| | Paul R.Halmos | Naive Set Theory Seine i" SpringerWALEAIAL por, ‘mare tame Nm a ier Cohen ating tka ‘Maen Sen Canons Oo OOO WEE Spe pated ys Ratan feiss seq ana Puan aon er {rae ston pres Sing eg Sultry Spgs fring No oe Pnein te United StesorAmee. HAM) BIsITIstes EL Se OTR ‘ping Vrg ic prt of Sap See ie ar PREFACE, “Brory mahi agro th every mathematician nt know se set theory he dngreerint bein in tring vo die how anu un ‘Phietonk scaina my anne to that quota. ‘To purpose ofthe book let of ndvancnt rma he bi mt ‘nd to da ao with dhe mininan of pionopbinl ‘cours nd log frmalian. The pint of view throughout is cat ht prepestive mathematician aos to dy groupe of ilar, oe frat,” Prom thie point uf view de eonepts ant ethers of ie book are merely some of Ua eaudard mathonatea tock; the pet pci wil Bnd nating new ere ‘Scary biiogralcal elt and references ae aut of pase ‘ply expr bok such a this cm, ‘Te stent wh gt eer [Eat thery for sown ake noald iow, however, that tee is auth ‘mort the ute than hac nin this bok.” Oao ofthe wet beau Snrcee of acter ior i oil) Hansel Se ry. A rom fd highly real aden to the Uteratue, with an extensive al ‘Si-ocltehibogray, is Asiatic ot they by Suppes in ot thory snare” and axioatio™ 30 contrasting words, ‘he rset titrant might Dost be devered oe axiomatic st eo fom Aho nalve pt of view, [en doa in thal some aaa frat teary fr ted ad ied athe base of all subsequent roa. Tee nsle that the hngungs aad wotation exe the of oninary inoraal Gut for Inalsbe) matheratoe Amore important nay im whi Ue ive point {Ev proloninica that set Cheary eran atx boy a ta of Shieh ie anions ae brit gid conveieme summary he coro {innate vow the Topea! rato cnn vaio ions te the ental ‘jets ny. Atlogoly, » ety of eamcey ght bo rand ‘purely save pros onthe peeling Ha of inti ln the her exten, the prety ssmate one tthe one ia whi asm forthe vations ntrRnlean geometric ae sal wt he sae ant ff aeation as Boas Tho anal of the point of vow ofthis bokx Paeeace he sty of at one tne tf ann wit tho intention of derbng Balideangeoty ely Tnstead Uf New wt sory a more hanet de fe the hook wold hare om i une ofthe clement of mires hry. "Een weal warn the seer hat not everything Is bee: "oxng” wood ata ha that ‘ven wht is her neds fing in. "Tho tla sway fort fo the pals a being eanvermonl. Thar ase rey few dplayed theuemss ‘ost the ace ae nt tated aa fellow hy shah prot, very CONTENTS ‘ouch a they might be as general dap letare Thar are ely {ew esercio fia o aba, bu, in fact mano the book nothing Det a lng cin of execins ith hits Ths eer so continually 8 hs! wheter helene how ofp fom one ht to th net and, sccrdngly he sould not be daecaraged he fads tat hia ein ra oo is enideraly dower dhs now Peerice ‘Tis nto my tht the contents ofthis bok are unary ial ‘Tam Axtou of Exemvnios ‘x prfoanl What stun that th coca are very enc and very rind ase! 1 2 sts, ad tha, eer hey my tke some wctng wed to in 3 sono Pars ‘athena ruin, homeve, at the more geraly shorn ply Unto ano Tiramezeroms | Ie ew deep tin ‘The moda a in elng theory it ssp 4 Conmnenns axe Powsns isl in unfuar bat eat saw amoral i they eros 5 Ororm Fats to falar that they eas be used with aimert no conscious co In 7 Revo ‘ther word, general et theory is pretty svi sul realy, Du, Eonomons ‘rant tobea mathomatian, yo nl ote abd ars; ead iy aban Basi land toge i 10 germ ano Couey PRE. i Newmese 12 Tum Paso Axtoe 32 Ammer 14 Onore 1 Tus Axsox or Cuosce 18 dons Ls 17 Wrns Onna 18 Trawanvere Racoon 19 Onoisat Newnes See or Oman, Nesoas nora Anema 2 Ton Sado Dawe Tasos sh Commons Se » 24 Canon, Aner a 25 Canon: Nese * Tao 10 BeSECTION 1 ‘THE AXIOM OF EXTENSION pack of wolves abundh of grape, of fk of pigeon areal exams cps of thing. ‘The rathematinlsnaepl of wae can be uve the mc for al oem matheraton Tho purposo of his ith book ‘odavloy th bie proper of wt Tacsontaly, to avid terminals {elmonotony, wo al nnn olin faa of at. ‘Tho wot Cdn lg sed a ths cantert, ut thre aa ight nga in dog ‘Th remo i ha some prone totter? las” bas epcil ‘esha aoning. We ll have cevon to for to this gain x ile thee ‘Gh thing atthe development wil not inl a dfn of ta ‘The saan baila tothe fear aomatse approach 40 elm tary gentry. ‘That approadh dom nat fee w dition of pints an nc oto ie devrbes we ea that one ean do wih Use objects ‘Tie sombaaiomate point of wew top here amames that the der tas the onlay, hitan, nti (and fequely econo) undersanl- fing of wha eto he arom of tha expcton ito delineate oe of Thc any things tnt one ean eozety do with them. ‘Set, ae thoy ate unully conoid, hare vlemeste of members, An semen of» ot may be ara gap; oe a pion, TCs important inom that wt i nay alee on lament of ome ober et. Mathers fo lat ecunploso srl ei A in, fortes, nto polos {ct ofall ins athe pane tira eampleot ae elf pin) ‘Wha ny bo surraing a not 0 mh Ut sts ay oe ts erent Il that for athena porpoes no dha elements nab ever be ea ‘lew In tis bck, i pre, we ol stay es od os fst ‘Sot slat toner feria fghtoning gh aad eamploxity—aid hing ese By way of eagles we rig etsy ep of ws of2 [NAIVE su naORY eet cabs, and ing, and thoi, bo oh tage always to be card saniloineling pre cely, ad wot a prt ole theory hale boing ‘Streep "Th inp cancpt fst thoary, tho one ht in completa aortic ‘toios the pineal primitive (ondeined) ona att of boeing. Ws bonged (ina element of 4, 2a onan A), we shall wate ‘Thin version of the Grn etre ins olen ated to denote dang ‘hat ie fo denote anybing che 9 lmt petite. ost authors Felgat «too s-thotio wae frover aad aso « when they vow te ‘ese of the Grok abet. ‘Pechap ari digession om alphabet tSquon et thery might be epi here xo onmpling ream for singel and eoptal tons ‘inthe roaling pragma ne ght have wsten, aod ten Wi wite, {hinge ke py aol A +B Whnever poate, howeve, we sal Inf. tal nde tho ota of art partie brary unde ead fon hy mean ofthe enertion valet tho beginning the po bet dence wements and Intrs a tho end dente eta containing them ‘nat ster of tltely snl Ki drt clement, nents of {he linger and gaudir forte donor ets eactaining than. ample Bed, aeX Kee ‘Xpouclerelain tte sete, moe lenentary than belonging, squat. ‘The equality cf two ont Ande uatverally dapta by te {aria symbol 4am he fat that A and Bare not equal is expel by writing Aes. ‘The most ase propery of toning ite ration to equality, which en Ue frat flo ‘Axiom of extention. To al are eq f and only hy Pe the ame ‘eet, [With grater potntonsnos and le ela: 8st ie determined by te steno, in vatable to wadestand that the axiom af elon I not just logially meanry proerty of oqaly bat asta aateet about ‘unig, One ay to ome to uedertand he pis to onder pas ‘aly analogous Stason in which the slog Ue aso exten oes no hl Suppor for ato that we conse hugan Ding ‘tund of ety anda fz and A ane hucan beings ewe eA whe ver oan sneer cf (Ths senor of man eg cepa fens hin parents penis, tele paents te, et.) The alogue ofthe ‘Siem ef tension wuld my bere th fo hums beings a oq, {hen thay av the same sete (i ede “only 1" par, and tear), ard ao that ito human beg sve the ame anvstom, thes ‘ey ae exunl Gi he 5"prt and fal) YA and ast and every ane of lan lament of B, wo sy that tex oat of B, or B ides 4, and we wile Ack Boa. ‘Th wording of the dinion ilies het ch ok mt b conser 40 ‘onl a ol (cA) Ufc deri by aupag thst a thon amelie, (Not that, nee sae sea the word, equity als {relieve} HA and arse auch that dc B and 9B, the word rope ol (proper eben, proper inson). If, 2, and are ms Foch that A cB ui Bc C, then A © Chae adenine {hotonline fromm (Ia property Balto cared by equal) 1H Aan Passes eh tt A © Band BC A, thea A wn hve the samme demas al eer, by axiom of extention, A=. Thin {Sdeserbd by eayng tht ot Felson oncmmetri. (La this pt fs innso lehawestiferenty from equal. yas emm, n {he ue thal A = Ben necsaniy = A.) Thoasiom af exten fn, Infor reat in how tora: ad ace et, ne eceary ed aflt condition that A = B is Ua ba 4.1 a Bed. Conese, aorta proof quai btwore wo Hs (hand Bare plc into wo parte; it show that ACB aed then ei that Bcd, ‘Orv tint belonging () and inlsion (C) are concoptualy very Inde, One important ference has lead spanistd Sc above: chain always rte, ween x nlm alle Ut ‘shngng is over ese. "That tA'@ always te} is ded ovr Abi? Te certain nt ve of ey reconble st thet anne bs over toon, Observe long the rae ines at season J nee, whens Eedongns ws, veyay esp vcving or iene serra nim ase tember ogunintionm wil wl eeu to te eta fatal vueSECTION 2 ‘THE AXIOM OF SPECIFICATION AU the basi rine of thay, ase only the som of extension, ‘re dso ta mn now et te ld ent. Tho fet and mot impor fant of thes bas prince of st manfctor mys roughly epaking {hat anythinginvliort ome an ert soo the werent ae pects ‘tent nomely the tet hee Somes abet which the wetion 3 ‘efor formaltig this penile in exact toma, we ok at a howto example. Lette thot ell pon. The sentense mare” ive arom ofthe mente of at fae fr athe. The principle we are ‘trating the oae Ut uses the page fom the ive et wo the fuleot nme the ot fall arta mon pei by te given eens ‘To milent he omeration of ho eat anual Gnoted by ne dsedemarried. Smilaiy (ee dst mail} ie the to al acl; fee Atelier of ie Adem) Jn th ot that contain Can and Abel and nothing elo; and (ee Ai he father of Aba] ‘sto wt that eontins Adu ad nothings. Waring: box int oon {dora hat and noting ln i act tho me ihn ov «hat nd, in tho to bo conve! With ine ay the bn et hi of xan ee eee eee rere oa eR Tne EEE mmm fot ‘rue Axton oF srmcmiexTion 5 ‘Adam, ‘The anulegy tote sete and boxes hus many weak points, bat emetizs t gien» el pete of the acs "a thai cng for tho pros peor Zonculaton that underies the ‘sunplee shove i definition of teen. Hoo fe 0 quik and informal fn Thos ar to bare ype of stones, namely, exertions of be Toning, aed, i aanetion equity, And i ote sentences are cbaied fom mish aoe sntencs by repeat’ ppleation of the weal loge! peat, euljot only to tho minimal ourtsles of moar an rnnbiguty. To make the desinion more elt (and ang) fe ower to append to is ofthe ova Lg fel operator and the rl of jt An edequne aad ay rede Aha) lat ofthe former cota evn er ond, Ur i ho nena eter beh, ond oly far soe (tere eel, Sorat [A for thereof wontons sontrustion, thy ean be denied flows {Pu “oot toe a seteno an nar tho mals between partes (hi ssn for pare, ere aed blow, evo patter voambiy Note, ieventally, thst they make all other pstntin murs uate Ing" ‘Te compte parenthetical equipment that the dfniion of wa Aencet cals forirary de Westall sway omit many parcothess [eit ses ene to ale withoo lag Co eaten, Tn norma mathe Irate etic, tbe Solel im tis boa, sveral dient its ad fhapos ef paroles are wad bt that fr woualsoatenieno onl.) {ip Pos fan or “oP oi aid oly” between to sentences sd ene log th oat beers parnthm.() Replace the dashes in then ely stcnces an evs te tal in parnthne, (9) Replace the hain Mone? ge or ll— by a et, fll the rel by entonee, and san th who press (UC he letter wed dre ft wearin the entene, no Bar done. According to thecal ad Patan eaveion Morac (2 A)” fu means eA". Teh equally6 NAIVE Ser THEORY. set ‘auras if tho Iter used as loady toon wed with “for come" or “fr all." Tool Wat or some 2 (2 A)” mana th eae se or some y (ye A)" fllows tata filo change of nolan wil leap ‘eet alps cello) ‘Weare now ray to formals the mor principle fst thee, tn ‘fc a by is Geman name Auten, Axiom of specifeation. To sary it A and lo ery conitonS(a) ‘er coesonda eet Bots lane are excl thw lentes of Sori i) ae A “eondivon” hoo just mntnee, Tho embalmnsintandd a lnde tate that helen in the wenteno 8); hat means that oer ‘3 atest ans wioat bg ineodion by ee Ue ran Torsone Poe"forall2” Telsanimmodat eonsoqunss of tho exam of extension hat the sim of eeation detertine the uniquly. "To indent ‘he way Bi aed fr tad fa Se) i eomary to wee Bm (2A: 50)}. “Toobin ea amng and inereteo splicatin of he eam of pei atin, comme in th ole of SI), the Seteace ot (242). Teri convenient, ere and shrsghout, to wee € A (eratiely Noy AY) seal of at (2 AY" nt eta, tle 50) i no ssa by een, 1 alone that, whatever the et may be, B= [2 else], dn, forall, o eB if and oy f eA any 9) (Can i be tat 2 A? We prone to prove that he naw na, Tae ee Be Ay the alee 1 eB abo (anitly, bat wot obviously impo. til) or eo TEI «Btn, by (), the asamp B cl yon Be Ba vetradieion. IE ¢ B, then, by (0) ag, the serps BLA yee B eB—a enteadition spin’ This complete the pro! thot BA Winona so that me ist hve Bd A The ma oeratg at of thi conan tha thers ee someshng aamely 8) that dace ot belong to A. Tho ast im this argumint wad quite ebiary. Wo Inve peoted, a cher nos hat uth cota rth, or more spextanly, reno wis “Utena tw athe wn of “univer of dione” sain, ‘ay parol dnowoi, ao hak goatee ll he abst hat enter itt that daca, Tn older (poms) appronches to sat vor, the exitene of a ives wa taken for ante and ho amon bo econ parce (raph wes known a the teal paredae "ae moral hat emp “ie expecially in mathemnstis, co ge vmeting for nothing. ‘To rely Aer, fs pot nah to prone se magi wor (which may Toma & Fentens uch an <2); w nosey also to have at hand at to ‘thom leant the magi werd ppSECTION 3 ‘UNORDERED PAIRS or ll hat bon sd ao fr, we mht have been operating fa vam, ‘To pve the docu sto ubstncs, lt ub wow ofeily ae me that thre its 2 Since late on we sell formulas a dopee and moro ws extent ‘azamplin, the azumption plays a tompory rae only. Ope coe ‘Guenr of this inoennansnemingssnuapion se tat here eta mk ‘withovt ary semants at all” Todd, best, apply Ui alo ‘peseaton to A with the sntenon ew 2” (or, fr that mate, win tty oie wives fake sentence), The eis teet fx «As #2), 1d tat sey sey, har no slementa "The aie of extension impie ‘hat ther oan be only cae ot Wilk no mana, ‘The wal ena or that ct Bi these called he empty "Peep ot et of every ooo, i oder wont, FC A for cevary Ar Tocstiish thin we might pus ue ellos. Teo bo proved {ht every clomest in bulmgs to; daca thre ae no dmeat 3, {he cnn tema full. ‘Tho weaning is cmet but poe Bape wat Soe tf tpi sampled a fequot phenomenon, ‘esaton Holi n he “aeuooe” sna, 4 ward ado te thie Tevinted racer night bein dar" prove thst comolsag ve abt ‘ho empty ot rove Unt it eanac be fale, Taw, fr fntaney oa betas at? Te could fal ony 2d an lemon tat id fot belong to A, Since £3 has no elomenta al ie abeaed. Coma lon: 21 A i nea thrlore 5 © A fr every A em LUNONDENED Pam 2 ‘The sl Sher developed so fri ill «petty poo thing: or all we Agr thee only one ata hat cae epg. ‘re there enough ots tenure tat evry ast am ament of some ae? Tat te that So ay ‘Geo thre n'a tied oe that they oth bling to?» What abot thre fy orfour or eny nantes?” We nerd new principle of ot constraton ereslve vd queions The folowing pence a good beeing Asiom of paring, For ony fost thre exile acl that hy bath be co ‘Nota hat thins ja the afimative tser tothe cond qution above "To eam worse wa ston to cherve hat wards tach ns "oy" ‘e" and “four,” uo above do not refer to tae mathamati sone ering he amen, wich wl be done lator reson th word ase tool he odiary nga abevitan for “voting aod then sone. thing ee" repoted an appropia numberof nee "Ths for nae, ‘he sui of pairing a abbreviated form, aya tet ia tad bare set the thre exits nse Auch ate nad be ‘Oce consequence (fat ab eyuieleat formulate) of tho ees of ring ie that for any tho ts he oss oes Ut conta Hoh ‘hem sd nothing ele, Tod aba sets sd A nk such {at ae aed bed, then we can apply the asa of epelation Yo A sth th weneneee'= eer <8 Teron theo leedemooe=d, ‘od that st, nly, contains just ab, The axiom of extension na ‘les that hes canbe only coe et with ts property. ‘The weal embed fr tha te fabs ‘ho et alle the parr hy way of emphatic compan with ms segues cane the united pa) foe by and tensor, we refer to th senbanos “= ar t=” a8 Si) wo 1may expres te isiom of ping by eying tht theo ets «wt toch ‘hat o 2B if end only 510, ‘The asian of speietion, ple to at A, amare the entene of 8 nt Bah tat oo 2 Bifand only if (eA and Ste), aw NAW St THEORY feos ‘Th maton herve (6) snd (+) types something that cour eto Irequenly. AI the remaining pcp of eu eastrwtin are pie sei esos of tbe axiom of spent nth mene wh 6) 8 [medospecel case a oe. Thay all ast he eitnce of a specie byw certain eon; if 6 wa Bown in aanos tt thee existe as ‘cataining al the pei lees, thes th exieoee of ts contain | Gher woud inde Ello nr special uo he nnn of peaton “Laisa wat, we muy form the anor pat (aol. ‘That unordered it devoted by tat ‘and i called the sings of is uigucy caratrned Wy th sta ‘ent that hae only kan. Ths Cr tstnes aod (2) ‘evry diferent set; the former harmo leet, where he Ita ha ie tie daa "Rv tha 2+ bi omg ed. "Tho exiom of ping eosures that every stl an element of sore sat sod tht any wo ets or sultneouly cleats of sume one and the ‘hen at. (Tbe soresponing guns fr then x fo el are a2 ‘xl be anes ltoe) Ano pertnct src tt from tho ‘mptiona we have made o far we ca ifr the exiatene of very many {ets indo." For examples conser th sets 2, [2}, IB, U1 ‘ie comudr the paisa (2, {25}, formol by any two of Ue “onder the pais formed by any to ick pin oe the mined aie {orm by any singleton and any pa acd proved nom ad nit xsnosi Aveall the vets obtained in thi may distin from on snathert efor eontcuing sur study of ot thiy, we pee for 8 mament to zeus aaotationl matte. Isms ata to dno to aes H deer Se) by Le: So} espe ae at was ere cansidred (ese = oere=2) = tot). ‘Wesall ws thie wymbolian wheneve te convenient an permis to dow, Icha, Se) a condition op xaush ths the at B) ape Fe emsiate wat en we may dnote that cs by le:809) (4A), theni Inca A envet and ‘ntact etoform (2:80; leeeal =A, IA i wet and S(o) fa aiteary sentence, eprint form (eleed and So); thinset ee ato as [or 4:S0@). Aa further or spl, we note that (nzrmaa es ond Inzeel = (ah. In cast) ia (22), on as S) is Gr = 2), the oped 2 do not ‘Desi the siaxi about never geting something for necng, were sit hh to be te ht arta sets are aot rsly at ad even tele amor mrt neva be mention. Rome appraies to mt they ty 10 tetton Ge Blow by making svieatie te of ue egal ota but Yet ok ‘ling them ate the eutomary word “eam” A pros exlanaion ‘wht elses rally ar and how ny are wed ieee ine reset Sppresch. Roughly speaking,» hss ny be Mltied with codon (Gesens),o,atee, with the “eension” of eondionSECTION 4 UNIONS AND INTERSECTIONS EA and B aro at te sometines natural ta wb to unite thle oe ‘ments ita one compebenuve se.” Ose way of domsiting eh 8 ate Brebencive ate vo equ to cantina ena belo ok Feat coe ofthe to mernber of the pai 4, This formulation sae ieee mowping galimtion of fat) surly» sine contruction ‘hou apy to abeyance and ot to pro then. ‘What wand i oer wor, te following pin of et ccm tien ‘Axiom of union Por eeryclletion of et ree eta one laine athe lawn a og ta aon of he gn aetn. ert ie sun: fr every elton © there ex sat U such that if 24% for sone Fin G thoes «(Noto that "at eae ne" la ae vane sme") "The comprehensive wt U dorsibed above may he to comprehensive it smay conta lent hat belong a nae of the ea in th ellotive ‘Tub cacy to remoly; just apply the eaiom a peieaton Uo Sonn the lee Us 6X for some X in (Tie exam here i teen int itm usage f tho mateo tally more sven er ene X (re ond «)") Telos tat fr very oeeomary ad wallet codon that 2 bang to this mis ‘ats belong to X forse X in ©. we ehangenotatan and eal he ow at U ogni, thon Um ene for ome Xin ‘Tin act Ui ala the non of the cllotion © of ot; aoe ha: oe feet DOMIONS AND nvERSBCTIONS 3 ine of exon guaran it uniques The wipes yma for 7 that inn na al $a ery popula in maibomatin et ue Dt mtn pet mein he Vis reel q Unse® Fuster alterstivos ase arable alain important spel ear they ‘ll be died in de course. or ths tune tang worst our etuy ofthe theory of uons to tho ioe face one ‘The imple fact of ala hae Uinxes} =2, rhe nest simp fat ita Uoexeana4 1 the brutally simple ntti mason shove tho fet re expres ty Us-o sot Ula. “Tu pots ry immoliat rom the Senne. “Toi a ite more astance i te anon of pais of seis (wih is rat earted thie whole dacusuion anya). T that eu spa osation Ton Ulead ah aU "The gel dfniton of nina ipo into melee tat 2 A UB {an oly i beng tether oe B bth follows that. AU Bm (ezedcaedh. or are sme eniyprovd ete ant Us unas of ps: AUB=A, AUB~ BU A Commuttsi), AU BUC) = (AU BUC (asst, AU Am A Giempotre, Ac Bef andonly AUB B.uw [NAIVE Ser utBon¥ se “Byary student of mathematos should prove thse things fr hms t eat coon rh ie Th pea tase cathe corpo comes: ‘ry propor ofthe og peratar ‘An equaly single but gut auggsiv faci that (a) Uh labs ‘What tic cngsata ech way ta gueelize pam. Spel, wa write lay el = (ah U 0) U el "Tho equation danas et da, Th right side should by ahs haw east ato pi of yaaa ini bat in vow ofthe ate la, ns ‘omisio ean Tou ono misunderstanding Shes easy to prove ha leh) = ee ewendorx= ch, ‘we ow now that fr every Ure sete der exis me ha oman he {nd nothing sn ei natural to al that uniquely determi ml (Gordon) ple formed by om. "Tho extenon ofthe notation ad ‘ueminolgy shun intend to more terms (uaa, ee.) in bio ‘The faration a unions has many points intiity with aot st ‘hoot cpuaion, HA and B area, the intron of A and Bs ane anal by ANB= tredsreD, "The defini a eymmeti in and oven i ks one; we have ANBm lrereedl, nd in fat snc A 1 Cand aly i eng to both Aad, ‘ies da ee : AN Ba (ered outzed ‘The baie fats abou ntmetions, a wl thie poo ate ear to tho bse fast bout unico Angas, ANB=BOA, AN@Ng~anBne, anand, Ac BG and only $A B= A, seo [UNIONS AND INTERSECTIONS as ‘tes of sete with an empty intemeston ane oquentt enough to jutty iho in of spadal words PAB ™ 9, thesle A snd Be cad guia "The some word o tometies sped to a sean of wets to folione chat any to diel ste of the collection ur don ler Airely ro may ap in sath atin om pre dnd Beton. "Pwo wel fark abot union a etorectioe inv bth he ope Ahn atthe mae tine! ANWVO=4N HUANG, AUBNO=AUHNAUO, ‘tse ideoties ar ale the dere lowe. By wey of a sumple a «| ciate pon, we prove the vesond ene. It belongs to the et ids, Then stag ihe to A et bath Band fs Ay shen sin both BU pond A UC. and ies bin bth PB and C then, againy 2 ob AU Band A U C:ittaion atin any ae, belongs to the right sie, ‘Tis proves thatthe sight ie fdr to lath.” To prov th roves ne Flas uct buerve that = beast both U Band AU, then Flan either to A orto beh B and. “The farsain of the inlemedion of two sts A and By of wo might ae swam, the fonnatina ofthe itercton of = pai (4, of ot, 0 sil ce ofa mach mor georal operation (Tins anther spect Mich the Uory terse miata that of unione) The existence tho eau operation ef atenetion depend onthe fact that for eel invenply allection of ons there ete amet that eatanexnly hose ‘owen that belong to every et the gives caletlan. To ober words: foreach edzsten 6, ote than 2 there eat aot V euch that #« i ti only 2X for every Xm €._To yove ts aserson, let Ae any Imtinlar atin € (his ep [usted by tho Tet thal’ © 72) und Vn feedieaX forcury X ine} (condition meas "for all (f X £6, hen €X).") The dependenee UE onthe rhteary ec of wary in fact Vm [sta eX for ery X Iho set in calla the ftrantion of the eatin 6 af ts Ue aon festenson guarantees fr iqaane The ewscoarynottion silt {o Un one fr anion nad of tho uncbeaicable But unpopule As,w Nave ser rupony set them Vie usally denoted by Ninxee DcveX. Excise, A ntsosary nd sufcent eatin Ut (0B) UC = ANUUC) that COA. Obeerve ta the cao hat voting {odo with thet SECTION 5 COMPLEMENTS AND POWERS 1A and B ave t,he dfn eto A and B, mre oten known the late complomend of Bin, thet AB dain ty AW Du teedsae Bh Not that in tie detintion iis ot nesesary to astm that B © AL te to ord thee ace about complementation ax mp om ts we ane novel (athe beion way) at all the ct 1 Bo Inesloed are ubute of one and the eo ad at complements (Gales ederise epost) ao formed selative to that Ta such see toca they rege oomon) ease o rerember the unde {et B than to keep wring down, and tha makes posble to snpiy the alatian An een used synba for Un espace (a op pol 4 late) eomplamcat of 4 Tn terme of this epmbel the bi fat aout eomplomeetason can bo stted ee flow! (aya, BAB, Bs, ANA HZ, AVA HE, ACB ifond ly 1B CA ‘te moet important statements about complements are the social De Megan iu AU Bye AO, CAN By = aU. (Qf sal seo presently that the Do Morgan la hold forthe unions nd Intestine of larger latins ost than just pai) ‘Theo face aboutcempemenaton imply thatthe theorem of 2 hoary orally om firs I oan icloon or oqtoainvling uen,itemertiony an npn sts of 2 we reac each ae by is ermplemeny ner ‘Guage unlons and insersctions, ad eves al duns, the rsa i ‘azote theorem. "This fc: is tomeines reered to tthe principle of hai form Hr are ame cay excels on complomentatin. Aan Ane, AGB Yexd oly fA = Bm. A-U-meane ANB-O=(UNM~ (ANG, AnBeunquency. “vonwuceauR 1 A an ace ats, the eyo dire (or Basen son) of and B se chewet 4+ B eted by A+B=(A-DU@~ ay. “Thin operation i commutative (A+ B = B+ A) and sociative (A 4 (HEC) = AEB) 4O), and muh nt AA and Ab A =2. “This nay te the rib sim to arlon ot 9 evs) bat aceasoally pang pact of the theory of ntretions tal o bgin wt thal Intemostons were dain for nonaenpy elletinns ony. "The rss i ‘that tho aaa appoath tothe mptycalleton dos not define w st ‘Whisk 2 aro spect by th tence 2 4X Jor ery X in BP ‘As orl fr questions sbont the anne eae tose far the eres ‘ordingtegtire queen. Whith 2 Jo nt uty he eated eon? fe nt te tt eX forevery Xn, then there most exit ax Xin meh tat 2 ¢ Xl, however, hoe 0 at exit any Xin all {ns aeurd, Cocslacon: na» fst ty the wal conic, or, ayo, every oe ity other wordy he 2 hat tho om “ea apelin exh the (aonnient) waver. ‘There no pseu roblem bors mavay tunes to be forond always to bo making, a8 COMPLEMENTS AND rOWENS 1s aicton and exeption ust Brau ca st somowharo slong ame (orcton might tur out to be empty. "Thee is nating to be dane Souths ei usta fet ie Ti erst our atenton to abet ofa partie set, neha lemporely spr 1 do he tbe unplaztins deeibod i the pre- ‘ceding paragraph peas to go asa The point statin that ease we ‘an dfn the atesoctign of action € (a abet of E) to be the wet le ebse eX for ury Xin Gh ‘Tis ims revcatonary foreach non-empty elletion the new de Inton ages with th old con. ‘The difwenc tm the way thes and ‘hee deine teat ths ony cbt; weorng vo do aw dei tion Psy Xi oqual to HP which clemants z of B on i bo fle that ret fr every X ia 7) The diferencia ast mater of guage 1S i retin tevele thatthe "new" deion flere for the ater fection ow elletion orate ely tho ames heed defini Alone he ineretion ofthe election € U [2], ad the later is never ety, ‘Wc bave be onsen heen oe set B do thas suet he elven conti ase? Tho following eins gutrantees tht the anewer fis ‘Axiom of pocorn. For sh at there eile a tion of tha one tein among leet he ult fe gion see nthe words, 2 inal thn tare exete a x (cletion) # such thet ARCH, ta Yeo. ‘Tel © deri bore may be Ire Chan waned; may contain tlements her tan the tara of E. Ths i eay to reeds jut apply fhe aso of wodicaion to form te et (X eo: X cB). Gea tat, {NB cays te sane thing an “fro = (fre then 7 «B).") Sem for evry X, a ueceanry end sient sondn that belong vo is ve Jpihns X ta abet of follows thst we engo notion and call, Aiea @ ago, hen on ixeR "rho set vin cal he power oe ofthe axiom of extoson gran it Ainneense The dependence of @ om i deaoted by wating 6) edo ut 0. cate the et {8 yrs big in earn with F not ey to iveeanmpl, i B= 5, the miation i oa eogh tho wt 0) be» ams {be singleton [2]. "The power es of ington and prs ce alu ely estas ne ave (a1) = 1 fat (05 BD = U2, fa, J 6,01. “The pose st of ipl han sight lament. "Tho reer can pesbably | se (ond hors changed to prove) the genrtetion that incules [i hee sama the power sto ni art wt, mlomenta bax 2 eamenta, (Of couse conop [ke “nts” and "2 have no offal "aiding for ve 3st snl aot prevent then Son being uaiialy Sndentaod) "The ooarence af» at an exponent (he wth power of 2) =a 8), then ete De (Keo: ee} (To be evan tha the conion wid in he deiton of aa wontznce In the pose tonal sae, ems bo rowsiten i vet kth fom for some ¥ (6d fo als (2 «Xf and nly if eB and x ¢ YD) Sinilsr comments olen apply when we wish tow dined abbreviations inven af nga others primitive en.‘ traslation arly ques any ingnuy ad we sal mally at) Tu costo to Ante the ona and the itenantin fe eatin by tho epmbole UneeX? sad Meee in thinntatio the genera forma of We De Mega aws beeone (Usie!= Mee” (eveX) = Ure, ‘Th pote of tho equatins re inmodits eoneoqunes of tho appr iste Stine ocercns, Prove hat (5) N19) = (8.0.7) and 98) U 6X) (OU #}. how untion oan be generale to A200) = (Ace Unee89 Use: od ood sms COMPLEMENTS AND POWERS a fs esas inert of te notte in ih hse general {ins were bre exome and thn prove thers Pathe emery facta Neen X=2 EEC Tomo e aM. A cares qustion concerns th comtnatatvty ofthe aperstan 6 and U. Show that 2 alvags equal to Usain X (tht wt = UE), ‘but that the youl of appiring@ and Ut inthe other oder is act ‘hat includes Fase, plaly x proper abst Pe De, eeeSECTION 6 ORDERED PAIRS ‘at doce t moan to aang the laments of «ct in smo order? ‘supp frinnanc, Wnt ost tho quadrapl fob 6d of dine ‘Senet and suppose at we want to eonider ts elements inthe dar obga, ‘ven witht pri detain of what thie meas, wo can do something petshowetialy ntellgnt wth i,” We en, nuely corer, foreach ‘tia pot athe ordering the wea al se deans tat enc ao Teor st spots me obin shin way to eta ed fab toa te, ‘We can enon the to ender thos (relat, if hat sounds ete) © H10,256 a el Ube db Leh ‘ha bus ext toe st fo ts ment sore to mp that tne incisal sed dpm wlerecasepe of ane has suceeded in'procing smething m8 spd spl ably pan, unemiellsbed 121 tho leant of ad hr dames, se posted ase nase Tied iasmer (Tb eogrpaial netined reader might be ble ae ‘ood the senor of seaming) Tot cntinns to rota! fr m wile tat we de know what crdor an, Suppor that in hay aac a he preling aragrapt l we inl each theo jean me we tt eesti tho order at gave Hao {ott The annwer ely svn fo be yon, Humine the elements cf © {they themes ane of eo to ed ne hs nla in al the thers [) let bil (and noting ele dow) mo know that ¢ mast lave een te freemen Look uet fr the next salt element of, 6 gupenep pas at Le oon tht inlet inal he one tat remain afer c eremoved, bine he le eb (nd nothing eo do), we haow that Dams have {fendi sted elmentProeing ths only tro aro stpz aro needed) ‘ne pr the at © to the given ordevig ofthe given et “Thema tha: we may nt know rely what it meas aon the ‘nels of at, tt ith ech ceder we cat ada oe of ees ‘CA in sch wy thal tho given ede en be unk Tocaptured fom ©. tern no-cvalexreiy Del a tse characteration of me fete of stmt ef Yhnteorepond to name ona a. Sine “acer” Tacs aki noning Sos ye cb whol rae esa eeaning a, "Nothing that lows doen cn the eatin, but the reader would Tene someting valu eyo fd) "Th png rn a oder in tothe ot, and bork, war geteted above fora qualzup foe & palreversthing bcos tse two a pl IE A (3) and in MES dosed ony a coms fat, then € = {lo (0,6) 8, bower, ‘omer hex © = (1) 6,2) "Te ed pro @ a with is courdinle 0 and send corte 2, wt (40) dined by Gb = fhe, ta dn. However convincing the motivation of this dafiiion mney ba, we mut {al pove thatthe ronal hawt mala propery at a ordered pir mast fave to deserve te ame. We must dow thas if 4) and) are a= thre pare and (0) ~ (9) then &™ 1 ad = y. To prove this, Spence ett if and bpp bol, den the ordered pi (3) Tiake ean ov the sington [(a) I, convey, (6,0) ea slngeem, ‘hen fal ~ (a8 20 ht [a and therfore = 8. Soppor now that (at) = Gp), Ma Dy then bt (ob) and are singletons, that 2 ya fe (60) sd fa} « 9), lows ata sy m0 ‘aroun Tro the bth (0) and (9) comin ently on engl te, naety fo ae a} repeals 0 that 6 2, Since inthis ae it Helo trv hath (6,2) ad (5) eonninemcly one ordered pair that eet into, camey a Band {2p} ropeaivey flows that [eyb] ~ ta ny and theron particule, De ay SteeBeannot be ior then we shld have a= sdb 2, and, Shorr, «= 8), we Inst have y, sd the prot is eamplet I dan Bets do hae ea ot hat otis al tho oxdared pis (of) with an dan bn Tes qo cay oo thatthe anewer Inyo Teen we A and eB then fo) Ct wn (5) Band three fore fab] oa UB Sane ao fe] © 4 U Bt allows that bth fo4 aie sr THEony fm 6 sp 2} are erent of 9 UB) Thin cat (fa, fa 81) ‘inet C4 UB) ad Bano tai an arent of (OCA UB) in ‘her wore (6,8) «MCA U B)) whenever asa 8, Oso eB own ita roti matter to apa Ube wn of ponctin andthe ‘sch of extend to protue the uniguo set 4% Bist cass exely ‘the deed pia (8) nth oA nd bi BT ell He ‘Carton prouet of ond 8; ebaractera by the ac that AX Bem [2:2 = (a8 for wme aie A ond for sme bi Bh "The Cats pred f to sta ao fcr ots (that set sch of whan eaente 2 ordered pai, andthe sme i ru of every eto «Caren pect. Te eof thal importa $0 kw that ‘Tecan the coven denon ala: every eet faded pie last tthe Cartesian producto wo sta In other Word: i i such {hat every lament uf san ordered pi, then thre xis wo es ed Baud tht CA % B. "The pro ielanentary Suppo don hat 1248 that 2 = {fl [b)] for ae and fr soe 8. ‘The prbles ‘stoi te and Df under the bres. Since the elements of are fe, we an fom tho usin ofthe seis in sae seo stn ‘he ements belong to shat won. Siu (a one of Un eens is, we may writ, in what hus bom called the brutal notation above, fyb) «UB. One tof bracts he disappeared le ws do the ere thine stain tora the eer go sna. Form te won of he mete U2 Since [a lone of thre et, flows thatthe meats af [a 8 belo to tlaluien, and hens both'a ad bbaiog to UU 2, Tasfulilathe promise made shove; tani Ran ase of tee A 9B, we may tke Bah and B tote U UR. Te cften dosrale to ike A sa Bal fh rile, "To doo, rt app he cnc of specnatin to produce tho A = fo:for some d (0,1) 68)) od B= Ufor ee 0 (2) eB}. ‘tha sta ae elle the proj of onto the ft and eed eal sts seapetvely. “owsve iperant st tory may bene, when t begs some ehaee dred ts dine om s,s as to bw hoped, statics wosld con rooror For this tacon tasny stthorets consideration were ‘tea pathologie, andthe ward lve on a mathemati ange ton {etre osomnating th pent dcr nti, Tho explo dation fan fe 6 onpenep rams 25 cae pir (a8) {fb} a egusety legate to petal lit dhoory. "Porth beet of thase who tink that nti eco dhe mse evr we nota tat the dition hax evel prone By now and til nover be sand agin. We nied to know Ua andre pic rede {eine hy and umigely detain thoi St aod cond courte, chat (Cartan products ea be fete, a thst every ct ford pie 3 fuioet of tome Cartesian produ; wish partoularapproeh ed to oye these nd mater. Tes easy to hcate the see ofthe mitrst and suai tha many rmathematcins fe toward the explicit dein of order pal en ‘ove. ‘Tho tout fs nr tat there aren wrong or anything ie figs the evant propria the concept we hove daa ae al erect (Ghat in acord wid he demand inition ad al tho correct proper ‘he are peat ‘he rable sth he cones ha ae lean prop fee tat are adidntal and datacting, he heoeam thet (39) ~ (G1) Wand ony sta = 2 and b = ys thant of thing na expect lars ‘ost ordre pale. The at haf] (6,0) emt ober nd, sae ‘sent t afock propery of the dition suser than an nese ropes ofthe canoe. “The arg of srtisoity ie a, bat i sna too high pie to pay for comet eons. Tis coneps of word pi could ve beat Into or on adienalpentiveexiomaely ene with et tho ight topeton no more ao no laa, Ia come dear the dene. The fintheatrn's cose betwen having torr ow moe xm nd bung to fogs fw acini ft; tho ec in prety Cay Irate of ft, Slay chrzen oor eqay in mathemati in thin hk foe insane, we eal encour chen aga a cennetn il Ue ‘Gir of auenes of vasaus Kinda Bescts, ICA, B, X,and Yar sa, then © AUBXX = AXX)UVEXN, ) ANB]XGaN=axNynexn, Gi) A= XX “AX X) = BX) U der A= 0 of B=, then AX B= 2, and conver It AEX aod BEY, thea ABCA Y, ad (proved AB 2) everaty.SECTION 7 RELATIONS Using orerd ris we en frmulet the mathemati theory of rl tions etthesrselnngangs By a lation women hee someching Like bmaiage (bein nen aad women) oe belonging intween elements and (eu), Moc explisiy, what wo dal ala relation voetane ale 2 Tear ration. An empl a a euary rations prwatood for people (Adam ad ve are the pater Cain). T this Dok we al he m9 nsson to tot the theory of rations that ur mary, quarry, ot “Lola ny mpi relation, mich i mareag for instance, we might be tented ta somaidr eat ordred pas 9) namely jor we for Shieh 2 in aman, ys. Wot, and omar fo We have not yt (hon the desition 0 the genoralcomoept olan, it xa plas sta, jc In thin marca eemmpl,oerytlaton shoul uneiy fstrnine the eof l thao ardre pit for which the it corliae los sand in tint ration oe sooo. If weknow th ate, wo ow ‘howe and eter yt if ne know th ee know he eation or inwtants we wo posnted wich te st of trdaed psf pple that exvaodst mariags, then, even i wo orga tho deiton of masa, ‘We coul lays tell wh tn + erred tm meres y a wh ct te would jut have to ae water the dred pt) dou ot dows not rong to thot. ‘Wer not know what aration, bat wo do know what at and ‘ne precoding conser tablish lowe sossetionbatwoen rons deen‘ peel w-theonae sunt of rations kes savant ft at hewsi connection the ples hing to doe dee ation {ote the coreponding se. Thies what we da; ne barby define wr flown ono coded pl. pil et dation och : ‘ment of Biv an ordre pal; this mea, f cous, hat ifs «shen there fi aby 00 that 2 = (4p) 10 Fa relsion, sometimes oon ‘renin to eprom dhe fat tat (sy) eH hy aig Ry ‘nd aaying, in everyday languid inthe ration 20 "Theat exsting vlan Sho ampey oon (To prove tht i at of crdre pal la for aa lament of tet not an deel ple) ‘Bacte dul enampe i he Cartan peodust wf ay tro wos and Y. “Morin ihtly ore aerating earl: let X be ty sey and het ‘he net fall haw pe (yg) >for which = = 9.” The ain Seu the reation a uy betwoen ements of a ar eX, ‘hea 29 means tho wae se 3 = y. One more example wil alice ft wot A be any at ant be oto all am ai (A) sn DU) for which re Ths elation fi ut the teeton of along Tetween men of X and sabes of X; if = 4X and A « A), than 2h enna the wae an «A Tn th prveding section We eo that ect with evry st af ‘reed pi thie a two ote ello tho projetoon of ono the frst tod szondoorinats, To tho shoory of rations tho ats ae own ‘the dooin nd the range of H (ablated dom and ran we eal ha they ar df by hm B = | for sey (DL RELATIONS a wot rin = {yi for ame 2 (2) eee the elton of maniogs,v that 2 Ry mere that 2 es ma, 9 8 syn, i andy ae marl toa ante, then dom i heat | arin men ad san the set of maried women. Hoth the domain i the range of aro equal to B, Ie = > Y, thon dam find and Y. 1 de oqnity fo X, then dame = ranfe~ X, 1C Tedimgog, telmeon X sal 9X), cea domed =X and ran = OR) <9) ‘Lee ration Ince om Cartesian post X 3 ¥ (otha dom ‘eX alvan © 1), inrometine nave omay that ia elation Fron Xo Vinten thaws fom to X wosmay ape n aion fe, Arlation ln X lores fxs fr evry in Xft earn iTotey ipl tht exam itis tons ya 9 Re ply hat i:ib, (Urn fr eal of tho tro pole propane, nd weston {hat oes not hav Cal propeety but os have he other two) A relationfn nace quence lation nei, pre, ad tani, ‘Phe eal equivalence eatin law at XB the elton of equality in Xe largest equivalnoo ration in XXX. "Then an nkiate omnetion hewn euraleen relations ia act 2X sod ota glletime (aed puetinn) of tulsa of X. A peril of Xi djing ealsetion © of non-empty ebots ef X hoe unions. IE is a equivalence slang in, and i # iin Xt epilece clas (ewido to th set al howe amet yn fr whieh = (Cte weight of tention makes Us te ofthe werd “la ab this pt Snreiatle) Examples equal in, then ech equaence css angle = 1% X, thon tho et it nthe only equalenes ‘dus, "Ther no andard notation for Ge walneal of = with {espot to we sal aly dante by 2/R, and west write 72 ar hee al eqovalanes eae” (Prunes X/B we "X moddlo "or, fn abeointed Torn, "XC tned 8" yori chow Gut X/I sinead set by exiting a condition that epson exaty the aubet X/R cf the [pore eet OCI) Now forget or a moras and bein aso wih @ aron @ of X- A elation, which we al ll 1/6, i dened ia X by 2X/ey it in or # wn bon to the mime at of the election ©, We shall fall 2/6 the ation ded by the partion Ta the peeing pargtahwo saw how fo asoeat a st of sues of 1X wid evry equtleece ation in und how to aeiatew aton In “X pith every postition of X-The soni between equate rl ‘ont snd parttime cus be daub by ying thatthe sage rm © {toX/e us exully he reer ofthe pose rum to X/2._ Mr exo ‘My: wan equates ration in X, then tho mf equralner cases hea yttion of X that ndnom the rlaloa Hand f a partion of, the theinded relaign nn equivalence eaten whose set of eines ‘hae i eeely orth pou, et us stat with an eguivalencewinton Sins each 2 ‘lings toes oguitlene eae (for names = «3/ Slee thatthe Anion the eqtvlone cases teall X. Its ei 1 yy thea 7B + nd ity, s0d therfore 22 y. This imple that I two equlvaleno dee Ihave'an denen in cmmon, thn they ar eto in other word ar two dint equivalmes eer ae avaye djs ‘The not of ‘qulalonn came helo «puro, ‘Tomy hat evo oleate bo Tong to th ams et (ales clas) of thi partion means by die sm RELATIONS 2» ‘on, nt they stand inte ration J to one anther. "This proves the Sndoal ration. Snes evry olament of X balnge to ee eta ©, ro Alexvty fst ns thas xa > are inte est of. Symmetry tye ‘that sz anya inthe meet of, than yan ae those sto td tit violy tae. ‘Taatviy eae that ond y oe in the tine tol © and ify ad are ine se et of hen ad ae nthe tain af, and histo is oiou. ‘Tho equivalence cla f each in blue thee’ of eo which bul, This oats tho proto ever i hot as promise.SECTION 8 FUNCTIONS TEX and ¥ ao set, fanation rm (ron) X to (0 int) ¥ ia reation| {ese that dom f =X and wah hat or ach >in X tha a nigoe de roent yn Y with (ef uniquenes eondon ca be frmultad ‘lilly ss floss Gra) «fel Crabeds ten y= Dor enh rim [X; tho sigue ym sub that (3) ef daotad Uy fe). Foe uations ‘hia notam and emo saints supcedo the othr used for more roca nin rm now oy Fi faeion, we sal wie fe) = ince of (sl ef or afte he element yi ald the sl Und the {intion eames (or ta oe) a he ep 2)equlaleatly we mse ay that fdr or map of troforme eno ‘To Words map o& map ping, tanufrmaton responded erator are ann woe othe hay thet ar somoiimon gol a yuna fer fon. "The smal fXoY 41 sometimes wd a an abet for“ fx funtion fram X ta Y: ‘These ofl fonctions fom X'to Fs mbt of the power eet A XT itil be denoted by 7% ‘The comotations of sctity sted by the rong isa above sale sone aor dima wth tbe dition sending to which Function dun ack do ayhing bat merely.‘ dimaaantign im fected na dierent of he vosbalayfancion i rrve fr the (etna eject hati somelow ative ad the st of dared pais that swe hav cto he faetion i hen ai the graph ofthe enon.» Te te to ed examples of funtion nthe pred ee hsreti mse ofthe trond in tt taematee snd erryday’ i all we hae to lok Jt i ‘Bonnin, aot essary suse In tabutaod form One exaople seat vuxerions a ina ty drcetry; th argument of the Faneton so, in ths ese, the a abiant ofthe eit, and the value ae thir adams. Tor rlitns in gel sted hone fo fnetons particular, we have Aetna the soups af domi abd raga The dorsi of = funein f from X nv Yi by dtinon, equal vo, bu ts ange nod nt be equal ta ¥orang consists of thas coments y of Y for whith thre eit an Fin X mich tat fs) =. I the rage of J oqal to Fw ay tht ‘apa X eno Y. HA sult o€X, we may Was to conser the at of ‘the demonta y of Y fr wish thoe ox en inthe eats sch {at @) =n "Thin abet of Yin ealed the tmaye of Ander f nd i freqently denoted by f[4)._"The station i had bt oot extseorie ‘Won rh shout tb that A happens to be bth ab element of ne ‘toute of (anual stution, bat a fram a enable a), thn {he symbol (A) iambigums Dees it ean the al off tot dae oun thea of vale fa te elements of A Following nor mth ‘mail custom, we shall uo the bad notation, relying on content, end, fon th rzececasons wha it is nowsay, aiding verbal stipaatons, to Ered confiion. Note the the image of X Sot tho sage of he oat chuocter of fean bo exe by weg 2) TIX feo oubvs ol eet Y, te function f dled Uy 2) 2 fo ech ‘5n X feed tho eluion ap (Gr tb embed, ofthe Section) of Xiao Y. The ph "ie fueton fel by. en vey eam ue each eoterta Tes intended to imply, of com, that ther dows Fnve exe sw fone sidying the id endian. Ia these ‘Gal ean at hand thle obaus enon; wo ee xing Inve to eon ‘hoo fal thom ariel pas). for wih r= 9, Sia Cmideticos aply in erry et, and Glowing Bormal mathematica fetho, we aul unclly dea incon by desing ie valve yl ech argument 2. Sach decrpton someon longo ned mate cs ferome than nee deerption ofthe we (of ered pain) inl, Tet, noverthelon, mort mafuemaicna regard the rpunent-yoie de ‘erption as mare perspicims Uan ay oh "The ncaa np of X nto X ielled the ety map om X, (la tho langage ef lation, the deny map on X athe wine as tho rain of uly in X.) Ifa elo °c, dhe there ies egnnetion Bien the incon sap of into Fac te entity map on that eaoncton in apr sse cf «gone prose for making anal anes to Tange mone Sonatina from Y to, ay, an inte oy tha hare mata wy of constructing fanetin 9 rm to Zo feo) to heel to Js) for eash x in. "Th fnetan gad tho