Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Preface vii
1 Classification of burns 1
Introduction 2
Burn depth 6
Area 7
2 Types of burn 9
Scalds 11
Flame 13
Contact 14
Friction 16
Electrical Burns 16
Chemical Burns 21
3 Early management 25
Resuscitation 26
Wound care 28
Escharotomy 35
Fixation of fractures 39
4 Complications 43
Inhalational injuries 44
Tracheostomy 49
5 Late management 63
Anaesthesia 64
Wound excision 69
Wound closure 74
Physiotherapy 92
6 Sequelae 101
Scars 102
Splints 105
Pathology 113
Index 117
v
re face
~ .,.:-". are several excellent text-books on bums and their management, but few
-~ -.'. ",U illustrated and almost none in colour. Most of these texts are written
~ ;;pccialists, or those planning to become specialists, or cater for special
- :~:->st groups. There is therefore an opportunity for a book that is written for
- ~ ~ .: who may work in a burns centre, or for others who deal with bum
:-':::;:::1(S and who need a broader view than the burns specialist.
~e s tudy of burns lends itself well to visual representation as the injuries
~~-: at least initially, in the skin and are therefore readily observable . This
:: ~' __"ur Atlas is designed for those who wish to find out more about the
- ;:,: ~e nt kinds of bum, how they are caused and how they can be managed. It
~ :,x' those who are seeking an introduction, whether nurses, physio
,- ,:.~a pi s ts, occupational therapists, dieticians, pharmacists, social workers or
:-~:..::..l-to logists, for doctors in training, those preparing for higher exams, for
C~~-:eri ologists and pathologists.
~e text is short and didactic, and is used to elaborate and explain the
_...;,s rrations and their legends. I have deliberately avoided being controversiaL
_ . _,.an ~' areas have been glossed over or ignored, but it was felt that it was better
0..:' ~1a \' e a short interesting text that could be quickly comprehended, rather
:.:-..l.' an all-embracing text that would be too detailed and of less general
~:." ~eaL The reader is advised to go to the textbooks listed in the bibliography
!,:, ~ :he arguments and further opinions and advice. There is a generous index
.:.:-.j a specially selected list of excellent references which give a review of many
: ~ ? :cs , and are themselves a source of further and specific references.
The Colour Atlas is written and published as a mark of respect to the nurses
.. the Bums Unit at Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton . I sincerely admire
,'-,eir care, concern and love. It is a privilege to work with them . The nursing of
:~~ ents with burns remains one of the few areas in medicine where individual
:-::.: ses can be o(profound and lasting influence. Their compassion and gentle
:-."'5S, their concern and understanding, is remembered for ever by patients and
~neir relatives . Everi. when it is clear that one of their patients cannot survive an
,,:':envhelming injury, they are comforted and guarded, and treated with
~ .-?5pect and dignity . I honour all who work with burn patients .
To Jonathan Chandy, who has written the section on anaesthesia, my
s:.." cere thanks. Enormously kind and considerate to his patients, who have got
: 0 know him well, he has been unstinting with his time and concern . He has
:Yerseen aIr patients on ventilators and those critically ill, and has, together
-.i th Alain Landes, safely cared for those undergoing surgery and repeated
"'::cessing changes. He has shared much of the burden of management of the
3..:-u te patients, and has been responsible for the training of many young
i :-.aesthetists in burn care.
~ly gratitude is offered to all those who work in the Burns Unit at Roehamp
:,'n . in particular Ruth Clarke and Debbie Steer, nursing sisters, Manu Perin
?anayagam and Mike Weinbren, microbiologists, and Duro Johnson, social
'.\'orker, Muriel Gaul, dietician, Claire Clarke, physiotherapist, and Sarah
'''"right, occupational therapist, and the many trainee plastic surgeons who
. d\'e worked hard and long into the night.
I am indebted to Bob Jankowski and Neil Maffre, and others in the Depart
~ ent of Medical Illustration at Roehampton for the photographs . These are
ob\'iously the greatest strength and asset of an Atlas, and they have taken
0 eat pains and trouble to reflect the injuries as they really are. They have
always been enthusiastic and very considerate to the patients, and without
:hem the work could not exist . I am particularly grateful to my friends, Arieh
Eldad, for the illustrations of phosphorous burns, and Ian Wilson, for the
VB
-- ~ -- --- - - -- - - - -- -
PREFACE
picture of mustard gas burns. All other illustrations are of patients from
Roehampton, and my thanks go to them for allowing me to publish pictures of
them when not looking their best.
Finally, I should like to thank the publishers for their patience and under
standing, and my wife and children who were less patient but very tolerant,
yet perhaps more understanding.
John Clarke
Roehampton
\"111
1 CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS
Partial thickness burns can be subdivided into those Superficial dermal burns blister, exposing the pink
involving the epidermis and superficial layers of the coloured surface layers of the dermis which is sensi
dermis (superficial dermal) and those reaching down tive to pain (Fig. 1.3). There is considerable loss of
into the deeper layers of the dermis (deep dermal) . In protein-rich tissue fluid from the wound, which
both cases, spontaneous healing can occur from un when left to dry for two or three days will form an
damaged epidermal appendages-hair follicles, and adherent scab. Spontaneous healing can occur within
sweat and sebaceous glands; epithelium will regener 10 to 14 days.
ate and resurface the remaining dermis (Fig. 1.2).
Fig. 1.2 Deep dermal burns after treatment in dress Fig. 1.3 Superficial dermal burns. (a) Very superficial
ings for two weeks. White dermal net with a source of burn. There is little erythema and only superficial blis
new epithelium from underlying hair follicles and sweat tering, as the burns were immediately cooled with run
glands at the centre of each pink spot are seen . ning water.
(b) The blistered skin has been removed to expose a (c) The pink and red mottled dermal base has been
moist, pink base which is very sensitive to touch. exposed . Dessication following exposure to dry air pro
motes scab formation with some deepening of the der
mal damage.
--:.. .. - - - --
FULL THICKNESS BURNS
Deep dermal tion destroys the entire dermis together with all epi
dermal cells. The surface of the burn is initially
Deep dermal burns also blister but the base is crea grey-white and leathery (Fig. 1.5), and is completely
-ny-white and not sensitive to pain as nerve endings painless. If allowed to dry a transparent brown es
ave been damaged (Fig. 1.4). Overt fluid loss is not char forms, revealing thrombosed vessels beneath
3S excessive and it is easy to confuse with a more (Fig. 1.6). With very deep burns, damage can extend
superficial burn when the wound has been allowed to to muscle and bone, thus adding a volume compon
dry. Spontaneous healing may be delayed for three to ent to the injury (i.e. not only depth but also volume
our weeks and is frequently followed by the devel of dead tissue).
opment of a hypertrophic scar. Only small, deep burns will heal spontaneously.
The granulation tissue which eventually forms in the
wound contracts (Fig. 1. 7), making it smaller, allow
FULL THICKNESS BURNS ing the surrounding undamaged epithelium to
migrate onto the surface of the burn. In larger deep
Full thickness burns do not blister as there are no burns, healing is by secondary intention only and
patent capillaries remaining in the bed and coagula- skin grafting is invariably required.
Fig. 1.4 Deep dermal burn. The dry white dermal bed is Fig. 1.5 Full thickness burn. There is a numb central
painful to pinprick, yet not entirely anaesthetic. Spon leathery area, with white deep dermal damage around
:a.neous healing may be slow and followed by hypertro the periphery. The vascular flare is a zone of hyperaemia
ic scarring. and indicates superficial damage.
Fig. 1.6 Deep burn. Some areas are leathery and dull, Fig. 1.7 Deep flame burn. The dry and leathery eschar
a.~:Jothers parchment-like and transparent, revealing around the abdomen is impairing respiration. Flexures
:-om bosed vessels beneath. show cracking and splitting .
5
1 CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS
Fig. 1.8 Immersion scald. A deep dermal burn caused Fig. 1.9 Mixed depth flame burn. Areas of erythema,
by prolonged contact with very hot water. The dry red superficial and deep dermal burns, together with smoke
base is stained by haemoglobin pigments. staining of the skin, indicate full thickness skin loss.
AREA
"" . . f A
Table 1.1 Classification of burns
- - ? t assessment of an area of burn is essential, as
_ -~ of an extent greater than 10 per cent in children
- .: ~: per cent in adults warrant an immediate intra- Type of burn Blistering Appearance Pinprick test
:::;- ,-':':~ infusion. The Wallace Rule of Nine is con
~ :-~"':' t when estimating a burn area in adults (Fig.
~ = but it is less applicable in young children due
Superficial Present Bright red Sensitive to
-) I:.:i:<:>rent proportions of head to trunk (i.e. larger
dermal pain
-'==. ': . ::ompared with trunk area) . For children, the
__- ::i and Browder chart is more relevant (Fig. 1.11b Deep dermal Blisters Creamy Dullness to
.:"5 a general guideline, the area of the patient's are broken coloured/ pain,
, :: .:._~ . is equal to 1 per cent of body surface area. mottled sensitive to
. ~ skin thickness varies in different parts of the touch
_.:>0..:.: . :: is important to have a good working know
-.:g-= oi these variations to assess a particular burn Full Absent Grey/white No
' - ~ .: \ !ortality from a burn is related to the patient's thickness or brown sensation
the surface area involved, and a reasonably
~~:_ ;ate estimation of the chances of survival can be
:-;..::i:-,ed from the Bull and Fisher mortality tables
:: ;:: ~ .1 2).
7
..
1 CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS
36%
~ 32%
/
17%
Fig. 1.11 Estimation of burn area. (b) Lund and Browder modification of (c) Modification for children of up to
(a) Wallace rule of nine. area in children of five to ten years of four years of age .
age.
Fig. 1.12 Bull and Fisher mortality tables. This chart shows the relat ionshi p
between mortality, age of the patient and total area of the body burned.
1 = 100% mortality; 0.1 = 10% mortality (from Bull, 1971).
8
UJnq /0 sadli~ Z
g- 2.1 Typical scalds from boiling water. (a) A Fig_ 2.2 Deep immersion scalds through prolonged
-.::' :::.: :er Si C distribu tion was caused on the face, neck, contact with hot water. (a) The deep red base is anaes
~ - '=-0 : ;:C;J arr'l from boiling water, The bright red base, thetic and analgesic, sugge sti ve of a deep burn.
~ """O, SI and shining immediately after injury, sug
;;=' 5' s ' ''at :, e injury is supe rficial.
3 ) :" ,ery superiicial scald, This was seen very soon after (b) Haemoglobin pigment is trapped within the lissues
'- ~ ~ , ury , There is little evidence of any serious exudate giving this typical dull, deep red appearance.
,,' ' - s stage,
-=' .:, more extensive scald . The burn has all the charac (c) The toenails have come away with the blisters, which
of a superficial injury, but because of its extent
' '0' SlI CS usually indicates coagulation of the digital vessels and
- ' -e. enous resuscitation would be required. will result in loss of the loes.
11
2 TYPES OF BURN
Fig. 2.3 Scald from boiling water. The white base is Fig. 2.4 Other agents causing scalding. (a) B ""
apparent immediately after injury and indicates a deep milk. The blistering is patchy and care should be ta' e - ::
dermal or full thickness burn. Unfortunately, first aid ensure that the un blistered areas are not deep , by t8 oo: - ;
measures of dousing with cold water were delayed and sensation. Healing should be uneventful.
the burn needed skin grafting .
(b) Hot oil. The nC'ticeable red margin with paler dermal (c) Hot fat. The base is pale and mottled , witr :=:::
base is characteristic of a deep dermal burn, and the areas of numbness . The burns were dressed ana ::2 '? :
distribution corresponds to the pattern of clothing. First spontaneously.
aid measures were delayed.
12
FLAME
Fig. 2.5 Deep flame burns. (a) (b) Deep burn caused by ignition of (c) Patchy blistering indicates that
=- _'-" caused by ignition of hair. alcohol. With such a burn over the there is little capillary function
=:-'se::> bu rn s of forehead and scalp neck early excision and grafting is remaining in the skin, and the
:;:-:;- ~ee n with oedema of the eyes important to protect access to anaesthetic white base is revealed in
:=.-: -'ose. Hair should be shaved, airways. places. Local oedema is typical and
: _~ :3arJy surgery is often the hourly output of urine is
:: sB:)ooin ting. monitored. Micturition is not impaired
by penile oedema, which is usually
confined to the foreskin only.
Fig. 2.6 Deep charring burns. Very deep circumferential Fig. 2.7 Full thickness skin loss. The transparent es
;:: _--5 ); the leg . With this type of injury, underlying mus char, 24 hours after admission, reveals thrombosed veins
:c '= ::allage may be anticipated, and immediate surgical beneath, which is a typical characteristic. Sharp excision
,:::: x ""1p ression including fasciotomy is required. and skin grafting should be performed without delay.
13
2 TYPES OF BURN
Fig. 2.8 Massive flame burn. Treatment is by exposure , Fig. 2.9 Mixed depth burns with inhalational injuries.
An escharotomy on the leg is dressed with a strip of The cream coloured areas are deep and require gra ': - ;!
nitrofurazone, and the wound surface is clean and dry Oedema of the lips , together with a stridor, indica 'e ::
Over 80 per cent of the body surface is deeply burned upper airways obstruction, and early endotracheal r:_
and prognosis is very poor indeed , bat ion is prudent. In this case, injuries were caused t . ::
gas explosion in a confined area
Fig. 2.10 Full thickness contact burns, sustained (b) Burns are deep due to prolonged contact , b
when protective mechanisms were not functioning. narrow extent allows conservative treatment.
(a) Although water temperature in radiator pipes may not
be very hi9h , prolonged contact at temperatures above
45C combined with the effects of local pressure cause
full th ickness burns of this type,
14
CONTACT
....
Fig. 2.14 Contact burns from (b) Tar burns . Typical splashes on (c) Full thickness burn from molten
clten bitumen, tar and metal. the face . Immediate first aid metal. The hot metal melted the shoe
2. Ylolten bitumen burns. measures should be taken by in this instance. The injury will require
thorough irrigation with water. skin grafting.
15
2 TYPES OF BURN
Friction burns often involve large areas of abrasion In electrical burns, the severity of damage depends
with some thermal damage caused by generated upon the resistance of tissues (high resistance in bone
heat. Genuine friction burns are seen where the body and skin), the voltage and amperage (Fig. 2.16). This
is in contact with a rapidly moving mechanism such electrical energy is transformed to thermal energy,
as a tyre or belt drive. These burns are deep and may often with explosive force (Fig. 2.17).
expose fat, tendon or bone. Early primary excision
may be necessary (Fig. 2.15).
Fig. 2.15 Extensive friction bu rns. (b) Deeply ingrained road dirt which (c) Six days post-injury, followi g
(a) Full thickness skin loss of the cannot be excised by shaving with a abrasion and thin skin grafting.
back, caused by the patient being skin graft knife, as the grit quickly
dragged along a road for some causes the blade to blunten.
distance. Removal is best performed with a
wire dermabrasion brush.
Fig. 2.16 Deep burns to the hands. Caused by contact Fig. 2.17 Electrical injury with explosive force. 8 2.'s
with a cable carrying 660 volts. Damage is more exten bone without periosteum is exposed but the hand "- '
sive than with ordinary domestic voltage. The metacarpo though insensate, still retains an adequate circ u la: ~
phalangeal joint will need cover with a local flap. Late thrombosis can be anticipated and the arm ' : ~
case was amputated.
16
ELECTRICAL BURNS
_.:.. : ordinary domestic voltages the size of a cutaneous across the heart can induce fatal ventricular fibrilla
:ru.rn may appear small but is always deep, with a tion or cardiac arrhythmias_ Similarly, flow across
surprisingly large volume of tissue damaged (Fig. flexural surfaces can cause arcing; tetanic spasms may
: .18) . Small punctate burns (Fig. 2.19) often mask prevent the victim from releasing contact and may
:~u ombosed vessels and devascularized fat (Fig. even be strong enough to rupture muscles (Fig . 2.22).
::' 20). The body becomes part of an electrical circuit, Tetanic spasm of respiratory muscle may cause res
"nd it is at the point of entry of the current that the pira tory failure.
;:ound is most severe (Fig. 2.21) . Current passing
Fig. 2_18 Very deep electrical burns. (a) This injury involves nerves, blood
. essels, tendons and bone and will require wide excision and flap cover. (b)
-- e iingers have been mummified and dessicated . Both middle and ring
, - ;Jers will require amputation .
g. 2.19 Electrical contact burn. This injury , sustained Fig. 2.20 Small punctate burns. (a) The peripheral blis
- -:_ gh wearing a wedding ring, is fortunately minor; in ters have been removed, revealing the full thickness
.- -:: "",atori ty of cases the underlying neurovascular pedi central loss. These burns were treated with zinc oxide
:= S :'lrombosed with eventual loss of the finger. tape, allowing almost full return of function.
17
2 TYPES OF BURN
Injuries occurring in infants caused by chewing or always extensive (Fig. 2.23). Secondary haemorrhage
sucking on live leads or plugs, where moist tissues from the labial artery can be dramatic.
decrease resistance to the passage of current, are
Fig. 2.22 Electrical injury. The biceps tendon has been Fig. 2.23 Deep burns of lips and tongue. (a) Injuries
ruptured following tetanic contracture. Note slight bruis were caused by sucking on a live plug.
ing of the antecubital fossa and contracted muscle belly
in the upper part of the arm .
(b) Two weeks later, after conservative treatment. Heal (c) This injury was caused by chewing an electric caD e
ing is almost complete. There has been local arcing with extensive tissue loss
Secondary haemorrhage from the labial artery is a risk
18
ELECTRICAL BURNS
In the case of flash burns from arcing, where tem thrombosis of vessels and often fractures caused by
poeratures may exceed 4000C for a fraction of a sec the fall (Fig. 2.26). The volume of tissue damaged is
~~:td J no current flows through the body but the always extensive (Fig. 2.27), and the temperature of
::::tpact may throw the patient several feet. Damage to these tissues may take hours to return to normal.
::,e tissues is therefore superficial (Fig. 2.24) unless Surgical decompression with excision of coagulated
othing has been ignited. However, damage to the muscle, as well as wide fasciotomies and escharoto
2:.-es, when the blink reflex is too slow, may be more mies should be undertaken urgently and the wound
~e\-ere (Fig. 2.25), albeit very unusual. inspected repeatedly. Late thrombosis occurs with
High tension injuries of greater than 1000 volts the apparent extension of the area devitalized, and
~e" ult in massive muscle damage and charring, secondary haemorrhage is common.
Fig. 2.24 Burn from high energy arc. Tiny punctate Fig. 2.25 High energy flash burn. There is spotting of
~..eas due to vaporized metal, sustained when the patient the skin from vaporized metal. Early conjunctival oedema
-- revv a metal chain across electrified rails_ and an apparently serious burning to the cornea which
will, however heal rapidly_ The blink reflex is sometimes
too slow to protect the cornea in electrical flash injuries_
Fig. 2.26 A high tension electrical injury. (a) Circulation (b) An incision made through the biceps muscle at the
- ~ '1 e arm has been interrupted by thrombosis of the time of amputation shows complete thrombosis of the
: 'anchial vessels. vessels and coagulation of the muscle.
19
2 TYPES OF BURN
In thermoelectric bums tetanic spasms prolong these instances a fern-like pattern can be seen in the
contact with the source . In the common case of elec skin, which fades within hours . Cutaneous burns are
tric bar fires, massive damage to the palmar surface of usually small and neurological signs can be transi
the hand results in destruction of skin, tendons, tory. Paralytic ileus is seen, and cataracts may
nerves, vessels and even bone (Fig. 2.28). Skin graft develop many years after the accident. Instant car
ing and flap cover is often necessary. diac arrest is the usual cause of death although many
In lightning injuries, the current from a lightning cases of complete recovery have been recorded where
strike can flow through the body but more commonly cardiac massage and mouth to mouth resuscitation
it flows across its surface, stripping off clothing. In . was persisted with for 30 minutes.
Fig. 2.27 Very deep electrical burn. This was caused by Fig. 2.28 Thermoelectric burns. The hand has been
a fall onto a railway line. There is a very deep burn over held in prolonged contact with a heated electrical ele
the sternum, with loss of pectoralis major muscle and ment by a tetanic spasm. The tissue damage is always
part of the sternum, thrombosis of the internal mammary very extensive; all structures are involved and growth of
vessels, and deep involvement of the pericardium . An the bones is invariably arrested.
omental flap was used to cover the exposed heart.
20
CHEMICAL BURNS
CHEMICAL BURNS
:\cid
Fig. 2.30 Hydrochloric acid burns. There is coagulative Fig. 2.31 Typical acid burns. (a) Sulphuric acid burn.
- -= ~ro sis with little penetration of deeper tissues. These Brown discoloration is typical. The coagulative necrosis
:: _ ' p s are usually deep but do not worsen with time. The limits penetration. This type of injury should be treated by
; -e,' appearance is typical. irrigation with water.
itric acid burn. This was irrigated copiously for an Fig. 2.32 Acid burn to eye. Corneal clouding in the lower
, and healed spontaneously, albeit with subsequent half with some conjunctival irritation. Intense blepharos
-. ;:::e rtrophic scarring .. pasm may prevent adequate irrigation.
21
2 TYPES OF BURN
Alkali
Fig. 2.34 Caustic soda burns. (b) The black and brown areas are
(a) These are very deep and deep and will heal slowly, leaving
penetrating . In this case, first aid bad scars .
measures were delayed . Early
excision and grafting are warranted .
Fig. 2.35 Cement burns. (a) At the (b) This burn has been dressed with
time of injury there is little pain a simple greasy dressing for two
experienced thus patients often weeks . The deeper layers of the
preseht late. Management is by early dermis are exposed and there is
shaving with delayed split skin obvious full thickness loss centrally.
grafting.
22
CHEMICAL BURNS
Other chemicals tion with early excision and grafting if the lesions are
insensitive to pinprick. Systemic absorption or
_.iany different chemicals can cause tissue damage inhalation of the chemical can cause serious metabolic
:'ut the principles of treatment are the same: tho ...:r toxic problems (Fig. 2.38) and advice must be
: \.~ ugh irrigation (Fig. 2.36), physical removal of the ~ 'Jtained from a toxicologist as early as possible after
.:ausative agent (Fig. 2.37), and prevention of infec oresentation.
23
2 TYPES OF BURN
Fig. 2.38 Burns caused by toxic chemicals. (a) Phenol (b) Mustard gas burns. Vesiculation with erythema and
burns. Although locally toxic to the skin, phenol rarely scattered deep dermal loss. Most of these burns healed
causes full thickness injuries. This patient suffered renal spontaneously, albeit slowly. Grafting is rarely required,
failure and needed haemodialysis for six weeks to restore but changes in pigmentation are frequent. The inhalatio
renal function. nal component is much more important clinically .
1-UalUa~VUVlU
IiZJv'J f
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
Pathophysiology
26
RESUSCITATION
in cases where fractures accompany bum injuries, and haematocrit are very useful. Measurement of the
?llie blood loss from fractures as well as plasma loss haematocrit, whereby a sample of blood is centri
::rom the burn must be taken into consideration. fuged down to enable the packed cell volume to be
bternal bleeding prior to hospital admission should calculated, provides an indication of the efficiency of
abo be established. A guide to the blood loss treatment (Fig. 3.2). A urinary catheter should be
~"lcurred with fractures is shown in Fig. 3.1. An inserted for those patients requiring intravenous
asse ssment of the amount of plasma and blood to be fluids, and hourly urine volume is the most informa
::ansfused should be reviewed frequently. tive guide to the adequacy of resuscitation. A fall in
There is little agreement on the best method of urinary output suggests that resuscitation is inade
:-esuscitating burn patients. Many methods are used quate and should be challenged with rapid adminis
and most are successful, but two prevail: the early tration of 500ml of colloid. Diuretics should be
".1se of colloids and the use of crystalloids . Both avoided until it is considered that the patient has
appear to be equally effective but patients treated been overtransfused; most patients failing to respond
~',i th colloid make greater progress, and by being less to subsequent diuretics have not been given enough
Odematous have fewer problems with paralytic intravenous fluids. Early renal failure is seen only in
~ eus, stress ulcers and pulmonary complications. patients where resuscitation has been delayed, where
However, colloids are expensive and plasma is not there is extensive muscle damage, or with pre-exist
-,\idely available although it is the most logical re ing renal pathology.
placement fluid_ Dextran is a suitable alternative .
Formulae give the physician only a guide to the
a\-erage patient requirements (Table 3.1). Adminis WOUND CARE
.ered volumes should be adjusted according to the
. atient's response. Skin colour and warmth are good After adequate sedation of the patient the wound
'ndices of peripheral circulation, and core and periph should be carefully inspected in a clean and warm
eral temperatures should be noted, together with the atmosphere. To minimize contamination, gloves,
pulse rate and blood pressure. Increasing rest mask and apron should be worn. Any loose skin is
:essness indicates that hypoxia is developing due to gently removed and large blisters emptied; the area is
either an inhalational injury or, more often, simple cleaned with a mild detergent antiseptic and the sur
h ypovolaemia. Invasive monitoring with central ve rounding skin shaved .
nous lines is not recommended in uncomplicated A burn can be treated by one of three methods:
urns as this can easily lead to the overprovision of exposure to air; dressing; or prompt excision and
fluids, but four-hourly estimations of haemoglobin grafting. Management options range from early radi-
24-48 h 5% dextrose
O.5ml colloid/% BSABlkg
27
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
cal excision to benign neglect where dead tissue sep phere an eschar should develop within two or three
arates spontaneously. The condition of the patient days, beneath which the wound will start to heal
and local facilities available will determine the course (Fig. 3.3).
of treatment followed. The eschar forms a close-fitting cover consisting of
protein exudate and dead, dessicated burned tissue
which is lifted off as the burn heals. The dry eschar
The 'exposure' method separates early, with good recovery of the epidermal
adnexae. The wound may become slightly deeper
This is based on the principle that drying the burn from dessication, but this is not of clinical import
inhibits bacterial growth . Exposure is more appro ance. It is safe to allow spontaneous healing to pro
priate for partial thickness or mixed depth burns nied for two weeks, when any remaining eschar
where a decision has been taken to avoid early sur should be removed under general anaesthetic and
gery. It is a difficult method to practise in circumfe raw areas grafted (Fig. 3.4). Eschar which remains in
rential burns as their surface will not remain dry. place for longer than this period will encourage bac
Favourable results have been reported by washing terial colonization within the burn and lead to infec
the wound once or twice a day with normal saline, tion . If the wound becomes moist, fails to dry within
but still maintaining a dry environment. two to three days or shows signs of infection (Fig.
After exposing the wound in a warm, dry atmos 3.5), the technique must be abandoned (Fig. 3.6) and
Fig. 3.3 Scald injury treated by (b)At 7 days. (c) At 16 days . Rapid,
exposure. (a) At 24 hours. uncomplicated healing is seen with
no painful dressing changes . No
long term problems are anticipated.
28
WOUND CARE
dressings applied, or the wound must be surgically niques, physical separation of the patients and an
excised (Fig. 3.7). Moist surfaces encourage the adequate flow of air around the wound,
growth of Gram negative bacteria such as Pseudomo
nas aeruginosa. However, the Gram positive cocci can The closed' method
I
Fig. 3.4 Deep dermal burn. (a) This has been treated by (b) Under general anaesthesia, the eschar is lifted off.
exposure for two weeks .
clean, healthy bed is revealed with no residual dead ' Fig. 3.5 Prevention of contamination. Although most of
. ssue. A thin split skin graft can be applied, and healing this eschar remains dry, some areas are becoming
'" - ;)Uld be rapid and uneventful. macerated and are therefore potentially contaminated.
Thorough washing with an antiseptic soap solution , fol
lowed by drying in a very warm atmosphere , may allow
the surface to dessicate and the exposure technique to
be continued.
29
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
Fig. 3.6 Prevention of infection. The eschar is no longer Fig. 3.7 Prevention of invasive sepsis. The red flare
dry and therefore no longer protects the underlying burn around this exposed eschar indicates local cellulitis fol
surface. The wound will be heavily colonized, and slight lowed closely by invasive sepsis Infection in such an
inflammation is noticeable at the edge. The exposure exposed wound is likely to be streptococcal and should
technique must be abandoned. Dressings may help to be treated by high doses of penicillin , early wound exci
keep the number of colonizing organisms to manageable sion and delayed grafting .
levels but do not eradicate them. Surgical excision
should be considered.
Fig. 3.8 Flamazine dressing. (a) Dirty dressings have (b) The wound surface is cleaned.
been removed and wound swabs taken .
(c) Flamazine is applied with a gloved hand and worked (d) Cotton gauze covers the cream.
uniformly into the wound surface to be dressed.
30
WOUND CARE
c: r urther cotton padding is held in place with crepe (I) Elastic net dressing is used to unite the leg dressings
:3ndages. and to hold the gauze over the buttocks .
Sulphamylon Penetrates eschar well May cause stinging pain which limits
(Mafenide) Good antimicrobial action usefulness
Bactroban Very effective against Gram positive No effect on Gram negative bacteria
(Mupirocin) organisms (especially group A
Streptococcus and Staphylococci
31
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
firm crepe bandage. The dressing should extend well chocolate brownfblack (Fig. 3.9). Care must be taken
beyond the area of the wound (Fig. 3.8). There is a as silver nitrate leaches chloride ions from the circula
range of dressings currently available; the most popu tion which must be replaced, thus careful monitoring
lar are listed in Table 3.2. of serum electrolytes is necessary. Silver sulphadia
Wet dressings of 0.5% silver nitrate solution are zine dressings are also widely used and are antibacte
very effective in preventing serious contamination rial against Gram negative organisms (Fig. 3.10).
but are ineffective in treating an established wound
infection. They also stain skin and bed clothing a
Fig. 3.10 An apparently superficial (b) At three weeks it is clear that the (c) Six weeks after the injury, the
scald. (a) Treated in silver white exposed dermis over the right burn, grafts and donor site are
sulphadiazine cream. flank is deeper. The burn should be healed.
very superficially shaved, leaving as
much dermis as possible, and a thin
skin graft applied .
32
WOUND CARE
Fig. 3.11 Burns of mixed depth. (b) At ten days there has been some (c) The wound was grafted three
a) Treatment in dressings did not separation of the eschar at the weeks later with skin harvested from
Drevent significant colonization . edges, but surgical excision at this the abdominal wall, and is healed at
stage would involve considerable six weeks after the injury.
loss of blood.
f'
Fig. 3.12 Wound care in the elderly. (a) The eschar is
a lowed to separate spontaneously.
:J) Under a general anaesthetic thin skin grafts are taken (c) Mobilization is continued as soon as possible and
:nd the wound gently scraped. grafts are applied as a delayed procedure. In this case,
healing is nearly complete at ten weeks .
33
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
In the elderly, treatment is directed towards daily wound fails to heal within this time, grafting should
baths and frequent change of medicated dressing, take place without delay.
resulting in subsequent separation of the eschar (Fig .
3.12).
Dressing of superficial and dermal burns of the
hand is carried out by applying antiseptic cream and The semi-open method
covering with a loose-fitting plastic bag (Fig. 3.13) .
Contamination from the environment is prevented An alternative method is the semi-open/semi-closed
and the burns are surprisingly painless because they technique, whereby antiseptic cream is applied over
are kept macerated. Active movements are encour the burn surface but the wound is not formally
aged . The dressing shouid be changed daffy and dressed (Fig. ~ . 14J . ReappIicafion of the cream at least
treatment continues for two or three weeks . If the once a day after washing is necessary and full move-
ments are encouraged. Good microbial prophylaxis is Fig. 3.17 shows the procedure of escharotomy of the
obtained, and if the technique is discontinued after 10 hand and fingers, aiming to release tension.
or 12 days and the eschar allowed to dry, the wound Incisions should be made promptly as bleeding
can be excised a few days later with relatively little will be excessive if delay has led to vascular engorge
blood loss. This method has the advantages of being ment of the tissues, in which case a fasciotomymaybe
quick and inexpensive. indicated (Fig. 3.18). Furthermore, the escharotomy
should provide adequate decompression of tissues. It
can be seen in Fig. 3.19 that this has not occurred.
ESCHAROTOMY Initially, an incision is made in the centre of the
burn down to fat and is extended along the line of the
Deep circumferential burns that involve limbs or limb (Fig. 3.20). Pain indicates that the incision has
trunk are likely to contract, exerting a tourniquet reached an area of superficial burn, therefore further
effect as they dry (Fig. 3.15). Initially, venous return incision will not be necessary. Extension proximally
is impaired, or in the case of the chest wall, venti and distally along the medial and lateral aspects of
latory excursion is limited. An incision must be made the limb releases the constriction (Fig. 3.21). Bleeding
before this occurs and can be performed at the bed must be controlled with either a catgut stitch or a
side (Fig. 3.16). The burns will be deep and therefore cautery and the incisions dressed and bandaged.
painless; an anaesthetic is not required although a Steps should be taken to avoid exposing tendons,
bipolar coagula tor is necessary to control bleeding. vessels or nerves (Fig. 3.22).
Fig. 3.15 Indication for escharotomy. A deep circumfe
rential burn of the left leg is beginning to cause some
obstruction to the circulation. The foot is slightly blue and
an escharotomy should be carried out immediately. Such
burn eschars are likely to contract, exerting a tourniquet
effect.
-----=
35
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
Fig. 3.17 Escharotomy of the hand. (a) A deep flame (b) Loss of the fingernail . This is seen in deep burns and
burn with early swelling of the dorsum. The position is implies that there has been substantial damage to the
characteristic, with extension of the metacarpo neurovascular bundles within the fingers, and that some
phalangeal joints and flexion of the interphalangeal loss of finger length is inevitable.
joints. A releasing incision has been made along the
radial border of the hand, and further incisions are re
quired to release the dorsum and fingers.
(c) Cruciate escharotomy. This incision, together with (d) Escharotomy of the hand . Thorough escharotomies
incisions made along the ulnar side of the fingers has release tension on both hand and fingers.
been made to decompress the hand and wrist. The cuta
neous nerves are less likely to be damaged and the
incisions are largely unnoticed by the patient.
Fig. 3.18 Deep, charring burn. (a) This type of burn (b) Escharotomy and fasciotomy of the arm . There was
requires a thorough escharotomy and possibly a fascio delay in performing the escharotomy and some muscle
tomy . Early wound excision is recommended . damage was anticipated . The fascia overlying muscle
groups has been incised to allow for muscle swelling .
36
ESCHAROTOM Y
Fig. 3.19 An inadequate escharotomy. This was rather Fig. 3.20 A very deep burn to the lower leg. (a) There is
~ - o rt
and could not decompress the foot. obvious embarrassment to the circulation .
:: An incision is done immediately at the bedside. with (c) There is no need to divide any vessels that bridge the
- s:ant effect. incision once the tourniquet-like eschar has been re
leased .
g. 3.21 Incisions to release constriction in deep (b) Escharotomy performed behind the knees. Releasing
m s. (a) A long releasing incision with extensions to the incisions must be made through these very deep flame
:::: -L "'" of the foot and toes . There is immediate release burns.
~; : -~ : oll striction with little immediate bleeding.
37
3 EARLY MANAGEMENT
To perform a chest escharotomy, a chequer board the nipple, and if indicated, across the abdominal
pattern should be made with incisions running from wall (Fig. 3.23). Bleeding is likely to be brisk and a
the mid-sternal and mid-axillary lines downwards, blood transfusion will be necessary.
with horizontal incisions running above and below
Fig. 3.23 Escharotomy of the chest. Escharotomies are (b) A bipolar coagulator is used to control the haem
made along the lateral chest wall with extensions to re orrhage after a few minutes.
lease respiratory excursions anteriorly. (a) The incision is
initially almost bloodless.
(c) The incisions are dressed with ribbon gauze as an aid (d) Appearance three days later.
to haemostasis.
38
FIXATION OF FRACTURES
Fig. 3.24 External fixation of the femora. This patient, (b) External fixators were immediately applied to reduce
. jured in an explosion, suffered extensive burns to the and rigidly immobilize the fractures, which were instantly
ody. Beneath circumferential burns of the legs were made painless.
ractures of both femora. (a) The fractures were initially
eld in Thomas's splints for transportation.
39
3 EARLY MANAGEM ENT
(e) Legs completely healed at six (f) X-ray of fractures at six weeks. (g) X-ray of fractures at fou r months
months, with no deformity and nearly
normal knee flexion .
40
FI XATION OF FRACTURES
Fig. 3.25 External fixation with complications. (b) Excision of the burn was delayed and the wounds
a) Flame burns are seen together with a compound became heavily colonized with multi-resistant Pseudo
'racture of the left tibia. The fracture occluded the pos monas organisms. Exposed bone was visible at the base
:erior tibial vessels and was immediately explored. A but was covered by granulation tissue, enabling closure
~ragment was removed and a fasciotomy performed, the by simple skin grafting without the use of flaps .
,.ou nd being left open.
: - he external fixator, which did not lead to significant (d) At 20 weeks the fracture is united, permitting full
- ''?ction, was removed at ten weeks, by which time the weight bearing. The.burns are soundly healed .
' =&ciotomy wound had healed.
41
4 COMPLICATIONS
The changes that occur in the lungs and airways Many toxic products are produced during combus
following inhalation of smoke are complex and vari tion, particularly when the supply of oxygen is
able. Factors involved include the effects of heat, limited. The particles contained in smoke are mainl;;
hypoxia, toxic products carried in the smoke and the carbon, but toxic and irritant chemicals may also be
secondary consequences of increased vulnerability of present. Particles greater than 5 /-tm are trapped
the lungs to fluid overload and infection . within the upper respiratory tract, but those of ,less
than 1 /-tm will reach the alveoli. Chemical irritan 5
may be water soluble, for example hydrogen chlo
Heat ride, ammonia and sulphur dioxide, and will ha\'e a
rapid and corrosive effect on the mucosal surface.
Air that is hot enough to burn the skin will rarely The effects of lipid soluble substances, for example
damage the distal airwa ys. Dry heat is dissipated aldehydes and the oxides of nitrogen, act on the
rapidly and its direct effects are limited to the proxi endothelial membranes but may be slower in onset.
mal airways and larynx. Swelling of the lips with
oedema of the epiglottis and vocal cords, or stridor, Secondary changes
signify impending upper airways obstruction and
should be treated by urgent endotracheal intubation . The effects of bronchospasm, pulmonary oedema .
Steam can carry up to 4000 times more heat than dry loss of cilia, patchy atelectasis, retention of sputum
air, and its inhalation can cause extensive and irre and changes in endothelial permeability make the
versible damage to the distal airways and paren lungs vulnerable to secondary infection which 'Nill
chyma of the lungs. inevitably lead to a serious deterioration of lung func
tion (Fig. 4.1). Prophylactic antibiotics are not of
Hypoxia proven benefit, but appropriate antibiotics should be
administered after frequent analysis of the sputum
The hypoxic component of an inhalational injury is of
and wound bacteriology.
prime importance. Oxygen is consumed by combus
tion , thus lowering the amount available to the victim
who, as a result, becomes confused. The presence of Exposure to carbon monoxide
small amounts of carbon monoxide dramatically de
creases the oxygen-carrying capacity of haemoglobin Carbon monoxide impairs oxygen transport due to its
and the presence of hydrogen cyanide inhibits the greater affinity for haemoglobin (0.1% carbon
cytochrome energy transfer system at cellular level. monoxide in inspired air will bind with 62% of the
Fig. 4.1 Deterioration of lung function. (a) Develop (b) An aspirate of the left lower lobe secretions, via a
ment of left lower lobe pneumonia. Suitable antibiotics bronchoscope, may be diagnostically helpful.
are needed .
44
Clinical presentation in inhalational injuries leading to respira tory fa ilure (Fig . -. J). Th de". ":o:='
ment of serious necrotizing lung damaae :s fre
Patients may present a range of symptoms from mild quently seen, particularly v\ ith extensi\'e burns, a .
upper respiratory tract irritation to rapid death. More appears to be related to immunosuppression . \ lor
significantly, the onset of symptoms may be delayed tality is high and subsequent surgery places a further
for 24 to 48 hours. load on the lungs, which can prove fatal.
During this initial phase (up to 6 hours), there may However, if the infection is not too severe, and this.
be few signs of injury. Over the next 48 hours, the phase is overcome, there will be a prolonged period
patient may develop evidence of airways obstruction of gradual resolution, often incomplete, leading to
with wheezing, coughing, copious sputum, stridor the emergence of chronic lung disease (Fig. 4.6). This
and hoarseness, or pulmonary oedema (Fig. 4.4) and condition is exacerbated by extensive cutaneOU3
increasing signs of parenchymal damage. After 48 burns.
hours, in patients with significant inhalational injur
ies there will be a progressive bronchopneumonia
Fig. 4.4 X-ray of acute pulmonary Fig. 4.5lnhalational injury. (a) Injuries on presentation. (b) Appearances 24
oedema. There is rarely any hours later. Collapse of right upper lobe with pneumothorax, chest drain and
abnormal appearance when the signs of left sided bronchopneumonia.
radiograph is taken shortly after
exposure to smoke.
46
INHALATIONAL INJURIES
agnosis
47
4 COMPLICATIONS
(iii) Investigations with careful and repeated may be necessary (Fig. 4.10). Advantages
monitoring, including Pa02, metabolic acido and hazards of endotracheal intubation are
sis and oxygen saturation, and chest X-ray. listed in Table 4.2.
(iii) Physiotherapy, postural drainage and suc
tion.
Treahnent (iv) Nursing in a head up position.
(v) Administration of bronchodilators - amino
(i) Humidified oxygen via face mask, which pro phylline and salbutamol.
motes rapid healing (Fig. 4.8), and sedation. (vi) Ventilation with PEEP, if necessary.
(ii) In the case of stridor, endotracheal intubation (vii) Therapeu tic bronchoscopy.
is needed, preferably via the nasal route (Fig. (viii) Specific antibiotics where sensitivities are
4.9), although intubation via the oral route available.
Advantages
Control of access to airways
Bronchoscopy and suction
Overcome ventilatory work done
Decrease stress and anxiety
Hazards
Rapid contamination of the airways with the organisms growing on the burn wound
In physiotherapy, hypoxic bradycardia and cardiac arrest are a risk: avoid with preoxygenation
Oxygen toxicity and its effects on the lung
Barotrauma: pneumothorax and surgical emphysaema especially with PEEP
Lung abscess and emphysaema
Hazardous to perform if not experienced.
Fig. 4.8 Rapid healing of facial Fig. 4.9 Endotracheal intubation Fig. 4.10 Endotracheal intubation
burns. These have been covered via the nasal route. This is the ideal via the oral route. Although the
with a mask conveying humidified route: well-tolerated, therefore nasal route is preferable, burns to the
oxygen. needing less sedation, and easier to nares , mucosal oedema or septal
maintain in position. deviation may make this difficult. An
oral tube is more easily displaced
and has to be tied very carefully into
place . Light foam protection helps to
prevent damage to the burned tissue
by tapes.
48
TRACHEOSTOMY
Fig. 4.12 Preparation for Fig. 4.13 Excision of burned skin. (b) The strap muscles are separated
tracheostomy. With the (a) The burned skin low in the neck, and held apart by retractors.
nasoendotracheal tube in situ, the over the site of proposed
neck was extended and a sand bag tracheostomy, was generously
placed beneath the shoulders. The excised down to healthy fat.
skin was cleaned and draped, and
after consultation with the
anaesthetist a range of suitably sized
tracheostomy tubes were
assembled. These tubes were
checked, their cuffs tested and
connecting tubes and adaptors
fitted.
49
4 COMPLICATIONS
Fig. 4.14 Exposure of the trachea. (b) A strong stitch is inserted (c) The stitch is held in artery forceps
(a) The trachea is exposed and its between the second and third and used as a retractor .
anterior wall cleaned by blunt tracheal rings ; the need le is left in
dissection . This is kept to a minimum place.
and is not allowed to extend laterally.
The tracheal rings are counted by
palpation and the thyro id isthmus is
reflected superiorly.
Fig. 4.15 Withdrawal of the endotracheal tube. An Fig. 4.16 Tube insertion. A large tracheostomy tube is
inverted U incision is made through the anterior wall of inserted and connected via the adaptor to the anaesthe
the trachea using a scalpel. The retracting stitch allows tic circui t, and its cuff is inflated until an air seal is
the flap to be pulled downwards. The endotracheal tube obtained .
is revealed beneath , and the cuff should be deflated . The
tube is withdrawn slowly.
50
BURN WOUND INFECTION
Fig. 4.18 Failed treatment by exposure method. The Fig. 4.19 Lancefield group A ~ haemolytic streptococ
surface has been kept wet by saliva and the wound is cal infection of the foot. This is red , painful , rapidly
l eavily contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus . Tho spreading and accompanied by a marked rise in pulse
rough cleaning and dressing , with the administration of rate, temperature and white cell count. The infection is
an appropriate antibiotic, are required . very contagious, often seasonal and the organism is
highly sensitive to penicillin.
51
4 COMPLICATIONS
Fig. 4.20 Pseudomonal infections. (a) The green disco (b) Critical invasive infection due to Pseudomofl 2s 25 -_
loration is typical. Burns around the groin and perineum ginosa. The black lesions (ecthema gangrenos ~ . ~:
are very frequently contaminated with Pseudomonas. resent areas of vascular damage and infarction ~=c-
burned patients in whom the normal immunologica J=
fence mechanisms are profoundly depressed.
Prevention of contamination and colonization eous organisms (see page 29). Isolated in a single
cubicle, air is introduced under positive pressure so
Avoidance ofcontamination that it flows away from the burn and is expelle .
Aseptic measures should be taken at all stages. The allowing a continuous change of air. Attending sta:':'
surface of the burn wound is initially sterile and every should again wear protective clothing and ensure
effort should be made to keep it in this state. The first that hands do not come into contact with the bur
aid covering should be sterile and easy to remove, wound. Meticulous attention is paid to washing the
and the wound should be inspected in a clean hands and arms to the elbows before and afte~
environment by personnel wearing masks, gloves, corning into contact with the patient or the dressings.
caps and gowns. Loose tissue is removed, the burn In this manner, there will be no cross-transference :'
cleaned with an antiseptic solution, and a decision organisms from the staff to the patient and vice versa.
made on the method of treatment. Most Gram negative infections are spread within a
Patients with burn injuries must be nursed in an burn wound by contaminated baths or fingers. Gram
environment which minimizes exposure to extran positive organisms can be airborne. It is equally
52
4 COMPLICATIONS
Fig. 4.26 Deep flame burns with (b) Ten days after surgery, jaundice, (c) The donor site on the bae- ~ =.:
complications. Pseudomonas septicaemia and an been converted to a full thic e~ :
(a) Ten days after the accident and obvious invasive burn wound skin loss by the infection.
seven days before surgery, the infection have developed. There has
exposed wound appears clean and been no response to gentamicin
there is no bacterial growth from the (note that the attendant nurse is not
wound swabs. wearing gloves or a gown) .
54
"""'I
55
BURN WOUND INFECTION
Fig. 4.28 Surveillance of bacteria (b) Appearance of Staphylococcus (c) Pseudomonas aeruginosa !;;'~ .. -
using spread plates. (a) aureus colonies. The medium is on King's media. This enhances :-'0'
Appearance of Lancefield group A ~ blood agar. production of pyocyanin whic s
haemolytic streptococci. Growth on formed as a by product in the
a blood agar plate, with resultant metabolism of Pseudomonas ar
haemolysis. has an antibiotic activity agains
Gram positive bacteria.
Nutrition
Maintenance of adequate nutrition is of vital import
ance in resisting and combating infection. In the burn
patient, the massive energy demands, together with
cellular and protein losses must be compensated for
before a significant deficit occurs. This may be Fig. 4.29 A grossly infected burn wound. Little ca- : ~
achieved with regular bl~od transfusions and a very done to change the flora until all necrotic tissue s =-.
high protein diet via nasogastric intubation. moved by excision.
56
BURN WOUND INFECTION
Treatment of established infection and allow the organism to persist and develop re
sistance to the relatively poor concentration to which
In most larger burns significant infection will arise at they are exposed .
some stage (Fig. 4.29). None of the dressings avail
able will sterilize a wound, and at best they manage Topical antibacterials
to hold the numbers down to controllable levels . An Few topical antibacterials have any activity against
infected wound must be dressed frequently, and it is incipient or established burn wound infection as they
the cleaning of the wound rather than the application cannot penetrate the eschar or damaged tissues.
of an antibacterial dressing that is important. Thus they are of limited use. Bactroban (Mupirocin)
In the elderly patient with gross infections (Fig. is very effective in treating early streptococcal and
4.30), age and general frailty precludes any radical staphylococcal infection; nitrofurazone, by tending to
approach, and measures should be directed towards dessicate rather than macerate the burn wound, is
daily baths with debridement, systemic antibiotics useful in the early stages. Topical antibiotics are rare
and supportive measures of a high protein diet, ly used because resistance develops very rapidly .
maintaining mobility and blood transfusions. Neomycin has been used in spray form in the treat
ment of scald injuries until it was discovered that it
caused permanent deafness in young children. Cau
Systemic antibiotics tion must be exercised in applying any aminoglyco
Knowledge of the sensitivities of the bacteria growing side to a large burn wound. It must be remembered
on the wound will enable a sensible choice of anti that the burn wound is absorbent and anything
biotics to be made. Several organisms are usually applied can be absorbed through it.
present and the most clinically significant should be
identified. Attempting to cover all possible causes of Surgical excision
infection with multiple or broad spectrum antibiotics Every attempt should be made to remove heavily
encourages the development of resistant strains; an infected and necrotic tissue when this can be done
alternative is to eradicate the organisms likely to be without exposing the patient to further risk. Under
responsible with a selective, narrow spectrum anti broad spectrum bactericidal cover at high dose, and
biotic. with full supportive measures to replace blood,
The choice of antibiotics is extensive but considera plasma and volume loss rapidly, the seriously in
tion must be given to expense, toxicity and method of fected burn wound may be excised down to fascia
administration (see Table 4.3) . The cell walls of many and immediately covered with viable skin. This is an
Gram negative bacteria contain B-Iactamases (en extreme measure, but may be life saving; teamwork,
zymes which destroy antibiotics) and it is their pres timing and an ongoing commitment to repeat oper
ence which makes these organisms, in particular ations, anaesthesia and dressings are essential. More
Pseudomonas, so resistant to treatment. often, heavily infected tissue is removed without ex
Although in vitro studies may show that an organ posing further tissue planes to contamination. Daily
ism is sensitive to a specific antibiotic, it is often dressings and wound cleaning are carried out under
found in practice that the latter fails to eradicate the general anaesthesia and skin grafting delayed until
target organism. Many antibiotics diffuse poorly, fail the underlying bed is clean. If the graft is applied to a
ing to penetrate the wound and necrotic material, heavily colonized bed (Fig. 4.31), the skin graft will
be lost and a repeat treatment will be necessary.
57
4 COMPLICATIONS
Fig. 4.31 Grafts applied to heavily infected surfaces. (b) Contamination by staphylococcal organisms.
(a) Contamination is by Pseudomonas
58
Metabolic considerations
59
4 COMPLICATIONS
Fig. 4.32 Inadequate nutrition in a patient with exten (b) Over-granulating wounds with no development of
sive burns. (a) One year after injury. There is gross epithelialization at the edges. As the wounds are small,
i, emaciation with extensive areas of unhealed burn. Al spontaneous healing can be expected if nutrition is cor
most total muscle wasting with considerable deformity rected .
and stiffening of the joints are seen.
60
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
64
ANAESTHESIA
(b) A stiff polythene cannula has (c) The cannula is brought out (d) The tube is in place and the
been passed through the needle through the mouth and an cannula can be with- drawn. This
into the larynx and retrogradely endotracheal tube passed down method was first described by
through the cords. It is retrieved the mouth between the cords and Waters.
forceps.
65
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
66
ANAESTHESIA
Opiates Capnometer
Patients usually display considerable tolerance to ibly the most useful method of monitoring available
opiates. This may be due to the high degree of pain and provides evidence that:
\lonitoring
Blood pressure
a) Direct
:Vleasurement of direct arterial pressure can be
advantageous in several ways. However, during
anaesthesia, the difficulties of preventing a discon
nection while the patient is continually turned can
utweigh the advantages.
) Indirect
-"on-invasive monitoring can normally be
achieved at the start of surgery, but in the presence
f burns to the upper half of the body, the cuff may
h ave to be placed on the leg rather than the arm.
However, if left in this position the cuff will often
occlude the site of intravenous infusion.
Furthermore, as the legs are often used as donor
sites for grafting, the cuff will need to be removed
a.nd blood pressure measurements will not be Fig. 5.5 Standard ECG electrodes. These are easily
? ossible when the volume depletion is at its high dislodged during operations on the burn-injured patient
est. and are difficult to keep in place.
67
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.6 Needle electrodes. (b) These may also be inserted into Fig. 5.7 Self-administered
(a) Insertion into unburnt skin burnt skin . analgesia.
':
Fig. 5.8 Tangential excision. (b) Tangential slices are removed (c) A uniformly bleeding layer is
(a) Deep flame burns of the leg,
with a hand-held dermatome . reached.
mainly full thickness in depth , but
68
WOUND EXCISION
Postoperative anaesthetic care down to healthy bleeding tissue which helps to pres
erve the dermis and ensures good graft take, before
Feeding any significant infection can develop (Fig. 5.8; see
The anaesthetic technique should be directed to also page 68). Healing will then proceed rapidly. The
wards the earliest possible resumption of enteral risk incurred to the patient with extensive burns may
feeding. be outweighed by the excellent results which can be
obtained.
Intermittent positive pressure ventilation
Patients who have suffered a significant drop in core
temperature, or are cardiovascularly unstable, should
be considered for elective postoperative ventilation .
Psychological considerations
Patients with major burns will often be embarking on
a lengthy and painful course of surgery. Moreover,
they will have to cope with the psychological traumas
of scarring. Patience and reassurance by the anaes
thetist from the start of treatment will prove highly
beneficial in subsequent theatre episodes.
Tangential excision
69
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.10 Excision of an exposed (b) Blood loss is only slight. (c) In other areas, where no
burn using a skin graft knife .. cleavage plane can be found ,
(a) Adherent areas of eschar on the the eschar must be removed using
'i face are prised off. a skin graft knife . Blood loss is
more marked but is appreciably less
compared with an infected wound ,
or after treatment in dressings.
Fig. 5.11 Excision of a burn treated by the 'closed' (b) There is obvious granulating tissue,
(c) The remaining adherent areas are excised using a (d) The wound will be dressed until the bed is more
skin graft knife and scalpel. suitable for grafting.
70
WOUND EXCISION
Fig. 5.12 Excision to fascia. (b) An escharotomy was (c) Superficial veins are patent.
(a) Deep flame burns of the hand , performed on admiss ion Twenty-
with loss of the fingernails. four hours later, sharp excision to the
fascia was carried out.
(d) The interphalangeal joints have (e) The wound was subsequently
been fi xed in extension with fine covered with meshed split skin
Kiwschner wires . grafts
71
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
72
73
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.17 Donor sites. (a) The (b) The scalp is also an excellent (c) The buttock as a donor site. Any
thighs are prime donor sites as donor site, particularly for the face, scarring as a result of this should be
they offer large areas of skin, are as the skin is a good colour match. relatively unnoticeable.
convenient to use, and can be easily
dressed.
74
WOULD CLOSURE
Fig. 5.18 Dressing the donor site. (b) Paraffin gauze is applied. (c) Cotton gauze, cotton wool and
(a) Skin has been harvested from a firm elastic crepe bandage are
the thighs also applied and kept on for at
least two weeks. They are then
removed by soaking.
Fig. 5.19 Meshed skin grafts. (a) These are prepared by (b) This allows easy expansion.
passing split grafts through a mesher which cuts perfor (c) Meshed skin grafts are particularly useful in covering
75
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
(d) On heavily infected granulating Fig. 5.20 Cosmetic appearance of meshed skin graft. (a) A 61 expanded
tissue , much of the graft will take; graft, nine months after the injury. (b) Close-up appearance showing the
the interstices slowly close as the pattern of the mesh .
infection is brought under control
and the condition of the wound
bed improves.
Fig. 5.22 Split skin grafts. (a) Thin sheets of split skin graft are spread, raw
surface uppermost, onto paraffin gauze. The gauze is trimmed to fit the sheet
precisely. (b) When split skin grafts take completely, they give the best
cosmetic results and shou ld be used in exposed areas such as the face.
76
Howe\'er, as the pattern of the mesh persists (Fig. layer of cotton wool and a firm bandage to immobilize
5~ 2 -=" this method ideally should not be used for the area. Dressings are kept on for five days; after this
",X}sed areas such as the face and hands. Several time the outer layers are gently removed down to the
c::-::-.mercial skin graft meshers are available permit vaseline gauze and clean dressings reapplied every
:::1g expansion from 1.5:1 to 9:1. two or three days until healing is progressing
S~l it skin grafts should be taken in a thin sheet to soundly. If the wound is dirty and infected, the vase
:2:-,able the donor site to heal quickly (Fig. 5.21). A line gauze should also be replaced .
'- and -held dermatome is the most convenient instru Meshed skin grafts on infected wounds should be
ent for normal graft-taking, although a mechanical dressed more frequently, and if necessary, covered
::.c:matome is more suitable in harvesting larger areas with soaks of hypochlorite or silver nitrate solutions .
.~ : skin. Care must be taken not to dislodge the graft, al
r heet grafts are preferably placed on excised, non though some displacement may be inevitable. Surfa
granulating wounds. These sheets of skin are initially soft ,a permeable plastic interface which is placed
~F,ea d and trimmed on a layer of paraffin gauze and over the meshed skin graft, provides considerable
,:?plied directly (Fig. 5.22). If suitably moistened, protection. It is non-adherent to the underlying skin
':,.:~. may be stored in a refrigerator at 4C for up to provided the gauze dressings are kept moist. Dress
::.ree \\eeks . The wound bed must be clean, with no ings can be changed as frequently as indicated.
:-:ceding. The cosmetic results of any grafting are
'~ ~all:' poor and large sheets of thick skin should Special techniques
:ciealh' be reserved for reconstruction .
'ps or postage stamp-sized sheets of skin are In large burns (particularly in children) where exten
,:~..; all : used to cover heavily contaminated surfaces, sive areas must be covered, with only a limited
;=;, drainage is not impeded; secondary epithelializa amount of skin available for grafting, mixed meshed
:::...1 :1 from the edges of the graft is also rapid. autograft and allograft applied as a 'sandwich' can be
a valuable technique (Fig. 5.23). Alexander and Mc
Graft dressing Millan introduced the technique of using a widely
expanded mesh graft of the patient's skin, covered
~ .:iecision to apply a dressing is dependent on the with a less expanded mesh graft of donor skin . Both
. graft. Sheet skin grafts may be left exposed, grafts 'take', with the allograft serving to protect the
ut a dressing whereas meshed skin grafts autograft against dessication and bacterial coloniza
~:i(' .lld not be allowed to dryas subsequent crust tion, while the autograft commences epithelializa
: ~' :-:-:-.2.ti on in the interstices delays wound healing tion. However, allograft skin can transfer the viruses
.:..:':: closure. responsible for hepatitis B and AIDS, and this
-:-he normal graft dressing consists of vaseline method should only be used in extreme cases.
:=i?,egnated gauze, several layers of cotton gauze, a
C g. 5.23 Allografts. (a) Diagrammatic representation of (b) A newly excised burn has been covered with a 61
' -", '.'cCT lIan model. meshed autograft.
77
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
The same technique can be used with glycerol-pre been found to be too delicate to provide rapid wound
served allograft skin, fresh xenograft (normally pig closure or prevent severe scar contracture. Research
skin) or fetal membranes (Fig. 5.24), used as the is now being directed towards the development f
allograft . Artificial skin substitutes are also available artificial membranes which would provide a scaffold
which provide temporary wound closure before ing for the semi-reconstruction of dermis, which in
definitive closure with a skin graft is carried out, but turn could support a thin epithelial graft or culture
these are of little use in the presence of infection . keratinocytes . Such materials are currently under
Cultured keratinocytes for use in grafting have trial.
enjoyed a passing popularity (Fig. 5.25) but have
(c) This is then covered with a 1: 1.5 (d) The 'sand wi c h' took (e) Healing proceeded with no
allograft , take n from the child 's co mpletely , with no graft loss further treatment required.
father. from infection or rejection .
78
(b) Sheets of keratinocytes have (c) The interstices have closed (d) A biopsy demonstrates
been applied to widely expanded quickly. formation of a new skin layer.
meshed skin.
BURN INJURIES OF SPECIAL AREAS flexion of the interphalangeal joints in the fingers
(Fig . 5.27). Attempts to improve the position of the
Hands wrist and fingers by splinting inevitably places pres
sure over the extensor surfaces, further damaging the
Treatment of superficial and dermal burns of the extensor tendons and joint capsules of the proximal
hands using a plastic bag containing antiseptic cream interphalangeal joints. Following excision and graft
will permit rapid and painless mobilization, and also ing, the hands should be splinted using a volar slab to
provide the best environment for epidermal regrowth maintain the wrist in 60 extension, the metacarpo
and dermal preservation (Fig . 5.26). If the burn has phalangeal joints in 90 flexion and the interphalang
not healed within 20 days , grafting should be se eal joint in full extension. In this position the joint
riously considered. ligaments are stretched and restoration should be
In deep burns, where spontaneous re-epitheliali straightforward. Fig. 5.32 shows how difficult this is
zation is unlikely, vascular granulation tissue eventu to achieve in practise: if the dressing is bulky, the
ally develops which cannot protect tendons, position of the hand is more likely to become dis
ligaments or joints from permanent damage. This placed.
may affect the hand in several ways. Tendons will In order to avoid these developments, the early
weaken, cease sliding and thus become adherent, excision of deep burns is performed and a skin flap or
and the ligaments surrounding the joints shorten, graft is applied promptly (Fig . 5.28). Skin flaps can be
holding the joints in a contracted position. The joint taken from sites such as the upper arm or groin (Fig.
capsule itself contracts with shortening of the adja 5.29) . The fingers can be temporarily immobilized by
cent intrinsic muscles, resulting in the gradual hyper passing a Kirschner wire across the interphalangeal
extension of the metacarpophalangeal joints and joints until the grafts have healed . This course of
79
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.28 An extremely deep, self-inflicted burn of the hand. (a) This inJur,
involved the palmar surface only. (b) The burn has been excised and
covered with a reversed radial forearm flap . The radial artery has been
divided proximally and most of the skin of the anterior surface of the forearrr
raised and swung around on the arterial pedicle in order to cover the raw
area. (c) The fingers have been syndactylized, and the donor site will be
grafted. (d) Appearance four years later.
80
BURN INJURIES OF SPECIAL AREAS
treatment is applicable in isolated burns of the hand; likely to be necessary using various techniques such
however, in extensive burns of the body other as as a tubed pedicle (Fig. 5.35) and skin grafts bearing
pects may take priority and a compromise in treat hair (Fig. 5.36). If wounds are treated by exposure, it
ment will be reached. Initial blistering with loss of the is important that the surfaces are kept clean and free
fingernails usually indicates thrombosis of the neuro from a build-up of protein exudate.
vascular bundles of the fingers. Amputation through Secretions from the mouth, nose and eyes keep the
the proximal interphalangeal joint will eventually be surrounding tissues moist, providing a hospitable
necessary (Fig. 5.30). In very severe burns of the environment for bacterial colonization (Fig . 5.37).
hand, all necrotic tissue is excised immediately and Continuously growing facial hair will firmly trap any
covered with a skin flap (Fig. 5.31). Until surgery can crusts which have formed and secondary inflamma
be performed, burns of the hand should be treated in tory changes will take place in the wound bed. In
a plastic bag. creased build-up of granulating tissue will also
worsen the hypertrophic scar contracture. Treatment
Face is therefore directed towards the frequent changing
of wet dressings of saline or chlorhexidine, together
Facial tissues are very well vascularized and have a with regular removal of crusts and the trimming of
good supply of hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous facial hair. Alternatively, burns in this area may be
glands. The potential for spontaneous healing is covered with antiseptic cream which is removed by
therefore high. In cases such as flash burns, the washing and reapplied twice daily. Again, the build
wounds may heal as quickly as one week (Fig. 5.33). up of crusts must be actively treated. After any infec
Most deep burns of the face can be treated by expo tion has been brought undet control, raw areas can be
sure and subsequently grafted (Fig. 5.34). However, grafted.
in severe facial burns reconstruction of features is
81
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.30 Damage to the neuro (b) The wounds have been excised. (c) The little finger was amputated
vascular bundles, leading to and the hand covered with a groir
amputation. (a) Considerable flap . .
damage was seen to the thenar and
web space muscles, and to the
neurovascular bundles .
82
BURN INJURIES OF SPECIAL AREAS
83
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
84
BURN INJURIES OF SPECIAL AREAS
Ears
85
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.38 Burns of the mouth. (a) (b) A device can be used to spread (c) Device in situ.
Inelastic scars impede opening of the mouth at the commissures .
the mouth.
Fig. 5.39 Obvious swelling of the ear cartilage. Most of Fig. 5.40 Suppurative perichondritis. Exposure of the
the cartilage beneath the swelling will have to be re cartilage of the ear has resulted in an infection by Pseu
moved. domonas aeruginosa.
surgical decompression and excision of necrotic carti must be sought. Injuries involving hot tar or bitumen
lage is performed. If these measures are not taken, results in adherence of the lids, usuaUy without dam
the ear will become contracted and shrunken, and aging the globe (Fig. 5.43). The patient should be
adequate reconstruction will not be possible (Fig. reassured that sight will be undamaged. In burns
5.41). Exposed, clean cartilage can be excised and resulting from an electrical arc flash, the blink reflex
grafted with minimal deformity. may be too slow to prevent damage to the cornea,
although this is very unusual (Fig. 5.44).
Eyes The skin of eyelids is thin and easily damaged and
the pull from surrounding facial scars can lead to
All chemical burns to the eyes should be treated in secondary deformity. It is essential that the cornea is
the same manner, i.e. with thorough and prolonged protected, even during anaesthesia. In this case, the
irrigation with water or normal saline (Fig. 5.42). cornea are covered with chloramphenicol eye oint
Irrigation under general anaesthetic may be per ment and protected with vaseline gauze (Fig. 5.45).
formed to suppress pain and panic. In acid burns to Any deformity of the lids, either primary or sec
the eye, fluorescein staining will demonstrate any ondary, which leads to corneal exposure must be
corneal damage whereupon an ophthalmic opinion surgically corrected. The upper lid provides most
86
Fig. 5.41 End-stage perichondritis. Fig. 5.42 Chemical burns to the (b) Two weeks later.
The cartilages have been lost eyes. (a) Strong acid was splashed
completely. onto the eyelids . Irrigation has been
carried out.
(c) In a separate patient, oedema of Fig. 5.43 Hot tar burns to the face
the lids and injection of the con and eyes. The lids are covered
junctiva can be seen following acid with vaseline ointment.
burns to the eyes; irrigation
has been performed.
Fig. 5.44 Electrical arc flash. (a) (b) Subsequent eversion of the (c) The lids have been incised,
Desquamation of the superficial upper lid with gross oedema of retracted and grafted.
layer of the cornea has resulted. the conjunctiva (chemosis).
This was wiped off and
healed rapidly.
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
88
BURN INJURIES OF SPEC IAL ARE AS
Fig. 5.46 Ectropion of the upper lid. (a) Eversion of the right eyelid . The
area to be exc ised is marked .
(b) An incision of the skin is made .
(c) A split skin graft is held in place .
(d) Appearance one week later.
Fig. 5.47 Ectropion of the lower lid with protection of (b) The upper lid remains mobile and there is adequate
the cornea. (a) The eve rsion can be seen. cover of the cornea.
89
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.50 Very deep burn of the scalp. (a) This deep (b) The bone was removed after four months, exposing a
burn involving bone was seen after an elderly woman fell healthy layer of granulation tissue which was grafted .
into a fire. The resultant injuries were treated conservati
vely .
90
BURN INJURI ES OF SPEC IAL AREAS
(c) The graft took without delay. There was no evidence (d) Above view. There is dramatic contour deformity.
of neurological deficit, epilepsy or headaches .
often adopted. The exposed bone is cross hatched (Fig . 5.54), and in cases where the patient is disabled,
and removed with an osteotome . Dressings are early excision with skin grafting is recommended
applied until healthy granulations develop which will (Fig. 5.55).
permit skin grafting . Occasionally, the inner table of
the skull is lost, but grafts can become established on Bones and joints
the dura. Small areas of exposed skull can be covered
with local skin flaps , and skin grafts applied to the Burn injuries deep enough to involve bones and
secondary defect. joints are usually seen in patients where con
sciousness was lost, and tissues were therefore in
Perineum and genitalia contact with the thermal agent for a prolonged period
(Fig. 5.56). Small areas of bone such as the malleoli,
Bums to this area are common and tend to be superfi the subcutaneous border of the tibia and the olecra
cial (Fig. 5.51). Although healing is slow and there non can be treated with wet dressings. Management
are obvious sources of local infection, grafting is of burns involving the joints can often be conserv
usually unnecessary. Formal dressings are difficult to ative. Small burns over the elbow or small joints of
apply, thus the area should be kept as clean as poss the foot can be dressed and the patient mobilized .
ible, with frequent application of a bland antiseptic Healing may be slow but will occur with little long
cream. Swelling of the genitalia is often dramatic, but term disability . It may be necessary to remove small
obstruction to micturition is very rare; therefore, rou flakes of dead bone tissue, although granulations will
tine catheterization is not essential. However, in very eventually cover the bone completely permitting a
deep burns, catheterization will be necessary (Fig . skin graft to take. In most cases, durable cover is
5.52) . obtained . Extensive burns involving larger joints
such as the shoulder, knee or hip are managed by
Burns of the foot excision and subsequently covered using a muscle
Split thickness skin grafts in this area stand up to flap to achieve healing more rapidly.
wear and tear surprisingly well (Fig. 5.53). Injuries of
the foot in diabetic patients may result in amputation
91
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.52 Very deep burn. (a) The tip of the penis has (b) Partial amputation was required to allow catheterize-
been severely charred. tion .
eventual loss of function and ulceration at the ankle The preservation of movement and function i"
may necessitate amputation up to a year after or so important throughout all phases of the burn injury _
92
PHYSIOTHERAPY
burd en of this responsibility, but other members of lined and understood by the patient and the nurses.
the team must be supportive . The needs of each Progress is monitored daily and changes instituted as
patient must be assessed, and treatment plans ou t- soon as problems arise .
93
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.56 Deep burns, reaching to bone. (a) Three parallel burns
were sustained when the patient fell onto electrified rails.
(b) The deepest burns involved sternum, costal cartilages and
pericardium, and was closed using an omental flap which was
skin grafted.
(c) Appearance two months later.
(d) Eighteen months later, the scars have been excised and narrowed to
improve cosmesis.
Early care the legs are involved they should be elevated unti l
swelling has subsided. Wherever possible, pressure
Positioning upon the burn should be relieved, i.e. burns of the
Burn-injured hands need to be elevated to help grav back are nursed by lying the patient on their fron:
ity overcome oedema and burns involving the trunk and burns of the flank are nursed by turning the
and axilla demand that the arms are widely abducted patient on their other side. If the patient is to b
(Fig. 5.57). No pillows should be used in patients treated by exposure, all raw areas, particularly those
with burns of the face and neck, or of the ears. Where involving the flexures, need to be open to the air Q
94
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
same rate of improvement. The hands will be oede geon will have applied splints to grafted hands (Fig
matous for longer, the fingers stiffer and the hands 5.59) and across grafted joints to maintain the bes:
will tend to fall into a position of wrist flexion, meta possible position (Fig. 5.60). Limbs with exposeLi
carpophalangeal hyperextension and flexion of the grafts may be moved gently in the immediate pos o
fingers. This will rapidly worsen and become more perative phase, but otherwise activity must be dt'
difficult to overcome, with shortening of both small layed until the time of the first dressing. The
muscles and joint ligaments. Significant burns of the physiotherapist should always try to be present c::
hand treated in dressings need to be splinted for most this time, even in the operating theatre, to flex an d
of the time (except for meals and periods of exercise) extend joints and supervise the manufacture of the r
to ensure that the wrist is dorsiflexed, the metacar moplastic splints.
pophlangeal joints flexed to 90, and the fingers in No graft will ever take totally and most will nee d
full extension. The splint must be well padded to some form of dressing for two or three weeks before
avoid pressure, particularly over the proximal inter the graft is ready to withstand the prolonged pre 5
phalangeal joints, and easy to apply and remove. sure that will help to prevent their contraction. Th-..
Development of a dry leathery eschar following bed beneath the graft will contract, and the more
exposure effectively splints and limits movement granulating tissue, the more rapid and severe tht'
pressures similar to splinting. If these are forced the force of contraction will be. It can be overcome in par:
eschar will crack and, apart from causing pain, will by pressure, which will be more effective the soone~
allow the ingress of bacteria. Passive movements it can be applied. However, when applied too early
must therefore be controlled. Inhalational injuries areas of underlying graft will be lost, resulting in the
will obviously add an extra dimension to the care the growth of more granulating tissue and thus more
burnt patient requires. When paralysed and receiving contracture. Small patches of graft loss should be
artificial ventilation, muscles waste very rapidly, but treated with frequent dressings of 1% hydrocortisone
the patient will not complain when limbs are put ointment or zinc oxide tape, and the splint reapplie d .
through their full range of movement. Hands need to In larger areas granulations are shaved down, fre sft
be splinted, arms abducted and elevated and, when grafts applied and covered with a soft and bulk~
possible, the legs should be elevated also. Pulmonary splint.
function is maintained using the standard intensive As soon as grafts have established themselves the ~
care technique, and tipping and chest percussion should be supported with elastic pressure or thermo
should not necessarily be avoided because the patient plastic splints to retain suppleness and to minimize
is suffering from burn injuries. the tendency to contracture and hypertrophic scar
ring. Hands which have been skin grafted should be
Post grafting placed in elastic gloves as quickly as possible.
Overall mobility must be encouraged and burn:
Shearing forces over freshly grafted areas should limbs covered with supportive dressings and
obviously be avoided, and where grafts have been overlying elastic bandages. An exercise programme
covered with bulky dressings, active and passive and regular visits to the physiotherapy departmen
movements should be restrained. Hopefully the sur- and occupational therapy workshop should be
started as soon as medical conditions permit.
Fig. 5.60 Skin grafts across joints. (a) Prolonged splint (b) The axilla is very difficult to control.
ing is required.
96
PHYSIOTHERAPY
/ -
Fig. 5.61 Splinting to achieve dorsiflexion at the
"
Fig. 5.62 Elastic pressure garments.
ankles. No undue pressure is placed on the dorsum of
the feet or the calves, which were deeply burned .
Late treahnent and rehabilitation garment (Fig. 5.62), to be worn at all times as soon as
the wounds permit.
When the grafts have largely healed, treatment is Splints need to be regularly remoulded to ensure
directed to regaining as much function as possible. that they are constantly working against the pull of
The contracting burn scars will tend to decrease func the scar, and that the advantage gained is maintained
tion and limit the range of movement. These must be and steadily improved upon. At the same time the
resisted by building muscle strength and confidence, patient must be actively and enthusiastically involved
and by the early and effective application of splints in an exercise program which will continue to in
(Fig. 5.61) and pressure garments. Scars extending crease muscle strength (Fig. 5.63) .
across joints should be splinted with a thermoplastic Long-term hand function is directly related to the
splint pressing directly onto the scar, and worn con time the burns take to heal, and in most centres early
tinually. it is only removed for meals, dressings, surgery is directed towards this end. Hands that
baths and periods of exercise. Areas of scar or skin were grafted and subsequently heal within two
graft not across joints are covered with a tubular weeks usually do well. Long-term splinting is unne
elastic bandage or a custom-made elastic pressure cessary although elastic gloves should be worn in all
97
5 LATE MANAGEMENT
Fig. 5.65 Hypertrophic scarring. (a) This very hypertro (b) Local pres sure is applied to dec rease itchiness.
phic scar causes irritation .
cases of hand burns. Where healing has taken longer intense itching and irritation that is such a character
some loss of function in the short and medium term is istic feature of hypertrophic scars, and they undoubt
inevitable, and treatment is directed towards active edly modulate the surface of the scar and speed
and passive exercises and stretching, night splints maturation (Fig. 5.65). Silicone gel sheeting can
(Fig. 5.64) and as much occupational therapy as poss sometimes flatten scars quickly. It does not need to
ible. be applied beneath a pressure garment. Concave
All splints must be worn until the forces of con areas of the body can be filled with pads of elastomer
tracture have weakened. These forces can be over which help to transmit pressure onto these difficult
come by active stretching and muscle strength; on areas (Fig. 5.66).
occasions this may be for three or four months. Pres Garments in young children need to be refitted
sure garments nearly always need to be worn for a every two to three months, and worn for 15 to 18
much longer period. They are helpful in relieving the months until the squs have become pale.
PHYSIOTHERAPY
Fig. 5.66 Elastomer applied to awkward areas. These Fig. 5.67 Silicone g~! sheeting.
6 Sequelae
6SEOUELAE
SCARS
Fig. 6.2 Development of hyper (b) Three months later. (c) Nine months later.
trophic scar in an epileptic patient.
(a) The sites have been grafted.
Gradual development of scar tissue
is seen.
Initially the scars are red, raised and itchy. As the contour (Fig. 6.5) . Histologically, an increase in colla
scar tissue contracts, the subsequent pull on adjacent gen, elastin and fibroblasts can be seen in this type of
tissues may limit the range of movement or cause tissue (Fig. 6.6). The scar remains vulnerable to
deformity. The thickness of the scar increases for trauma and is relatively slow to heal. In children,
approximately three months and then remains con inelastic bands of scar tissue may limit normal
stant for around one year (Fig. 6.3) . This then be growth. In these cases, the bands should be divided
comes paler and softer (Fig. 6.4); when fully mature, to overcome deformity and allow the introduction of
it turns white, atrophic and inelastic, with an uneven additional skin.
102
SCARS
I
~'----
Fig. 6.3 Hypertrophic scarring following spontaneous Fig. 6.4 Mature hypertrophic scar. This has matured
healing. Thi s injury was due to scalding. and become soft and su pple but some distortion of
breast development can be anticipated .
Fig. 6.5 An excised plaque of scar tissue. (a) Deep surface (b) Obverse view.
103
6 SEQUELAE
Fig. 6.7 Hypertrophic scarring in Fig. 6.8 Scar infection. (a) Buried (b) A streptococcal cellulitis has
pigmented skin. hairs and chronic local infection been confined to an area of
have arrested resolution of this scar. hypertrophic scar.
Excision will be necessary.
In the majority of patients, scarring is hypertrophic fingers can be problematic but this often responds to
rather than kelodial. Hypertrophic scarring does not a soft plastic foam pad worn beneath the glove.
spread to uninjured tissues and eventually matures Scars which run across joints will contract, causing
and resolves. However, genuine keloid scars grad deformity . This must be resisted with splinting.
ually increase in size and do not improve. Manage Areas which are likely to contract such as the neck,
ment is directed towards the control of symptoms axilla, elbow and the hand should be splinted as soon
and prevention of contraction. The intense irritation as healing will permit. Skin grafts applied over bony
of this type of tissue is difficult to control, particularly prominences will break down if pressure from a
in children. Medication with antihistamines may help splint is applied too early; if applied too late, the
at night, but tight fitting elastic pressure garments forces of an established contracture are too great to be
afford the most relief. The exact mechanism of sup overcome.
pression of itching is not known, but constantly Areas across joints must take priority for grafting,
applied pressure controls this response and also pro to enable healing and subsequent splinting to take
motes flattening of the scar tissue. Fitted elastic gar place promptly . When control is achieved, splints can
ments are worn as soon as healing permits. Children be removed for about one hour during mealtimes, for
are remeasured, with new garments fitted every two physiotherapy and for dressing changes. At aU other
months; in adults, garments are replaced every four times the splint must be firmly and diligently reap
months. Areas that fail to respond well to garments plied. Thermoplastic materials are the most useful:
may benefit from direct contact from a silicone gel they are quick to remould, easy to clean and have a
sheet, or a mould of silicone elastomer. The scarring surface modulating effect when applied without a
tends to be itchier, thicker and takes much longer to dressing.
resolve in those with pigmented skin (Fig. 6.7). Complications which may inhibit resolution can
In burn injuries of the hand, the wearing of elastic arise with scars; these include infection (Fig. 6.8),
gloves is generally well tolerated and results are en development of abscesses due to buried epidermal
couraging . Together with the obvious cosmetic ad appendages (Fig. 6.9), or atrophy of the scar tissue
vantage, itching is controlled and function is partially (Fig. 6.10).
restored. The development of webbing between the
104
SPLINTS
Fig. 6.9 Abscess development. Fig. 6.10 Atrophy of scar tissue. (b) After grafting the scar tissue
This abscess developed spontan (a) A full thickness wound of the has become atrophic and cannot
eously in a scar which was nearly abdominal wall has been excised adequately contain the viscera.
two years old . and is granulating.
SPLINTS
front and back are bolted together encasing the hand
Serial splinting can overcome some contractures, par in the 'sandwich' . This type of splint is well tolerated
ticularly at the elbow, hand and knee, but are of little and can be worn 24 hours a day for several months.
use at the neck or axilla (Fig. 6.11) . In the latter cases, In a child, physiotherapy will not be necessary to
the scar must be surgically divided and additional mobilize the hand again; in an adult this immobiliza
tissue introduced in order to correct the deformity. tion would result in permanent stiffness.
Alternatively, the neck may be splinted with rings of Application of pressure to the face can be particu
plastic sucker tubing, joined with a small piece of larly difficult. The wearing of an elastic face mask, the
wooden dowell (Fig . 6.12). These rings can be added traditional Jobst mask, is less well-tolerated: the pa
as the forces of contracture are overcome, and are tients feel they have a sinister appearance and the
inexpensive and re-usable. They are also well toler velcro attachments -easily become entangled in the
ated by the patient. When the graft has taken and is hair (Fig. 6.15) but they are ideal for applying pres
well established a thermoplastic splint can be accura sure to the chin. Alternatively, a transparent flexible
tely moulded to maintain pressure over the graft and plastic mask can be worn, which is built on a cast of
maintain extension of the neck (Fig. 6.13). the patient's face (Fig. 6.16) and is generally well
In children, bum injuries of the hand are particu tolerated. The masks are removed only at mealtimes
larly difficult to splint but the oyster shell principle and can be made to fit specific areas of the face. Their
can be successful (Fig. 6.14). An impression of the use minimizes the need for secondary reconstruction.
dorsal and palmar surface of the hand is taken at the The amount of pressure applied can be adjusted by
time of stitch removal and a plaster model made. building up or grinding down areas of the original
Rigid acrylic shells are cast from this model, and the plaster model before remaking the mask.
105
6 SEQUELAE
Fig. 6.11 Splinting of the neck. (a) A contracture of the (d) A tubed pedicle is raised and carried on the wrist.
neck was very widely released and grafted. (e) It may then be inset into the neck. The scar tissue can
(b) A splint of plaster of paris was applied. The solint be completely excised and a full thickness tissue flap
should apply pressure to the graft and maintain exten inserted.
sion of the neck, but those applied whilst the patient is (I) The contracture will not recur and the cosmetic result
anaesthetized rarely do both. is excellent.
(c) The graft was patchy and the condition recurred.
Fig. 6.12 Neck splints using thermoplastic suction (b) The burns have been excised and grafted.
tubing. (a) A deep burn to the neck. (c) Splints are applied .
106
SPLINTS
Fig. 6.14 Immobilization of the hand. (a) Burn wound full thickness grafts, and the hand immobilized in a bi
contractu res following a deep burn to the hand. Correc valve splint.
(b) The scars have been excised, the defects filled with
107
6 SEQUELAE
Fig. 6.17 Heterotopic bone deposition. This is seen at Fig. 6.18 Radiologically immature bone. Fluffy bone,
the biceps tuberosity of the radius and the medial epi not demonstrating trabeculae, has been deposited in the
condyle. It is mature and well trabeculated. olecranon fossa and anteriorly.
108
PIGMEN TATION AND MALIGNANT CHANGES
Fig. 6.19 Calcification around the elbow. The olecra Fig. 6.20 Heterotopic bone at the surgical neck of the
non fossa has filled with heterotopic bone, preventing humerus.
exten sion at the elbow.
RENAL STONES
109
6 SEQUELAE
Fig. 6.22 Keratoacanthoma. This has arisen in a recent Fig. 6.23 Marked hypopigmentation. (a) This has fol
donor site on the upper thigh. lowed a deep dermal burn .
Fig. 6.24 Neglected burns. (a) Seven months after in seen , which will require amputation .
jury, skin grafts have been used to cover some of the raw (c) Delay in burn wound excision . A very deep burn on
areas in these burns of the hand but no attempt has been the extensor aspect of the arm . All the black structures
made to maintain function. needed excision some time ago, when there was some
(b) A circumferential burn that did not receive an escha chance of preserving function.
rotomy. Total infarction and mummification of the foot is
110
NON-ACCIDENTAL INJURIES
Fig. 6.25 Chronic over-granulation. Skin grafts have Fig. 6.26 Inadequate grafting. Skin grafts have been
failed to become established on several occasions. applied to the granulating areas ; however, the elbow joint
remains exposed. Excision of the non-vital structures is
required , followed by flap cover, using either a free flap
or jump flap from the abdominal wall.
ointment, and the slough is sharply excised (Fig.
6.25) . A skin graft will then take well. In most cases,
only one anaesthetic is needed to prepare the wound. risk' register. Statistically, over half of the patients
When conditions are optimal a thin split skin graft belong to families of a lower socio-economic status
can be applied (Fig. 6.26). and one-third from single parent families .
In these difficult problems, treatment of the child
is paramount: prompt admission to a 'place of safety'
NON-ACCIDENTAL INJURIES is mandatory. A thorough physical examination is
important, with X-rays if indicated, and immediate
Non-accidental injury includes the deliberate inflic help must be sought from the appropriate paediatri
tion of burns. From a clinical and social aspect, cases cian and social worker, who will take responsibility
involving children are the most important. The pat for co-ordinating discussions and meetings. It is
tern of burning may raise doubts immediately (Fig. important that the burn physician and nurses remain
6.29), but more often it is the inconsistencies in the on friendly and non-hostile terms with the family of
history which arouse suspicion: different versions of the patient throughout the hospital stay, and ensure
the accident may be recounted, and there is often a that long-term medical follow-up is adequate.
delay of many hours before help is sought. The burn In the adult, non-accidental burn injuries are more
injuries often extend to a small area (Fig. 6.27) and likely to be seen in victims of assault (Fig. 6.30), those
frequently involve the buttocks (Fig. 6.28). There is a in institutionalized care (Fig. 6.31), or those suffering
much greater incidence in boys compared with girls, from psychosis, where the injuries may be self inf
and half of the children have been injured previously, licted (Fig. 6.32). Cases of assault usually result in
with approximately one-quarter already on the 'at criminal proceedings and it is recommended that
111
6 SEQUELAE
Fig. 6.28 A cigarette burn in a Fig. 6.29 Burns involving the Fig. 6.30 Non-accidental burns lin
two year old. buttocks. These are often an adult. A row of cigarette burns
associated with difficulties in toilet seen in a victim of an assault.
training .
112
PATHOLOGY
~'->(:'
\. ,
II:
Fig. 6.33 Congested kidneys with vascular stasis in Fig. 6.34 Congested, soft and heavy spleen. The pa
the renal medulla. Terminal renal failure followed uncon tient died from sepsis,
trolled sepsis,
thorough notes and colour photography are taken by lysis occurs quickly and little help is available from
the medical attendants, to be used as subsequent histological examination. Death occurs at the bioche
evidence. mical level and gross derangements are often
observed during the days preceding the patient' s
death.
PATHOLOGY Examination of the respiratory tract and lungs will
pinpoint the focal damage following inhalational in
It is remarkable how unusual it is to ascertain the juries (Fig. 6.36), but the changes due to the injury
exact cause of death at post-mortem examination in itself are obscured by the effects of secondary infec
the majority of those patients dying from burns , Even tion (Fig. 6.37),
those who have slowly fallen into uncontrolled sepsis Ante-mortem histological examination of the bum
and multiple organ failure rarely show more than wound can be very useful in determining the pres
congestion of most of the organs (Fig. 6,33), with ence of invasive burn wound sepsis, particularl~
enlargement and friability of the spleen (Fig. 6.34) those due to yeasts and fungi.
and pulmonary consolidation (Fig. 6.35). Tissue auto-
IE
6SEOUELAE
114
Further reading Strasser, E.J. (1977) Lightning injuries. J. Trauma , 17,
315-19.
and their management, 3rd edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Surg. Clin. North. Am., 67, 15-22.
Wachtel, T.L. and Frank, D.H. (1984) Burns of the head and Burns, 1, 23-42.
neck, W.P. Saunders, Philadelphia . Carvajal, H .F. (1980) A physiological approach to fluid
Hummel, R.P. (1982) Clinical burn therapy, John Wright, therapy in severely burned children . Surg. Gynecol. Obstet.,
Boston. 150,379-84.
Carvajal, H.F. and Parks, D.H. (1988) Burns in children, Herndon, D.N., Barrow, R.E., Linares, H .A. et al. (1988)
Year Book Medical Publishers, Chicago. Inhalational injury in burned patients: effects and treat
CHAPTER 1 PATHO-PHYSIOLOGY Boutros, A.R., Hoyt, J.L., Boyd, W.e. and Hartford, C.E.
CHAPTER 2 CHEMICAL BURNS Luterman, A., Dasco, e.e. and Curreri, P.W. (1986) Infec
136-40.
Cole, R.P. and Shakespeare, P.G. (1990) Toxic shock syn
16,214-16.
CHAPTER 5 ANAESTHESIA
Hunter, G.A. (1968) Chemical burns after contact with
115
FURTHER READING
389-95.
PhYSiotherapy
116 121
INDEX
Index
Blood transfusion, massive, problems Chemical burns 21-3
66
to eyes 86-7, 5.42
6.18
3.16
Acinetobacter 51
5.56
5.45
Allografts 77-8,5.23
appearance 7, 1.1
adult formulae 31 , 3.2
Aminoglycoside absorption 57
area 7-8,1.11
Contact bums 14-15
Amputation
chronic non-healing 60, 4.33
electrical 17, 2.19
of fingers 81-2,5.30
'closed method' excision 70-1,5.11
Contamination
Anaesthesia 64-9
depth assessment 6-7
avoidance 52-3
Antibacterials, topical 57
metabolic considerations 59
Crystalloids 27
Antibiotics
neglected 110-11, 6.24
adult formulae 31 , 3.2
choice 57,4.3
non-accidental 110, 112-13, 6.27-32
Curreri and Sutherland estimations of
prophylactic 55
pathology 113-14
caloric requirements 59, 4.4
resistance 56,4.28
pathophysiological changes 2-3,
systemic 57,4.3
1.1
3.18b
surface, surveillance of bacteria 55,
scalp 88, 90, 5.49-50
Aseptic measures 52
wound
Deep charring burns 13, 2.6, 85, 5.36
At risk register, non-accidental burns
colonization 51
escharotomy 36, 3.18
110
early surgery 55
Deep contact burns, of hand 83, 5.31
Atelectasis 44
infection 51-8,4.29
Deep dermal burns 4-5, 1.2, 1.4
Axilla, difficulties, 96, 5.60b
Buttock, as donor site 74-5, 5.17c
exposure treatment 29, 3.4
Betadine 30
Capillary permeability, increased 26
tangential excision 68, 5.8
2.14a
Carbon stained pharyngeal aspirate
Disablement, burn treatment, 91, 93,
117
INDEX
Ears
Eyelid
Grafting
ECG monitoring 67
ectropion 89, 5.47 special techniques 77-8
Ectropion
skin grafting 88--9,5.46 Grafts
Elastic bandage 97
alkali burns 84, 5.35
6.25
Elastic pressure garments 97--8, 5.62 elastic mask 105, 108, 6.15
Elasticated pressure garment 107,6.15 flexible plastic mask 105, 108, 6.16
Haematocrit 27
Elbow, calcification 108--9, 6.19 Fascia, excision to 71, 5.12 Haemolytic streptococcal infection 51,
Epithelial regeneration 26
Fluid loss,
Heterotopic calcification 108--9
3.24-5
Furacin 54
Hot water scald 6, 1.10
Eye
Hydrochloric acid burns 21, 2.30
118
INDEX
H'. ~ertrophi cscarring 98, 5.65 Meshed skin grafts 75-6, 5.19 PEEP 48
Hypoxia 27
with inhalational injuries 14,2.9 Peripheral circulation 27
Mobility encouragement 96
Phosphorus burns 23, 2.37
Immunosuppression 51
Infections
prevention 30,3.6
surgical excision 57
treatment 57-8
4.5-6
physiotherapy 95, 5.58
anaesthesia 66
Plastic face mask 105, 108, 6.16
diagnosis 47-8
Nasogastric intubation nutrition 56
muscle wasting 96
fine bore 61 , 4.34
Postural drainage 48
pathology 47
in lungs 61, 4.34b
Povidone iodine 27, 3.1 , 54
treatment 48
deep burns 49
Pressure relief 94
Protein loss 26
ventilation 69
splinting 105-6,6.11-12
Pseudomonas
Irrigation for chemical burns 23, 2.36
Neomycin 57
drug resistance 57
Psychological consideration 69
72,5.14
Oedema, of hand 96
Punctate bums 16-17, 2.20
45,4.2
Regeneration 26
chronic disease 46
Oxygen saturation 45
necrotizing damage 46
in electrical burns 17
secondary changes 44
Paraffin gauze 75, 5.18b
Resuscitation 26-8
Parenteral nutrition 61
formulae for adults 31,3.2
119