Eisagwg sth Sunduastik Jewra

twn Merik Diatetagmnwn

Sunlwn

Qrhstos A. Ajanasiadhs
Tmhma Majhmatikwn
Panepisthmio Ajhnwn
Anoixh 2006
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Perieqmena

1 Arqik 'Ennoie 5

1.1 Apeikonsei kai sqsei isodunama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Merik diatxei kai isomorfismo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Prxei se merik diatxei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Alusde kai Antialusde 23

2.1 Alusde , antialusde kai diabajmsei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Idedh kai fltra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 To Jerhma tou Dilworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Summetrik alusde kai to Jerhma tou Sperner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 Idedh kai Grammik Epektsei 45

3.1 Morfismo merikn diatxewn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.2 H merik ditaxh twn idewdn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Grammik epektsei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4 Sndesmoi 55

4.1 Orismo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Epimeristiko sndesmoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3
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4.3 Sndesmoi kai kleistthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.4 Arjrwto, hmiarjrwto kai gewmetriko sndesmoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.5 Gewmetriko sndesmoi kai mhtroeid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6 Stoiqeidei idithte mhtroeidn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.7 Hmiepimeristiko sndesmoi kai kurt gewmetre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.8 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Keflaio 1

Arqik 'Ennoie

Oi merik diatxei enai dimele sqsei pou apolambnoun trei basik idithte , thn
anaklastik idithta, thn antisummetra kai th metabatikthta. Oi dimele aut sqsei
sunantntai kai pazoun shmantik rlo se na eurtato fsma twn sgqronwn majhmatikn.
Sto keflaio aut eisgoume thn nnoia th merik ditaxh se na snolo kaj kai
autn tou isomorfismo do merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn. Akmh, dnoume paradegmata
kai perigrfoume basiko trpou me tou opoou mporome na kataskeusoume ne (pio
snjete ) merik diatxei ap ma perisstere dosmne diatxei .
Ja qrhsimopoisoume tou ex sumbolismo :

: to ken snolo
N = {1, 2, . . .}: to snolo twn fusikn arijmn
Z: to snolo twn akerawn
Z0 = {0, 1, . . .}: to snolo twn mh arnhtikn akerawn
Q: to snolo twn rhtn
R: to snolo twn pragmatikn
[n]: to snolo {1, 2, . . . , n}
#S : o plhjrijmo tou sunlou S .

1.1 Apeikonsei kai sqsei isodunama

Jewrome gnwst basik nnoie th jewra sunlwn, pw aut tou egkleismo sunl-
wn A B , tou kartesiano ginomnou (peperasmnou pljou ) sunlwn, th apeiknish

5
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sunlwn kai th snjesh apeikonsewn kai grfoume A B , tan A B kai apokleetai h

isthta. Gia apeiknish sunlwn f : A B kai y B sumbolzoume me

f (A) = {f (x) : x A} kai me

f 1 (y) = {x A : f (x) = y},

antstoiqa, thn eikna tou A kai thn antstrofh eikna tou y B (msw th f ) kai upen-
jumzoume ti f (A) B kai f 1 (y) A . H apeiknish f : A B lgetai

nrriyh ( 1 1 enrriptik apeiknish) an #f 1 (y) 1 gia kje y B ,

eprriyh ( ep epirriptik apeiknish) an #f 1 (y) 1 gia kje y B ,
amfrriyh ( 1 1 kai ep amfirriptik apeiknish) an #f 1 (y) = 1 gia kje y B .

Paradeigma. An A = {a, b, c, d}, pou a, b, c, d enai diaforetik an do stoiqea tou A,

kai B = {1, 2, 3}, tte h apeiknish f : A B me f (a) = 2, f (b) = 3 kai f (c) = f (d) = 1
enai eprriyh all den enai nrriyh, diti to f 1 (1) = {c, d} qei do stoiqea.
H epmenh basik prtash jewretai gnwst.

Prtash 1.1.1 'Estw f : A B apeiknish peperasmnwn sunlwn.

(i) An h f enai nrriyh tte #A #B .

(ii) An h f enai eprriyh tte #A #B .
(iii) An h f enai amfrriyh tte #A = #B .

Dimel sqsh se na snolo S lgetai na uposnolo R tou kartesiano ginomnou

S S . Gia a, b S grfoume a R b an (a, b) R kai lme ti to a sqetzetai me to b w pro
th dimel sqsh R. H nnoia th dimelo sqsh sto S genikeei thn nnoia th apeiknish
f : S S , me thn opoa kje stoiqeo a tou S sqetzetai me akrib na stoiqeo tou S , to
b = f (a). Mia shmantik kathgora dimeln sqsewn enai oi sqsei isodunama . H nnoia
th sqsh isodunama sto S enai sten sundedemnh me autn th diamrish tou sunlou
S.

Orism 1.1.1 'Estw snolo S . Onomzoume diamrish ( merism) tou S na snolo =

{B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk } mh kenn uposunlwn tou S pou an do enai xna metax tou kai h nws
tou enai sh me S . Ta uposnola Bi lgontai mrh th diamrish .
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Paradeigma. To = {{1, 5, 9}, {2, 8}, {7}, {3, 4, 6}} enai diamrish tou [9]. Grfoume
= 159/28/7/346, pou h seir me thn opoa anagrfontai ta mrh th pw kai h seir
me thn opoa anagrfontai ta stoiqea se kje mro th , den qei shmasa.
'Estw = {B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk } diamrish tou S . Jewrome th dimel sqsh sto S pou
orzetai w ex : gia x, y S qoume x y an ta x kai y ankoun sto dio mro Bi th .
H sqsh aut qei profan ti epmene trei basik idithte :

(i) a a (anaklastik),
(ii) an a b, tte b a (summetrik),
(iii) an a b kai b c, tte a c (metabatik)

gia la ta a, b, c S .

Paradeigma. An S = [9] kai = {{1, 5, 9}, {2, 8}, {7}, {3, 4, 6}}, tte 1 5, 5 9,
1 9, 2 8, 7 7 klp.

Orism 1.1.2 Mia dimel sqsh, stw , sto snolo S lgetai sqsh isodunama (e-
quivalence relation) an gia la ta a, b, c S isqoun ta ex :

(i) a a,
(ii) an a b, tte b a,
(iii) an a b kai b c, tte a c.

Lme ti to a enai isodnamo me to b (w pro th sqsh isodunama ) an a b.

'Wste gia kje diamrish tou S h enai sqsh isodunama sto S . Antstrofa, kje
sqsh isodunama sto S orzei mia diamrish tou S gia thn opoa oi kai tautzontai.
Pio sugkekrimna, klsh isodunama tou a S lgetai to uposnolo

Ca = {x S : x a}

tou S pou apoteletai ap la ta isodnama me to a stoiqea tou S . 'Eqoume a a kai

sunep a Ca gia kje a S , pou shmanei ti oi klsei isodunama enai mh ken kai
h nws tou enai to snolo S . Epsh oi klsei Ca kai Cb enai xne metax tou ekt
an Ca = Cb . Prgmati, an Ca Cb 6= tte uprqei c Ca Cb , opte c a kai c b.
Ap ti sqsei aut , exaita th summetrik kai th metabatik idithta th sqsh
qoume a b. 'Estw tra tuqao x Ca . Ap ti x a kai a b parnoume x b, dhlad
8

ti x Cb . Dexame ti Ca Cb kai anloga apodeiknoume ti Cb Ca , ra Ca = Cb .

Sumperanoume ti ta diakekrimna ap ta snola Ca gia a S apotelon diamrish tou S ,
ta mrh th opoa enai oi klsei isodunama th , opte h sqsh tautzetai me thn .

Paradeigma. An S = {a, b, c} kai enai h dimel sqsh {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, b), (b, a)}

sto S , tte h enai sqsh isodunama me do klsei isodunama Ca = Cb = {a, b} kai

Cc = {c}.

1.2 Merik diatxei kai isomorfismo

Me ton akloujo orism eisgoume thn nnoia th merik ditaxh .

Orism 1.2.1 Mia dimel sqsh, stw , sto snolo P lgetai merik ditaxh (partial
order) an gia la ta a, b, c P isqoun ta ex :

(i) a a,
(ii) an a b kai b a, tte a = b,
(iii) an a b kai b c, tte a c.

H idithta (ii) lgetai antisummetra.

To zego (P, ) lgetai merik diatetagmno snolo kai sumbolzetai aplostera me

P tan h merik ditaxh enai eunhth. 'Otan anafermaste se na merik diatetagmno
snolo P ja sumbolzoume th merik ditaxh tou P me me P . Gia lgou suntoma ,
ja qrhsimopoiome suqn ton ro {merik ditaxh} ant gia {merik diatetagmno snolo}.
Ta stoiqea a, b tou P lgontai sugkrsima an a b b a. Grfoume a < b (kai b > a)
an a b kai a 6= b. Lme ti to b kalptei to a ( ti to zego (a, b) h sqsh a < b enai
sqsh kluyh ), an a < b kai den uprqei x P me a < x < b. An to P enai peperasmno,
tte to (P, ) apeikonzetai me to digramma Hasse, to opoo periqei ta stoiqea tou P w
koruf kai mia akm pou na sundei ta a kai b gia kje sqsh kluyh (a, b) sto P , me to
b na emfanzetai yhltera ap to a.

Paradeigma. Sto Sqma 1.1 apeikonzontai ta diagrmmata Hasse do merikn diatxewn

sta snola P = {a, b, c, d} kai Q = {a, b, c, d, e}. Sthn prth qoume ti sqsei kluyh
a < b, c < b kai c < d kai sth deterh ti a < b, b < d, d < e, a < c kai c < e. Sthn
perptwsh tou Q parathrome ti oi a < d, a < e kai b < e den enai sqsei kluyh kai
sunep den uprqoun oi antstoiqe akm sto digramma. Oi akm aut ja apotelosan
 9

e
b d
d

b c
a c
a

P Q

Sqma 1.1: Do merik diatetagmna snola.

kat kpoio trpo pleonasm afo, gia pardeigma, ap ti akm metax twn a, b kai b, d
prokptei ti a < b kai b < d kai sunep ti a < d ap th metabatik idithta. Ta {a, c},
{a, d} kai {b, d} enai zegh mh sugkrsimwn stoiqewn sto P , pw kai ta {b, c} kai {c, d}
sto Q.
A exetsoume tra kai lla paradegmata merikn diatxewn.
Pardeigma 1.2.1 H fusik ditaxh Z twn akerawn enai merik ditaxh sto Z, kaj
kai se opoiodpote uposnolo tou Z (oi idithte tou Orismo 1.2.1 sthn perptwsh aut
jewrontai gnwst ). Sth ditaxh aut (thn opoa sumbolzoume aplostera me tan
pisteoume ti den uprqei knduno sgqhsh ) opoiadpote do stoiqea tou Z enai sug-
krsima. Mia merik ditaxh me aut thn idithta lgetai olik diatxh grammik diatxh
alusda. Gia pardeigma, uprqoun do alusde sto snolo {1, 2}, h 1 < 2 kai h 2 < 1.
Geniktera (Prtash 2.1.1), kje olik ditaxh se na snolo P me n stoiqea enai th
morf 1 < 2 < < n (dhlad isqei x y sto P an kai mno an x = i kai y = j me
i Z j ) gia kpoia ap ti n! metajsei (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) tou P . Diagrmmata Hasse alusd-
wn me tra kai tssera stoiqea apeikonzontai sto tlo th prth kai trth seir tou
Sqmato 1.4.

Pardeigma 1.2.2 'Estw snolo P kai h dimel sqsh h opoa orzetai jtonta a b,
gia a, b P , an a = b. H sqsh aut enai profan merik ditaxh sto P , lgetai antialusda
kai apotele th monadik merik ditaxh sto P sthn opoa den uprqoun diakekrimna sug-
krsima (metax tou ) stoiqea tou P . Diagrmmata Hasse antialusdwn me tra kai tssera
stoiqea apeikonzontai sthn arq th prth kai deterh seir tou Sqmato 1.4.

Pardeigma 1.2.3 'Estw Bn to dunamosnolo (snolo lwn twn uposunlwn) tou [n] me th
dimel sqsh tou egkleismo, dhlad me S T an S T gia S, T [n]. Oi trei idithte
10

tou Orismo 1.2.1 enai faner pou h antisummetra, p.q., isoduname me to gegon ti an
S T kai T S gia S, T [n], tte S = T . Sunep h enai merik ditaxh sto Bn . Me
aut th merik ditaxh to snolo Bn lgetai lgebra Boole txh n. To digramma Hasse
tou Bn apeikonzetai sto Sqma 1.2 (a) gia n = 3.
Isqurizmaste tra ti sthn lgebra Boole Bn , to T kalptei to S an kai mno an S T
kai #T = #S + 1. Upojtoume prta ti to T kalptei to S . Tte S < T , opte S T
kai #T #S + 1. An eqame #T > #S + 1 tte ja uprqan toulqiston do diaforetik
stoiqea a, b tou T S kai ja eqame S S {a} T . Sunep ja sque S < S {a} < T
sto Bn kai h S < T den tan sqsh kluyh . H antfash aut ma odhge sto sumprasma
ti #T = #S + 1. Antstrofa an S T kai #T = #S + 1 tte enai faner ti S T kai
ti den uprqei snolo R me S R T , dhlad ti to T kalptei to S .

{1,2,3} 12

{1,2} {1,3} {2,3}

6 4

{1} {2} {3} 3 2

{} 1

(a) (b)

Sqma 1.2: Oi merik diatxei B3 kai D12 .

Paratrhsh 1.2.1 H sqsh tou egkleismo mpore na oriste pnw se tuqaa sullog A
uposunlwn en dosmnou sunlou, jtonta S T gia S, T A an S T . H sqsh
aut apotele merik ditaxh sto A. Endiafronta paradegmata merikn diatxewn auto
tou edou emfanzontai se afjona sthn lgebra kai th gewmetra kai perilambnoun th
merik ditaxh (tou egkleismo) sto snolo twn grammikn upqwrwn en dianusmatiko
qrou, sto snolo twn upoomdwn mia omda (me idiaterh shmasa gia th jewra Galois),
sto snolo twn prtwn idewdn en antimetajetiko daktulou (me idiaterh shmasa sth
metajetik lgebra) kai sto snolo twn pleurn en kurto poludrou ( poluedriko
sumplgmato ). Shmantik pardeigma enai epsh h {merik ditaxh twn idewdn}, pou ja
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meletsoume sti Paragrfou 3.2 kai 4.2, kaj kai aut twn {kleistn sunlwn} mia
prxh kleistthta , pou ja eisgoume sthn Pargrafo 4.3.

Pardeigma 1.2.4 'Estw h dimel sqsh | sto snolo N twn jetikn akerawn me a | b an
o b diairetai me to a, dhlad an uprqei s N me b = as. H sqsh aut enai merik ditaxh
sto N. Prgmati, h anaklastik idithta enai faner. Gia thn antisummetra, parathrome
ti an a | b kai b | a, tte a Z b kai b Z a kai sunep a = b. Gia th metabatikthta,
parathrome ti an a | b kai b | c, tte uprqoun s, t N me b = as kai c = bt, opte
c = ast = aq me q = st N kai sunep a | c. Se aut th merik ditaxh oi akraioi pou
kalptoun to 1 (to elqisto stoiqeo th ditaxh ) enai auto pou den qoun diairth llo
ap to 1 kai ton eaut tou , dhlad oi prtoi arijmo. Geniktera to b kalptei to a sth
merik ditaxh | an kai mno an b = ap gia kpoio prto arijm p.

Pardeigma 1.2.5 'Estw n N kai stw Dn to snolo twn jetikn diairetn tou n me th
sqsh th diairetthta tou Paradegmato 1.2.4, dhlad me a | b sto Dn an o b diairetai me
to a. H sqsh aut sto Dn enai merik ditaxh afo, pw qoume dh dexei, oi idithte tou
Orismo 1.2.1 isqoun sto megaltero snolo N. To digramma Hasse tou Dn apeikonzetai
sto Sqma 1.2 (b) gia n = 12.

Pardeigma 1.2.6 Gia n N stw n to snolo twn diamersewn tou sunlou [n]. Gia
, n jtoume an kje mro th diamrish periqetai se kpoio mro th
diamrish . Sthn perptwsh aut, lme ti h enai eklptunsh th . An p.q. n = 9,
= 159/28/7/346 kai = 1579/23468, tte . H sqsh kajist to n merik
diatetagmno snolo, to opoo anafretai w to snolo twn diamersewn tou [n] me merik
ditaxh thn eklptunsh. Gia na epalhjesoume thn antisummetra (oi lle do idithte enai
faner ) parathrome ti an , tte h qei to pol tsa mrh sa kai h . Epomnw
an kai tte h qei akrib tsa mrh sa kai h en kje mro th
periqetai se kpoio mro th , opte anagkastik = .
Parathrome epsh ti isqei 0 1 gia kje n , pou 0 enai h diamrish tou [n]
la ta mrh th opoa qoun na stoiqeo kai 1 enai h diamrish tou [n] me na mno mro .
Epiplon h kalptei thn sto n an kai mno an h prokptei ap thn ennonta
do diaforetik mrh th se na kai afnonta ta uploipa mrh ametblhta. Gia n = 9,
p.q. h = 159/28/7/346 kalptetai, metax llwn, ap ti diamersei 1579/28/346 kai
159/278/346. To digramma Hasse tou n apeikonzetai sto Sqma 1.3 gia n = 3.

Prwtarqik shmasa enai h nnoia tou isomorfismo merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn.

12

123

12/3 13/2 23/1

1/2/3

Sqma 1.3: H merik ditaxh 3 .

Orism 1.2.2 Do merik diatetagmna snola (P, P ) kai (Q, Q ) lgontai ismorfa
an uprqei amfrriyh f : P Q ste gia x, y P na isqei x P y an kai mno an
f (x) Q f (y). Mia ttoia amfrriyh f lgetai isomorfism merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn.

Pardeigma 1.2.7 (i) 'Estw P = {a, b}, Q = {1, 2} kai f : P Q, me f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2.
An ta P, Q enai merik diatetagmna kai isqei 1 < 2 sto Q, tte h f enai isomorfism an
kai mno an isqei a < b sto P . Ta P kai Q den enai ismorfa an ta a, b den enai sugkrsima
sto P .
(ii) H apeiknish f : B2 D6 me f () = 1, f ({1}) = 2, f ({2}) = 3 kai f ({1, 2}) = 6
enai isomorfism merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn, pw enai epsh kai h g : B2 D6 me
g() = 1, g({1}) = 3, g({2}) = 2 kai g({1, 2}) = 6.
(iii) Opoiesdpote do alusde P kai Q me n stoiqea enai ismorfe . Prgmati, qoume
1 < 2 < < n sto P kai 1 < 2 < < n sto Q gia kpoie metajsei (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
kai (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) twn sunlown P kai Q (Prtash 2.1.1) kai h apeiknish f : P Q me
f (i ) = i gia 1 i n enai o zhtomeno isomorfism .
(iv) 'Estw 2P to dunamosnolo en sunlou P me n stoiqea. Efodiasmno me th merik
ditaxh tou egkleismo, to 2P enai ismorfo me thn lgebra Boole Bn (giat?).

H tautotik apeiknish iP : P P , h antstrofh apeiknish f 1 : Q P en isomor-

fismo f : P Q kai h snjesh g f : P R do isomorfismn f : P Q kai g : Q R
enai le isomorfismo merikn diatxewn. Prokptei ti h sqsh isomorfismo enai sqsh
isodunama sto snolo twn merikn diatxewn. H klsh isodunama tou P lgetai tpo
isomorfismo tou P .
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Sqma 1.4: Oi merik diatxei se 3 kai 4 stoiqea.

Paradeigma. Uprqei na tpo isomorfismo merikn diatxewn me na stoiqeo kai do

tpoi gia merik diatxei me do stoiqea. Sto Sqma 1.4 apeikonzontai ta diagrmmata
Hasse twn pnte anismorfwn merikn diatxewn me 3 stoiqea kai twn dekaxi me 4 stoiqea.

Suneqzoume me meriko akmh basiko orismo . 'Estw (P, ) merik diatetagmno

snolo kai a P . To a lgetai elaqistik an den uprqei x P me x < a, megistik an
den uprqei x P me x > a, elqisto an a x gia kje x P kai mgisto an a x gia
kje x P . Parathrome ti to P mpore na qei to pol na elqisto stoiqeo kai to pol
na mgisto stoiqeo. Prgmati, an ta a, b tan kai ta do elqista ( kai ta do mgista)
stoiqea, tte ja eqame a b kai b a, ra ja eqame kai a = b lgw th antisummetra .
Parathrome akmh ti kje elqisto ( mgisto) stoiqeo (an uprqei) enai elaqistik
(megistik) kai ti to antstrofo den enai genik alhj .

Paradeigma. Gia ti merik diatxei tou Sqmato 1.1, to P qei do elaqistik stoiqea
kai do megistik en to Q qei elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo. Sth merik ditaxh Bn to ken
snolo enai to elqisto stoiqeo kai to [n] to mgisto stoiqeo, diti isqei S [n]
gia kje S Bn . Sth merik ditaxh tou Paradegmato 1.2.4 o akraio 1 enai to elqisto
stoiqeo en den uprqoun megistik ( mgista) stoiqea. H merik ditaxh Dn qei elqisto
stoiqeo to 1 kai mgisto stoiqeo to n.
14

Lmma 1.2.1 Gia kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo (P, ) kai kje x P
uprqei elaqistik stoiqeo a P kai megistik stoiqeo b P me a x b. Eidiktera,
kje mh ken peperasmnh merik ditaxh qei toulqiston na elaqistik kai toulqiston
na megistik stoiqeo.

Apdeixh. Apodeiknoume thn parxh elaqistiko stoiqeou. 'Estw ti den uprqei elaqistik
stoiqeo a tou P me a x. Tte to x den enai elaqistik kai sunep uprqei x1 P
me x > x1 . To x1 epsh den enai elaqistik kai sunep uprqei x2 P me x1 > x2 .
Epanalambnonta to dio epiqerhma brskoume mia peirh akolouja x = x0 > x1 > x2 >
stoiqewn tou P . Efson to P enai peperasmno oi roi th akolouja aut den mpore
na enai loi an do diaforetiko. Me lla lgia uprqoun dekte i < j me xi = xj .
Ap th metabatikthta kai ti sqsei xi > xi+1 > > xj = xi prokptei ti xi > xi+1
kai xi+1 xi , sqsei pou antibanoun sthn antisummetra. To zhtomeno petai. Anloga
apodeiknetai kai h parxh megistiko stoiqeou b x.

1.3 Prxei se merik diatxei

A exetsoume kpoiou basiko trpou na kataskeusei kane ne merik diatxei ap

gnwst . 'Estw merik diatetagmno snolo P .
Epagmene upodiatxei . Gia kje uposnolo Q tou P o periorism Q th sqsh
P sto Q Q enai merik ditaxh sto Q. 'Etsi gia x, y Q qoume x Q y an kai mno an
x P y sto P . H Q onomzetai epagmenh merik ditaxh sto Q kai to zego (Q, Q ) enai
to epagmeno merik diatetagmno uposnolo tou P sto Q. Gia x, y P me x P y orzoume
to uposnolo [x, y] = {z P : x P z P y} tou P . To snolo aut, efodiasmno me thn
epagmenh merik ditaxh, lgetai kleist disthma sto P (me kra x kai y ). Omow orzetai
to anoikt disthma (x, y) = {z P : x <P z <P y} kaj kai ta hmianoikt diastmata
(x, y] kai [x, y). To P lgetai topik peperasmno (locally finite) an kje kleist disthma
sto P enai peperasmno. Parathrome ti [x, x] = {x} gia kje x P .
Paradeigma. (i) An P enai h merik ditaxh tou Sqmato 1.1 kai Q = {a, b, d}, tte h
epagmenh merik ditaxh enai h monadik merik ditaxh sto Q gia thn opoa a < b kai to d
enai mh sugkrsimo me ta a, b.
(ii) An P enai h merik ditaxh B3 kai x = {1}, y = {1, 2, 3}, tte to to kleist disthma
[x, y] = {{1}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}} th P enai ismorfo me th B2 .
(iii) H merik ditaxh tou Paradegmato 1.2.4 enai topik peperasmnh qwr na enai
peperasmnh. To kleist disthma [1, n] se aut th ditaxh sumpptei me th merik ditaxh
 15

Dn .
Duikthta. H dimel sqsh pou orzetai sto P jtonta x y an kai mno an y P x
enai merik ditaxh sto P kai onomzetai duik merik ditaxh th P . To snolo P ,
efodiasmno me th merik ditaxh , sumbolzetai me P . 'Etsi, tan to P enai peperasmno,
to digramma Hasse tou P prokptei ap ekeno tou P me anklash se mia orizntia eujea.
To P lgetai autoduik (self-dual) an enai ismorfo me to P , me lla lgia an uprqei
amfrriyh f : P P me thn idithta x P y f (x) P f (y) gia x, y P .

Pardeigma 1.3.1 Kje antialusda kai kje peperasmnh alusda enai autoduik merik
diatxei . H apeiknish f : Bn Bn , gia thn opoa f (S) enai to sumplrwma [n] S tou
S sto [n], enai amfrriyh kai gia S, T [n] isqei S T an kai mno an f (S) f (T ).
Sunep h lgebra Boole Bn enai epsh autoduik merik ditaxh.

Euj kai diataktik jroisma. 'Estw P kai Q merik diatxei me P Q = . To euj

jroisma ( xnh nwsh) P + Q twn P kai Q enai h merik ditaxh sto snolo P Q pou
orzetai jtonta x y an

x, y P kai x P y
x, y Q kai x Q y .

To diataktik jroisma P Q twn P kai Q enai h merik ditaxh sto snolo P Q pou
orzetai jtonta x y an isqei

x, y P kai x P y
x, y Q kai x Q y
x P kai y Q.

'Etsi, tan ta P kai Q enai peperasmna, to digramma Hasse tou P + Q prokptei topo-
jetnta ta diagrmmata Hasse twn P kai Q to na dpla sto llo, qwr na sqediaston
epiplon akm , en aut tou P Q prokptei topojetnta to digramma Hasse tou P ktw
ap ekeno tou Q kai ennonta me akm kje megistik stoiqeo tou P me kje elaqistik
stoiqeo tou Q. Me moio trpo (epagwgik) mpore kane na orsei to euj kai diataktik
jroisma trin perissotrwn merikn diatxewn.
Paradeigma. An P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn enai merik diatxei me na stoiqeo h kajemi, tte to
P1 + P2 + + Pn enai antialusda me n stoiqea en to P1 P2 Pn enai alusda me
n stoiqea.
16

Paradeigma. An P kai Q enai alusde , me do stoiqea h kajemi, tte to digramma Hasse

tou P + Q enai to trto ap arister sth deterh gramm tou Sqmato 1.4 en to P Q
enai alusda me tssera stoiqea.

Euj ginmeno. 'Estw merik diatxei P kai Q. To euj ginmeno P Q twn P kai Q
enai h merik ditaxh sto kartesian ginmeno P Q twn P kai Q pou orzetai jtonta ,
gia (x, y), (x, y ) P Q, (x, y) (x , y ) an kai mno an x P x kai y Q y . Sto Sqma
1.5 apeikonzetai to digramma Hasse tou ginomnou P [2], pou P enai h merik ditaxh
tou Sqmato 1.1 kai [2] = {1 < 2} enai h alusda me do stoiqea.

(b, 2) (d, 2)

(b, 1) (d, 1)

(a, 2) (c, 2)

(a, 1) (c, 1)

Sqma 1.5: To euj ginmeno do merikn diatxewn.

Me moio trpo orzetai to euj ginmeno trin perissotrwn merikn diatxewn. Gia
pardeigma, h lgebra Boole Bn enai ismorfh me to euj ginmeno Q Q Q n
antitpwn mia alusda Q me do stoiqea ('Askhsh 2). Geniktera, h merik ditaxh Dn
enai ismorfh me euj ginmeno alusdwn gia kje n N ('Askhsh 3).

1.4 Asksei

1. 'Estw Sn to snolo twn metajsewn tou [n]. Gia , Sn me = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) kai

= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) jtoume an 1 + + i 1 + + i gia kje 1 i n.

(a) Dexte ti h sqsh enai merik ditaxh sto Sn . Uprqei mgisto stoiqeo sth
ditaxh (Sn , )? Uprqei elqisto stoiqeo?
(b) Sqediste to digramma Hasse aut th merik ditaxh gia n = 3.
 17

2. 'Estw h lgebra Boole Bn .

(a) Dexte ti gia la ta x, y Bn me x y to kleist disthma [x, y] sth Bn enai
ismorfo me th Bk gia kpoio mh arnhtik akraio k .
(b) Dexte ti h Bn enai ismorfh me to euj ginmeno QQ Q (n pargonte ),
pou Q enai alusda me do stoiqea.
3. (a) Dexte ti h merik ditaxh Dn enai ismorfh me to euj ginmeno alusdwn gia
kje n N.
(b) 'Estw k N. Brete n N ttoio ste h Dn na enai ismorfh me th Bk .
4. Dexte ti kje kleist disthma sto n enai ismorfo me to euj ginmeno merikn
diatxewn th morf k me k 0.
5. 'Estw Pn to snolo twn diamersewn tou jetiko akeraou n (blpe Orism 2.4.3). Gia
, Pn me = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) kai = (1 , 2 , . . . , k ) jtoume an
1 + + i 1 + + i
gia kje 1 i min(r, k).
(a) Dexte ti h sqsh enai merik ditaxh sto Pn . Uprqei mgisto stoiqeo sth
ditaxh (Pn , )? Uprqei elqisto stoiqeo?
(b) Gia poia n N enai h (Pn , ) alusda?
(g) Dexte ti h (Pn , ) enai autoduik merik ditaxh gia kje n N.
6. 'Estw Sn to snolo twn metajsewn tou [n]. Gia , Sn me = (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
jtoume an h prokptei ap th antallssonta ta i kai i+1 gia kpoio
1 i n 1 me i < i+1 kai an uprqoun k 0 kai 0 , 1 , . . . , k Sn ttoia
ste = 0 1 k = . Gia pardeigma, gia n = 4 qoume (2, 1, 4, 3) < (4, 2, 3, 1)
diti (2, 1, 4, 3) (2, 4, 1, 3) (2, 4, 3, 1) (4, 2, 3, 1).
(a) Dexte ti h sqsh enai merik ditaxh sto Sn .
(b) Uprqei mgisto stoiqeo sth ditaxh (Sn , )? Uprqei elqisto stoiqeo?
(g) Sqediste to digramma Hasse aut th merik ditaxh gia n = 3.
(d) Dexte ti h (Sn , ) enai autoduik merik ditaxh.
7. 'Estw Sn to snolo twn metajsewn tou [n]. Gia , Sn me = (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
jtoume an h prokptei ap th antallssonta ta i kai j gia kpoia
1 i < j n me i < j kai an uprqoun k 0 kai 0 , 1 , . . . , k Sn ttoia
ste = 0 1 k = .
18

(a) Dexte ti h sqsh enai merik ditaxh sto Sn kai ti h kalptei th =

(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) sth ditaxh aut an kai mno an h prokptei ap th antalls-
sonta ta i kai j gia kpoia 1 i < j n gia ta opoa isqei (i) i < j kai
(ii) den uprqei dekth k me i < k < j me i < k < j .
(b) Uprqei mgisto stoiqeo sth ditaxh (Sn , )? Uprqei elqisto stoiqeo?
(g) Sqediste to digramma Hasse aut th merik ditaxh gia n = 3. Enai h
(Sn , ) ismorfh me th merik ditaxh th 'Askhsh 1?
(d) Dexte ti h (Sn , ) enai autoduik merik ditaxh.

8. 'Ena merism tou sunlou [n] lgetai mh diastauromeno (noncrossing) an qei thn
ex idithta: an 1 a < b < c < d n kai B, B enai mrh tou me a, c B kai
b, d B , tte B = B . 'Estw NCn h epagmenh merik ditaxh tou n sto snolo twn
mh diastauromenwn merismn tou [n].

(a) Dexte ti h NCn qei elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo kai ti gia , NCn h
kalptei thn sto NCn an kai mno an h prokptei ap thn ennonta do
diaforetik mrh th se na kai afnonta ta uploipa mrh ametblhta.
(b) Dexte ti kje kleist disthma sto NCn enai ismorfo me to euj ginmeno
merikn diatxewn th morf NCk me k 0.
(g) Dexte ti h NCn enai autoduik merik ditaxh gia kje n N.
 19

Upodexei - Lsei

1. (a) H anaklastik kai metabatik idithta enai profane . Elgqoume thn antisummetra. An

= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn
, 1 + +i 1 + +i
me kai tte

kai 1 + + i 1 + + i 1in
gia kje 1 + + i = 1 + + i
. Prokptei ti

gia kje 1in , dhlad 1 = 1 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 , . . . , 1 + + n = 1 + + n

ti , .

Diadoqik parnoume 1 = 1 2 = 2 , . . . , n = n
, = , dhlad . Gia tuqaa anaditaxh

= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn
sto 1+2+ +i 1 +2 + +i n+(n1)+ +(ni+1)
isqei

gia kje 1in . Sunep h (Sn , )

merik ditaxh (1, 2, . . . , n)
qei elqisto stoiqeo to

kai mgisto stoiqeo (n, n 1, . . . , 1)

to .

(b) Blpe to (a) tou Sqmato 1.6.

321 321

231 312 231 312

213 132 213 132

123 123

(a) (b)

Sqma 1.6: Ta diagrmmata Hasse do merikn diatxewn sto S3 .

2. (a) 'Estw x=S kai y=T , pou S T [n] , opte [x, y] = {U [n] : S U T } . 'Estw

epsh R = T S kai #R = k . To dunamosnolo 2R tou R , efodiasmno me th merik ditaxh

tou egkleismo, enai ismorfo me th Bk (Pardeigma 1.2.7 (iii)

). Arke na parathrsoume ti

h apeiknish f : [x, y] 2R me f (U ) = U S , gia U [x, y] , enai isomorfism merikn

diatxewn (poia enai h antstrofh th f ?).

(b) Gia S [n] jtoume f (S) = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) , pou


1, an iS
i =
0, an i
/S .
20

Jtonta Q = {0, 1} f : Bn Q n h apeiknish enai amfrriyh. Epiplon an Q enai h alusda

{0 < 1} Qn kai to enai merikw diatetagmno w euj ginmeno, tte gia S, T Bn isqei

ST an kaif (S) f (T )
mno an Qn sto , opte h f enai o zhtomeno isomorfism .

3. (a) 'Estw n = pe11 pe22 pekk h anlush tou n se ginmeno prtwn paragntwn, ste oi pi enai

diakekrimnoi prtoi arijmo kai ei N gia 1ik . 'Estw epsh to euj ginmeno

P = [0, e1 ] [0, e2 ] [0, ek ],

pou [0, ei ] enai h alusda {0, 1, . . . , ei } sth ditaxh Z twn akerawn. Gia d Dn d= qoume

pa11 pa22 pakk gia monadiko akeraou a1 , a2 , . . . , ak 0 ai ei

me gia kje i . Antstrofa,

kje ttoio ginmeno enai stoiqeo tou Dn . Orzetai epomnw h amfrriyh f : Dn P

me f (d) = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) . Enai gnwst ti d, d Dn
gia isqei d | d an kai mno an

f (d) f (d ) P sto f . Sunep h enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn. Gia pardeigma, gia

n = 12 p1 = 2 p2 = 3 a1 = 2 a2 = 1
qoume , , , kai f (d) = (0, 0) (1, 0) (0, 1) (2, 0) (1, 1)
, , , , ,

(2, 1) d=1
gia , 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, antstoiqa.

(b) An to n = p1 p2 pk enai ginmeno k diakekrimnwn prtwn tte, pw dexame sto (a), h

Dn enai ismorfh me to euj ginmeno k alusdwn mkou 1 kai sunep , ap thn 'Askhsh 2

(b), enai ismorfh me th Bk .

4. 'Estw 0 kai 1 , antstoiqa, to elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo tou n kai stw x, y n .

Parathrome ta ex : (i) An h diamrish x qei k mrh, tte to disthma [x, 1] enai ismorfo

me to k (ii)
. An h diamrish y qei r mrh me plhjrijmou k1 , k2 , . . . , kr , tte to disthma [0, y]
enai ismorfo me to euj ginmeno k1 k2 kr . Sth genik perptwsh diastmato

[x, y] to zhtomeno prokptei ap ti prohgomene parathrsei , efarmzonta to (ii) sto

disthma [x, 1] .

5. (a) To ti h (Pn , ) enai merik ditaxh prokptei pw sthn 'Askhsh 1 (a). To elqisto

stoiqeo enai h diamrish (1, 1, . . . , 1) tou n kai to mgisto h diamrish (n) me na mno mro .

(b) H merik ditaxh (Pn , ) enai alusda an kai mno an n5 . Arke na elgxei kane ti

periptsei n5 kai na parathrsei ti oi diamersei (n 2, 1, 1) kai (n 3, 3) tou n enai

mh sugkrsime w pro thn gia n6 .

(g) = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) Pn
Gia stw = (1 , 2 , . . . , k ) Pn , poui = #{1 j r :
j i} k = 1kai . Isodnama, enai h diamrish to digramma Young th opoa (blpe

pargrafo met ton Orism 2.4.3) prokptei ap aut th me anklash sthn kria diagnio.

Gia pardeigma enai (3, 1) = (2, 1, 1)

n=4 gia (ap thn perigraf aut tou enai faner

ti
Pn ). To lgetai duik diamrish
, Pn th . Dexte ti gia

I.G. Macdonald, Symmetric Func-

(kai an duskoleeste dete thn (1.11) tou Kefalaou I sto [

tions and Hall Polynomials, Oxford Mathematical Monographs, Oxford Science Publications,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995 f : Pn Pn f () =
). H apeiknish me enai amfrriyh me

antstrofo ton eaut x y f (y) f (y)

th kai x, y Pn
qei thn idithta gia .
 21

6. (a) H anaklastik kai metabatik idithta enai profane . = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn

Gia

sumbolzoume inv() me (i, j)

to pljo twn zeugn me 1i<j n j > i
gia ta opoa

kai parathrome ti inv( ) = inv() + 1 . 'Epetai < inv() <Z inv( )

ti , ap

pou prokptei h (Sn , )

antisummetra gia thn . H merik
ditaxh asjen
lgetai (dexi)

ditaxh weak order

( Sn ) sto .

(b) Ja dexoume ti to elqisto stoiqeo enai to (1, 2, . . . , n) = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn

. 'Estw ,

opte i = n gia kpoio dekth i . Metafronta i ni to me diadoqik antallag sthn

teleutaa jsh (pou katalmbane arqik to n = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn

) prokptei h me

kai n = n . Efarmzonta epagwg n sto (1 , 2 , . . . , n1 ) (1, 2, . . . , n 1)

qoume sthn

antstoiqh ditaxh sto Sn1 , opte (1, 2, . . . , n) Sn sto (1, 2, . . . , n)

kai sunep .

Omow apodeiknoume ti h (Sn , ) qei mgisto (n, n 1, . . . , 1)

stoiqeo to .

(g) Blpe to (b) tou Sqmato 1.6.

(d) H amfrriyh f : Sn Sn f () = (n , n1 , . . . , 1 )
, me gia = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn , qei

thn idithta f ( ) f () .

7. Parathrnta ti inv() <Z inv( ) , h lsh sta perisstera erwtmata enai moia me

aut sta antstoiqa erwtmata th prohgomenh skhsh . Gia ton proteinmeno qarakthrism

twn kalyewn sto (a) arke na parathrsoume = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn

ta ex : 'Estw kai

ti h prokptei ap th antallssonta i j ta 1i<jn

kai i < j
gia kpoia me .

An uprqei dekth k me i<k<j i < k < j

kai < < , tte (Sn , )
qoume sthn ,

pou h prokptei ap th antallssonta i k ta kai kai sunep h den kalptei th

sthn (Sn , ) . An den uprqei ttoio k inv( ) = inv() + 1

dekth , tte kai sunep h

kalptei th . To digramma Hasse (Sn , )

th n=3 (a)
apeikonzetai gia sto tou Sqmato

1.6. H apnthsh sto erthma (g) enain3jetik an kai arnhtik diaforetik. H merik

ditaxh enai gnwst w h ditaxh Bruhat Sn sto .

8. 'Estw n shmea pnw sthn perifreia en kklou sto eppedo, ta opoa shmeinoume diadoqik

me tou akeraou 1, 2, . . . , n kat th for twn deiktn tou rologio. Parathrome ti an gia

B [n] sumbolsoume me conv(B) to polgwno me koruf ta shmea i B (to polgwno

aut enai shmeo eujgrammo tmma an to B qei na do stoiqea, antstoiqa) tte

gia mia diamrish n isqei NCn an kai mno an conv(B1 ) conv(B2 ) = gia

opoiadpote diakekrimna mrh B1 , B2 th . Me aut w dedomno dexte ta (a) kai (b)

(profan to elqisto kai mgisto NCn

tou sumpptoun me ta antstoiqa stoiqea tou n ).

'Oson afor to (g), stw NCn 2n

kai stw shmea pnw sthn perifreia tou diou kklou

shmeiwmna diadoqik w 1, 1 , 2, 2 , . . . , n, n kat th for twn deiktn tou rologio. 'Estw

h megalterh, w pro th ditaxh th eklptunsh , diamrish tou {1 , 2 , . . . , n } gia ta mrh

B th opoa conv(B ) conv(B) =

isqei gia kje mro B th . 'Estw f () n h

diamrish pou prokptei ap thn antikajistnta to i me i

to gia 1in . Dexte ti h

apeiknish f : NCn NCn enai kal orismnh kai apotele isomorfism merikn diatxewn.
22
Keflaio 2

Alusde kai Antialusde

H dom mia merik ditaxh kajorzetai se meglo bajm ap th dom twn alusdwn kai an-
tialusdwn se aut, nnoie oi opoe sundontai metax tou kat trpou mh profane . Sto
keflaio aut eisgoume thn nnoia th diabajmismnh merik ditaxh kai apodukneoume
do klasik jewrmata gia to mgisto pljo stoiqewn mia antialusda (plto ) mia
peperasmnh merik ditaxh : to Jerhma tou Dilworth kai gia thn perptwsh th lge-
bra Boole to Jerhma tou Sperner. Dnoume epsh mia efarmog tou Jerhmato tou
Dilworth sto Jerhma tou Gmou th jewra grafhmtwn.

2.1 Alusde , antialusde kai diabajmsei

Upenjumzoume ti na merik diatetagmno snolo P lgetai alusda olik diatetagmno

grammik diatetagmno an opoiadpote do stoiqea tou P enai sugkrsima kai antialusda an
den periqei diakekrimna sugkrsima stoiqea. H akloujh prtash qarakthrzei ti olik
diatxei pou ufstatai na peperasmno snolo.

Prtash 2.1.1 Mia merik ditaxh P me n stoiqea enai alusda an kai mno an uprqei
metjesh (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) twn stoiqewn tou P ste x1 < x2 < < xn .

Apdeixh. 'Estw ti to P enai alusda. Ja dexoume me epagwg sto n ti uprqei metjesh

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) tou P me x1 < x2 < < xn . To zhtomeno enai profan gia n = 1.
Upojtonta ti n 2, stw x1 na elaqistik stoiqeo tou P (thn parxh tou opoou
eggutai to Lmma 1.2.1) kai stw to merik diatetagmno snolo Q = P {x1 } me thn

23
24

epagmenh merik ditaxh. To Q enai epsh alusda kai sunep , ap thn upjesh th
epagwg , mporome na gryoume Q = {x2 , . . . , xn } me x2 < < xn sto Q, ra kai sto
P . Afo to P enai alusda, qoume x1 < x2 x2 < x1 , me th deterh sqsh na apokleetai
ap thn epilog tou x1 . Sunep x1 < x2 kai P = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } me x1 < x2 < < xn .
Antstrofa, an P = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } me x1 < x2 < < xn , tte gia do tuqaa diakekrimna
stoiqea xi , xj tou P qoume xi < xj an i < j kai xi > xj an i > j ap th metabatik idithta.
Sunep ta stoiqea aut enai sugkrsima kai to P enai alusda.
'Estw tra P tuqao merik diatetagmno snolo.

Orism 2.1.1 'Ena uposnolo A tou P lgetai alusda antialusda sto P an, antstoiqa,
to A enai alusda antialusda me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh.

Me lla lgia, alusda sto P enai na uposnolo tou P me stoiqea an do sugkrsima

kai antialusda sto P enai na uposnolo tou P me stoiqea an do mh sugkrsima. To ken
snolo kai kje uposnolo tou P me na stoiqeo enai alusda kai antialusda tautqrona.
Paradeigma. Sth merik ditaxh Q tou Sqmato 1.1 ta snola {a, d, e} kai {c, e} e-
nai alusde en ta {b, c}, {c, d} kai {a} antialusde . Sth merik ditaxh D12 tou Sq-
mato 1.2 (b) ta snola {1, 3, 12}, {1, 2, 6, 12} kai {2, 4} enai alusde en ta {2, 3}, {3, 4}
kai {6} enai antialusde . Sth B4 to snolo {, {2}, {2, 4}, {1, 2, 4}} enai alusda kai to
{{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 3, 4}} antialusda.

'Estw C alusda sto P . H C lgetai megistik an gia kje alusda C sto P me C C

isqei C = C . H C lgetai koresmnh an den uprqoun x, y C kai z P C me x < z < y
ttoia ste h C {z} na enai alusda sto P . Profan kje megistik alusda sto P
enai koresmnh. An h C enai peperasmnh kai mh ken, tte ap thn Prtash 2.1.1 qoume
C = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } me x0 < x1 < < xn . Sthn perptwsh aut grfoume
C = {x0 < x1 < < xn }. (2.1)
O akraio n = #C 1 lgetai mko th C . Parathrome ti h alusda (2.1) enai koresmnh
an kai mno an to xi kalptei to xi1 gia kje 1 i n ('Askhsh 1).
Paradeigma. H alusda {{1}, {1, 4}, {1, 3, 4}} tou B4 enai koresmnh all qi megistik.

Orism 2.1.2 'Ena (mh ken) merik diatetagmno snolo P lgetai peperasmnou mkou
an uprqei jetik akraio m ttoio ste kje alusda sto P na qei mko to pol m. To
P lgetai diabajmismno (graded) an le oi megistik alusde sto P qoun to dio mko
n. O akraio n lgetai txh (rank) tou P .
 25

Paradeigma. Kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo enai peperasmnou mkou .

Gia ti merik diatxei tou Sqmato 1.1, to P enai diabajmismno txh na en to Q den
enai diabajmismno, diti oi megistik tou alusde {a, b, d, e} kai {a, c, e} qoun diaforetik
mko . Kje peperasmnh alusda enai diabajmismnh me txh sh me to mko th en kje
antialusda (peperasmnh peirh) qei peperasmno mko kai enai diabajmismnh merik
ditaxh mhdenik txh .

Paratrhsh 2.1.1 Ap thn apdeixh tou Lmmato 1.2.1 prokptei ti to lmma aut isqei
geniktera gia merik diatxei sti opoe kje alusda enai peperasmnh (ra kai gia
merik diatxei peperasmnou mkou ). Gia merik diatxei P me aut thn idithta enai
faner ti kje alusda periqetai se toulqiston ma megistik alusda th P .

Sthn epmenh prtash orzetai h txh twn stoiqewn mia diabajmismnh merik ditaxh .

Prtash 2.1.2 'Estw P diabajmismnh merik ditaxh. Uprqei monadik sunrthsh :

P Z0 ttoia ste:

(i) (x) = 0 gia kje elaqistik stoiqeo x tou P ,

(ii) an to y kalptei to x, tte (y) = (x) + 1.

Lme ti to x P qei txh i an (x) = i.

Apdeixh. 'Estw n h txh tou P kai stw x P . H alusda {x} tou P periqetai se kpoia
megistik alusda C = {x0 < x1 < < xn } tou P . Jtoume (x) = i gia to monadik
dekth 0 i n me x = xi kai parathrome ti to (x) enai anexrthto th epilog
th megistik alusda C . Prgmati, stw ti aut den isqei opte uprqei megistik
alusda C = {x0 < x1 < < xn } tou P me x = xj kai i 6= j , stw i < j . Tte h
x0 < x1 < < xj = xi < xi+1 < < xn enai alusda sto P mkou megalterou tou n,
prgma pou antibanei sti upojsei ma gia to P . Sunep h sunrthsh : P Z0 enai
kal orismnh. 'Estw x, y P me to y na kalptei to x. An C = {x0 < x1 < < xn } enai
tuqaa megistik alusda tou P pou periqei thn {x, y}, tte x = xi kai y = xi+1 gia kpoio
0 i n 1, opte (x) = i kai (y) = i + 1. Aut apodeiknei thn idithta (ii) en h (i)
enai faner ap ton orism th .
Gia th monadikthta, stw ti h sunrthsh : P Z0 ikanopoie ti sunjke (i) kai
(ii). 'Estw x P kai C = {x0 < x1 < < xn } tuqaa megistik alusda tou P me x = xi
gia kpoio i. Profan to x0 enai elaqistik stoiqeo tou P kai to xj kalptei to xj1 gia
kje 1 j n. Ap ti (i) kai (ii) prokptei ti (xj ) = j gia kje 0 j n. Eidiktera,
(x) = i.
26

Pardeigma 2.1.1 Kje peperasmnh alusda P = {x1 < x2 < < xn } me n stoiqea
enai diabajmismnh merik ditaxh txh n 1, me (xi ) = i 1 gia 1 i n.

Pardeigma 2.1.2 H Bn enai diabajmismnh merik ditaxh txh n. Prgmati, gia kje
megistik alusda S0 S1 Sm th Bn qoume S0 = kai Sm = [n]. Epsh to Si
kalptei to Si1 gia kje 1 i n kai sunep #Si = #Si1 + 1 (ap to Pardeigma
1.2.3). Prokptei ti #Si = i gia kje i kai ti m = n, ti dhlad to mko th alusda
enai so me n. Prokptei epsh ti (S) = #S gia kje S Bn .

Paratrhsh 2.1.2 (gia anagnste exoikeiwmnou me th metajetik lgebra). 'Estw an-

timetajetik daktlio R kai P (R) to snolo twn prtwn idewdn tou R, merik di-
atetagmno me th sqsh tou egkleismo. Difore gnwst sunjke kai jewrmata gia
eidik klsei daktulwn qoun isqur epiptsei sth dom twn alusdwn tou P (R). Gia
pardeigma o R enai daktlio th Noether an kai mno an kje alusda sto P (R) periqei
mgisto stoiqeo. Epsh , an o R enai daktlio th Noether tte, pw prokptei ap k-
lasik jerhma tou Krull, kje prwteon idede tou P (R) (blpe sthn epmenh pargrafo
gia ton orism) qei peperasmno mko . An o R enai epiplon daktlio Cohen-Macaulay,
tte kje ttoio idede tou P (R) enai diabajmismno. An R = K[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] enai o
poluwnumik daktlio se n anexrthte metablht pnw sto sma K, tte to P (R) enai
diabajmismno txh n.

2.2 Idedh kai fltra

'Estw (P, ) merik diatetagmno snolo.

Orism 2.2.1 'Ena uposnolo I tou P lgetai idede an gia kje x, y P me x y I

isqei x I . To I lgetai fltro duik idede an gia kje x, y P me x y I isqei
x I.

Kje idede sto P enai fltro sth duik merik ditaxh P kai antstrofa. To ken
snolo kai to P enai idedh kai fltra sto P tautqrona.

Paradeigma. Sth merik ditaxh B3 ta snola {}, {, {2}, {3}} kai {, {1}, {3}, {1, 3}}
enai idedh en ta snola {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}} kai {{1}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}} enai fl-
tra.
 27

Pardeigma 2.2.1 'Estw P = {a, b, c} me th merik ditaxh gia thn opoa ta a, b enai
diakekrimna elaqistik stoiqea kai to c enai to mgisto stoiqeo tou P . To P qei pnte
antialusde , ti , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, pnte idedh, ta , {a}, {b}, {a, b}, P kai pnte
fltra, ta , {c}, {a, c}, {b, c}, P .

H epmenh prtash exhge th fainomenik smptwsh tou prohgomenou paradegmato .

Prtash 2.2.1 Se kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo P to pljo twn an-
tialusdwn sto P enai so me to pljo twn idewdn kai me to pljo twn fltrwn sto P .

Prin apodexoume thn prtash aut ja eisgoume kpoie akmh shmantik nnoie . Gia
A P sumbolzoume me A to snolo twn y P gia ta opoa isqei y a gia kpoio a A
(pou = kat smbash). To A enai idede tou P , afo an x y A tte x y kai
y a gia kpoio a A, opte x a me a A kai sunep x A . Lme ti to A enai to
idede tou P pou pargetai ap to A. Omow , to snolo A+ twn y P gia ta opoa isqei
y a gia kpoio a A (pou + = ) enai fltro sto P kai lgetai to fltro tou P pou
pargetai ap to A. To idede {a} := {y P : y a}, pou pargetai ap to monosnolo
{a} P , lgetai prwteon idede tou P pou pargetai ap to a kai sumbolzetai epsh me
Ia . Anloga, to fltro {a}+ = {y P : y a} enai to prwteon fltro duik prwteon
idede tou P pou pargetai ap to a kai sumbolzetai epsh me Ja .

Paradeigma. An P enai h merik ditaxh B2 kai A = {{1}, {2}} tte A = {, {1}, {2}}
kai A+ = {{1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.

Gia tuqao idede I tou P sumbolzoume me max(I) to snolo twn megistikn stoiqewn
tou I (w pro thn epagmenh merik ditaxh sto I ). Profan to snolo aut enai an-
tialusda sto P kai isqei max(I) 6= an I 6= kai to P enai peperasmno (h teleutaa
diapstwsh, kaj kai to mro (iii) tou akloujou lmmato , isqoun kai tan to P enai
peiro me thn proupjesh ti kje alusda sto P qei mgisto stoiqeo).

Lmma 2.2.1 Gia kje antialusda A kai idede I tou P isqoun:

(i) A+ A = A.
(ii) max(A ) = A.
(iii) max(I) = I , an to P enai peperasmno.
28

Apdeixh. (i) Profan A A+ A . Gia ton antstrofo egkleism, stw x A+ A .

Tte uprqoun a, b A me x a kai x b. Prokptei ti a b kai afo h A enai
antialusda ti a = b. Oi sqsei x a kai x b dnoun x = a = b kai sunep x A, pw
to jlame.
(ii) Gia na dexoume ti A max(A ) stw ti a / max(A ) gia kpoio a A. Tte
uprqei b A me b > a. Afo a A, h teleutaa sqsh dnei b A+ kai sunep

b A+ A . Ap to (i) prokptei ti b A. Aut enai adnato diti h A enai antialusda kai

b > a A, opte to zhtomeno petai. Gia na dexoume ti max(A ) A, stw b max(A ).
Tte b A opte b a gia kpoio a A. Profan a A kai h upjesh b max(A )
apokleei th sqsh b < a. Sunep b = a A.
(iii) O egkleism I max(I) enai sunpeia tou Lmmato 1.2.1 kai o max(I) I
prokptei ap to ti to I enai idede .

Apdeixh th Prtash 2.2.1. 'Estw A(P ), J(P ) kai J (P ) ta snola twn antialusdwn,
idewdn kai fltrwn tou P , antstoiqa. Ap ta mrh (ii) kai (iii) tou Lmmato 2.2.1 prokptei
ti h apeiknish : A(P ) J(P ) me (A) = A gia A A(P ) enai amfrriyh me antstrofh
thn apeiknish : J(P ) A(P ) me (I) = max(I) gia I J(P ). Ergazmenoi omow
( pernnta sth duik merik ditaxh P ) apodeiknoume ti h : A(P ) J (P ) me
(A) = A+ gia A A(P ) enai amfrriyh. To zhtomeno petai.

2.3 To Jerhma tou Dilworth

'Estw (P, ) merik diatetagmno snolo. Sumbolzoume me a(P ) to mgisto pljo stoiqe-
wn mia antialusda sto P kai me c(P ) to elqisto pljo alusdwn sti opoe mpore na
diameriste to P . O akraio a(P ) lgetai kai plto tou P . An to P enai peperasmno isqei
c(P ) #P lgw th profano diamrish tou P se #P to pljo alusde - monosnola.

Lmma 2.3.1 An A enai antialusda se na merik diatetagmno snolo P kai uprqei

diamrish tou P se m alusde , tte #A m. Eidiktera, isqei a(P ) c(P ) gia kje
merik diatetagmno snolo P .

Apdeixh. Arke na dexoume thn prth prtash. 'Estw diamrish tou P se alusde
C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm . Kje stoiqeo tou A ankei se kpoio ap ta snola Ci th diamrish .
An eqame #A m + 1, tte (arq tou peristerna) toulqiston do stoiqea tou A ja
ankan sthn dia alusda kai sunep ja tan sugkrsima, se antfash me thn upjesh ti
to A enai antialusda. 'Epetai ti #A m.
 29

Paradeigma. Sth merik ditaxh D12 tou Sqmato 1.2 (b) uprqei antialusda me do
stoiqea, p.q. h {3, 4} kai diamrish se do alusde , p.q. ti 1 < 3 < 6 < 12 kai 2 < 4.
Prokptei ti c(D12 ) 2 a(D12 ) kai sunep , ap to Lmma 2.3.1, ti a(D12 ) = c(D12 ) =
2. Gia thn lgebra Boole B3 uprqei antialusda me tra stoiqea, p.q. h {{1}, {2}, {3}},
kaj kai diamrish se trei alusde , p.q. ti < {1} < {1, 2} < {1, 2, 3}, {2} < {2, 3} kai
{3} < {1, 3}. Prokptei omow ti a(B3 ) = c(B3 ) = 3.

To prohgomeno pardeigma dhmiourge to erthma an oi posthte a(P ) kai c(P ) enai

pntote se . To epmeno jerhma dnei katafatik apnthsh. H apdeixh pou ja dsoume
ofelletai ston M. Perles [6.

Jerhma 2.3.1 (Dilworth [4) Gia kje peperasmnh merik ditaxh P isqei a(P ) = c(P ),
dhlad to mgisto pljo an do mh sugkrsimwn stoiqewn tou P enai so me to elqisto
pljo alusdwn sti opoe mpore na diameriste to P .

Apdeixh. 'Estw m = a(P ). Ap to Lmma 2.3.1 arke na dexoume ti c(P ) m, dhlad ti

to P mpore na diameriste se m to pol alusde . To zhtomeno enai faner an #P = 1.
Upojtoume ti #P 2 kai ti to zhtomeno isqei gia merik diatxei me ligtera ap
#P stoiqea. Diakrnoume do periptsei :
(a) Opoiadpote antialusda sto P me m stoiqea periqei ete la ta elaqistik stoiqea
tou P (kai sunep mno aut) ete la ta megistik stoiqea tou P (kai sunep mno aut).
'Estw a elaqistik kai b megistik stoiqeo tou P me a b (to ti ttoia stoiqea uprqoun
prokptei ap to Lmma 1.2.1) kai stw Q = P {a, b} me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh ap
to P . Ap thn upjes ma gia to P prokptei ti kje antialusda tou Q periqei to pol
m 1 stoiqea, dhlad ti a(Q) m 1. Ap thn upjesh th epagwg to Q mpore na
diameriste se m 1 alusde , oi opoe enai alusde kai sto P . Aut oi alusde maz me
thn a b dnoun th zhtomenh diamrish tou P .
(b) Uprqei antialusda A P me m stoiqea h opoa den periqei ote la ta elaqistik
stoiqea ote la ta megistik stoiqea tou P . Me tou sumbolismo th Paragrfou 2.2
qoume ti (a) A+ A = A ap to mro (i) tou Lmmato 2.2.1 kai isqurizmaste ti (b)
A+ A = P . Prgmati, gia to (b) arke na dexoume ti P A+ A . 'Estw x P . An
x A, tte x A+ A A+ A . An x / A, tte to A {x} qei m + 1 stoiqea kai
sunep den enai antialusda sto P , prgma pou shmanei ti to x enai sugkrsimo me kpoio
a A. An x > a tte x A+ , en an x < a tte x A , opte x A+ A .
'Estw tra A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }. Ap thn upjes ma gia to P se aut thn perptwsh
qoume ti ta A+ , A enai gnsia uposnola tou P kai profan (jewromena merik
diatetagmna me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh) a(A+ ) = a(A ) = m. Ap thn upjesh
30

th epagwg ta A+ kai A mporon na diameriston se m alusde , ti opoe mporome na

arijmsoume C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm kai D1 , D2 , . . . , Dm , antstoiqa, ste ai Ci Di gia 1 i m.
Ap to (a) prokptei ti to ai enai to elqisto stoiqeo th Ci kai to mgisto stoiqeo th
Di gia 1 i m, opte h nwsh Ci Di enai alusda sto P . Ap to (b) prokptei ti oi
m alusde Ci Di gia 1 i m apotelon diamrish tou P , pou enai h zhtomenh.

Prisma 2.3.1 An P enai merik ditaxh me toulqiston mn + 1 stoiqea, tte to P qei

alusda me toulqiston n + 1 stoiqea antialusda me toulqiston m + 1 stoiqea.

Apdeixh. 'Estw ti den uprqei antialusda me toulqiston m + 1 stoiqea sto P . Tte

a(P ) m kai sunep ap to Jerhma 2.3.1 c(P ) m, dhlad to P mpore na diameriste
se m to pol alusde Ci . Ap thn upjesh #P mn + 1 prokptei ti Ci n + 1 gia
toulqiston ma ap ti alusde Ci .

Pardeigma 2.3.1 Ja dexoume ti kje akolouja A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , amn+1 ) pragmatikn

arijmn mkou mn + 1 qei axousa upoakolouja mkou n + 1 gnhsw fjnousa
upoakolouja mkou m + 1, dhlad ti uprqoun dekte 1 i1 < i2 < < in+1
mn + 1 me ai1 ai2 ain+1 dekte 1 j1 < j2 < < jm+1 mn + 1 me
aj1 > aj2 > > ajm+1 . Gia pardeigma, an m = n = 2 kai A = (1, 0, 2, 0, 1), dhlad a1 = 1,
a2 = 0, a3 = 2, a4 = 0, a5 = 1, tte uprqei h axousa upoakolouja a2 a4 a5 th A
mkou 3.

3 4

1 2

Sqma 2.1: Mia merik ditaxh sto [5].

Jewrome to zego (P, ), pou P = [mn + 1] kai i j an kai mno an i j kai

ai aj . Ekola blpei kane ti h sqsh enai merik ditaxh sto snolo P . To
digramma Hasse aut th merik ditaxh dnetai sto Sqma 2.1 gia thn perptwsh A =
(1, 0, 2, 0, 1). Ap to Prisma 2.3.1 gnwrzoume ti to P qei alusda ai1 ai2 ain+1
antialusda {aj1 , aj2 , . . . , ajm+1 } me j1 < j2 < < jm+1 . Sthn prth perptwsh qoume
i1 < i2 < < in+1 kai ai1 ai2 ain+1 kai sth deterh j1 < j2 < < jm+1
 31

kai aj1 > aj2 > > ajm+1 . Parathrste ti sto pardeigma A = (1, 0, 2, 0, 1) h alusda
2 4 5 orzei thn axousa upoakolouja a2 a4 a5 .

Efarmog: to Jerhma tou Gmou. 'Estw snola A1 , A2 , . . . , An . Up poie sunjke

uprqoun diaforetik an do stoiqea x1 , x2 , . . . , xn th nwsh twn Ai ste xi Ai gia
kje 1 i n? Mia ttoia akolouja (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) lgetai Ssthma Diakekrimnwn
Antiprospwn (SDA) gia ta A1 , A2 , . . . , An . To prblhma th parxh SDA lgetai kai
prblhma tou gmou lgw th ex ermhnea . An A1 , A2 , . . . , An enai ta snola twn gu-
naikn pou gnwrzoun n ndre y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , antstoiqa, tte na SDA (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) gia
ta A1 , A2 , . . . , An antistoiqe se na zeugrwma kje ndra yi me mia gunaka xi pou gnwrzei.
Paradeigma. H akolouja x1 = 2, x2 = 4, x3 = 3, x4 = 5, x5 = 1 apotele SDA gia ta
snola A1 = {1, 2, 3}, A2 = {2, 4, 5}, A3 = {3}, A4 = {1, 5} kai A5 = {1, 4}, afo xi Ai
gia kje 1 i 5. To antstoiqo zeugrwma apeikonzetai sto Sqma 2.2, sto opoo gia
1 i, j 5 ta Ai kai j sundontai me akm an j Ai .

A1 1

A2 2

A3 3

A4 4

A5 5

Sqma 2.2: 'Ena Ssthma Diakekrimnwn Antiprospwn.

Paradeigma. Ta B1 = {1, 3}, B2 = {1, 3}, B3 = {1, 2, 3, 4} kai B4 = {1, 3} den qoun

SDA, diti h nwsh B1 B2 B4 qei mno do stoiqea kai sunep den enai dunat na
epilegon diaforetik an do stoiqea x1 B1 , x2 B2 , x4 B4 .
Mia ndeixh th isqo tou Jewrmato 2.3.1 enai h apdeixh tou paraktw jewrmato ,
gnwsto kai w Jerhma tou Gmou.

Jerhma 2.3.2 (Hall, 1935) Ta snola A1 , A2 , . . . , An qoun SDA an kai mno an gia kje
1 r n h nwsh opoiondpote r ap ta snola aut qei toulqiston r stoiqea, dhlad
an kai mno an
# (Ai1 Ai2 Air ) r (2.2)
32

gia kje epilog deiktn 1 i1 < < ir n.

Apdeixh. An ta A1 , A2 , . . . , An qoun SDA x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , tte h (2.2) isqei profan diti

to snolo Ai1 Ai2 Air periqei ta diakekrimna stoiqea xi1 , xi2 , . . . , xir . Antstrofa,
stw ti h sunjkh tou Jewrmato isqei kai stw ti A1 A2 An = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm }.
Orzoume ma merik ditaxh P sto snolo P = {A1 , A2 , . . . , An , b1 , b2 , . . . , bm } sthn opoa
ta A1 , A2 , . . . , An enai megistik stoiqea, ta b1 , b2 , . . . , bm enai elaqistik kai bj <P Ai an
kai mno an bj Ai (sthn perptwsh A1 = {1, 2, 3}, A2 = {2, 4, 5}, A3 = {3}, A4 = {1, 5}
kai A5 = {1, 4} to digramma Hasse tou P prokptei strfonta to Sqma 2.2 kat gwna
/2 me th for twn deiktn tou rologio). Ja dexoume ti a(P ) = m. 'Eqoume a(P ) m,
diti to {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm } enai antialusda me m stoiqea. 'Estw ti mia antialusda A tou P
apoteletai ap s stoiqea Ai kai t stoiqea bj . Qwr blbh th genikthta mporome na
upojsoume ti A = {A1 , . . . , As , b1 , . . . , bt }. Afo h A enai antialusda qoume bj / Ai gia
1 i s kai 1 j t. Sunep A1 A2 As {bt+1 , . . . , bm } kai ap th sunjkh
(2.2) prokptei ti
s # (A1 A2 As ) m t
kai epomnw ti s + t m, dhlad #A m. Afo h anisthta aut isqei gia tuqaa
antialusda A tou P qoume a(P ) m kai sunep a(P ) = m. Ap to Jerhma 2.3.1
prokptei ti c(P ) = m, dhlad ti to P mpore na diameriste se m alusde . Kajemi
ap ti alusde aut periqei na akrib ap ta stoiqea th megistik antialusda
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bm }. An bji enai to stoiqeo pou ankei sthn alusda th diamrish pou periqei
to Ai , tte ta bj1 , bj2 , . . . , bjn dnoun to zhtomeno SDA gia ta A1 , A2 , . . . , An . Prgmati, ta
stoiqea aut enai an do diaforetik afo ankoun se an do diaforetik alusde th
diamrish kai isqei bji Ai gia 1 i n, diti qoume bji <P Ai sto P .

2.4 Summetrik alusde kai to Jerhma tou Sperner

Sth merik ditaxh Bn mia antialusda me k stoiqea apoteletai ap uposnola A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak
tou [n] kanna ap ta opoa den periqetai se kpoio llo, dhlad ttoia ste na isqei
Ai Aj mno an i = j , en mia alusda me k stoiqea enai th morf {A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak } me
A1 A2 Ak [n]. Poio enai to mgisto pljo stoiqewn a(Bn ) pou mpore na
qei mia antialusda sto Bn ? Me lla lgia poio enai to mgisto pljo uposunlwn tou
[n] kanna ap ta opoa den periqetai se kpoio llo?
Paradeigma. 'Eqoume a(B2 ) = 2 kai a(B3 ) = 3. To mgisto pljo stoiqewn epitugqnetai
ap thn antialusda {{1}, {2}} tou B2 gia n = 2 kai ap kajemi ap ti antialusde
{{1}, {2}, {3}} kai {{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}} tou B3 gia n = 3 .
 33

n n
Ap to epmeno lmma prokptei ti a(Bn ) gia kje n, pou n!
enai



n/2 k
= k! (nk)!
to pljo twn uposunlwn tou [n] me k stoiqea.

Lmma 2.4.1 Gia 0 k n to snolo {S
[n] : #S = k} enai antialusda sto Bn .

n
Eidiktera uprqei antialusda sto Bn me n/2 stoiqea.

Apdeixh. H prth prtash prokptei ap thn paratrhsh ti an #S = #T , tte to S den

periqetai gnsia sto T . H deterh prtash prokptei ap thn prth gia k = n/2.
n
Paradeigma. Gia n = 4 qoume = 42 = 6 kai h antialusda sto B4 tou prohgomenou



n/2
lmmato apoteletai ap ta xi dimel uposnola tou {1, 2, 3, 4}.
n
To paraktw jerhma kai to Lmma 2.4.1 dhlnoun ti a(Bn ) = n/2 gia kje n.

n
(Sperner [7) Gia kje antialusda A sto Bn isqei #A .


Jerhma 2.4.1
n/2

To Jerhma 2.4.1 qei polurijme apodexei , oi perisstere ap ti opoe enai ex-

airetik endiafrouse . Ed ja dsoume mia apdeixh basismnh sthn teqnik th {dispash-
se summetrik alusde }. H teqnik aut mpore na efarmoste se difore oikogneie
merikn diatxewn, dnonta anloga apotelsmata.
'Estw P peperasmnh, diabajmismnh merik ditaxh txh n kai stw (x) h txh tou
x P . Jtoume Pi = {x P : (x) = i} kai pi = #Pi gia 0 i n. Oi akraioi pi lgontai
arijmo Whitney (deterou edou ) tou P . Parathrnta ti qoume (x) < (y) gia kje
x, y P me x < y , prokptei ti to snolo Pi enai antialusda sto P gia kje 0 i n
(to gegon aut genikeei to Lmma 2.4.1). Eidiktera isqei
a(P ) max pi . (2.3)
0in

Orism 2.4.1 H P lgetai merik ditaxh Sperner an isqei h isthta sthn (2.3) , isod-
nama, an isqei #A max0in pi gia kje antialusda A sto P .

Parathrhsh. To Jerhma 2.4.1 dhlnei ti h Bn enai merik ditaxh Sperner.

Upenjumzoume ('Askhsh 1) ti mia alusda C = {x0 < x1 < < xk } sto P lgetai
koresmnh an kai mno an to xi kalptei to xi1 gia kje 1 i k .

Orism 2.4.2 Mia koresmnh alusda C = {x0 < x1 < < xk } sto P lgetai sum-
metrik an (x0 ) + (xk ) = n. Lme ti h P qei dispash se summetrik alusde an
uprqei diamrish th P kje mro th opoa enai koresmnh summetrik alusda sto P .
34

{1,2,3} 12

{1,2} {1,3} {2,3}

6 4

{1} {2} {3} 3 2

{} 1

(a) (b)

Sqma 2.3: Summetrik alusde gia ti diatxei B3 kai D12 .

Sto Sqma 2.3 apeikonzei mia dispash se summetrik alusde gia ti merik diatxei
B3 kai D12 (oi diakekomne gramm apeikonzoun ti akm tou diagrmmato Hasse pou den
metqoun sti alusde ). Ap thn epmenh prtash prokptei ti an h P qei dispash se
summetrik alusde , tte h P enai merik ditaxh Sperner.

Prtash 2.4.1 An h P qei dispash se summetrik alusde tte:

(i) pi = pni gia kje 0 i n,

(ii) p0 p1 pn/2 kai
(iii) #A pn/2 gia kje antialusda A sto P .

Apdeixh. 'Estw {C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm } diamrish tou P se koresmne summetrik alusde . Ta

(i) kai (ii) prokptoun ap to gegon ti kje alusda Cj qei tsa stoiqea txh i sa kai
txh n i gia 0 i n (mhdn na fusik) kai ti ta stoiqea txh i enai toulqiston
tsa sa aut txh i 1 gia 1 i n/2. Gia to (iii) parathrome ti m = pn/2 , diti
kajemi ap ti alusde Cj periqei akrib na stoiqeo tou P txh n/2 kai kje ttoio
stoiqeo tou P periqetai se akrib ma ap ti alusde Cj th diamrish . Ap to Lmma
2.3.1 prokptei ti #A m = pn/2 gia kje antialusda A tou P .
To Jerhma 2.4.1 prokptei ap to Lmma 2.4.1, thn Prtash 2.4.1 kai thn akloujh
prtash.

Prtash 2.4.2 H merik ditaxh Bn qei dispash se summetrik alusde gia kje n N.
 35

Apdeixh. Ja apodexoume thn prtash me epagwg sto n. Gia n = 1 qoume th diamrish

tou Bn se mia alusda {1} kai gia n = 2 th diamrish se do koresmne summetrik
alusde {1} {1, 2} kai {2}. Upojtoume ti n 3 kai ti uprqei diamrish tou Bn1
se koresmne summetrik alusde . Gia kje alusda A0 A1 Ak th diamrish
kataskeuzoume ti alusde

A0 {n} A1 {n} Ak1 {n},

(2.4)
A0 A1 Ak Ak {n}

sto Bn , pou h prth alusda den ufstatai an k = 0. Oi ne alusde (2.4) apotelon

diamrish tou Bn , diti kje T [n] grfetai me monadik trpo sth morf T = S
T = S {n} me S [n 1] kai sunep emfanzetai akrib ma for sti alusde (2.4).
Parathrnta ti oi (2.4) enai epsh koresmne kai summetrik oloklhrnetai to epag-
wgik bma kai sunep kai h apdeixh.
Paradeigma. Ap th diamrish tou B2 sti koresmne summetrik alusde {1}
{1, 2} kai {2}, h diadikasa pou perigryame sthn prohgomenh apdeixh pargei th diamrish
tou B3 sti koresmne summetrik alusde {1} {1, 2} {1, 2, 3}, {3} {1, 3} kai
{2} {2, 3} tou Sqmato 2.3 (a).
n n
Parathrhsh. Ap ti Protsei 2.4.1 kai 2.4.2 prokptoun oi gnwst sqsei



i
= ni
kai      
n n n
(2.5)
0 1 n/2
gia tou diwnumiko suntelest .

Diamersei akerawn kai h Y (n, m) 'Alla paradegmata merikn diatxewn

ditaxh .

Sperner (pou qoun dispash se summetrik alusde ) dnontai sti Asksei 8 kai 11. Gia
to pardeigma pou akolouje (qwr apdeixh) ja qreiastome thn nnoia th diamrish
akerawn. 'Estw n jetik akraio .

Orism 2.4.3 Onomzoume diamrish merism tou n mia akolouja = (1 , 2 , . . . , r )

me stoiqea jetiko akeraou 1 2 r pou qoun jroisma n. Oi akraioi i
lgontai mrh roi th .

Grfoume n || = n gia to jroisma twn mern th diamrish . Gia pardeigma

h (4, 4, 3, 1) enai diamrish tou n = 12 me tssera mrh. Sto Sqma 2.4 apeikonzetai to
digramma Young gia aut th diamrish, na ap tou trpou me tou opoou mporome na
parastsoume sqhmatik diamersei akerawn. To digramma Young th = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ),
36

to opoo sumbolzetai me Y , apoteletai ap n = || monadiaa tetrgwna paratagmna se r

seir . H seir i periqei i tetrgwna kai oi r seir arqzoun ap arister ap thn dia
katakrufo, pw sto sqma.

Sqma 2.4: To digramma Young tou (4, 4, 3, 1).

Gia n, m N sumbolzoume me Y (n, m) to snolo twn diamersewn = (1 , 2 , . . . , r )

akerawn gia ti opoe r n kai 1 m, sto opoo sumperilambnoume th monadik diamr-
ish tou 0 (qwr mrh). Isodnama qoume Y (n, m) an to Y periqetai se orjognio
diastsewn n m (me n seir kai m stle ). Jewrome to snolo Y (n, m) merik diate-
tagmno ap th sqsh gia thn opoa an Y Y gia , Y (n, m). Me lla lgia,
gia = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) kai = (1 , 2 , . . . , k ) jtoume sto Y (n, m) an kai mno an
r k kai i i gia 1 i r .
Paradeigma. H merik ditaxh Y (n, m) qei elqisto stoiqeo to (diamrish tou 0) kai
mgisto th diamrish (m, m, . . . , m) (n roi). An n = m = 2, tte to Y (n, m) qei 6 stoiqea.
H diamrish (1) enai to monadik stoiqeo pou kalptei to elqisto , h (2, 1) enai to monadik
stoiqeo pou kalptetai ap to mgisto (2, 2) en oi (2) kai (1, 1) enai metax tou mh
sugkrsime .
Enai ekolo na dexei kane (blpe epsh Pardeigma 3.2.2) ti h merik ditaxh Y (n, m)
enai diabajmismnh txh nm, me txh () = || gia kje Y (n, m). Ap to epmeno
jerhma prokptei ti h Y (n, m) enai merik ditaxh Sperner kai ti isqoun ta sumpers-
mata th Prtash 2.4.1 (pou to n antikajstatai ap to nm). H apdeixh qrhsimopoie
diaforetik teqnik ap aut pou meletsame sthn parosa pargrafo kai paralepetai.

Jerhma 2.4.2 (Stanley, 1985) Gia kje n, m N h Y (n, m) qei dispash se summetrik
alusde .

Oi gnwst apodexei tou Jewrmato 2.4.2 dnoun thn parxh mia dispash se sum-
metrik alusde gia to Y (n, m) kai qi thn (algorijmik sunduastik) kataskeu mia
 37

sugkekrimnh ttoia dispash (jma pou sunist na endiafron anoikt prblhma).

Parathrhsh. Enai gnwst (blpe, p.q., [9, Proposition 1.3.19) ti h kfrash

(1 q)(1 q 2 ) (1 q n+m )
 
n+m
= ,
n q (1 q) (1 q n ) (1 q) (1 q m )

enai polunumo sto q bajmo nm me mh arnhtiko akraiou suntelest kai lgetai q -

diwnumik suntelest ( suntelest tou Gauss). Epiplon, o suntelest tou q i sto
polunumo aut enai so me ton akraio pi = #{x Y (n, m) : (x) = i}. H apdeixh twn
anisottwn p0 p1 pnm/2 th Prtash 2.4.1 (ii) sthn perptwsh aut enai arket
duskolterh ap ekenh twn (2.5) (h prth apdeixh eqe doje ap ton Sylvester to 1878).

2.5 Asksei

1. Dexte ti mia alusda x0 < x1 < < xn se tuqaa merik ditaxh P enai koresmnh
an kai mno an to xi kalptei to xi1 gia kje 1 i n.

2. 'Estw P merik ditaxh sthn opoa kje alusda enai peperasmnh. An uprqei n Z0
kai sunrthsh : P Z0 ttoia ste

(i) (x) = 0 gia kje elaqistik stoiqeo x tou P ,

(ii) (y) = (x) + 1 an to y kalptei to x,
(iii) (x) = n gia kje megistik stoiqeo x tou P

dexte ti h P enai (peperasmnou mkou kai) diabajmismnh txh n kai ti (x) enai
h txh tou x gia kje x P .

3. 'Estw (mh ken, peperasmnou mkou ) diabajmismna merik diatetagmna snola

P, Q.

(a) Dexte ti kje kleist disthma sto P enai (peperasmnou mkou kai) diaba-
jmismno.
(b) Up poie sunjke enai to P + Q diabajmismno?
(g) Dexte ti to P Q enai diabajmismno kai upologste thn txh twn stoiqewn
tou.
(d) Omow gia to Dn .
38

(e) Omow gia to n kai gia th merik ditaxh NCn th 'Askhsh 8 tou Kefalaou 1.
(st) Omow gia ti merik diatxei twn Asksewn 6 kai 7 tou Kefalaou 1.

4. 'Ena isomorfism f : P P lgetai automorfism th merik ditaxh P . Brete

lou tou automorfismo th Bn .

5. 'Estw merik diatetagmno snolo P peperasmnou mkou , me elqisto kai mgisto

stoiqeo, me thn ex idithta: an x, y enai diakekrimna stoiqea tou P ta opoa kalp-
toun to u P , tte uprqei stoiqeo tou P pou kalptei ta x, y . Dexte ti to P enai
diabajmismno.

6. 'Estw (P, ) tuqao merik diatetagmno snolo.

(a) Dexte ti ensei kai tom idewdn (antstoiqa fltrwn) tou P enai idedh
(antstoiqa fltra) tou P .
(b) 'Ena uposnolo Q tou P lgetai kurt an [x, y] Q gia la ta x, y Q me x y
(pou [x, y] enai to kleist disthma sto P me kra x, y ). Dexte ti to Q enai
kurt an kai mno an Q = I J gia kpoio idede I kai kpoio fltro J tou P .

7. 'Estw merik diatetagmno snolo P peperasmnou mkou kai stw k to mgisto

pljo stoiqewn mia alusda sto P . Dexte ti to P mpore na diameriste se k
antialusde .

8. (a) Gia kje k 1 dexte ti to euj ginmeno k peperasmnwn alusdwn qei dispash
se summetrik alusde .
(b) Geniktera, an oi (peperasmne , diabajmismne ) merik diatxei P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk
qoun dispash se summetrik alusde dexte ti to dio isqei kai gia to euj
ginmeno P1 P2 Pk .
(g) 'Estw oi alusde [n] kai [m] sth ditaxh Z twn akerawn. Poio enai to mgisto
dunat pljo stoiqewn mia antialusda sto euj ginmeno [n] [m]?

9. 'Estw P peperasmnh kai diabajmismnh merik ditaxh txh n me pi = #{x P :

(x) = i} gia 0 i n.

(a) An h P enai autoduik, dexte ti pi = pni gia 0 i n.

(b) Dexte ti h merik ditaxh Y (n, m) enai autoduik kai sungete ti h Y (n, m)
ikanopoie th sunjkh (i) th Prtash 2.4.1.
 39

10. 'Estw L(n, m) to snolo twn uposunlwn tou [n + m] me n stoiqea, merik diatetag-
mno me th sqsh: {a1 < a2 < < an } L {b1 < b2 < < bn } an ai bi gia kje i.
Dexte ti to L(n, m) enai ismorfo me to Y (n, m).

11. Dexte ti h merik ditaxh NCn twn mh diastauromenwn merismn tou [n] ('Askhsh 8
tou Kefalaou 1) qei dispash se summetrik alusde .

12. (a) Dexte ti h asjen ditaxh sto snolo Sn twn metajsewn tou [n] ('Askhsh 6
tou Kefalaou 1) qei dispash se summetrik alusde gia n 4.
(b) Isqei to dio gia kje n N?
(g) Dexte ti h ditaxh Bruhat sto Sn ('Askhsh 7 tou Kefalaou 1) qei dispash
se summetrik alusde gia kje n N.

13. 'Estw P peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo kai k N. Gia tuqaa diamrish
tou P se alusde C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm stw
m
X
ck () = min {k, #Ci }.
i=1

Dexte ti to mgisto pljo stoiqewn en uposunlou tou P pou den periqei alusda
tou P mkou k enai so me ton elqisto twn akerawn ck (), pou h diatrqei le
ti diamersei tou P se alusde .
40

Upodexei - Lsei

1. An h C = {x0 < x1 < < xn }

alusda den enai koresmnh, tte uprqei z P C me

x0 < z < xn C {z}

ttoio ste h na enai alsda sto P . Ap thn Prtash 2.1.1 qoume

xi1 < z < xi 1 i n gia kpoio kai sunep to xi den kalptei to xi1 sto P . To

antstrofo enai faner.

2. Kje megistik alusda tou P enai th morf x0 < x1 < < xm gia kpoio m0 , pou

to xi kalptei to xi1 gia kje 1im . Ap ti (i), (ii) (iii) kai petai ti m=n kai ti

(xi ) = i gia kje i.

3. 'Estw P (x) h txh tou xP kai Q (y) h txh tou yQ . Se kje perptwsh perigrfoume

pardeigma sunrthsh pou ikanopoie ti sunjke th 'Askhsh 2. Gia to (a), gia kleist

disthma [x, y] sto P : [x, y] Z0

h sunrthsh (z) = P (z) P (x) z [x, y]
me gia

ikanopoie ti sunjke n = P (y) P (x)

th skhsh me [x, y] kai sunep to enai diaba-

jmismno txh P (y) P (x) . (x, y) = P (x) + Q (y)

Gia to (g), jtoume (x, y) P Q gia .

Parathrnta ti h sqsh (a, b) < (c, d) P Q

enai sqsh kluyh sto a=c an kai mno an

kai ti to b d
kalptetai ap to Q b=d sto a c kai toP kalptetai ap to sto , prokptei

ti h ikanopoie ti sunjke th 'Askhsh P Q 2. Kat sunpeia to enai diabajmismno

(txh sh me to jroisma P

twn Q
txewn twn (x, y) kai P Q
) kai h txh tou sto enai

a1 a2 ak
sh me (x, y) . Gia to (x) = a1 + a2 + + ak
(d), jtoume x = p1 p2 pk Dn an , pou

n = pe11 pe22 pekk n

enai h anlush tou se ginmeno prtwn paragntwn kai efarmzoume thn

'Askhsh 2 efarmzoume to (g) kai thn 'Askhsh 3 toux n

Kefalaou 1. Gia to (e), gia

jtoume (x) = n #x #x , pou x

enai to pljo twn mern tou . Ap to qarakthrism twn

sqsewn kluyh n sto (Pardeigma

1.2.6) prokptei ti h ikanopoie ti sunjke th

'Askhsh 2. n
Kat sunpeia to n1
enai diabajmismno txh x n kai h txh tou enai

sh (x)
me . Ap to Prblhma 8 (a) tou Kefalaou 1 prokptei anloga ti ta dia isqoun

kai gia to NCn . = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn

Gia to (st), gia () = inv() inv()
jtoume , pou

enai to pljo (i, j)

twn 1i<j n
zeugn me i > j gia ta opoa . Ap th lsh twn

Asksewn 6 kai 7 tou Kefalaou 1 prokptei ti h ikanopoie ti sunjke th 'Askhsh 2.

n

Kat sunpeia oi diatxei aut enai diabajmismne
2 Sn txh kai h txh tou enai

sh me () . Gia P +Q
to (b), to P
enai diabajmismno an kai mno an h txh tou enai sh me

thn txh touQ .

4. Gia kje amfrriyh : [n] [n] h apeiknish f : Bn Bn me f (x) = {(i) : i x}

gia x [n] enai automorfism th Bn . Ja dexoume antstrofa ti kje automorfism

f : Bn Bn enai aut th morf . Parathrome prta ti kje automorfism mia

diabajmismnh peperasmnh merik ditaxh diathre thn txh twn stoiqewn (mia anlogh

prtash apodeiknetai sthn 'Askhsh 9 (a) kai sunep #f (x) = #x x [n] gia . Eidiktera

qoume f () = kai f ({i}) = {(i)} gia kpoia amfrriyh : [n] [n] 1in kai . Gia
 41

x [n] h sqsh {i} x f ({i}) f (x) sth Bn dnei i x (i) f (x) 1in gia .

Prokptei ti f (x) = {(i) : i x} = f (x) gia kje x Bn , f = f

dhlad ti .

5. 'Estw 0 kai 1 to elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo tou P , antstoiqa. A upojsoume ti to P den

enai diabajmismno. 'Estw S to snolo twn stoiqewn x tou P , efodiasmno me thn epagmenh

ap to P merik ditaxh, gia ta opoa to kleist disthma [x, 1] den enai diabajmismno. Ap

thn upjes ma qoume 0 S S kai sunep to u enai mh ken. 'Estw na megistik stoiqeo

tou S C = {u < x1 < < xn = 1}

kai megistik alusde D = {u < y1 < < ym = 1} kai

tou [u, 1] n m
me diaforetik mkh x1 , y1 kai . Ta P enai diakekrimna stoiqea tou (lgw th

megistikthta tou u u
) kai kalptoun to v P . Sunep uprqei stoiqeo tou pou kalptei ta

x1 , y1 . F = {v < z1 < < zk1 = 1}

'Estw [v, 1] F {x1 }
tuqaa megistik alusda tou . Oi

kai F {y1 } [x1 , 1]

enai megistik alusde twn diasthmtwn [y1 , 1] k kai , antstoiqa, mkou .

'Eqoume k 6= n 1 k 6= m 1 [x1 , 1] [y1 , 1]

en ta diastmata kai qoun megistik alusde

mkou n1 m1 kai , x1 S y1 S
antstoiqa. 'Epetai ti , gegon pou brsketai se

antjesh me thn u
upjesh ti to S
enai megistik stoiqeo tou . H antfash aut ma odhge

sto sumprasma P ti to enai diabajmismno.

6. (a) 'Ameso ap tou orismo . 'Estw I, I idedh tou P x y I I

. An , tte xyI

xy I kai sunep xI x I , dhlad x I I I I

kai to enai idede P tou .

Omow gia thn tom I I , en gia ta fltra efarmzoume ta prohgomena sth duik merik

ditaxh P . Ta parapnw isqoun gia ensei tom tuqaou (peperasmnou mh) pljou

idewdn fltrwn tou P , antstoiqa.

(b) Parathrome ti [x, y] = Iy Jx gia la ta x, y P . An to Q enai kurt tte

[ [ [
Q = Iy Jx = Iy Jx = Q Q+ ,
x,yQ yQ xQ

pou Q enai to idede tou P pou pargetai ap to Q kai Q+ enai to fltro touP pou

pargetai ap to Q . I
Antstrofa, an enai idede tou P J , enai fltro tou P kai Q = I J ,

tte qoume [x, y] = Iy Jx I J = Q gia x, y Q , opte to Q enai kurt.

7. Gia tuqaoxP f (x)

sumbolzoume me r to x1 < P
mgisto pljo stoiqewn mia alusda

x2 <P <P xr = x P tou (i) 1 f (x) k

. Enai faner x P (ii)
ti gia kje kai

x <P y f (x) < f (y) x, y P gia la Bi = {x P : f (x) = i}

ta 1ik
. Jtoume gia .

Exaita (ii) Bi
th , to P i
enai antialusda tou (i) (ii) gia kje . Epiplon, exaita twn kai ,

qoume f (C) = {1, 2, . . . , k} C P

gia k kje alusda Bi =6 tou me stoiqea kai sunep gia

kjei . = {B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk }
Prokptei ti h P enai h zhtomenh diamrish tou .

8. (a) Ja exetsoume thn perptwsh k=2 . Mporome na upojsoume ti oi alusde enai oi [n]
kai [m] sth ditaxh Z twn akerawn. Upojtonta ti nm , mia diamrish tou [n] [m] se
42

koresmne summetrik alusde enai h {C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn } , pou Ci enai h alusda

(i, 1) < (i, 2) < < (i, m i + 1) < (i + 1, m i + 1) < < (n, m i + 1).

H genik perptwsh prokptei ap to (b).

(b) Qrhsimopointa epagwg stok mporome na upojsoume ti k =2 . 'Estw diamersei

{C1 , C2 , . . . , Cr } kai {D1 , D2 , . . . , Ds } twn P1 kai P2 , antstoiqa, se koresmne summetrik

alusde . To P1 P2 diamerzetai sta uposnola Ci Dj kai kajna ap aut, pw dexame

sto (a), me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh qei diamrish se koresmne summetrik alusde .

Qrhsimopointa thn 'Askhsh 3 (g) epalhjeoume ti oi alusde aut enai (koresmne kai)

summetrik kai w alusde sto P1 P2 .

(g) Ap to (a) kai thn Prtash 2.4.1(g) prokptei ti to zhtomeno mgisto enai to elqis-

to twnn m
kai . W enallaktik lsh, stw ti n m . Parathrome ti h antialusda

{(n, 1), (n 1, 2), . . . , (1, n)} tou [n] [m] n qei stoiqea en uprqei diamrish tou [n] [m]
se n alusde C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , p.q. me Ci = {(i, 1), (i, 2), . . . , (i, m)} . To zhtomeno petai ap

to Lmma 2.3.1.

9. 'Estw Pi = {x P : (x) = i} gia 0in .

(a) 'Estw amfrriyh f : P P me f (y) f (x) x y

thn idithta x, y P gia .

Parathrome ti an (x) = i (f (x)) = n i

tte , x0 <
diti gia tuqaa megistik alusda

x1 < < xn tou P me xi = x uprqei h y0 < y1 < < yn

megistik P alusda tou me

yj = f (xnj ) gia kje j kaiyni = f (x) f . Sunep h Pi Pniperiorzetai se mia nrriyh

kai omow , allzonta to i ni

se , Pni Pi
periorzetai se f
nrriyh . Prokptei ti h

periorzetai se mia amfrriyh Pi Pni pi = pni

kai sunep .

(b) Gia Y (n, m) grfoume = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) , pou kpoia ap ta mrh tou epitrpetai

na enai mhdn kai jtoume f () = (m n , m n1 , . . . , m 1 ) . Isodnama, f () enai

h diamrish to digramma Young th opoa prokptei ap to sumplrwma ekenou tou sto

nm orjognio met apo strof kat gwna f : Y (n, m) Y (n, m)

. H enai o zhtomeno

isomorfism .

10. Profan to Y (n, m) enai ismorfo me to snolo

Y (n, m) = {(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Zn : m 1 2 n 0},

efodiasmno me thn epagmenh upoditaxh ap to Zn . Arke tra na parathrsei kane ti h

apeiknish f : Y (n, m) L(n, m) me f (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = {1 + n, 2 + n 1, . . . , n + 1} enai

isomorfism merikn diatxewn.

11. Gia1in stw NCn (i) h epagmenh upoditaxh tou NCn pou apoteletai ap ti diamersei

NCn gia ti opoe to i enai o prto akraio ap arister sth lsta 2, 3, . . . , n, 1 pou

ankei sto dio mro th me to 1. Parathrste ti to NCn (i) enai ismorfo me to NCn1
 43

an i=1 2 kai me to euj ginmeno twn NCi2 kai NCni+1 an 3in . Parathrste

epsh ti NCn (1) NCn (2)

h nwsh enai ismorfh me to euj NCn1
ginmeno tou kai mia

NCn (1)NCn (2)

alusda me do stoiqea kai ti ta NCn (i) kai gia 3in enai summetrik

embaptismna NCn ent tou . Qrhsimopoiste ti prohgomene parathrsei , thn 'Askhsh 8

(b) kai epagwg ston gia na sumpernete to zhtomeno. To apotlesma aut enai to Jerhma

2 stoR. Simion and D. Ullman, On the structure of the lattice of non-crossing partitions,
[

Discrete Math. 98 (1991), 193206 .

12. (a) Mia ttoia dispash apeikonzetai sto Sqma 2.3 gia n = 4 (oi diakekomne gramm

apeikonzoun ti akm tou diagrmmato Hasse pou den metqoun sti alusde ). Oi periptsei

n3 afnontai ston anagnsth.

(b) Ap sa gnwrzw to erthma aut paramnei anoikt.

(g) Qrhsimopoiome epagwg sto n . Gia n = 1 2 arke ma alusda en gia n = 3 up-

rqei p.q. h dispash sti alusde (1, 2, 3) < (1, 3, 2) < (3, 1, 2) < (3, 2, 1) kai (2, 1, 3) <
(2, 3, 1) (h dispash aut isqei kai gia thn asjen ditaxh). Dosmnh tuqaa dispash

{C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm } Sn1 th se summetrik alusde enai dunat na kataskeuaste ttoia dis-

pash C1 C2 Cm Sn Ci th pou kje enai snolo me stoiqea koresmne summetrik

alusde th Sn , tsi1im
ste gia kje ta stoiqea tou Ci na enai akrib oi metaj-

sei th Sn1 n
pou prokptoun diagrfonta to ap kpoia ap ti metajsei twn alusdwn

th Ci . Ci = {w1 < w2 < < wk }

Sugkekrimna, stw kai gia w Sn1 fi (w) Sn
stw h

metjesh pou prokptei parembllonta sta stoiqea th w to n sth i

jsh , metrnta ap

ta dexi. Gia pardeigma, an n = 6 w = (2, 5, 1, 4, 3)

, kai i=3 qoume fi (w) = (2, 5, 1, 6, 4, 3) .

Orzoume w Ci to snolo twn koresmnwn summetrikn alusdwn

f1 (w1 ) < f2 (w1 ) < f3 (w1 ) < < fn (w1 ) < fn (w2 ) < fn (w3 ) < < fn (wk )
f1 (w2 ) < f1 (w3 ) < < f1 (wk ) < f2 (wk ) < f3 (wk ) < < fn1 (wk )
f2 (w2 ) < f3 (w2 ) < < fn1 (w2 ) < fn1 (w3 ) < < fn1 (wk1 )
f2 (w3 ) < < f2 (wk1 ) < f3 (wk1 ) < < fn2 (wk1 )

th Sn . Oi peretarw leptomreie th apdeixh afnontai ston anagnsth. Giat den isqei

to dio epiqerhma gia thn perptwsh th asjeno ditaxh ?

13. Blpe [C. Greene and D.J. Kleitman, The structure of Sperner k-families, J. Combin. Theory
Series A 20 (1976), 4168 . H skhsh aut genikeei to Jerhma 2.3.1, to opoo enai h eidik

perptwsh k=1 .
44

4321

4312 4231 3421

4132 4213 2431 3241

3412

4123 3142
1432 3214 2341
2413

2143 3124
1342 2314
1423

1243 1324 2134

1234

Sqma 2.5: Summetrik alusde gia thn asjen diatxh S4 .

Keflaio 3

Idedh kai Grammik Epektsei

Sto keflaio aut meletme to snolo twn idewdn en merik diatetagmnou sunlou P
kai th merik ditaxh tou egkleismo se aut. O qarakthrism twn megistikn alusdwn
sth ditaxh aut odhge sthn nnoia th grammik epktash tou P , mia nnoia me exqousa
shmasa gia th melth twn aparijmhtikn idiottwn tou P .

3.1 Morfismo merikn diatxewn

'Estw (P, P ) kai (Q, Q ) merik diatetagmna snola.

Orism 3.1.1 Lme ti mia apeiknish f : P Q enai morfism (merik diatetagmnwn
sunlwn) ti h f diathre th ditaxh, an f (x) Q f (y) gia la ta x, y P me x P y .

Paradeigma. (i) An to P enai antialusda, tte kje apeiknish f : P Q diathre th

ditaxh.
(ii) An [n] enai h alusda sth ditaxh Z twn akerawn, tte h tautotik apeiknish
f : Dn [n] me f (i) = i gia i [n] diathre th ditaxh afo, an a | b gia a, b N tte
a Z b.
(iii). An f : n Bn enai h apeiknish gia thn opoa f () enai to mro th diamrish
tou [n] pou periqei to 1, tte h f diathre th ditaxh.
(iv). 'Estw I P kai h alusda {0, 1} me 0 < 1. H apeiknish f : P {0, 1}, me f (x) = 0
an x I kai f (x) = 1 an x
/ I , diathre th ditaxh an kai mno an to I enai idede tou P .

45
46

Qrhsimopointa thn nnoia tou morfismo, o Orism 1.2.2 mpore na anadiatupwje w

ex : H apeiknish f : P Q enai isomorfism merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn an h f
enai morfism kai uprqei morfism g : Q P ttoio ste h g f na enai h tautotik
apeiknish sto P kai h f g na enai h tautotik apeiknish sto Q. To Pardeigma 1.2.7 (i)
(epsh ta (i) kai (ii) tou prohgomenou paradegmato ) deqnei ti na morfism merik
diatetagmnwn sunlwn f : P Q mpore na enai amfirriptik qwr na enai isomorfism .

Lmma 3.1.1 An h f : P Q diathre th ditaxh kai I enai idede tou Q, tte to f 1 (I)
enai idede tou P .

Apdeixh. 'Estw I idede tou Q kai x P y f 1 (I). Ja dexoume ti x f 1 (I). 'Eqoume

f (x) Q f (y) diti h f enai morfism , me f (y) I . Epeid to enai I idede , prokptei ti
f (x) I , dhlad ti x f 1 (I).

3.2 H merik ditaxh twn idewdn

'Estw (P, ) tuqao merik diatetagmno snolo. To snolo twn idewdn tou P , efodias-
mno me th merik ditaxh tou egkleismo, dhlad me I1 I2 an I1 I2 , sumbolzetai me J(P )
kai lgetai h merik ditaxh twn idewdn tou P . Profan to J(P ) qei elqisto stoiqeo
to ken snolo kai mgisto to P .

Pardeigma 3.2.1 (i) An P enai h alusda [n] me th ditaxh Z twn akerawn, tte to
J(P ) enai alusda mkou n diti ta idedh tou P enai akrib ta snola [i] me 0 i n
kai [1] [2] [n].
(ii) An P enai h antialusda sto [n], tte to J(P ) sumpptei me th merik ditaxh Bn diti
kje uposnolo tou [n] enai idede tou P .
(iii) Sto Sqma 3.1 apeikonzetai to digramma Hasse tou J(P ) gia th merik ditaxh P
tou Sqmato 1.1.

Lmma 3.2.1 An to P enai peperasmno kai I1 , I2 enai idedh tou P , tte ta aklouja enai
isodnama:

(i) To I2 kalptei to I1 sto J(P ).

(ii) I2 = I1 {x} gia kpoio elaqistik stoiqeo x tou P I1 .
 47

{a,b,c,d,}

{a,b,c} {a,b,d}

{a,b} {b,d}

{a} {b}

{}

Sqma 3.1: H merik ditaxh J(P ) gia to Sqma 1.1.

(iii) I1 I2 kai #I2 = #I1 + 1.

Apdeixh. Oi sunepagwg (ii) (iii) kai (iii) (i) enai faner . Gia thn (i) (ii), stw
ti to I2 kalptei to I1 sto J(P ), opte I1 I2 . 'Estw x tuqao elaqistik (w pro thn
epagmenh ap to P merik ditaxh) stoiqeo tou I2 I1 (h parxh tou x prokptei ap to
Lmma 1.2.1). Ja dexoume ti to x enai elaqistik stoiqeo tou P I1 kai ti to I1 {x}
enai idede tou P . To zhtomeno petai diti h sqsh I1 < I1 {x} I2 sto J(P ) dnei
I2 = I1 {x}. Gia ton prto isqurism, parathrome ti an to x den enai elaqistik stoiqeo
tou P I1 , tte uprqei y P I1 me y < x. Afo x I2 kai to I2 enai idede qoume
y I2 , ra kai y I2 I1 . Epomnw to x den enai elaqistik stoiqeo tou I2 I1 , se
antfash me thn upjesh. Gia to detero isqurism, stw y P me y z I1 {x}.
Ja dexoume ti y I1 {x}. An z I1 , tte y I1 diti to I1 enai idede tou P , ra
y I1 {x}. An z / I1 , tte z = x kai sunep ete y = x ete y < x. Sthn prth perptwsh
to zhtomeno enai faner en sth deterh qoume y I1 lgw tou ti to x enai elaqistik
stoiqeo tou P I1 .

H epmenh prtash dnei mia basik idithta tou J(P ), tan to P enai peperasmno. Sthn
Pargrafo 4.2 ja apodexoume ti to J(P ) enai peperasmno {epimeristik sndesmo } kai
ti h idithta aut qarakthrzei ti merik diatxei th morf J(P ).
48

Prtash 3.2.1 An to P qei n stoiqea, tte h merik ditaxh J(P ) enai diabajmismnh
txh n. Epiplon to I J(P ) qei txh (I) = #I .

Apdeixh. Ap to Lmma 3.2.1 kai to gegon ti to J(P ) qei elqisto stoiqeo to ken
snolo kai mgisto to P prokptei ti h sunrthsh : J(P ) Z0 me (I) = #I gia
I J(P ) ikanopoie ti sunjke th 'Askhsh 2 tou Kefalaou 2. To zhtomeno petai.

Pardeigma 3.2.2 'Estw P to euj ginmeno twn alusdwn [n] kai [m] sth ditaxh Z twn
akerawn. Gia merism akeraou = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) jtoume I = {(i, j) N2 : 1 i
r, 1 j i } kai parathrome ti to I enai idede tou P an kai mno an I = I gia
kpoio Y (n, m), pou Y (n, m) enai h merik ditaxh th Paragrfou 2.4. Parathrome
epsh ti I I an kai mno an . Prokptei ti h apeiknish f : Y (n, m) J(P ) me
f () = I enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn. Ap thn Prtash 3.2.1 petai ti h Y (n, m)
enai diabajmismnh merik ditaxh txh sh me #P = nm, me txh () = || gia la ta
Y (n, m).

3.3 Grammik epektsei

Sthn pargrafo aut ja asqolhjome me thn nnoia th grammik epktash en peperas-

mnou merik diatetagmnou sunlou.

Prtash 3.3.1 'Estw (P, P ) merik diatetagmno snolo me n stoiqea kai h alusda [n]
sth ditaxh Z twn akerawn. 'Estw (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ) mia metjesh twn stoiqewn tou P kai
: P [n] h amfrriyh me (wi ) = i gia 1 i n. Ta aklouja enai isodnama:

(i) H apeiknish : P [n] diathre th ditaxh.

(ii) wi <P wj i < j gia 1 i, j n.
(iii) To snolo {w1 , w2 , . . . , wi } enai idede tou P gia kje 1 i n.

Apdeixh. To ti oi (i) kai (ii) enai isodname enai mesh sunpeia tou Orismo 3.1.1. Gia
thn (i) (iii), parathrome ti gia 1 i n to [i] enai idede tou [n] kai sunep an h
diathre th ditaxh, tte to {w1 , w2 , . . . , wi } = 1 ([i]) enai idede tou P (ap to Lmma
3.1.1). 'Estw tlo ti isqei h (iii). An wi <P wj , tte to wi ankei se kje idede tou P
pou periqei to wj . Epomnw ankei kai sto idede {w1 , w2 , . . . , wj }. 'Ara i < j kai dexame
ti (iii) (ii).
 49

Mia metjesh tou P pou ikanopoie ti isodname sunjke th Prtash 3.3.1 lgetai
grammik epktash (linear extension) tou P . Sumbolzoume me L(P ) to snolo twn grammikn
epektsewn tou P kai me e(P ) to pljo twn stoiqewn tou L(P ).

Prisma 3.3.1 Gia kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo P to pljo e(P ) twn
grammikn epektsewn tou P enai so me to pljo twn megistikn alusdwn tou J(P ).

Apdeixh. 'Estw n = #P . Ap thn Prtash 3.2.1 gnwrzoume ti kje megistik alusda tou
J(P ) qei th morf = I0 I1 In gia idedh Ii tou P me #Ii = i gia kje i. Ap
ti Protsei 3.2.1 kai 3.3.1 prokptei ti h apeiknish pou stlnei th grammik epktash
(w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ) tou P sthn alusda = I0 I1 In me Ii = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wi} gia
kje 0 i n, apotele amfrriyh ap to L(P ) sto snolo twn megistikn alusdwn tou
J(P ). To zhtomeno petai.

Paradeigma. Gia th merik ditaxh P tou Sqmato 1.1, to L(P ) apoteletai ap ti

metajsei (a, b, c, d), (a, b, d, c), (b, a, c, d), (b, a, d, c) kai (b, d, a, c) kai sunep e(P ) = 5. Oi
pnte megistik alusde tou J(P ) fanontai sto Sqma 3.1. H grammik epktash (b, a, d, c)
antistoiqe sth megistik alusda {b} {a, b} {a, b, d} {a, b, c, d}.

To prblhma tou upologismo tou pljou e(P ) twn stoiqewn tou L(P ) emperiqei poll
klasik problmata aparjmhsh , pw fanetai ap ta aklouja paradegmata.

Pardeigma 3.3.1 Kje alusda P qei monadik grammik epktash kai sunep e(P ) = 1.
An P enai antialusda me n stoiqea tte e(P ) = n!, diti kje metjesh twn stoiqewn tou
P enai grammik epktash tou P .

Pardeigma 3.3.2 'Estw P h xnh nwsh twn alusdwn [n] = {1 < 2 < < n} kai
[m] = {1 < 2 < < m }. Isqurizmaste ti
 
n+m
e(P ) = . (3.1)
n

Prgmati, grammik epktash tou P enai mia metjesh w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn+m ) tou [n] [m] ,
sthn opoa ta stoiqea 1, 2, . . . , n emfanzontai ap dexi pro ta arister me th fusik tou
seir (qi kat' angkh suneqmena) kai omow gia ta 1 , 2 , . . . , m . Antistoiqnta sth w to
snolo (w) = {1 i n + m : wi [n]} orzetai mia amfrriyh ap to L(P ) sto snolo
twn uposunlwn tou [n + m] me n stoiqea. 'Epetai h (3.1). Gia pardeigma an n = m = 2,
50

tte h enai h antistoiqa

(1, 2, 1, 2 )
7 {1, 2} (1 , 1, 2, 2)
7 {2, 3}

(1, 1 , 2, 2 ) 7 {1, 3} (1 , 1, 2 , 2) 7 {2, 4}

(1, 1 , 2 , 2) 7 {1, 4}
(1 , 2 , 1, 2) 7 {3, 4}.

Pardeigma 3.3.3 'Estw Pn = [2] [n] to euj ginmeno twn alusdwn [2] kai [n] sth
ditaxh Z twn akerawn. To Pn qei 2n stoiqea, ta ai = (1, i) kai bi = (2, i) gia 1 i n
kai isqei x y sto Pn an kai mno an

x = ai kai y = aj me i j
x = bi kai y = bj me i j
x = ai kai y = bj me i j .

Gia n = 5 to digramma Hasse tou Pn apeikonzetai sto Sqma 3.2. Grammik epktash tou
Pn enai mia metjesh w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , w2n ) tou Pn sthn opoa to x brsketai sta arister
tou y , gia kajemi ap ti parapnw trei periptsei . Antikajistnta sth w kje stoiqeo
ai me to 1 kai kje stoiqeo bi me to 1 prokptei ekola (oi leptomreie afnontai ston
anagnsth) ti to L(P ) brsketai se 1 1 antistoiqa me to snolo Cn twn akoloujin
(1 , 2 , . . . , 2n ) {1, 1}2n gia ti opoe 1 +2 + +2n = 0 kai 1 +2 + +i 0 gia kje
1 i 2n. Gia pardeigma, sth grammik epktash (a1 , a2 , b1 , a3 , b2 , b3 ) tou P3 antistoiqe
h akolouja (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) tou C3 . To pljo twn stoiqewn tou Cn (kaj kai mia
plhjra sunlwn se 1 1 antistoiqa me to Cn , ta stoiqea twn opown perigrfontai me
kpoio sunduastik trpo) enai o gnwst n-st arijm Catalan, dhlad
 
1 2n
e(Pn ) = . (3.2)
n+1 n
'Ena llo ttoio snolo enai aut twn monopatin sto Z2 me afethra to shmeo (0, 0)
kai tlo to (2n, 0), ta opoa qoun 2n bmata th morf (1, 1) (1, 1) kai brskontai
exoloklrou sto kleist hmieppedo x 0 tou R2 (arke na antikatastsei kane tou
rou 1 kai 1 twn stoiqewn tou Cn me ta bmata (1, 1) kai (1, 1), antstoiqa).

Young tampl.Gia to teleutao ma pardeigma, stw diamrish = (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) tou

n me digramma Young Y (blpe Pargrafo 2.4) kai to uposnolo
P = {(i, j) N2 : 1 i r, 1 j i }
 51

b
5
b
4
a
b 5
3
a
b 4
2
a
b 3
1
a
2
a
1

Sqma 3.2: H merik ditaxh P5 = [2] [5].

tou N2 me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh, dhlad me (a, b) (a , b ) sto P an kai mno an
a Z a kai b Z b . To pljo e(P ) twn grammikn epektsewn tou P mpore na ermhneute
w ex . 'Ena Young tampl sqmato enai mia 1 1 antistoiqa twn akerawn 1, 2, . . . , n sta
n tetrgwna tou Y ttoia ste oi akraioi pou antistoiqon sta tetrgwna kje gramm
kai kje stlh tou Y na auxnoun pro ta dexi kai pro ta ktw, antstoiqa. To pljo
twn Young tampl sqmato sumbolzetai me f . Ta Young tampl kai oi arijmo f qoun
exqousa shmasa sth jewra anaparastsewn th summetrik omda Sn twn metejsewn
tou [n]. Ed ja arkestome na shmeisoume ti oi arijmo f , pou n, dnoun ti
diastsei twn (migadikn) angwgwn anaparastsewn th Sn .

Paradeigma. 'Eqoume f (3,3) = 5. Ta pnte Young tampl sqmato (3, 3) apeikonzontai

sto Sqma 3.3.

1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 5 1 3 4 1 3 5
4 5 6 3 5 6 3 4 6 2 5 6 2 4 6

Sqma 3.3: Ta pnte Young tampl sqmato (3, 3).

Prtash 3.3.2 'Eqoume e(P ) = f gia kje diamrish tou jetiko akeraou n.

Apdeixh. Antistoiqnta sto (i, j) P to tetrgwno sth gramm i kai stlh j tou Y ,
pou h arjmhsh grammn gnetai ap pnw pro ta ktw kai sthln ap arister pro
52

ta dexi, to P tautzetai me to snolo twn tetragnwn tou Y . Me thn tatish aut mia
grammik epktash w tou P tautzetai me mia arjmhsh (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) twn tetragnwn tou
Y gia thn opoa isqei i < j , pote to i brsketai dutik (arister) sthn dia gramm
breia sthn dia stlh tou j . Antistoiqnta to i sto tetrgwno i gia kje 1 i n
parnoume na Young tampl Tw sqmato kai h apeiknish pou stlnei th w sto Tw enai
amfrriyh ap to L(P ) sto snolo twn Young tampl sqmato . To zhtomeno petai.

Gia tetrgwno x tou Y sumbolzoume me h(x) to pljo twn tetragnwn tou Y pou
brskontai sthn dia gramm me to x all qi anatolik tou x sthn dia stlh me to x all
qi breia tou x. Oi arijmo h(x) apeikonzontai sto Sqma 3.4 gia = (4, 4, 3, 1). Grfoume
x Y an to x enai tetrgwno tou Y . H apdeixh tou akloujou jewrmato xefegei ap
ti mejdou pou exetzoume se aut ti shmeisei kai paralepetai.

Jerhma 3.3.1 (Hook Length Formula) Gia kje diamrish tou jetiko akeraou n isqei

n!
f = Q .
xY h(x)

7 5 4 2

6 4 3 1
4 2 1
1

Sqma 3.4: Oi arijmo h(x) gia = (4, 4, 3, 1).

Paradeigma. An = (4, 4, 3, 1), tte e(P ) = f = 12!

76543 322 13
= 2970.

3.4 Asksei

1. Pse megistik alusde qei h Bn ?

 53

2. 'Estw merik diatetagmna snola P, Q me P Q = . Dexte ti h merik ditaxh

J(P + Q) enai ismorfh me to euj ginmeno J(P ) J(Q).

3. (a) Dexte ti h posthta e(P ) ikanopoie thn anagwgik sqsh

X
e(P ) = e(P {x}),
xmax(P )

pou max(P ) enai to snolo twn megistikn stoiqewn tou P kai to P {x} jewretai
efodiasmno me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh.
(b) Dexte ti e(P ) = e(P ).
(g) Dexte ti e(P Q) = e(P )e(Q).
(d) Dexte ti e(P + Q) = n+m e(P )e(Q), pou n = #P kai m = #Q.


n
54

Upodexei - Lsei

1. Gnwrzoume ti Bn = J(P ) , pou P enai h antialusda sto snolo [n] . Ap to Prisma 3.3.1

kai to Pardeigma 3.3.1 prokptei ti h Bn qei e(P ) = n! megistik alusde .

2. 'Ena uposnolo I P +Q
tou enai idede tou P +Q an kai I P
mno an ta I Q kai enai

idedh twn P Q
kai , antstoiqa. Enai faner ti gia I, J P + Q IJ
isqei an kai mno

an I P J P I Q J Q
kai . 'Epetai ti h apeiknish f : J(P + Q) J(P ) J(Q)
me f (I) = (I P, I Q) enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn.

3. 'Estw n = #P kai m = #Q . Gia to (a), parathrste (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )

ti h enai grammik

epktash tou P an kai mno an to x = wn enai megistik stoiqeo P (w1 , . . . , wn1 )

tou kai h

enai grammik epktash tou P {x} . (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )

Gia to (b) ti h enai grammik epktash

tou P an kai mno an h (wn , wn1 , . . . , w1 ) P

enai grammik epktash tou kai gia to (g) ti h

(w1 , w2 , . . . , wn+m ) enai grammik epktash tou P Q (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )

an kai mno an h enai

grammik epktash tou P kai h (wn+1 , wn+2 , . . . , wn+m ) Q

enai grammik epktash tou . Tlo ,

gia to (d) parathrste ti h (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn+m ) enai grammik P +Q

epktash tou an kai

mno an uprqoun dekte 1 i1 < i2 < < in n + m 1 j1 < j2 < < jm n + m

kai

me {i1 , i2 , . . . , in } {j1 , j2 , . . . , jm } = [n + m] (wi1 , wi2 , . . . , win )

ste h na enai grammik

epktash tou Pkai h (wj1 , wj2 , . . . , wjm ) na enai grammik Q

epktash tou .
Keflaio 4

Sndesmoi

Oi sndesmoi apotelon mia shmantik klsh merikn diatxewn sti opoe kje do s-
toiqea qoun kattato nw frgma kai antato ktw frgma. Afo exetsoume kpoie
stoiqeidei iditht tou , epikentrnoume thn prosoq ma se trei eidik kathgore
peperasmnwn sundsmwn. Prta apodeiknoume to jemelide jerhma gia peperasmnou
epimeristiko sundsmou tou Dilworth [4, me to opoo oi sndesmoi auto qarakthrzontai
w oi merik diatxei twn idewdn peperasmnwn merik diatetagmnwn sunlwn kai peita
asqolomaste me tou gewmetriko kai hmiepimeristiko sundsmou . Oi gewmetriko sn-
desmoi parqoun na afhrhmno montlo gia th sunduastik melth (gnwst kai w jewra
twn mhtroeidn) th nnoia th grammik exrthsh se na peperasmno snolo dianus-
mtwn se dianusmatik qro. Oi hmiepimeristiko sndesmoi parqoun na afhrhmno montlo
gia th melth th nnoia th kurtthta se na peperasmno snolo shmewn sto qro Rd .

4.1 Orismo

'Estw (P, ) merik diatetagmno snolo kai x, y P . To z P lgetai nw frgma

(antstoiqa, ktw frgma) twn x, y an x z kai y z (antstoiqa, z x kai z y ). 'Ena
nw frgma (antstoiqa, ktw frgma) z twn x, y lgetai kattato nw frgma (antstoiqa,
antato ktw frgma) an z w (antstoiqa, w z ) gia kje llo nw frgma (antstoiqa,
ktw frgma) w twn x, y . Lgw th idithta th antisummetra , to kattato nw frgma
(pw epsh kai to antato ktw frgma) twn x, y enai monadik, efson bbaia uprqei.
To kattato nw frgma twn x, y lgetai sndesh (join) twn x, y kai sumbolzetai me x y .

55
56

To antato ktw frgma twn x, y lgetai sunnthsh (meet) twn x, y kai sumbolzetai me
x y.
Paradeigma. 'Estw h merik ditaxh tou Sqmato 2.1 sto snolo [5]. Ta stoiqea 1, 2
qoun do nw frgmata, ta 3 kai 5, all den qoun kattato nw frgma. Omow ta 3,
5 qoun ktw frgma to 1 kai to 2 all den qoun antato ktw frgma. Ta 3, 4 qoun
monadik ktw frgma to 2, to opoo epomnw enai kai to antato ktw frgma tou , en
den qoun nw frgma.

Orism 4.1.1 To (P, ) lgetai sndesmo (lattice) an kje zego stoiqewn x, y tou P
qei kattato nw frgma kai antato ktw frgma.

Sto Sqma 4.1 apeikonzetai to digramma Hasse en sundsmou me 13 stoiqea.

Sqma 4.1: 'Ena sndesmo me 13 stoiqea.

Pardeigma 4.1.1 (i) Kje alusda (P, ) enai sndesmo , diti gia x, y P isqei x y
y x kai sunep (Prtash 4.1.1 (iii)) x y = y kai x y = x antstrofa. Mia
antialusda enai sndesmo an kai mno an qei akrib na stoiqeo.
(ii) H merik ditaxh Bn enai sndesmo me x y = x y kai x y = x y gia la ta
x, y Bn . Prgmati, jtonta z = x y , qoume x, y x y , pou shmanei ti x, y z sto
Bn . Epsh an x, y w sto Bn , tte x, y w , opte kai x y w , dhlad isqei z w
sto Bn . Prokptei ti z = x y kai omow x y = x y .
(iii) H merik ditaxh tou Paradegmato 1.2.4 enai sndesmo ston opoo to x y enai to
elqisto koin pollaplsio kai x y enai o mgisto koin diairth twn x, y N. 'Epetai
ti h merik ditaxh Dn tou Paradegmato 1.2.5 enai epsh sndesmo ('Askhsh 2).
 57

(iv) 'Estw grammik qro V pnw se na sma K kai stw L(V ) to snolo twn
grammikn upqwrwn tou V , merik diatetagmno me th sqsh tou egkleismo, dhlad
me W1 W2 an W1 W2 . To L(V ) enai sndesmo me W1 W2 = W1 W2 kai
W1 W2 = W1 + W2 gia W1 , W2 L(V ). O qro V enai to mgisto stoiqeo tou L(V ) kai
o mhdenik upqwro {0} to elqisto.

Prtash 4.1.1 Gia sndesmo (L, ) kai x, y, z L isqoun:

(i) x y = y x kai x y = y x,
(ii) (x y) z = x (y z) kai (x y) z = x (y z),
(iii) x y = y x y = x x y .

Apdeixh. Gia thn (iii), parathrome ti an x y = y (antstoiqa, x y = x), tte to y enai

nw frgma (antstoiqa, to x enai ktw frgma) gia ta x, y kai sunep x y . Antstrofa,
an x y , tte oi x y = y kai x y = x prokptoun mesa ap tou orismo . Oi apodexei
twn (i) kai (ii) afnontai ston anagnsth.

W Oi idithte (i) kai (ii) ma epitrpoun na orsoume to kattato nw frgma ( sndesh)

S = xS x kai to antato ktw frgma ( sunnthsh) S = xS x tuqaou peperas-
W V V
mnou uposunlou S 6= tou sundsmou L, me epagwg sto #S .
Lmma 4.1.1 'Estw P peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo.
(i) An to P enai sndesmo , tte qei elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo.
(ii) An to P qei mgisto stoiqeo kai uprqei to x y gia la ta x, y P , tte to P enai
sndesmo .
(iii) An to P qei elqisto stoiqeo kai uprqei to x y gia la ta x, y P , tte to P enai
sndesmo .

Apdeixh. (i) To P enai to mgisto kai to P enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou P .

W V

(ii) Arke na dexoume ti uprqei to x y gia la ta x, y P . Dosmnwn twn x, y P , to

snolo S = {z P : x z, y z} enai mh ken diti periqei to mgisto stoiqeo tou P . Ap
thn upjesh prokptei, me epagwg sto pljo twn stoiqewn touV Q, ti uprqei to antero
ktw frgma Q gia kje mh ken Q P . Sunep uprqei to S kai isqurizmasteVti
V
x y = S . Prgmati, to x enai ktw frgma gia la ta stoiqea tou S , opte x S
V
kai omow . Epiplon kje nw frgma z twn x, y enai stoiqeo tou S kai sunep
V
y S
S z . Gia thn (iii) ergazmaste moia efarmzoume thn (ii) sth duik merik ditaxh
V
P .
58

Pardeigma 4.1.2 To n qei mgisto stoiqeo th diamrish tou sunlou [n] me na mno
mro , to [n]. Epsh gia x, y n , me x = {B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk } kai y = {B1 , B2 , . . . , B }, to
x y uprqei kai enai so me th diamrish tou [n] ta mrh th opoa enai ta mh ken ap ta
snola Bi Bj gia 1 i k , 1 j . Ap to Lmma 4.1.1 (ii) prokptei ti to n enai
sndesmo gia kje n N. Poia enai h sndesh x y twn x, y sto n ?

Pardeigma 4.1.3 'Estw peperasmnh omda G kai stw L(G) to snolo twn upoomdwn
th G, merik diatetagmno me th sqsh tou egkleismo, dhlad me x y an x y .
Profan h G enai to mgisto stoiqeo tou L(G), en x y = x y gia la ta x, y L(G),
afo h tom do upoomdwn th G enai epsh upoomda th G. Ap to Lmma 4.1.1 (ii)
prokptei ti to L(G) enai sndesmo . Mlista aut isqei qwr thn upjesh ti h G enai
peperasmnh. Poia enai h sndesh x y twn x, y sto L(G) gia tuqaa omda G? Poio enai
to elqisto stoiqeo tou L(G)?

4.2 Epimeristiko sndesmoi

Sthn pargrafo aut ja orsoume thn klsh twn peperasmnwn epimeristikn sundsmwn kai
ja dexoume ti aut sumpptei me thn klsh twn merikn diatxewn J(P ) (gia peperasmno
P ) pou meletsame sthn Pargrafo 3.2.

Orism 4.2.1 'Ena sndesmo L lgetai epimeristik (distributive) an gia la ta x, y, z

L isqoun
x (y z) = (x y) (x z)
(4.1)
x (y z) = (x y) (x z).

Pardeigma 4.2.1 Kje alusda enai epimeristik sndesmo (giat?). H merik ditaxh
Bn enai epimeristik sndesmo , diti gia x, y, z [n] isqoun
x (y z) = (x y) (x z),
(4.2)
x (y z) = (x y) (x z).

O sndesmo 3 (Sqma 1.3) twn diamersewn tou [3] den enai epimeristik . An 0 kai 1 enai,
antstoiqa, to elqisto kai mgisto stoiqeo tou 3 kai x, y, z enai ta uploipa tra stoiqea
se tuqaa seir, tte x (y z) = x 0 = x en (x y) (x z) = 1 1 = 1.

Upenjumzoume ti J(P ) enai h merik ditaxh twn idewdn tou P pou orsthke sthn
Pargrafo 3.2.
 59

Prtash 4.2.1 H merik ditaxh J(P ) enai epimeristik sndesmo gia kje merik
diatetagmno snolo P .

Apdeixh. H nwsh kai h tom do idewdn tou P enai epsh idedh tou P ('Askhsh 6
tou Kefalaou 2). Prokptei mesa ti to J(P ) enai sndesmo me J1 J2 = J1 J2 kai
J1 J2 = J1 J2 gia J1 , J2 J(P ). Epeid oi sqsei (4.2) isqoun gia tuqaa uposnola
tou P , aut isqoun kai gia idedh tou P . Epomnw isqoun oi sqsei (4.1) gia to J(P )
kai sunep to J(P ) enai epimeristik sndesmo .

Pardeigma 4.2.2 H merik ditaxh Y (n, m) th Paragrfou 2.4 enai ismorfh me to J(P ),
pou P enai euj ginmeno do alusdwn (Pardeigma 3.2.2) kai sunep h Y (n, m) apotele
epimeristik sndesmo.

To epmeno jerhma anafretai w to Jemelide Jerhma twn Peperasmnwn Epimeris-

tikn Sundsmwn.

Jerhma 4.2.1 (Birkhoff) Kje peperasmno epimeristik sndesmo enai ismorfo me

th merik ditaxh J(P ) gia kpoio, monadiko tpou isomorfismo, peperasmno merik
diatetagmno snolo P .

Gia thn apdeixh tou jewrmato , h opoa dnetai sto tlo aut th paragrfou, ja
qreiastome kpoie ne nnoie . 'Estw L peperasmno epimeristik sndesmo me elqisto
stoiqeo 0. 'Ena stoiqeo x tou L lgetai angwgo an x 6= 0 kai den uprqoun y, z L {x}
me x = y z . Gia pardeigma, ta angwga stoiqea th Bn enai ta mh ken uposnola tou
[n] ta opoa den mporon na grafon w nwsh do gnhswn uposunlwn tou , dhlad ta
monosnola {i} gia 1 i n, en ta angwga stoiqea tou sundsmou J(P ) tou Sqmato
3.1 enai ta {a}, {b}, {b, d} kai {a, b, c}. Parathrste ti h epagmenh merik ditaxh tou
J(P ) sta tssera aut angwga stoiqea enai ismorfh me thn P (Sqma 1.1).

Lmma 4.2.1 Gia kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo P , ta angwga stoiqea
tou J(P ) enai akrib ta prwteonta idedh tou P .

Apdeixh. Dosmnou prwteonto idedou Ix = {y P : y x} tou P prpei na dexoume

ti an Ix = I I me I, I J(P ), tte Ix = I Ix = I . Prgmati, qoume x Ix = I I
kai sunep x I x I . Afo ta I, I enai idedh prokptei ti Ix I Ix I
kai sunep Ix = I Ix = I . Antstrofa, stw ti to idede I tou P enai angwgo
stoiqeo tou J(P ), dhlad ti den grfetai san nwsh do gnsiwn upoidewdn. 'Estw
A = {x1 , . . . , xk } to snolo max(I) twn megistikn stoiqewn tou I , opte I = A ap to
60

Lmma 2.2.1 (iii). An k 2, tte to I grfetai w nwsh I = {x1 } B do idewdn {x1 }

kai B , pou B = {x2 , . . . , xk }. Epeid ta idedh {x1 } kai B enai gnsia uposnola tou
I , h isthta I = {x1 } B antibanei sthn upjes ma gia to I . Sunep k = 1, dhlad
to I = {x1 } = Ix1 enai prwteon.

Prtash 4.2.2 Gia kje peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo P , to snolo twn ang-
wgwn stoiqewn tou J(P ), me thn epagmenh merik ditaxh, enai ismorfo me to P . Ei-
diktera, gia do peperasmna merik diatetagmna snola P kai Q, ta J(P ) kai J(Q) enai
ismorfa an kai mno an ta P kai Q enai ismorfa.

Apdeixh. 'Estw J0 (P ) to snolo twn angwgwn stoiqewn tou J(P ), me thn epagmenh
merik ditaxh. Ap to Lmma 4.2.1 gnwrzoume ti to J0 (P ) enai to snolo {Ix : x P }
twn prwteuntwn idewdn tou P , me Ix Iy sto J0 (P ) an kai mno an Ix Iy . H teleutaa
sqsh profan isqei an kai mno an x y sto P . Sunep h apeiknish : P J0 (P ),
me (x) = Ix gia x P , enai o zhtomeno isomorfism .
Gia thn teleutaa prtash, parathrome ti an f : J(P ) J(Q) enai isomorfism ,
tte aut periorzetai se isomorfism f0 : J0 (P ) J0 (Q) metax twn epagmenwn merikn
diatxewn sta angwga stoiqea. Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti ta P kai Q enai ismorfa.
To antstrofo enai faner.

To akloujo stoiqeide lmma ja qrhsimopoihje sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.2.1.

Lmma 4.2.2 'Estw L peperasmno sndesmo me elqisto stoiqeo 0.

(i) Kje stoiqeo x 6= 0 tou L grfetai sth morf x = x1 x2 xr , pou r 1 kai

x1 , x2 , . . . , xr enai angwga stoiqea tou L.
(ii) An to x L enai angwgo kai x = x1 x2 xr me x1 , x2 , . . . , xr L, tte x = xi
gia kpoio 1 i r .

Apdeixh. (i) An to x enai angwgo, tte arke na proume r = 1. An qi, tte x = y z

me 0 < y, z < x. Qrhsimopointa epagwg sto pljo twn stoiqewn tou [0, x] mporome
na upojsoume ti ta y kai z grfontai sth zhtomenh morf, opte to dio prokptei gia to
x = y z.
(ii) Profan mporome na upojsoume ti r 2. Ap th sqsh x = x1 (x2 xr ) kai
thn upjesh ti to x enai angwgo prokptei ti x = x1 x = x2 xr . Qrhsimopointa
epagwg sto r h deterh dunatthta dnei x = xi gia kpoio 2 i r .
 61

Apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.2.1. 'Estw peperasmno epimeristik sndesmo L me elqisto

stoiqeo 0 kai stw P to snolo twn angwgwn stoiqewn tou L, me thn epagmenh merik
ditaxh. Ja dexoume ti to L enai ismorfo me to J(P ). Aut apodeiknei thn parxh tou
P sth diatpwsh tou jewrmato , en h monadikthta petai ap thn Prtash 4.2.2.
Gia x L jtoume (x) = {z P : z x}. Enai faner ti to (x) enai idede tou
P . Ja dexoume ti h apeiknish : L J(P ) enai isomorfism , pou shmanei ti isqei
x y sto L an kai mno an (x) (y) kai ti h enai eprriyh. An x y sto L, tte
(x) (y) ap th metabatik idithta sto L. Antstrofa, stw x, y L me (x) (y).
Ja dexoume ti x y . Asfal mporome na upojsoume x 6= 0 opte ap to Lmma 4.2.2
(i), qoume x = x1 x2 xr pou x1 , x2 , . . . , xr P . Profan xi x gia kje
1 i r , ra xi (x) kai sunep xi (y), dhlad xi y gia kje 1 i r . 'Epetai
ti x = x1 x2 xr y . Mnei na dexoume ti h enai eprriyh. Gia tuqao idede I
tou P ja dexoume ti I = (x), pou x = yI y L. O egkleism I (x) enai faner
W
diti gia kje y I qoume y x sto L. Antstrofa, stw z (x). Parathrome ti
_ _
y = y = x
yI y(x)

afo I (x) kai y x gia kje y (x). Parnonta th sunnthsh twn do prtwn
ekfrsewn me to z kai qrhsimopointa ton epimeristik nmo pou isqei sto L brskoume ti
_ _
yz = y z.
yI y(x)

To
W dexi mlo enai so me z afo y z z gia kje y (x) kai z (x). Sunep
yI y z = z . 'Omw z (x) P , ra to z enai angwgo stoiqeo tou L. Ap to Lmma
4.2.2 (ii) prokptei ti z = y z gia kpoio y I , dhlad ti z y gia kpoio y I kai
sunep z I . Epomnw (x) I .

4.3 Sndesmoi kai kleistthta

Shmantik rlo sto uploipo tou kefalaou ja paxei h nnoia th prxh kleistthta .
'Estw S tuqao snolo. Upenjumzoume ti me 2S sumbolzoume to dunamosnolo tou S .

Orism 4.3.1 Mia prxh kleistthta sto S enai mia apeiknish 2S 2S , msw th opoa
h eikna tou A S sumbolzetai me A, me ti idithte

(i) A A,
62

(ii) A B A B kai
(iii) A = A

gia la ta A, B S . To A lgetai kleist jkh tou A S . To A lgetai kleist an A = A.

Ap ta fjona paradegmata prxewn kleistthta pou sunant kane sta proptuqiak

majhmatik anafroume thn prxh th grammik jkh se grammik (dianusmatik) qro V ,
thn prxh pou antistoiqe se uposnolo S omda G thn upoomda S pou pargetai ap to
S sth G, thn prxh th kleist jkh se nan topologik qro X , thn prxh th kurt
jkh ston Eukledeio qro Rd klp. Ed ja ma apasqolsoun kurw paradegmata pw
ta aklouja.

Pardeigma 4.3.1 'Estw S peperasmno uposnolo en grammiko qrou V pnw sto

sma K. Gia A S jtoume A = KA S , pou KA enai h grammik jkh (dhlad to snolo
lwn twn grammikn sunduasmn twn stoiqewn tou A me suntelest ap to sma K) sto V .
H apeiknish 2S 2S pou antistoiqe sto A to A enai prxh kleistthta sto S (h apdeixh
enai ekolh kai afnetai ston anagnsth). To snolo S sto Sqma 4.2 apoteletai ap
pnte diansmata v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 ston R3 , ap ta opoa ta v1 , v2 , v3 enai suneppeda, pw
kai ta v3 , v4 , v5 , kai isqoun {v1 , v2 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 } = {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v5 } = {v3 , v4 , v5 }
kai {v1 , v2 , v4 } = S .

v5
v1 v4
v2
v3

Sqma 4.2: Diansmata ston R3 .

Pardeigma 4.3.2 'Estw P merik diatetagmno snolo. Gia A P a sumbolsoume me

A to idede A tou P pou pargei to A (Pargrafo 2.2). Isqurizmaste ti h apeiknish

2P 2P pou antistoiqe sto A to A enai prxh kleistthta sto P . Prgmati, ta aximata

 63

(i) kai (ii) enai faner. Gia na epalhjesoume to (iii) arke na dexoume ti A A. An
x A, tte x y gia kpoio y A. Epsh y z gia kpoio z A. Prokptei ti x z
gia kpoio z A kai sunep x A.

Pardeigma 4.3.3 'Estw S peperasmno uposnolo tou Rd . Gia A S jtoume A =

conv(A) S , pou
k
X k
X
conv ({a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }) = { i ai : i 0, i = 1}
i=1 i=1

enai h kurt jkh tou {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } Rd (isodnama, to mikrtero kurt uposnolo tou Rd
pou periqei to {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }). H apeiknish 2S 2S pou antistoiqe sto A to A enai prxh
kleistthta sto S . Prgmati, ta aximata (i) kai (ii) enai faner en to (iii) prokptei ap
thn paratrhsh ti an a conv(A), tte conv(A {a}) = conv(A). To snolo S sto Sqma
4.3 apoteletai ap xi shmea ston R2 kai isqoun {a1 , a4 } = {a1 , a4 , a5 }, {a1 , a5 } = {a1 , a5 }
kai {a2 , a3 , a4 } = {a2 , a3 , a4 , a6 }.

a a a
1 5 4

a
6

a a
2 3

Sqma 4.3: Shmea ston R2 .

Lmma 4.3.1 'Estw prxh kleistthta sto S .

(i) An ta A, B S enai kleist, tte to A B enai epsh kleist.

(ii) An to C S enai kleist kai A, B C , tte A B C .

Apdeixh. (i) H sqsh AB A kai to axwma (ii) tou Orismo 4.3.1 dnoun A B A = A.
Omow A B B kai sunep A B A B . Ap to axwma (i) qoume A B A B
kai epomnw A B = A B , dhlad to A B enai kleist.
64

(ii) 'Eqoume A B C kai sunep A B C = C ap to axwma (i).

Sumbolzoume me L(S) to snolo twn kleistn uposunlwn tou S efodiasmno me th

merik ditaxh tou egkleismo. H epmenh prtash prokptei mesa ap to Lmma 4.3.1.

Prtash 4.3.1 Gia tuqao snolo S efodiasmno me prxh kleistthta , h merik ditaxh
L(S) apotele sndesmo me

A B = A B, AB = AB

gia la ta A, B L(S).

Sto Sqma 4.4 apeikonzetai to digramma Hasse tou sundsmou L(S) gia thn prxh
kleistthta tou Paradegmato 4.3.1 kai to snolo twn dianusmtwn tou Sqmato 4.2,
pou o dekth i sumbolzei to dinusma vi .

{1,2,3} {1,4} {2,4} {1,5} {2,5} {3,4,5}

{1} {2} {3} {4} {5}

{}

Sqma 4.4: O sndesmo L(S) gia to Sqma 4.2.

H akloujh prtash dhlnei ti kje peperasmno sndesmo L enai ismorfo me

to sndesmo twn kleistn sunlwn mia prxh kleistthta pnw se kpoio peperasmno
snolo, dnonta na antstrofo gia thn Prtash 4.3.1. H prtash aut ja fane qrsimh
sti Paragrfou 4.5 kai 4.7.

Prtash 4.3.2 'Estw peperasmno sndesmo L kai S to snolo twn angwgwn stoiqewn
tou L. Gia A S jtoume
_
A = {p S : p A} (4.3)
 65

(ste = ). Tte h apeiknish 2S 2S pou antistoiqe sto A to A enai prxh kleistthta

sto S kai h : L L(S) me (x) = {p S : p x} gia x L enai isomorfism merikn
diatxewn. Tlo isqei (x y) = (x) (y) gia x, y L.

Apdeixh. Ja dexoume prta ti isqoun ta aximata (i) - (iii) tou Orismo 4.3.1. Gia to
(i) parathrome
W ti W a A sto L gia kje a A S , opte A A. 'Estw AW B S .
W
Profan A B sto L kai epomnw gia kje p A, opte kai p A, isqei
p B , dhlad p B . Prokptei ti A B , dhlad dexame to (ii) W . Gia W
to (iii), arke
W
na parathrsei kane , qrhsimopointa thn Prtash 4.1.1 (iii), ti A = A gia kje
A S.
Ap to Lmma 4.2.2 (i) sungoume ti x = (x) gia x L. Ap thn teleutaa idithta
W

kai thn (4.3) prokptei ti (x) = (x) gia x L, dhladW (x) L(S) kai h enai kal
orismnh. Epsh , jtonta : L(S) L me (A) = A gia A L(S), prokptei ti
((x)) = x gia x L. Parathrnta ti isqei ((A)) = A gia A L(S) petai ti
h enai h antstrofh th apeiknish. Enai faner ti oi kai diathron th ditaxh
kai sunep h enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn me antstrofo thn . H isthta
(x y) = (x) (y) enai faner, ap ton orism tou x y .

Parathrhsh. Sthn apdeixh th Prtash 4.3.2 qrhsimopoietai mno h idithta tou S ti

aut periqei la ta angwga stoiqea tou L. Sunep , h prtash isqei me thn asjensterh
aut upjesh. Gia pardeigma an S = L kai x L, tte to (x) enai to prwtewn idede
Ix tou L kai to apotlesma sumfwne me thn Prtash 4.2.2.

4.4 Arjrwto, hmiarjrwto kai gewmetriko sndesmoi

'Estw peperasmno sndesmo L.

Orism 4.4.1 O sndesmo L lgetai arjrwt (modular) an enai diabajmismno kai

isqei
(x) + (y) = (x y) + (x y) (4.4)
gia la ta x, y L, pou (x) enai h txh tou x L. O L lgetai (nw) hmiarjrwt
(semimodular) an enai diabajmismno kai isqei

(x) + (y) (x y) + (x y) (4.5)

gia la ta x, y L.
66

Paradeigma. (i) Kje peperasmnh alusda enai arjrwt sndesmo .

(ii) H merik ditaxh Bn enai arjrwt sndesmo , diti isqei #x + #y = #(x y) +
#(x y) gia kje x, y [n].
(iii) 'Estw L h (epagmenh) merik ditaxh pou prokptei ap th B3 afairnta to up-
osnolo {2} tou {1, 2, 3}. H L enai hmiarjrwt sndesmo (giat?) all qi arjrwt . An
x = {1, 2} kai y = {2, 3} tte ston L isqei (x) = (y) = 2, (x y) = ([3]) = 3 kai
(x y) = () = 0, se antjesh me thn (4.4).
(iv) O sndesmo tou Sqmato 4.4 enai hmiarjrwt all qi arjrwt (giat?).
H akloujh prtash dnei na eqrhsto kritrio gia to an na dosmno peperasmno
sndesmo enai hmiarjrwt .

Prtash 4.4.1 'Ena peperasmno sndesmo L enai hmiarjrwt an kai mno an gia la
ta x, y L isqei to ex : an ta x, y kalptoun to x y , tte to x y kalptei ta x, y .

Apdeixh. 'Estw ti o L enai hmiarjrwt kai ti ta x, y kalptoun to x y . Tte (x) =

(y) = (x y) + 1 kai sunep h (4.5) dnei (x y) (x) + 1 = (y) + 1. 'Omw ap thn
upjesh prokptei ti x 6= y , ra x y > x, y sto L kai kat sunpeia (x y) (x) + 1 =
(y) + 1. Sumperanoume ti (x y) = (x) + 1 = (y) + 1, to opoo shmanei ti to x y
kalptei ta x, y .
Antstrofa, upojtoume ti isqei h sunjkh th prtash . Ap thn 'Askhsh 5 tou
Kefalaou 2 prokptei ti h L enai diabajmismnh merik ditaxh. Mnei na dexoume ti
isqei h (4.5) gia x, y L. Qrhsimopointa dipl epagwg mporome na upojsoume ti
h (4.5) isqei gia kje zego u, v L me (u v) > (x y) kaj kai gia kje zego
u, v L me (uv) = (xy) kai (u)+(v) < (x)+(y). Profan h (4.5) isqei an x = y
kai prokptei ap th sunjkh th prtash an ta x, y kalptoun to x y . A upojsoume
loipn ti to x den kalptei to x y (h perptwsh kat thn opoa to y den kalptei to x y
enai moia) kai stw x L me xy < x < x. Parathrome ti x y = xy kai (x ) < (x)
opte, ap thn upjesh th epagwg , prokptei ti
(x ) + (y) (x y) + (x y). (4.6)
Parathrome epsh ti oi sqsei x > x kai x y x sto L dnoun x (x y) x > x y
sto L kai sunep
(x) + (x y) (x x y) + (x (x y)), (4.7)
ap thn upjesh th epagwg . Prosjtonta kat mlh ti (4.6) kai (4.7) kai parathrnta
ti x x y x y kai x x (x y) sto L, h (4.5) petai.
 67

Paratrhsh 4.4.1 'Ena peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo P lgetai (nw) hmiar-
jrwt an gia tuqaa diakekrimna stoiqea x, y tou P , ta opoa kalptoun kpoio stoiqeo
tou P , uprqei stoiqeo tou P to opoo kalptei ta x kai y kai olik hmiarjrwt (totally
semimodular) an to P qei mgisto kai elqisto stoiqeo kai kje kleist disthma sto P
enai hmiarjrwt. Ap thn Prtash 4.4.1 prokptei ti gia peperasmnou sundsmou o
parapnw orism th hmiarjrwsimthta sumfwne me autn tou Orismo 4.4.1.

Pardeigma 4.4.1 Ap thn Prtash 4.4.1 kai to qarakthrism twn sqsewn kluyh tou
sundsmou n twn diamersewn tou [n] (Pardeigma 1.2.6) prokptei ti o n enai hmiar-
jrwt . Oi leptomreie afnontai ston anagnsth.

Se mia merik ditaxh P me elqisto stoiqeo 0 ta stoiqea pou kalptoun to 0 lgontai

toma.

Orism 4.4.2 'Estw peperasmno sndesmo L me elqisto stoiqeo 0.

(i) O L lgetai atomik sndesmo an kje stoiqeo tou L {0} enai sndesh atmwn tou
L.
(ii) O L lgetai gewmetrik sndesmo an enai atomik kai hmiarjrwt .

Parathrhsh. Se kje peperasmno sndesmo L ta toma enai angwga stoiqea, me thn

nnoia pou dsame ston ro {angwgo stoiqeo} sthn Pargrafo 4.2. O sndesmo L enai
atomik an kai mno an ta toma enai ta mna angwga stoiqea tou.
Paradeigma. (i) Mia alusda mkou n enai atomik sndesmo an kai mno an n 1.
(ii) H merik ditaxh Bn enai atomik sndesmo , diti ta toma th Bn enai ta monosno-
la {i} me i [n] kai kje mh ken uposnolo tou [n] grfetai w nwsh monosunlwn.
Epomnw h Bn enai gewmetrik sndesmo .
(iii) O sndesmo n enai atomik . Prgmati, ta toma tou n enai oi diamersei tou
[n] oi opoe qoun na mro me do stoiqea kai ta uploipa mrh tou (anagkastik n 2
se pljo ) monosnola. Epiplon, kje n enai h sndesh twn atmwn tou n me
. Epomnw (qonta upyh to Pardeigma 4.4.1) to n enai gewmetrik sndesmo .
(iv) O sndesmo tou Sqmato 4.4 enai gewmetrik .
Oi gewmetriko sndesmoi (ii) - (iv) tou prohgomenou paradegmato enai loi th mor-
f L(S) gia kpoio peperasmno snolo dianusmtwn S kai thn prxh kleistthta tou Pa-
radegmato 4.3.1 pnw se aut. Sthn epmenh pargrafo ja dexoume ti loi oi sndesmoi
68

aut th morf enai gewmetriko, gegon to opoo exhge thn orologa {gewmetrik sn-
desmo }.

4.5 Gewmetriko sndesmoi kai mhtroeid

Arqzoume aut thn pargrafo me ton orism th nnoia tou mhtroeido .

Orism 4.5.1 'Estw prxh kleistthta se peperasmno snolo S , msw th opoa h

eikna tou A S sumbolzetai me A. To S efodiasmno me thn prxh aut lgetai mhtroeid
(matroid) an isqei

/ A, p A {q} q A {p}
(iv) p

gia la ta p, q S kai kje A S . To mhtroeid aut lgetai apl an epiplon isqei

(v) = kai {p} = {p} gia kje p S .

To axwma (iv) lgetai axwma th antallag (exchange axiom) kai apotele thn krsimh
idithta pou knei ti prxei kleistthta , ti opoe orsame pnw se peperasmna snola
dianusmtwn sto Pardeigma 4.3.1, na xeqwrzoun ap lle .

Lmma 4.5.1 'Estw S peperasmno uposnolo en grammiko qrou V pnw sto sma K.
H prxh kleistthta tou Paradegmato 4.3.1 pnw sto S orzei mhtroeid sto S , to opoo
enai apl an kai mno an ta stoiqea tou S enai mh mhdenik kai do opoiadpote ap aut
enai grammik anexrthta.

Apdeixh. Gia ton prto isqurism, prpei na epalhjesoume to axwma th antallag .

'Estw A = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } S kai p, q S . An p A {q} kai p
/ A, tte qoume
p = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ck vk + cq
gia kpoia c1 , . . . , ck , c K me c 6= 0. Ap thn teleutaa isthta prokptei ti q = 1c (p
c1 v1 ck vk ) kai ra q A {p}. O detero isqurism enai faner .
'Ena mhtroeid pnw sto snolo S ja sumbolzetai me M(S). Ta kleist snola sto
M(S) lgontai kai eppeda (flats) kai o sndesmo L(S) twn kleistn sunlwn lgetai kai
sndesmo twn epipdwn (lattice of flats) tou M(S). To akloujo jerhma enai to krio
apotlesma aut th paragrfou kai dhlnei ti oi nnoie tou gewmetriko sundsmou kai
tou mhtroeido enai kat kpoio trpo isodname .
 69

Jerhma 4.5.1 (Birkhoff-Whitney)

(i) Gia kje mhtroeid M(S) h merik ditaxh L(S) twn epipdwn tou M(S) apotele
gewmetrik sndesmo.
(ii) Kje peperasmno gewmetrik sndesmo L me snolo atmwn S enai ismorfo me
to sndesmo twn epipdwn en aplo mhtroeido pnw sto S . To mhtroeid aut
orzetai ap thn (4.3), dhlad jtonta
_
A = {p S : p A}

gia A S .

To akloujo lmma ja qrhsimopoihje sthn apdeixh tou mrou (i) tou jewrmato .

Lmma 4.5.2 'Estw mhtroeid M pnw sto snolo S . Gia A, B L(S) to B kalptei to
A an kai mno an B = A {p} gia kpoio p S me p
/ A.

Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti to B kalptei to A (opte A B ) kai jewrome p B A.

'Eqoume A A{p} B kai, efarmzonta to Lmma 4.3.1 (ii), parnoume A < A {p} B
sto L(S). 'Epetai ti B = A {p}. Antstrofa, stw A, B L(S) me B = A {p} kai
p S A. Upojtonta ti A C B gia kpoio C L(S), arke na dexoume ti C = B .
'Estw q C A. Ap ti sqsei q A {p}, q / A = A kai to axwma th antallag
prokptei ti p A {q}. 'Omw A {q} C kai sunep A {q} C ap to Lmma
4.3.1 (ii), opte p C . 'Ara A {p} C kai sunep , exaita tou diou lmmato qoume
B = A {p} C . 'Epetai ti B = C , pw to jlame.

Apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.5.1 (i). Gnwrzoume ap thn Prtash 4.3.1 ti to L(S) enai
sndesmo . Ap to Lmma 4.5.2 gnwrzoume epsh ti ta toma tou L(S) enai ta snola th
morf {p} me p
/ . Gia A L(S) qoume
[
A = {a} (4.8)
aA

(giat?). Ap thn Prtash 4.3.1 to dexi mlo th (4.8) enai so me th sndesh sto L(S)
twn {a} me a A. 'Epetai ti o sndesmo L(S) enai atomik . Mnei na dexoume ti o L(S)
enai kai hmiarjrwt . Ap thn Prtash 4.4.1 arke na dexoume ti an ta x, y kalptoun to
x y sto L(S), tte to x y kalptei ta x, y . Smfwna me to Lmma 4.5.2 mporome na
70

upojsoume ti x y = A L(S), x = A {p} kai y = A {q} me p, q S A. Ap ti

idithte (i) - (iii) tou Orismo 4.3.1 kai thn Prtash 4.3.1 brskoume ti

x y = x y = A {p, q} = x {q} = y {p}.

Profan ta x, y den enai sugkrsima sto L(S) kai sunep p / y kai q / x. Ap ti

prohgomene isthte kai to Lmma 4.5.2 prokptei ti to x y kalptei ta x, y .

Prisma 4.5.1 An S enai peperasmno uposnolo en grammiko qrou V pnw sto sma
K, tte h merik ditaxh L(S) twn kleistn sunlwn, w pro thn prxh kleistthta tou
Paradegmato 4.3.1 pnw sto S , enai gewmetrik sndesmo .

Apdeixh. Sunduzoume to Jerhma 4.5.1 (i) me to Lmma 4.5.1.

Parathrhsh. Oi gewmetriko sndesmoi Bn kai n enai ismorfoi me sundsmou th morf

L(S), pw sto Prisma 4.5.1. Prgmati, an S enai bsh (grammik anexrthto uposnolo
me n stoiqea) tou grammiko qrou Rn , tte kje uposnolo tou S enai kleist kai to L(S)
apoteletai ap la ta merik diatetagmna me th sqsh tou egkleismo uposnola tou S .
Sunep enai ismorfo me to Bn . Isqurizmaste epsh ti an {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } enai bsh tou
Rn kai S = {ei ej : 1 i < j n}, tte to L(S) enai ismorfo me to n (ja apodexoume
mia genikterh prtash sthn Pargrafo 4.6).

Paradeigma. Sto Sqma 4.5 apeikonzetai na gewmetrik sndesmo txh 3 me snolo

atmwn S = {a, b, c, d}. Me thn prxh pou orzei h (4.3), qoume {a, b} = {a, c} = {b, c} =
{a, b, c}, {a, d} = {a, d}, {b, d} = {b, d}, {c, d} = {c, d} kai {a, b, d} = {a, c, d} = {b, c, d} =
{a, b, c, d}.

Apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.5.1 (ii). Ja dexoume prta ti h (4.3) orzei na apl mhtroeid
sto snolo S twn atmwn tou L. Parathrome ti to S sumpptei me to snolo twn angwgwn
stoiqewn tou L, pw aut orsthke sthn Pargrafo 4.2. Sunep to ti ta aximata (i)
- (iii) tou Orismo 4.3.1 isqoun prokptei ap thn Prtash 4.3.2. Gia to (iv) (axwma th
antallag ), upenjumzoume ti o gewmetrik sndesmo L enai diabajmismno . 'Estw (y)
h txh tou y L kai stw A S , p, q S me p / A kai p A {q}. Jtonta x = A
W
qoume p 6 x kai p x q . Ap thn (4.5) qoume

(x q) (x) + (q) (x q) (x) + 1.

 71

a b c d

Sqma 4.5: 'Ena gewmetrik sndesmo me tssera toma.

Ap ti upojsei ma isqei x < x p x p q = x q kai sunep

(x) + 1 (x p) (x p q) = (x q) (x) + 1.

Upoqrewtik loipn isqei panto h isthta. H sqsh (x p) = (x p q) dnei x p =

x p q kai sunep q x p, dhlad q A {p}, pw to jlame. To axwma (v) tou
Orismo 4.3.1 enai faner. To ti o sndesmo L enai ismorfo me to sndesmo L(S), twn
kleistn sunlwn tou mhtroeido pou orsame, prokptei epsh ap thn Prtash 4.3.2.

4.6 Stoiqeidei idithte mhtroeidn

H jewra twn mhtroeidn parqei na kajar sunduastik plasio sto opoo mporon na
melethjon oi nnoie th grammik exrthsh kai anexarthsa peperasmnou pljou s-
toiqewn (dianusmtwn) en grammiko qrou. Poll ap ti nnoie kai kataskeu pou
sunant kane sth jewra aut prorqontai ap (kai genikeoun katllhla) antstoiqe
nnoie kai kataskeu sth jewra twn grafhmtwn. Sthn pargrafo aut dnoume kpoiou
ap tou pio basiko orismo kai idithte twn mhtroeidn kai sth sunqeia, ant na pro-
qwrsoume perisstero me th stoiqeidh jewra tou (enallaktik sustmata axiwmtwn,
diagraf kai sustol, duikthta klp), perigrfoume ta mhtroeid pou orzontai ap graf-
mata.
'Estw mhtroeid M pnw sto snolo S kai A S . To A lgetai anexrthto an p /
A {p} gia kje p A (opte to A = enai anexrthto) kai pargon an A = S . An
to A enai tautqrona anexrthto kai pargon, tte lgetai bsh tou M . 'Ena elaqistik
72

exarthmno (dhlad qi anexrthto) uposnolo tou S lgetai kklwma. Ja sumbolzoume

(pio swst) me L(M) to sndesmo L(S) twn epipdwn tou M . Ap to Jerhma 4.5.1 (i)
gnwrzoume ti o sndesmo L(M) enai diabajmismno . H txh tou lgetai txh tou M . Ta
stoiqea tou L(M) txh 1 kai 2 lgontai shmea kai eujee tou M , antstoiqa.

Paradeigma. Sto Sqma 4.6 apeikonzetai na apl mhtroeid F txh 3 me ept shmea kai
ept eujee , to legmeno eppedo tou Fano. 'Etsi o sndesmo twn epipdwn L(F ) apoteletai
ap to ken snolo, ta ept shmea, ti ept eujee kai to snolo S twn ept shmewn,
merik diatetagmna me th sqsh tou egkleismo. H kleist jkh tou A S orzetai ap
thn (4.3). Sto pardeigma aut kje eujea qei tra shmea kai apotele kklwma tou F
en bsh enai kje snolo trin mh suneujeiakn shmewn. Afnetai ston anagnsth na
epalhjesei ti to F enai ismorfo me to mhtroeid pou orzoun ta ept diansmata tou
tridistatou grammiko qrou F32 , pnw sto sma F2 = {0, 1} me do stoiqea, pou fanontai
sto sqma. Shmeinoume ti uprqoun mhtroeid pou den mporon na prokyoun w mhtroeid
dianusmtwn grammiko qrou pnw se sma K, gia kanna K.

100

110 101
111

010 011 001

Sqma 4.6: To eppedo tou Fano.

Oi epmene protsei genikeoun gnwst protsei th grammik lgebra .

Lmma 4.6.1 'Estw mhtroeid M pnw sto snolo S .

(i) An A B S kai to B enai anexrthto, tte to A enai epsh anexrthto.

(ii) 'Estw ti to A S enai anexrthto kai p S A. Tte to A {p} enai anexrthto
an kai mno an p
/ A.
 73

Apdeixh. (i) 'Estw ti to B S enai anexrthto kai A B . 'Estw tuqao p A, opte

kai p B . Epeid to B enai anexrthto qoume p
/ B {p}. Akmh A {p} B {p} kai
sunep A {p} B {p}, opte p / A {p}. 'Eqoume dexei ti p
/ A {p} gia kje
p A kai epomnw , to A enai anexrthto.
(ii) Upojtoume prta ti to snolo A {p} enai anexrthto. Tte, smfwna me ton orism
th anexarthsa , qoume p / (A {p}) {p}, dhlad p / A. Upojsoume tra ti p /A
kai jewrome q A {p}. Ja dexoume ti q / (A {p}) {q}. Prgmati, aut enai
isodnamo me thn upjesh p / A an q = p. 'Estw q 6= p, opte ap th sqsh aut kai thn
q A {p} qoume q A. Exaita th anexarthsa tou A, qoume q / A {q}. Ap
th sqsh aut prokptei ti q / (A {q}) {p} diti, an eqame q (A {q}) {p}, tte
smfwna me to axwma th antallag , ja eqame kai p (A {q}) {q} = A, se antfash
me thn upjesh p / A. Sunep q / (A {q}) {p} = (A {p}) {q}, pw to jlame.
Sumperanoume ti to A {p} enai anexrthto.

Prtash 4.6.1 'Estw mhtroeid M pnw sto snolo S .

(i) Kje anexrthto uposnolo tou S mpore na epektaje se bsh tou M .

(ii) Kje pargon uposnolo tou S periqei toulqiston ma bsh tou M .
(iii) 'Ole oi bsei tou M periqoun r stoiqea, pou r enai h txh tou M .

Apdeixh. (i) 'Estw anexrthto A S . An to A den enai bsh, tte uprqei p S me

/ A. Ap to Lmma 4.6.1 (ii) prokptei ti to A {p} enai anexrthto. Suneqzoume
p
na prosjtoume, an aut enai aparathto, sto A {p} stoiqea me ton dio trpo w tou
ftsoume se bsh tou M .
(ii) 'Estw A S me A = S . An to A den enai bsh, tte den enai anexrthto kai sunep
uprqei p A me A {p} = A, opte A {p} = S . Suneqzoume na afairome, an aut enai
aparathto, stoiqea ap to A {p} me ton dio trpo w tou ftsoume se bsh tou M .
(iii) An B = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pm } enai bsh tou M , tte ap to Lmma 4.5.2 prokptei ti h

{p1 } {p1 , p2 } {p1 , p2 , . . . , pm } = S

enai megistik alusda tou sundsmou twn epipdwn L(M). Epomnw to mko m th alus-
da enai so me thn txh tou M .
Mhtroeid ap grafmata.'Estw V snolo me n stoiqea. 'Ena apl grfhma sto

snolo korufn V enai na zego G = (V, E), pou E enai uposnolo tou sunlou V2
74

twn uposunlwn tou V me do stoiqea (ja jewrsoume mno apl grafmata se ti akolou-
je gia lgou aplthta ). Ta stoiqea twn V kai E lgontai koruf kai akm tou G,
antstoiqa. Gia U V to epagmeno upogrfhma tou G sto snolo korufn U enai to
zego GU = (U, EU ) me EU = E U2 , en gia A E sumbolzoume me GA to grfhma

(V, A). Lme ti do koruf a, b V sundontai sto G an uprqoun m 0 kai {u0 , u1},
{u1 , u2}, . . . , {um1 , um } E ste u0 = a kai um = b (jewrnta m = 0, parathrome ti
kje koruf sundetai me ton eaut th ). H sqsh th sndesh metax korufn enai sqsh
isodunama sto V . Ta epagmena upografmata tou G sti klsei isodunama th sqsh
aut lgontai sunektik sunistse tou G. To G lgetai sunektik an qei ma kai mno
sunektik sunistsa, dhlad an opoiesdpote do koruf tou sundontai sto G.

a d

b c

Sqma 4.7: 'Ena apl grfhma me tsseri koruf .

Paradeigma. Sto Sqma 4.7 apeikonzetai na apl grfhma sto snolo korufn V =
{a, b, c, d} me akm {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c} kai {c, d}. To epagmeno upogrfhma tou G
sto snolo korufn U = {b, d} enai to grfhma me koruf b, d qwr akm.
'Estw G = (V, E) pw prohgoumnw , me V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } kai stw {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }
mia dosmnh bsh tou grammiko qrou Rn . Jewrome to uposnolo
S = {ei ej : 1 i < j n, {vi , vj } E} (4.9)
tou Rn kai parathrome ti h apeiknish : E S me ({vi , vj }) = ei ej enai amfrriyh.
'Estw M(S) to apl mhtroeid pnw se kpoio snolo S dianusmtwn tou Rn pou orzetai
ap to Pardeigma 4.3.1 (blpe Lmma 4.5.1). Orzoume to apl mhtroeid MG pnw sto
snolo E jtonta A = B sto MG gia A E , an (A) = (B) sto M(S). Me lla lgia,
qrhsimopoiome thn amfrriyh gia na metafroume th dom tou mhtroeido M(S) ap to S
sto E .
H dom tou mhtroeido MG kajorzetai ap to G msw gnwstn ennoin th jewra
grafhmtwn, ti opoe upenjumzoume sntoma sto shmeo aut. To grfhma G lgetai kkl-
wma mkou r an E = {{u1 , u2}, {u2, u3 }, . . . , {ur1, ur }, {ur , u1 }} gia kpoie diakekrimne
 75

koruf u1 , u2, . . . , ur V me r 3. To G lgetai dso an den periqei kklwma (w

upogrfhma th morf GA me A E ). Isodnama, to G enai dso an qei to pol n 1
akm kai akrib n #E sunektik sunistse . To G lgetai dndro (Sqma 4.8) an
enai sunektik dso , isodnama, an enai sunektik kai qei akrib n 1 akm . Kje
sunektik sunistsa en dsou G enai dndro, w epagmeno upogrfhma tou G.

Paradeigma. To grfhma G tou Sqmato 4.7 enai sunektik kai periqei do kuklmata
mkou 3 kai na mkou 4. To upogrfhma GA enai dndro gia 8 (akrib ) snola A E ,
la me tra stoiqea, pw p.q. ta A1 = {{a, b}, {a, c}, {c, d}} kai A2 = {{a, c}, {b, c}, {c, d}}.
To GA enai dso an kai mno an enai dndro isqei #A 2.

Sqma 4.8: 'Ena dndro me dekapnte koruf .

Prtash 4.6.2 'Estw apl grfhma G = (V, E) sto snolo korufn V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
me k sunektik sunistse kai stw MG to antstoiqo mhtroeid .

(i) Gia A E kai {vi , vj } E qoume {vi , vj } A sto MG an kai mno an oi koruf vi
kai vj ankoun sthn dia sunektik sunistsa tou GA . Eidiktera, isqei A L(MG )
an kai mno an to A periqei kje akm tou G ta kra th opoa ankoun sthn dia
sunektik sunistsa tou GA .
(ii) To A E enai anexrthto sto MG an kai mno an to grfhma GA enai dso .
(iii) To A E enai kklwma sto MG an kai mno an to grfhma GA enai kklwma.
(iv) To A E enai pargon sto MG an kai mno an to GA qei k sunektik sunistse .
(v) To A E enai bsh tou MG an kai mno an to grfhma GA enai dso me k sunektik
sunistse . Eidiktera, h txh tou MG enai sh me n k kai an to G enai sunektik,
tte to A E enai bsh tou MG an kai mno an to grfhma GA enai dndro.
76

Apdeixh. 'Estw to snolo twn dianusmtwn S , pw sthn (4.9).

(i) 'Estw ti ta vi kai vj ankoun sthn dia sunektik sunistsa tou GA , opte uprqei m 1
kai akm {vi0 , vi1 }, {vi1 , vi2 }, . . . , {vim1 , vim } A me i0 = i kai im = j . Tte to dinusma
ei ej enai so me to jroisma twn stoiqewn eir eir+1 gia 0 r m 1 tou (A) kai
sunep ankei sth grammik jkh tou (A) ston Rn . Sumperanoume ti ei ej (A) sto
M(S), pou shmanei ti {vi , vj } A sto MG . Antstrofa, stw ti {vi , vj } A kai stw W
h grammik jkh tou (A) ston Rn , opte ei ej W . Enai stoiqeide na dexei kane ti
o grammik qro phlko Rn /W qei distash sh me to pljo twn sunektikn sunistwsn
tou GA kai ti mia bsh tou qrou auto apoteletai ap ti eikne twn dianusmtwn er
(up th fusik probol Rn Rn /W ) gia r I , pou ta vr gia r I apotelon epilog
mia koruf gia kje sunektik sunistsa tou GA . Efson oi eikne twn ei kai ej enai
se sto qro phlko, upoqrewtik ta vi kai vj na ankoun sthn dia sunektik sunistsa
tou GA .
(ii) Ap ton orism th anexarthsa kai thn (i) qoume ti to A E enai anexrthto sto
MG an kai mno an gia kje a = {vi , vj } A ta vi kai vj den ankoun sthn dia sunektik
sunistsa tou GA{a} . Aut sumbanei an kai mno an to G den periqei kklwma, dhlad an
kai mno an to G enai dso .
(iii) Prokptei mesa ap to (ii).
(iv) Ap to sqetik orism kai thn (i) qoume ti to A E enai pargon sto MG an kai mno
an gia kje {vi , vj } E ta vi kai vj ankoun sthn dia sunektik sunistsa tou GA , pou
shmanei ti kje sunektik sunistsa tou G paramnei sunektik pernnta sto upogrfhma
GA .
(v) O prto isqurism prokptei mesa ap ti (ii) kai (iv). Gia to detero, upenjumzoume
ti kje dso me n koruf kai k sunektik sunistse qei n k akm .

P mpore na perigrafe o sndesmo twn epipdwn tou MG ap to grfhma G?

Orism 4.6.1 'Estw apl grfhma G = (V, E). Mia diamrish tou sunlou V lgetai
sunektik an gia kje mro B th to epagmeno upogrfhma GB tou G enai sunektik.
To snolo twn sunektikn diamersewn tou G, efodiasmno me th merik ditaxh th
eklptunsh (dhlad me an kje mro th periqetai se kpoio mro th ),
lgetai sndesmo twn sustoln (lattice of contractions) tou G kai sumbolzetai me LG .

Paradeigma. An G enai to grfhma tou Sqmato 4.7, tte to LG qei elqisto stoiqeo
th diamrish tou V se tssera monosnola, mgisto stoiqeo th diamrish tou V se na
mno mro , 5 toma ta opoa enai diamersei tou V se na disnolo kai do monosnola
 77

kai antistoiqon sti 5 akm tou G kai 6 akmh stoiqea. Afnetai ston anagnsth na
epalhjesei ti to LG enai ismorfo me to gewmetrik sndesmo tou Sqmato 4.4.

Gia kje grfhma G = (V, E) to LG qei elqisto stoiqeo th diamrish tou V se

monosnola kai mgisto stoiqeo th diamrish tou V sti sunektik sunistse tou G. H
akloujh prtash dnei perisstere plhrofore gia th dom tou LG .

Prtash 4.6.3 O sndesmo L(MG ) twn epipdwn tou MG enai ismorfo me th merik
ditaxh LG . Eidiktera to LG enai gewmetrik sndesmo txh n k , pou n kai k enai
to pljo twn korufn kai twn sunektikn sunistwsn tou G, antstoiqa.

Apdeixh. Gia A L(MG ) stw f (A) h diamrish tou V , ta mrh th opoa enai ta snola
korufn twn sunektikn sunistwsn tou GA . Enai faner ti f (A) LG kai ti h apeikn-
ish f : L(MG ) LG diathre th ditaxh. Gia LG stw A = g() to snolo lwn twn
akmn {vi , vj } E gia ti opoe ta vi kai vj ankoun sto dio mro th . Ap thn Prtash
4.6.2 (i) qoume A = A, opte h g : LG L(MG ) enai kal orismnh kai profan diathre
th ditaxh. Tlo parathrome ti g(f (A)) = A gia kje A L(MG ) ap thn Prtash 4.6.2
(i) kai ti f (g()) = gia kje LG . 'Epetai ti h f enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn
me antstrofo th g . O teleutao isqurism th prtash prokptei ap to Prisma 4.5.1
kai thn Prtash 4.6.2 (v).

Paratrhsh 4.6.1 H klsh
twn gewmetrikn sundsmwn LG periqei ti Bn kai n gia

kje n N. An G = (V, V2 ) enai to plre grfhma sto snolo korufn V = [n],
tte kje diamrish tou [n] enai sunektik kai sunep LG = n . Epsh an G enai to
grfhma sto snolo korufn V = {0, 1, . . . , n} me ti n akm {0, 1}, {0, 2}, . . . , {0, n}, tte
to LG enai ismorfo me th Bn . Prgmati, oi sunektik diamersei tou G enai akrib oi
diamersei S , pou S [n], pou apotelontai ap to mro {0} S , kai ta monosnola
{i} gia i [n] S kai h apeiknish f : Bn LG me f (S) = S enai isomorfism merikn
diatxewn. 'Epetai ti oi Bn kai n enai gewmetriko sndesmoi.

4.7 Hmiepimeristiko sndesmoi kai kurt gewmetre

Sthn parosa pargrafo orzoume ti nnoie tou hmiepimeristiko sundsmou kai th kurt
gewmetra kai apodeiknoume ti aut susqetzontai kat trpo anlogo me ekenon pou
susqetzontai oi nnoie tou gewmetriko sundsmou kai tou mhtroeido . Arqzoume me ti
kurt gewmetre .
78

Orism 4.7.1 'Estw prxh kleistthta se peperasmno snolo S , msw th opoa h

eikna tou A S sumbolzetai me A. To S efodiasmno me thn prxh aut lgetai kurt
gewmetra (convex geometry) an isqei

/ A, p 6= q , p A {q} q
(iv ) p, q / A {p}

gia la ta p, q S kai kje A S . Sthn perptwsh aut ta kleist uposnola tou S

lgontai epsh kurt uposnola.

Oi prxei kleistthta twn Paradeigmtwn 4.3.2 kai 4.3.3 dnoun do basik paradegmata
kurtn gewmetrin.

Pardeigma 4.7.1 'Estw P peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo. H prxh kleistth-

ta tou Paradegmato 4.3.2, h opoa apeikonzei to A P sto idede A = A tou P pou
pargei to A, orzei kurt gewmetra sto P . Gia na epalhjesoume to axwma (iv ) st-
w p, q P kai A P me p, q / A, p 6= q kai p A {q}. 'Eqoume p a gia kpoio
a A {q}. Efson p / A ja prpei a = q , dhlad p q . Omow an sque q A {p}
tte q p, opte anagkastik p = q , se antjesh me ti upojsei ma gia ta p, q . 'Ara
/ A {p}. Me thn prxh aut ta kleist uposnola tou P enai ta idedh tou P kai
q
sunep o sndesmo L(P ) enai o epimeristik sndesmo J(P ) twn idewdn tou P pou
meletsame sti Paragrfou 3.2 kai 4.2.

Pardeigma 4.7.2 'Estw S peperasmno uposnolo tou Rd . Ja dexoume ti h prxh k-

leistthta tou Paradegmato 4.3.3 orzei kurt gewmetra sto S , dhlad ti isqei to
axwma (iv ). 'Estw A = conv(A) S gia A S (pw sto Pardeigma 4.3.3) kai stw
p, q S kai A S me p, q
/ A, p 6= q , p A {q} kai q A {p}. Jloume na katalxoume
se antfash. Ap ti sqsei p A {q} kai q A {p} qoume
p = q + (1 )a
(4.10)
q = p + (1 )b
me 0 , 1 kai a, b conv(A). H upjesh p 6= q dnei , < 1. Apalefonta to q ap
ti (4.10) prokptei ti
(1 )a + (1 )b
p = .
1
H parstash sto dexi mlo aut th isthta enai kurt sunduasm twn a kai b kai
sunep p conv({a, b}) conv(A), opte p conv(A) S = A, se antjesh me ti
upojsei ma . Sto pardeigma aut ofeletai h orologa {kurt gewmetra} tou Orismo
4.7.1.
 79

Paradeigma. Sto Sqma 4.9 apeikonzetai na snolo S = {a, b, c} trin shmewn sto R kai
o antstoiqo sndesmo L(S) twn kurtn uposunlwn tou S . Parathrome ti o sndesmo
L(S) den enai epimeristik .

{a,b,c}

{a,b} {b,c}

a b c
{a} {b} {c}

S
{}

L(S)

Sqma 4.9: O sndesmo twn kurtn sunlwn mia kurt gewmetra .

Sthn Pargrafo 4.5 edame ti na peperasmno sndesmo L enai ismorfo me to

sndesmo twn epipdwn en mhtroeido an kai mno an o L enai gewmetrik . Ja dome ti
parmoio qarakthrism uprqei kai gia tou sundsmou twn kurtn sunlwn mia kurt
gewmetra . Ap to Pardeigma 4.7.1 kai to Jerhma 4.2.1 kaj kai ap to pardeigma tou
Sqmato 4.9, prokptei ti h kathgora autn twn sundsmwn periqei gnsia lou tou
peperasmnou epimeristiko sundsmou .

Orism 4.7.2 O peperasmno sndesmo L lgetai hmiepimeristik (meet-distributive)

an kje disthma th morf [x, y] sto L, pou x enai h sunnthsh twn stoiqewn tou L pou
kalptoun to y , enai ismorfo me mia lgebra Boole.

Paradeigma. (i) O sndesmo tou Sqmato 4.9 enai hmiepimeristik (all qi epimeris-
tik ).
(ii) Qrhsimopointa to Jerhma 4.2.1 mpore kane na dexei ti kje peperasmno
epimeristik sndesmo enai hmiepimeristik . O isqurism aut enai eidik perptwsh th
mia katejunsh tou Jewrmato 4.7.1 pou akolouje.
To akloujo jerhma enai to krio apotlesma aut th paragrfou.
80

Jerhma 4.7.1 (Edelman, 1980) 'Ena peperasmno sndesmo L enai ismorfo me to

sndesmo twn kurtn sunlwn mia kurt gewmetra an kai mno an o L enai hmiepimeris-
tik .

Lmma 4.7.1 'Estw kurt gewmetra pnw sto snolo S kai A, B L(S). To B kalptei
to A sto L(S) an kai mno an B = A {p} gia kpoio p S A.

Apdeixh. 'Estw ti to B kalptei to A sto L(S) kai stw p B A. Ap th sqsh

A A {p} B qoume A A {p} B kai sunep A {p} = B . A upojsoume ti
A {p} B , me q B , q
/ A {p}. Efarmzonta to axwma (iv ) sth sqsh q A {p}
prokptei ti p
/ A {q} kai sunep A A {q} B , opte h A B den enai sqsh
kluyh sto L(S). H antfash aut odhge sto sumprasma ti B = A{p}. To antstrofo
enai faner.

To akloujo prisma apodeiknei th mia ap ti do kateujnsei tou Jewrmato 4.7.1.

Prisma 4.7.1 O sndesmo twn kurtn sunlwn mia kurt gewmetra pnw sto S enai
hmiepimeristik .

Apdeixh. 'Estw X, Y L(S) me X = Y1 Y2 Yk , pou Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yk enai ta

stoiqea tou L(S) pou kalptontai ap to Y . Ap to Lmma 4.7.1 qoume Yi = Y {qi }
gia 1 i k , pou ta qi enai diakekrimna an do stoiqea tou Y kai ap thn Prtash
4.3.1 isqei X = Y1 Y2 Yk = Y {q1 , q2 , . . . , qk }. Epiplon, kje uposnolo Z
tou S me X Z Y enai so me thn tom, ra kai me th sunnthsh sto L(S) kpoiwn
ap ta Yi (sugkekrimna twn Yi me qi / Z ). Eidiktera Z L(S). 'Epetai ti to disthma
[X, Y ] sto L(S) apoteletai ap la ta snola Z me X Z Y kai ti h apeiknish
f : [X, Y ] 2Y X me f (Z) = Z X enai isomorfism ap to [X, Y ] sthn lgebra Boole
txh k twn uposunlwn tou Y X = {q1 , q2 , . . . , qk }.

Prin asqolhjome me thn antstrofh katejunsh ja exgoume kpoia akmh sumpers-

mata gia tou sundsmou L(S).

Prisma 4.7.2 O sndesmo twn kurtn sunlwn mia kurt gewmetra pnw sto S enai
diabajmismno txh #S .

Apdeixh. Prokptei mesa ap to Lmma 4.7.1 kai to gegon ti to L(S) qei mgisto
stoiqeo to S kai elqisto stoiqeo to ken snolo.
 81

'Opw sthn perptwsh twn mhtroeidn (Pargrafo 4.6), to A S lgetai anexrthto an

p/ A {p} gia kje p A. Parathrome ti ta anexrthta snola sthn kurt gewmetra
tou Paradegmato 4.3.2 enai akrib oi antialusde th merik ditaxh P , en se aut tou
Paradegmato 4.3.3 enai ta uposnola tou shmeiosunlou S pou brskontai se kurt jsh.
Epsh to A S lgetai pargon uposnolo tou K L(S) an A = K . H epmenh prtash
genikeei thn ex prtash: Kje idede se peperasmnh merik ditaxh P pargetai ap
monadik antialusda th P .

Prtash 4.7.1 Kje kurt snolo K L(S) mia kurt gewmetra pnw sto S qei
monadik anexrthto pargon uposnolo.

Apdeixh. H parxh anexrthtou pargonto uposunlou tou K prokptei ap thn apdeix-

h th Prtash 4.6.1 (ii), h opoa den qrhsimopoie to axwma th antallag . Gia th
monadikthta, stw ti A kai B enai anexrthta pargonta uposnola tou K . Ja dexoume
ti A = B . 'Estw tuqao p A kai B0 elaqistik uposnolo tou B me (A {p}) B0 = K
(ttoio uposnolo uprqei diti (A {p}) B = K ). To B0 enai mh ken afo to A enai
anexrthto. 'Estw loipn q B0 . Jtonta C = (A {p}) (B0 {q}) qoume C K ,
ap thn kataskeu tou B0 kai C {p} = C {q} = K , opte

p C {q}, q C {p}.

Epiplon p
/ C kai q
/ C , diti alli ja eqame A C (A {p}) B0 C kai epomnw
C = K . Ap to axwma (iv ) prokptei ti p = q . Sunep kje p A enai stoiqeo tou B ,
dhlad A B . Omow B A.
Sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.7.1 ja qrhsimopoisoume thn akloujh jemelidh arq
aparjmhsh .

Prtash 4.7.2 (Arq Egkleismo-Apokleismo) Gia peperasmna snola A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak

isqei
k
[ k
X X
# Ai = (1)t1 #(Ai1 Ait ).
i=1 t=1 1i1 <<it k

Apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.7.1. Dedomnou tou Porsmato 4.7.1 qoume na dexoume ti
kje peperasmno hmiepimeristik sndesmo L enai ismorfo me to sndesmo twn kurtn
sunlwn mia kurt gewmetra . Ap thn Prtash 4.3.2 gnwrzoume ti o L enai ismorfo
82

me to sndesmo L(S) twn kleistn sunlwn th prxh kleistthta (4.3) pnw sto snolo
S twn angwgwn stoiqewn tou L kai ti h apeiknish : L L(S) me

(x) = {p S : p x}

gia x L enai isomorfism merikn diatxewn, ttoio ste (x y) = (x) (y) gia
x, y L. Jloume na dexoume ti h prxh (4.3) ikanopoie to axwma (iv ). Ja dexoume
prta ti o L enai diabajmismno kai ti h txh (y) tuqaou y L dnetai ap thn isthta

(y) = # (y). (4.11)

'Estw 0 to elqisto stoiqeo tou L. Qrhsimpointa epagwg pnw sto pljo twn stoiqewn
tou [0, y], ja dexoume ti to [0, y] enai diabajmismno txh # (y) gia kje y L. Aut
arke, afo to L qei mgisto stoiqeo. To zhtomeno enai faner an y = 0 to y enai
tomo tou L, dhlad an # [0, y] 2. 'Estw y1 , y2 , . . . , yk ta stoiqea tou L pou kalptontai
ap to y , sta opoa efarmzetai h upjesh th epagwg . An k = 1, tte to y enai angwgo
kai [0, y] = [0, y1 ] {y} ('Askhsh 5), opte to [0, y] enai diabajmismno txh ([0, y1 ]) + 1
kai # (y) = # (y1 ) + 1 = ([0, y1 ]) + 1 = ([0, y]). Upojtoume tra ti k 2. 'Estw
x = y1 y2 yk kai stw r k h txh tou [0, x], r k . Epeid to disthma [x, y] enai
lgebra Boole txh k , kje z [x, y] grfetai (me monadik trpo) san sunnthsh kpoiwn
ap ta y1 , y2 , . . . , yk . Ap thn upjesh th epagwg , to [0, z] enai diabajmismno gia kje
z [x, y] {y}. Epiplon an to z [x, y] {y} enai h sndesh i ek twn y1 , y2 , . . . , yk , tte
to [0, z] qei txh r i, afo ta [0, x] kai [x, z] enai diabajmismna txh r k kai k i,
antstoiqa. Eidiktera, kajna ap ta [0, yj ] enai diabajmismno txh r 1. 'Epetai ti to
[0, y] enai diabajmismno txh r kai mnei na dexoume ti r = # (y). Parathrome ti

(y) = (y1) (y2 ) (yk ) (4.12)

kai ti gia 1 j1 < j2 < < ji k me i 1 qoume

# ((yj1 ) (yj2 ) (yji )) = # (yj1 yj2 yji ) = r i, (4.13)

pou qrhsimopoisame thn upjesh th epagwg sto z = yj1 yj2 yji gia to opoo
qoume ([0, z]) = r i. Efarmzonta thn arq egkleismo-apokleismo (Prtash 4.7.2)
sthn (4.12) kai qrhsimopointa thn (4.13) parnoume
k  
X
i1 k
(y) = (1) (r i) = r
i=1
i

('Askhsh 11), pw to jlame, oloklhrnonta thn epagwg.

 83

Ap thn (4.11) petai ti an to y kalptei to x sto L, tte # (y) = # (x) + 1.

Isodnama qoume # (B A) = 1 gia kje sqsh kluyh A B sto L(S). Gia na dexoume
ti isqei to axwma (iv ) stw A S kai p, q S me p, q
/ A, p A {q} kai q A {p}.
Ja dexoume ti p = q . Ap ta prohgomena gnwrzoume ti uprqei megistik alusda

A A {p1 } A {p1 , p2 } A {p1 , p2 , . . . , pm } = A {q}

mkou m sto L(S). Afo to A {p1 , p2 , . . . , pi } enai kurt kai periqetai gnsia sto
A {q} gia i < m qoume q / A {p1 , p2 , . . . , pi} gia i < m kai sunep q = pm . Ap ti
upojsei ma gia ta A, p, q qoume A {q} = A {p} kai sunep to dio epiqerhma dnei
p = pm . 'Ara p = q .

4.8 Asksei

1. Dste pardeigma peperasmnou sundsmou L me ti idithte : (i) to mgisto stoiqeo

tou L enai so me th sndesh twn atmwn tou L kai (ii) o L den enai atomik .

2. (a) Dexte ti kje kleist disthma se sndesmo enai epsh sndesmo .

(b) An oi L, M enai sndesmoi dexte ti to dio isqei gia ti merik diatxei L ,
L M kai L M .

3. Dexte ti h merik ditaxh NCn twn mh diastauromenwn merismn tou [n] ('Askhsh 8
tou Kefalaou 1) enai sndesmo .

4. 'Estw h asjen ditaxh sto snolo Sn twn metajsewn tou [n] ('Askhsh 6 tou
Kefalaou 1) kai stw Inv() = {(i, j) : 1 i < j n, i > j } gia metjesh
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn .

(a) Dexte ti Inv() Inv( ) gia , Sn .

(b) Dexte ti to (Sn , ) enai sndesmo .

5. 'Estw L peperasmno sndesmo me elqisto stoiqeo 0 kai y L{0}. Dexte ti to y

enai angwgo an kai mno an to y kalptei akrib na stoiqeo tou L. Sthn perptwsh
aut isqei [0, y) = [0, x], pou x enai to monadik stoiqeo tou L pou kalptetai ap
to y .

6. 'Ena sndesmo (L, ) me elqisto stoiqeo 0 kai mgisto 1 lgetai orj (ortholattice)
an uprqei apeiknish : L L me ti idithte
84

(i) x x = 0 kai x x = 1,
(ii) x y x y ,
(iii) x = x

gia x, y L. Dexte ti h merik ditaxh Bn kai h asjen ditaxh sto snolo twn
metajsewn tou [n] ('Askhsh 6 tou Kefalaou 1) enai orjo sndesmoi.

7. Gia 1 k n stw Bn,k h epagmenh upoditaxh th Bn sto snolo twn uposunlwn S

tou [n] me #S {0, 1, . . . , k 1} {n}. Dexte ti h Bn,k enai gewmetrik sndesmo .

8. 'Estw n to snolo twn diamersewn tou sunlou {n, n + 1, . . . , n} gia ti opoe

isqoun: (i) an kpoio mro B th periqei ta i kai i gia kpoio 1 i n, tte
0 B kai (ii) an B enai mro th , tte to B = {x : x B} enai epsh
mro th . Dexte ti to n , efodiasmno me th merik ditaxh th eklptunsh , enai
gewmetrik sndesmo txh n.

9. Gia akeraou 1 k < n stw P (n, k) h sullog lwn twn sunlwn th morf
{S1 , S2 , . . . , Sm }, pou m 0 kai kje Si enai uposnolo tou [n] me toulqiston k + 1
stoiqea, ttoia ste na isqei
[ X
# Si > k + (#Si k) (4.14)
iI iI

gia kje snolo deiktn I [m] me toulqiston do stoiqea. Gia S, T P (n, k)

jtoume S  T an kje stoiqeo tou S periqetai se kpoio stoiqeo tou T .

(a) Dexte ti gia k = 1 to zego (P (n, k), ) enai ismorfo me to sndesmo n twn
diamersewn tou [n].
(b) Dexte ti to zego (P (n, k), ) enai gewmetrik sndesmo txh n k gia
kje 1 k < n.

10. 'Estw (P, ) peperasmno merik diatetagmno snolo. Gia A P stw A to snolo
twn stoiqewn p tou P gia ta opoa uprqoun a1 , a2 A me a1 p a2 . Dexte ti h
apeiknish 2P 2P pou stlnei to A P sto A orzei mia kurt gewmetra sto P .

11. Gia k 2 dexte ti

k  
X
i k
(1) (r i) = 0.
i=0
i
 85

Upodexei - Lsei

1. H merik ditaxh Q tou Sqmato 1.1 apotele pardeigma sundsmou me aut ti idithte .

2. (a) An [u, v] enai kleist disthma sto sndesmo L kai x, y [u, v] , tte ta xy kai xy
ankoun sto [u, v] kai sunep apotelon to elqisto nw frgma kai mgisto ktw frgma,

antstoiqa, twn x y, kai sto [u, v].

(b) x, y L M
'Estw . An xL kai yM , tte xy sto LM kai sunep xy =y ,

xy = x LM sto . An x, y
ta ankoun kai ta do sto L kai ta do sto M , tte to

kattato nw frgma kai to antato ktw frgma tou ston antstoiqo sndesmo qoun thn

dia idithta sto LM . Gia thn perptwsh tou LM parathrome ti ta stoiqea (x, x ) kai

(y, y ) qoun kattato nw frgma kai antato ktw frgma (x y, x y ) kai (x y, x y ) ,

antstoiqa, sto LM , me thn profan nnoia. H perptwsh tou L afnetai ston anagnsth.

3. Parathrome ti gia x, y NCn to mgisto ktw frgma twn x, y sto n , to opoo perigryame

sto Pardeigma 4.1.2, ankei sto NCn kai sunep apotele to mgisto ktw frgma twn x, y
kai sto NCn . To zhtomeno petai ap to Lmma 4.1.1 (ii) .

4. (a) H sunepagwg prokptei amsw ap ton orism th asjeno ditaxh en to an-

tstrofo prokptei me epagwg sto pljo twn stoiqewn tou Inv( )Inv() . Oi leptomreie

afnontai ston anagnsth.

(b) Lgw tou (a), th parxh mgistou stoiqeou gia thn asjen ditaxh ('Askhsh 6 b tou

Kefalaou 1) kai tou Lmmato 4.1.1 (ii) arke na x, y Sn

dexoume to ex : gia la ta

uprqei z Sn ttoio, ste gia kje w Sn

Inv(w) Inv(x) Inv(y) me Inv(w) na isqei

Inv(z) Inv(x) Inv(y) . A En = {(i, j) : 1 i < j n}

Ja lme ti na uposnolo tou qei

th metabatik (i, j), (j, k) A (i, k) A

idithta an A En
. Isqurizmaste ti gia kje

me thn idithta aut z Sn

uprqei ttoio,w Sn Inv(w) A
ste gia kje me na isqei

Inv(w) Inv(z) A . Profan kje Inv(x) Inv(y)

snolo th x, y Sn
morf me qei

th metabatik idithta kai sunep arke na dexoume A En ton isqurism. Dosmnou me

th metabatik idithta, z = un
jtoume u1 , u2 , . . . , un
pou ta ui Si enai metajsei me gia

1in pou orzontai epagwgik u1 = (1)

w ex . 1 < m n um
'Eqoume kai gia h enai

h monadik (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) Sm
metjesh (i) um1me ti idithte um h prokptei ap th

diagrfonta m (ii)
ton ro m = ai , i2 an (ai1 , m)
kai / A (iii) , m = ai
tte kai an

kai i < m , (aj , m) A

tte j gia i < j m
kje dekth me n = 6 . Gia pardeigma, an

kai A = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 5)} u1 = (1) u2 = (2, 1) u3 = (2, 1, 3)
, tte , , ,

u4 = (2, 1, 4, 3) u5 = (2, 1, 5, 4, 3)
, u6 = (2, 1, 5, 4, 6, 3)
kai .

Ja dexoume me epagwg m Inv(um ) A

sto ti1 m n w Sm gia kai ti an kai

Inv(w) A , tte Inv(w) Inv(um ) m = n . H perptwsh dnei to zhtomeno. Mporome

na upojsoume ti m 2 . Ap umthn kataskeu Inv(um ) A

tou qoume amsw ti .

Gia na katalxoume se topo, w Sm

stw (r, s) Inv(w) Inv(um )
ti uprqei kai . Ap
86

thn epagwg sto ms = m

ja um = (a1 , a2 , . . . , am )
prpei . m = ai
'Estw kai . Efson

(r, m) / Inv(um ) i2 r = ak
qoume k<i (ai1 , m)
kai /A me . Epsh ap thn kataskeu

tou um k < i1
kai (r, m) Inv(w) A
afo r > ai1
. Diakrnoume do periptsei . An

tte (ai1 , r) Inv(um ) A (r, m) A

kai exaita tou ti kai th metabatikthta tou

A qoume (ai1 , m) A , prgma adnato r < ai1

pw qoume dh epishmnei. An tte

(r, ai1 )
/ Inv(um1 ) (r, ai1 )
,/ Inv(w)
opte ap thn upjesh th epagwg . Dedomnou

ti (r, m) Inv(w) (ai1 , m) Inv(w)

prokptei ti (ai1 , m) A kai sunep h antfash .

5. Upojtoume ti to y kalptei akrib na stoiqeo tou L x

, stw to . Ja dexoume ti [0, y) =
[0, x] kai y ti to enai angwgo. Gia tuqao z [0, y) mporome na epilxoume megistik

alusda z < z1 < < zk = y tou diastmato [z, y] Lsto y . Afo to kalptei tozk1
sto [z, y] , ra Lkai sto , qoume anagkastik zk1 = x kai zx
sunep , opte z [0, x] .

Dexame dhlad ti [0, y) [0, x] . O egkleism [0, x] [0, y) enai faner . Epsh gia tuqaa

u, v < y u, v [0, y) = [0, x]

qoume , dhlad u, v x , uv x
ra kai sunep u v 6= y .

Prokptei y ti to enai angwgo stoiqeo tou L . Antstrofa, y an to enai angwgo tte

den enai dunat na kalptei do diaforetik stoiqea u, v L tou , diti sthn perptwsh aut

(dedomnou tou ti to L enai sndesmo ) profan isqei y =uv .

6. Gia th Bn arke na orsei kane x = [n] x

x [n] gia . Gia thn asjen ditaxh sto

snolo twn metajsewn tou[n] (h opoa enai sndesmo ap thn 'Askhsh 4 b) orzoume x =
(an , an1 , . . . , a1 ) x = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
an . Oi zhtomene idithte prokptoun ap thn 'Askhsh

4 a kai th sqsh Inv(x ) = {(i, j) : 1 i < j n} Inv(x) .

7. Enai ekolo na dexei kane ti to Bn,k enai ismorfo me to sndesmo L(S) tou Porsmato

4.5.1, pou S enai tuqao snolo n dianusmtwn ston Rk se genik jsh (opoiadpote k
stoiqea tou S enai grammik anexrthta). To zhtomeno petai ap to Prisma 4.5.1.

8. An{e1 , e2 , . . . , en } enai bsh tou grammiko qrou Rn dexte ti to n enai ismorfo me

to sndesmo L(S) tou Porsmato 4.5.1, pou to S apoteletai ap ta diansmataei gia

1in , ta diansmata ei ej gia 1i<jn kai ta diansmata ei + ej gia 1i<jn .

To zhtomeno petai ap to Prisma 4.5.1.

9. (a) Gia k=1 h (4.14) dnei

# (Si Sj ) #Si + #Sj ,

dhlad Si Sj = , gia i 6= j . Antstrofa, an ta Si enai an do xna metax tou tte isqei

h (4.14). Prokptei ti h apeiknish f : P (n, 1) n , gia thn opoa f ({S1 , S2 , . . . , Sm })

enai h diamrish tou [n] se mh monosnola S 1 , S 2 , . . . , Sm
mrh , enai isomorfism merik

diatetagmnwn sunlwn.

(b) Dete C.A. Athanasiadis, The largest intersection lattice of a discriminantal

to rjro

arrangement, Beitrage Algebra Geom. 10 (1999), 283289 .

 87

10. Ja epalhjesoume (iv )

to axwma . Pio sugkekrimna,p, q P ja dexoume ti an gia kai

A P p, q
/ A p A {q}
isqoun , q A {p} p = q
kai , tte . Ap thn upjesh

p A {q} a pb
qoume a, b A {q}
gia kpoia p
/ A q =a . Efson ja prpei

q = b . q = b
'Estw a p q
opte a A {q} me (h llh perptwsh enai parmoia)

kai mporome na a A
upojsoume ti . q A {p}
Omow ap q
/ A
ti upojsei kai

qoume a q b a , b A {p}
gia kpoia p = a p = b me . H prth perptwsh dnei

a p q b b A {p}
me . p/A
Exaita tou ti b = p , upoqrewtik qoume kai sunep

p=q . apqp
Omow , h deterh perptwsh dnei p=q
, ap pou prokptei epsh ti .

11. Gia f : Z PZ f
:ZZ

orzoume me f (n) = f (n) f (n 1) . Tte gia k1 qoume

k i k f (n i)
k f (n) = i=0 (1) i . An h f enai polunumo n sto bajmo d
, tte f
h

enai polunumo n sto d1 bajmo (pou shmanei f

ti h enai tautotik mhdn an d=0 ).

Efarmzoume ta parapnw gia to grammik polunumof (n) = n .

88
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[2 Ian Anderson, Combinatorics of finite sets, Oxford Science Publications, Oxford Uni-
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[3 Garrett Birkhoff, Lattice theory, Amer. Math. Soc. Colloq. Publ. No. 25, American
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[4 Robert P. Dilworth, A decomposition theorem for partially ordered sets, Ann. of Math.
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