7 38, 40 -

A c ous t ics , 1 73 4 1 , 85 95 p a s s i m , 1 01 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 1 6, 1 1 8,
A c t i ng , 59, 62, 1 84, 1 86, 1 87 n, 1 95, 201 1 0
1 2 4, 1 68, 1 7 7 7 8, 1 8 1 , 1 99, 205 , 2 1 6

p a s s i m , 2 21 A r i s t o t e , 1 1 6, 1 28, 1 40, 1 6 7 , 1 99 l
A c t i o n, 1 3 , 1 6, 1 9, 24, 25, 1 01 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 6, 1 4 7 A r i t hm e t i c , 1 4 9
1 94, 203 l
A r is s , G .
, 60
A ct i i t v y , 6, 1 6, 24, 61 , 7 7 , 83 , 84, 1 1 4, 1 33 A r m a t u r e s , 92
223 A rno ld , M .
, 56
A c t o r s , 1 6 7 , 1 82 89 p a s s im , 1 93, 1 98, 200

A rp , J 216
1 0 p a s s i m , 221 22 A rt : wo k s r 4 1 0 p a s s im , 2 6 2 7 , 30, 39 ,
of,

A dj u st m nt 1 20 1 22 1 68 e , , , , 1 95, 1 99 4 9, 5 7 , 6 0, 62 63, 6 9, 1 01 , 1 04, 1 1 1 , 1 53,

A dm i t i n 1 1 6
ra o ,
1 6 7, 2 1 4 ; exp e r i ment al , 5, 45, 5 1 , 84,
A d nm nt 4 1
or e , d
1 00, 2 07 , 2 1 7 ; p r o u ct i o n o f , 6 7 , 1 0,
A d u m b t i n 1 3 7 1 66
ra o , ,
4 3, 4 6, 5 2, 5 4, 58 5 9, 6 1 63, 86, 90, 1 01 ,
A ff a i r s , s t at e o f, 1 88 8 9, 1 90 1 25, 1 28 2 9, 1 5 3 5 4 , 1 80 ; p hi o s o p h o f, l y
A ff ec t i o n, 1 1 6 8, 25, 2 7 2 9, 3 9 ; a dv
e nt ur e o f , 9 1 0, 42,

A i l i a t i o ns , 1 02, 1 54, 2 1 0 1 1 52, 62 63, 6 9, 7 7 , 84, 90, 1 00, 206 un er d

A ge nt s , 1 68 st an d ing o f, 1 0, 3 9, 45 , 48, 50 5 1 , 94 95 ,
A i r p l a ne s , 7 0 1 02, 1 1 0 ; t e aching o f, 26, 30, 3 2h , 3 3,
A li c e i n Wo nd er l a nd , 1 34 53, 56, 84, 1 04 5, 1 1 7, 1 30, 1 44 45 , 1 5 6,
l
A l i t e r a t i o n, 5 4, 1 54, 1 64, 1 67 1 63, 1 69, 1 94 ; a ch i e v
e ments o f, 27 , 30,
A m at e u r , 1 3 1 , 1 7 6, 2 1 7 4 1 , 5 6, 9 6, 9 9 ; t a s ks
27 , 30, 46 , 8 9, o f,

b y
A m i gu i t , 1 5 6 95, 1 1 1 , 1 86, 206 ; r a t i o na e o f, 3 1 , 5 2 l
l d
A m p it u e, 1 7 7 53 , 5 7 , 9 7 , 1 05, 1 52, 1 7 8, 1 89 90, 205,
y
A na l s i s , 1 8, 61 ll
2 08 ; a nd i u s i o n, 3 1 , 5 9, 1 02, 1 1 4, 220 ;
An d e r s o n, S .
, 1 48 y
a nd r e al i t , 3 2 33 , 4 5 4 7 , 53 , 67 , 2 20 ;

A ngu i s h , 9 6 o nt o o g l y , 3 3 , 6 7, 94 , 1 60 ; all -
i nc l u s iv e,

l
A ni ma s , 58, 59, 1 93 3 8, 222 23 ; v l
a u e o f , 40, 5 2 53 , 55 , 223 ; -

A nt a g oni s m , 1 1 6 u ni t y
o f , 4 1 , 4 6 4 7 , 49, 7 8, 94, 98 9 9,

A nt i c i p a t i on, 1 9 1 1 2, 1 28, 1 4 7 , 1 62, 1 6 7 , 1 77, 1 80, 1 9 7 ,

A nt i c l im ax , 1 1 6 21 1 ; G k
r ee , 4 1 , 83 , 99, 1 80 8 1 , 1 85 ; o r

A nt h rop o l gyo , 205 g a ni c na t u r e o f , 45, 5 1 , 5 4, 59, 7 0, 7 4 ,

A pp e a l , 1 1 5, 1 28, 1 2 9, 1 69 7 0, 1 78 -
78 7 9, 82 84, 1 04 6, 1 08, 1 1 2, 1 45, 1 7 7,
A pp e ar ance, 220 203 ; l i mi t s o f, 45, 96 97, 1 63 , 1 96 ; -
ed u

l
A pp au s e , 1 93 ca ti o n , 84, 1 69 ; A meri can, 1 00, 21 4 1 5 ;
I n d ex

A r t 'c on ti nu ed ) B n n B 1 03
er e so , .
,

O r i ent a , 1 03 ; l wo ld r o f, 1 1 4, 200 202

-
B g n H 24 1 7 1
er so , .
, ,

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A u i ence, 60, 6 8, 1 1 5, 1 42, 1 44, 1 80, 1 82
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86 p a s s im, 1 94 200 p a s s i m , 209 1 1 , 21 4, ui ing s , 69, 72, 7 6, 80 8 1 , 83, 85, 1 1 3, 1 1 5 B ld
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, C a m e r a, 2 1 7 20 p as s i m
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B e at s , 1 1 9, 1 24, 1 5 0, 1 58, 2 1 3 C ar r o ll , L .
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B eau ty , 5, 8, 22, 3 0, 42, 5 0, 5 5 5 6, 7 9, 8 1 C t
ar o o ns , 1 07 , 222
82, 96, 1 02, 1 1 2, 1 28, 2 1 2, 222 C ar vi ngs , 868 7
B eco mi ng, 8 1 0, 22 2 6, 3 3 3 4, 3 7 , 5 7, 6 1 -
C a t c h er i n t h e R y e, 1 47
6 2, 1 2 1 , 1 94, 204, 2 14, 2 1 6 ; k ind s o f, 23 , C d l
at h e r a s , 81 , 9 7

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a cs . e ec o 1 98, 200, 2 1 4 ; d im e ns i o ns o f , 8 9, 3 4, 3 7
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33, 5 4 , 1 1 8, 1 2 1 23 , 1 27 , 1 6 9, 1 82 ; s p ac e

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E l eg anc e, 93 , 1 5 0 o f, 1 80, 1 82, 1 94, 204, 206 ; me nt i one , d
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E mo t io ns 5 8 9 1 4
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3 2, 3 6 , 4 5
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6 0, 7 1 , 96, 1 1 2, 1 22, 1 26 2 7 , 1 2 9, 1 3 2, 1 3 7
38, 1 44, 1 4 6, 1 48, 1 5 6 5 8, mm , 1 64, l 64 n, E x pe ri e nc e , 8, 1 81 9, 3 9 4 0, 47 , 54, 60, 95 ,
1 65 , 1 68 6 9, 1 7 8, 1 97 , 1 9 9 200, 202, 205 , 1 07 , 1 1 1 , 1 25 , 1 29, 1 3 6 3 7 , 1 5 3 54 , 1 7 3 , -

208, 2 1 4 1 7 7, 1 7 9, 1 86, 1 96, 208, 2 1 7 1 9, 224

E mp at h y 1 06 , E xp e r i m e nt , 4 5, 5 1 , 84
E mp i r i c i s m 1 8 1 9 ,

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ra , 6 1 , 7 1 , 7 3 7 4, 7 7 , 80, 93, 1 08, 1 1 0, -

1 2 6, 1 3 7 , 1 49, 1 62, 1 66, 1 96, 2 1 1

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G oe t h e , J , 1 84 . 1 4 9, 1 5 3 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 7 , 2 1 2
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Jo y, 1 27 , 1 52
I d eo l ogy 1 33 , J yc J 2 1 6
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I l l u s i on 4 8 68 220 , , , J u t i 3 9 1 40 1 42
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I m it a t io n 4 2 5 9 95 1 7 1 , , , , d
K a n i ns , IV, 4 9 ky
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1 7 9 80 K i ng s , 1 6 5
I mp r e s s i o nis t s , 1 16 l
K e e, P
46, 5 0
I mp r o v iz at i o n, 7 , 45, 5 9, 207 ld
K no w e ge, 40, 1 3 8
I nc i d e nt , 1 3 4 , 1 3 8, 1 45 4 6, 1 4 9, 1 6 9, 1 7 7 ,
1 93 94, 1 96, 1 98, 203 4, 206 , 22 0, 222 L l E 1 17
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I ns is t e nc e 1 07 1 1 0 1 22 1 69 , , , , , 1 7 1 , 1 74, L ws n J 1 9 7
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1 7 6 7 7 , 203 , 2 1 4 L ea r , 1 40
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I ns t itu t i o ns 23 ,
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b v
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O cc up a t i o n, 9, 34 , 4 3 S ee . a ls o Sp ac e , o c P p c t iv
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cu p i e d P su si n
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O m i s s i o ns , 99, 1 1 1 , 1 4 7 , 1 6 6, 1 97 , 2 1 3 1 1 6, 1 22, 1 28, 1 3 1 3 2, 1 44, 1 55, 1 6 1 , 1 6 1 n
O ne and a n , 1 68 M y P h n m 1 66
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o o ra , , , ,

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48 . S ee
P ck ging 7 0
a a , a ls o Theat re
P i nt
a 1 67
e rs , P l y w i g h t 1 8 5 1 98
a r , ,

P int i ng 9 30 32
a , , , , 3 4 3 5, 3 7 38, 43 44, 68, Pl u 3 2 55 1 50
ea s re, , ,

7 0, 80, 85 8 6 , 90, 93, 97 , 99, 1 00 1 02, 1 1 8, Pl t 62 1 36 1 4 7 1 50 5 1

o , , , ,

, 1 83, 1 87, 1 94,
1 24, l 25 n, 1 4 9, 1 5 9, 1 68, 1 7 3, 1 7 7 , 1 99, 2 1 0, 2 1 2 1 3 , 222
202, 204 6, 209, 2 1 6 1 7 P o e, E . A .
, 1 63
P a i nt s , 1 01 , 1 05, 1 08, 1 1 3, 1 7 3 P oe t r y , 9, 28, 3 4, 3 6 3 7 , 4 1 , 53 5 4, 60, 1 1 5
P a nt o m i ne, 62, 202 3 , 22 1 22 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 22, 1 24, 1 2 7 , 1 3 0, 1 32, 1 3 7 3 8,
P ar a d ox , 1 5 2, 1 5 4, 1 6 7 1 4 9 50, 1 58, 1 60
-

P ara
p h r a s e , 1 5 7 , 1 62 P t s 1 4 9 1 5 2 53 1 5 7 1 60 1 84 205
oe , ,

, , , ,

P a r t i ci
p at i o n, 5 6, 1 1 4, 1 1 6, 1 7 9, 1 95, 2 04, P i nt s t u ning 83 84 1 98
o , r ,

,

223 P l it ic 25 32 3 9
o s, , ,

P s g 1 9 20 1 2 1
a sa e,
, P ll ck J
o o ,

P g w y s 80 88
ass a e a , , P t i t s 1 09 1 0
or ra ,

P i n 1 87
as s o ,
P s iti ns 1 26 1 90 2 1 0
o o , , ,

P t 3 1 7 1 8 1 2 1 1 27
as , ,

, ,

28, 1 5 3, 1 5 8 59, P it ivi s m 28 1 06
os , ,

179 P i b il ity 53 83 1 60 2 1 7
os s , , , ,

P t W 51
a e r, P ot nt i l it y 24 4 7 1 3 6 1 66
e a , , , ,

P t hs 1 5 82
a , ,
P und E 54
o , .
,

P t io 81
a s, P w 9 7 1 69 1 80 1 88
o e r, , , ,

P t t ns 1 74 1 7 9 1 96
a er , , ,
P t i 3 9 4 0 1 20
r ac ce ,
,

P vi l i n 7 0
a o , P ll D 1 06
ra , .
,

P i C S 24 1 61
e r c e, . .
, , P i s i n 1 32
r ec o ,

P pt i n 1 3 1 4 1 7 1 8
e rce o ,

,

, 23 24, 43, 93 94, P d i c t i n 23
re o ,

1 1 1 , 1 3 7 , 1 80, 220 P j u d i 1 70
re c e,

P f
er e c t i o n, 99, 2 1 4 P p a t i n 1 46,1 97
re ra o ,
-

P f
er or mance, 5 7 58, 1 23 24, 1 7 0 7 1 , 1 83 P s nt t h 1 7 20 p im 1 1 9 1 21 1 27
re e , e, as s , , ,

84, 1 98 28, 1 58, 1 7 9

P fum 38
er es , P t ns i n 1 3 1 1 43 44
re e o , ,

P m t i n 5 1 80 8 1
er ea o , ,

P id 1 41
r e,

P i h ing 20 25
er s , , P incip l s 27 28 3 1 32
r e ,

,

 I nd ex

P int 2 1 8
r s, R e p o r t s , 45 , 48, 52, 1 3 4, 1 5 7
P iv y 1 20
r ac ,
R ep r es e nt at i ons , 8, 2 6, 3 3, 45 4 7, 7 3
P du ti n 39
ro c o ,
R e p r e s ent at i v e s, 1 6 1 , 1 80, 2 1 1
P f i n l 40
ro es s o a s, R e s i s t a nc e, 2 07 , 2 1 1
P mi s 7 1
ro e, R e s p o ns e, 1 93, 1 9 6
P p t i n 41
ro or o , R e s t , 6 2, 6 7, 1 2 7 , 1 4 9, 1 69, 1 9 6, 207, 209
P p it i ns 1 56
ro os o , 213
P p s 1 93 94
ro ,

R e s t r a i nt , 1 43, 1 99
P i t h 54
r o s a c, e, R h et o r i c , 5 5, 1 5 0
P s 5 4 5 6 1 50
r o e, , ,
y
R h m e, 1 01 , 1 5 0, 1 54, 1 58, 1 64, 1 6 7 , 2 02
P dy 1 58 209
r os o , ,
Rhyt h m , 4 , 1 06, 1 2 1 24, 1 28, 1 48 4 9, 1 5 4, -

P sp t 1 1 2 1 2 7 28 1 53 1 5 7 1 60 1 67
ro ec s, ,

, , , , 1 56 5 7 , 1 63 , 1 7 9, 1 8 1 , 1 83 , 205, 2 07 8,
P t u b n 80 88 89 1 4 7
ro er a c e, ,

, 2 1 0 1 1 , 2 1 3, 221 , 224
P vi d n 22 1 28 29
ro e c e, ,

R i ch a r d 1 64 6 5
,

P y h ic l 1 1 4 1 5
s c a ,

R ich a r ds I A , . .
, 1 53
P y h l gy 32
s c o o , R ic h a r d J M s, . .
, 85
P u i ni 1 1 7 n
cc ,
R i g h t s , 1 66
Pu n t u t i n 1 6 6 1 90 206 2 1 4
c a o , , , , Rit u a l , 208
P u ni h m nt 1 42
s e , Ro bb in J s, 215
P uns 3 8 1 5 1 , , R o bi n s o n C r u s o e, 1 3 4
P u g t i n 1 13 1 26 1 44 45 1 99 200
r a o , , ,

,

R oc k f ll C nt 7 8 7 9
e e er e e r,

Pu it y 4 6 4 7
r ,

Ro d i n A 42 88 93 97 9 9
, .
, , , , ,

Pu p r 23 7 9 8 0
os e, ,

Ro l 5 1 3 2 1 86 87 1 93 94
es, , ,

,

, 200, 2 02; 204,
Py m i d s 87
ra , 209 1 0, 222
-

R om a nt i c i s m , 2 06
' ua l it i e s, 3 , 1 5, 46, 7 1 , 1 1 5, 1 72 7 3, 1 80 R oo fs , 7 4, 8 1 82
220 R o s s ini, G .
, 1 1 6n
'u ant it y, 71 R o u au t , G l .
, 1 09
R ou s s e au , J J . 58
R ea d H 85
, .
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Re a d s 1 60 6 1 1 6 7
er ,

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Ro y J 1 61
c e, .
,

R ea d ing 1 53 1 845 85 1 98
, ,

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e 1 16 1 7 , .
,

R ea l i sm 46 2 1 7 , , R u d lp h P
o 79 , .
,

Rea l it y 6 24 33 4 0 42 44,
, , , , , , 52, 6 0, R u gg d n e 93 es s,

63, 68, 7 0, 1 1 4, 1 3 7 , 1 56 5 7, 1 65, 1 68, 1 7 2, Ru l J 1 87 n

e, .
,

2 1 4, 220, 224 R u l s 45 48 5 0 5 1
e , , ,

, 1 3 2, 1 5 1 , 1 7 9
R e a s on, 3 1 , 83 R u nci m at . F .
, l 1 6n
R e c e s s i o ns , 80
R e c o r i ngs , d 21 9 S i
ac r c e, 21 3
d
R ec o r s , 1 29, 1 7 0 S int
a s, 1 40
Re d on, O .
, 43, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 St F. r a nc i s , 116
Re f e r e nc e, 1 1 1 , 1 25 S t J oa n, 1 4 0
.

R e e ct i on, 1 3 2 S ai nt S a ns , C
-
1 1 6n 1 1 7 n .
, ,

R e ge r , M .
, 58 S lv t i n 1 40
a a o ,

R eh e ar s al s , 1 95 S t
ar a s o aH i gh S h l 7 9 c oo ,

Re l at i o n s , 9 9, 1 09 S y F 1 94 9 5
ar ce , .
,

v
R el a t i i s m , 1 53 S t i E 58
a e, .
,

R e l i g i o n, 8, 22, 2 8, 1 1 6, 1 3 1 32, 1 5 1 , 1 60, -

S t i f t i n 81 1 6 1 1 95 2 1 7
a s ac o , , , ,

212 S l 9 41
c a e, 93 1 1 5 1 68
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R em b r an dt V , . R .
, 1 17 S pt i i m 3 9
ce c s , ,

R eno i r , A .
, 1 10 S h ill F 1 84
c e r,

R ep et i t i on, 1 1 0, 204, 2 1 3 S ch l 72 7 6
oo s , ,
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S c h o p e nh a ue r , A .
, 2 4, 1 1 6, 1 7 1 S ky , 82
S c h u m a nn, R .
, 1 1 7n S ky s c r ap e r s , 7 8 7 9, 81 82, 1 00
-

S c ie nc e , 1 3 1 5 , 2 3 25 , 3 1 , 3 9, 4 8, 50, 53, S l onim s k y, N .

, 1 1 6n
5 6, 68, 1 1 9, 1 31 3 2, 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 6 2, 1 64n, -
S m lle s, 1 72 73 -

1 80, 2 2 0 S i ty
oc e , 1 3, 23 , 26, 28, 4 1 , 7 6 83, 1 20,
S co r es, 1 23 2 4 , 1 7 0 7 1 -
1 28, 1 3 2, 1 53 , 1 60, 205
S cott, G .
, 4 1 , 72 S t 1 45
o c r a es ,

S c r ip t s , 5 6 , 1 07 , 1 23 , 1 48, 1 7 0, 1 82, 1 84 85 S l i d 89
o s,

2 02, 2 21 22 S l il q uy 1 42
o o ,

S lly V
cu , .
, 7 5, 7 7 n S ng 1 8 1
o ,

S lp t
cu o rs, 1 67 S phi t i t i n 1 7 0
o s ca o ,

S lpt u
cu 5, 3 0, 32, 3 4 3 5, 4 1 43, 6 0, 68,
r e,
-
So rr ow 1 27 ,

8 0, 8 5 86, 1 01 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 1 6, 1 24, 1 6 8, 1 7 7 9 S und 5 7 1 1 7 1 8

o s, ,

, 1 5 0, 1 54, 1 7 0 7 1 , 1 7 9,
1 8 1 , 1 99 , 205, 2 1 6 1 7 202, 2 1 1 , 2 2 1 22
S g ea ra m B ld g , 73 Sp a c e : n e ga t i v e, 4 , 9, 43 , 48, 58, 1 09, 1 96 ;
S lfe , 1 1 3 , 1 52 i c on i c, 9, 33, 43 , 7 8, 95 , 1 03 ; t
e xi s ent ,

S lfe -
s u f c i e nc y, 5 6, 3 8, 4 7 , 5 1 , 63, 1 1 3 , 9, 43 , 94 95, 9 7 , 9 9, 1 02 3 , 1 05, 1 1 1 1 2,
1 2 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 2, 1 80, 1 94, 1 98, 203 1 68 ; c o mm o ns ens ic a l , 1 3 1 4, 4 1 , 67 68,
S e m ant ic s , 1 33 34 8 7 , 9 1 92, 95, 1 01 , 1 05, 1 1 1 , 1 13, 1 1 7 ,
S b
e m l anc e s , 68, 1 03, 1 94, 220 1 68, 1 82, 2 2 1 22, 224 ; p o s it i o ns i n, 1 3
S e ns i t i vi t y , 1 63, 1 9 9 1 4, 1 7 4 , 2 1 0 ; o f na t u r e, 1 4 1 5, 26, 92,
S ens u ou s , t h e , 3 5, 7 , 1 9, 26 , 3 1 , 5 1 , 5 5, 95, 1 02 ; p e r cep t u a , 1 4, 1 6, 68, 94, 1 02 ; l
5 7 , 6 9, 1 1 2, 1 23, 1 5 6, 1 9 7 98 di r e ct i ons i n, 1 4, 1 6, 94 , 1 03 4, 1 7 4 7 5 ;
S e nt i m e nt , 1 6, 1 7 9 t e ns i ons i n, 1 4, 58, 7 4, 7 8, 8 0, 84, 8 8,
S ent i m e nt a l it y , 1 5 7 , 1 69 9 7 98, 1 06, 1 09, 1 7 6 7 7, 1 96 97 ; s ens e d ,

S er i es , F i b onacc i an, 6 9 b
1 4, 69 ; a s t ra ct , 1 4, 94 ; s ci ent i c, 1 4 1 6
S eu r a t , 1 10 p a s s im, 94, 1 02 ; i s t ance s i n, 1 5, 94, 1 02 ; d
S eu p h o r , M , 47 . l
e va u a t i o na l , 1 6, 94 , 1 02 ; e v e nt uf l , 1 6,
Sve e r i ni , G , 4 4, 47 . 94, 1 02 ; ar chi t e c u r a t l , 4 1 , 6 7 6 8, 85, 88
S w ll
e a , R .
, 13 8 3 9, 1 4 5 89, 1 24 , 1 68, 1 78 ; c re a t e d , 4 1 , 67 68
S ex , 1 4 1 89 90, 1 01 2, 1 1 3, 1 1 8, 1 68, 1 82, 204
S k
h a es p e ar e , 1 48, 1 84, 1 92 t ex t u r e o f, 4 3, 84, 1 03 , 1 07 , 1 1 1 , 1 68
S w
ha , B , 6 1 . b oun d d e , 6 7 68, 88 8 9 ; d im e ns i ons of ,
S w
h a n, T , 6 1 . 67 68,
92, 94, 1 02 3 , 1 13 ; s cu lpt
or s ,

S ll y P
he e , 5 5, 1 84 6 8, 88 89, 1 24, 1 68 ; p a i nt er s , 68, 1 01 2,

S l
he t e r s , 6 9 1 24, 1 49, 1 5 9, 1 68 ; a r t i cul at i on o f, 7 0,
S h ou p i ng , Y , 48

-
. 74 ; emp t y , 88, 1 09 ; ge om et r y o f, 88,
S i b l iu 1 1 6 n
e s, 1 68 ; o ccu p i e d , 8 88 9, 1 02, 1 68, 1 73 7 5,
S i kn
c 1 52 e s s, 1 7 9, 2 1 0 1 1 ; s p ect a t o r , 89 9 0, 9 6, 1 1 3 ,
-

S i ght 93 94 ,
1 2 7, 1 37 ; d
e t e r m i nat i o ns o f , 1 1 3 ; li s

S i gn l 209 a s, t ener

s, 1 7 0, 1 7 4 ; m ent i one d, 8, 1 0, 33
S ign t u 29 3 0 1 08
a r es , 4

, 3 4, 43, 6 1 , 6 7 68, 94 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5, 202, 209

S i gni n 1 1 2 ca ce , 10
S il n 4 1 9 2 9 5 4 5 8
e ce , , , , , , 1 4 9 50, 1 80, 1 9 6 Sp ac i n
g , 1 26, 1 45, 1 58, 1 9 6, 2 1 1
S imi l 1 65 e, Spe c t at o r s , 6 7 , 3 9, 84, 90, 92, 9 6, 1 01 , 1 04 ,

S i n, 1 4 1 1 07 1 0, 1 1 4, 1 7 8, 1 83 84 , 1 9 9, 204, 222
S ing 1 67
er s , S l
p ec u at i on, 2 6, 33, 4 0
S it 7 8 89
e, , S p h in 87 x,

S i t u t i n 1 87
a o s, S p li ing 1 72 2 1 9 20
c , ,

S iz 93 e, S p nt n it y 29 5 1
o a e , ,

S k t h 1 07
e c , Sp t 1 3 1
o r s,
S ki ll 2 1 8 , Sp ring, 1 52
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T ime 'cont inu ed ) Vi l in 1 7 6 o ,

1 63 1 6 9 ;, c ns t ruc t d 1 23 24 l 25 n V i l t i ns p u p o s f u l 5 8
re o e ,

, , o a o , r e ,

1 69 ; d ivi s i ns f 1 2 5 ; s u b s t nti l 1 2 7
o V i t u 25 o , a a , r e,

28 1 54 ; p t i c 1 4 9 5 1 2 1 9 ; m ent ione d
, oe V i s ibi li t y 1 5 43 4 4 7 2 7 8 88 1 01 3
,

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, 112
8 1 0 23 33 3 7 62
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T im s S p i it f 83 84
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oc a ar ,

T it i n T 1 1 6
a , .
,
V i d 80 9 4 o s, ,

T l nc 1 7 4 1 76
o er a e, V lum s 40 43 44 88 94 99 1 02
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o e , ,

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T m b 87
o s, 1 7 3 7 4 1 7 6 1 7 8 7 9 1 81 1 83 203
, ,
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, , , , 206,
T n l it y 1 07 8 1 98
o a ,
2 10 1 1 214
,
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T ones , 1 25, 1 3 4, 1 5 1 , 1 7 37 7 pa s s im , 206,

224
T ouc h 69 93 94 1 7 2 7 3 W d w t h H 48
a s or , .
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T o w er s 82
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W gn R 1 1 6n 1 1 7n 222
a er, .
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T r a d it i o n 5 9 1 0 6 9 1 25
1 44, 201
W ll f u th 1 84 1 86 200 2 1 0
a , o r , , , , , 22 1
T r ag e dy 1 27 1 3 8 4 0 1 9 9
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W ll 7 0 7 1 74 7 5 7 8 86 87
a s,
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T r ai ni ng 5 1 62 1 48 1 7 0
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W d S G 68
ar , .

T r a nqu i l ity 54
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W n R P 141
ar re , . .
,

T r a ns f o r ma t i ons 1 68
,
W sh ingt n M onum nt 87
a o e ,

T r ans ience 1 25
,
W kn s 1 52
ea es ,

T r ans l at ion 1 32 1 65 203

,

21 8
W i ght 207
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T r ave r s a l s 1 4
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W i s T 1 50
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T ri s t r am S h andy 1 42
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W h it h d A N 1 6 20 1 7 1
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T rivi al ity 1 51
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Wh f B 1 3 1
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T romp e d e oei l 1 1 1
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Wi gm n M 203 a , .
,

T r ut h 32n 48 56 6 1 1 23
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1 3 2, 1 3 4, 1 43,
W i ld J 1 4 ,

Wi ld T 1 84
d
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1 5 1 5 2, 1 5 6 5 7, 1 64, 1 9 1 , 1 94 .
,

T ch ai k ovs ky P 1 1 6n
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W i l l i ms D 1 9
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T y p o g raph y 68 a , .
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U gl ine s s , 7 9, 96 W d 1 36 1 38 1 49 1 5 1 5 2
or s, , , ,
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, 1 63, 1 66,

U nc ons ci ou s, 32, 53 1 7 7, 1 98, 203, 2 22

U ni q u e ne s s , 6, 8 W d sw t h W 54
or or , .
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U ni t y, 2 6, 4 5, 4 6, 224 W k 59 1 3 1 3 2
or , ,

Unive r s i t y, 7 7 W o ld mm n ns
r : co o se e, 4 , 9, 1 3 1 6 p a s s i m ,

Us e fu l nes s 1 23 23 24 , 2 6, 4 1 , 4 5, 5
5 , 6 7 87 9 1 92, 95,
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1 05 , 1 1 3, 1 1 8, 1 3 2 3 3 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 9, 1 5 3, 1 7 2 -

V l y
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a 5, 1 3 1 4, 22, 3 1 , 6 7, 72, 7 8, 83, 1 2 1 ,
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1 28 2 9, 1 33 , 1 3 94 0, 1 42 4 4, 1 5 2, 1 80,
-
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1 82 8 4 , 2 1 0, 2 1 2, 21 4 ; nat u r a l , 2 6, 2 1 0 ;
1 9 7, 1 99, 2 1 7 , 224 c o nt i n ge n 4 6, 53 ; a r a a t , t i f ct u l , 76 ;
V an Dy k A 1 1 6 c
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W r i g ht , F . L .
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V i bl 1 26
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V i t i n 6 1 1 06 1 08 1 0
ar a o s, , ,

, 1 5 8, 1 66, 1 6 9
Wu Ch
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V ct s 1 6 1 7 5
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V d i G 50
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Y ea t s , w B 5 5, 1 54, 1 63
V s 54 1 50
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V i b t i ns 1 7 7
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V i ll iny 1 40
a , Zu c k k ndl
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