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1. INTRODUCTION

Energy as in physics is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential,
kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or various other forms. There are
moreover, heat and work - i.e., energy in the process of transfer from one body to
another. After it has been transferred, energy is always designated according to
its nature. Hence, heat transferred may become thermal energy, while work done
may manifest itself in the form of mechanical energy.

All forms of energy are associated with motion. For example, any given body has
kinetic energy if it is in motion. A tensioned device such as a bow or spring,
though at rest, has the potential for creating motion; it contains potential energy
because of its configuration. Similarly, nuclear energy is potential energy because
it results from the configuration of subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom.

Energy can be converted from one form to another in various ways. Usable
mechanical or electrical energy is for instance produced by many kinds of
devices, including fuel-burning heat engines, turbines, generators, batteries, fuel
cells, and magneto-hydrodynamic systems.

Over the centuries a wide array of devices and systems has been developed for
converting energy from forms provided by nature to those most useful to society.
Some of these energy converters are quite simple. The early windmills, for
example, transformed the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy for
pumping water and grinding grain. Other energy-conversion systems are
decidedly more complex, particularly those that take raw energy from fossil fuels
and nuclear fuels to generate electrical power. Systems of this kind require
multiple steps or processes in which energy undergoes a whole series of
transformations through various intermediate forms.

Many of the energy converters widely used today involve the transformation of
thermal energy into electrical energy. The efficiency of such systems is, however,

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subject to fundamental limitations, as dictated by the laws of thermodynamics

and other scientific principles.

2. PURPOSE

In the Power Generation industry, turbines are used to drive the generators which
produce electrical energy. The turbine therefore converts heat energy in to
mechanical energy (rotational force) which in turn drives the generator to enable
electrical energy to be produced at high voltage.

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TURBINE OPERATION

There are various types of turbines used in the Power generation industry to drive
the generators. The following descriptions provide an overview of the various
types of turbines used in modern power stations:

3.1 Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbines utilise the force of water to convert kinetic energy into
mechanical energy (rotational force).

In the generation of hydroelectric power, water is collected or stored at a

higher elevation and led downward through large pipes or tunnels
(penstocks) to a lower elevation; the difference in these two elevations is
known as the head. In the course of its passage down the steep pipes, the
falling water rotates turbines. The turbines in turn drive generators, which
convert the mechanical energy of the turbines into electricity. Transformers
change the alternating current produced by the generators into a very
high-voltage current that is suitable for long-distance transmission. The
structure that houses the turbines and generators, and into which the
pipes or penstocks feed, is called the powerhouse.

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Hydroelectric power plants are usually situated in dams that impound

rivers, thereby raising the level of the water behind the dam and creating a
relatively high head. The potential power that can be derived from a
volume of water is directly proportional to the working head, so that a high-
head installation requires a smaller volume of water than a low-head
installation to produce an equal amount of power. In some dams, the
powerhouse is constructed on one flank of the dam; part of the dam itself
is used as a spillway over which excess water is discharged in times of
flood. Where the river flows in a narrow, steep gorge, the powerhouse may
be in the dam itself.

FIGURE 1 : HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION PROCESS

In some areas where electric-power demand varies sharply at different

times of the day, pumped-storage hydroelectric stations are used. During
off-peak periods, some of the extra power available is used to pump water
into a special reservoir. Then, during periods of peak demand when the
power required by the system exceeds the base-load value, the water is
allowed to flow down again to generate additional electrical energy.

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Pumped-storage systems are efficient and, in most cases, constitute the

most economical way to meet peak loads.

FIGURE 2 : BASIC ARRANGEMENT OF A HYDROELECTRIC STATION

3.2 Gas Turbines
The basic engine operates by drawing air into a vane compressor and
compressing it (Figure 3). The resulting compressed air, which is heated by
compression, is discharged into a combustion chamber in which the fuel is
burnt. The burning fuel heats the compressed air further.

The resulting hot air is directed to a turbine where it is expanded as it

passes through the turbine blades causing the turbine shaft to rotate and
the air pressure to decrease. The efficiency of the turbine is dependent on
the gas temperature in the combustion chamber and the pressure
differential between the turbine inlet and discharge. The energy output
(KW) is directly related to the mass of air passing through the turbine.
Typically a low air inlet temperature (dense air) will increase the output
substantially.

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FIGURE 3 : BASIC GAS TURBINE (JET ENGINE)

The compressor is driven by the turbine that is attached to the same shaft.
This shaft is connected to the driven machine (propeller, generator etc.)
either directly or via a reduction gear train. Aircraft (jet) engines do not drive
a machine directly but rely on the reaction (thrust) effect caused by the
mass and velocity of gasses flowing from the exhaust. One turbine is
dedicated to driving the compressor with the other connected to the
propeller drive gear (in the case of a turbo-prop engine).
Gas turbines are not self-starting and require an auxiliary motor (electric) to
run the compressor to 20 to 30% of normal speed before the fuel is injected
and ignited. This is necessary so that there is sufficient air compression for
the compressor drive turbine to sustain operation once the fuel is injected.

3.3 Industrial Gas Turbines

Turbines may be used to drive emergency generators, fire pumps,
compressors and the like. These are commonly turbo-prop type engines
that produce gas to drive a free turbine connected to the driven machine.
As illustrated in Figure 4 the exhaust is directed to the stack after the free
energy in the gas has been absorbed by the turbine.

Larger stationary gas turbines (Figure 4) have the combustion chamber,

turbine and air compressor as separate units. This allows each of the
energy conversion steps to be optimised independently for maximum
overall efficiency. The turbine arrangement has a fixed and stationary vane
arrangement that, as with steam turbines, offers high efficiency. Various
other methods are employed to increase fuel efficiency, typically fuel pre-
heating and internal heat recuperation.

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FIGURE 4 : OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE

3.4 Steam turbines

The function of a steam turbine is to convert heat energy contained in high-
pressure, high-temperature steam into mechanical energy.

Figure 5 shows the steam flow through a reheat turbine in which a steam
pipe (1) from the boiler conveys steam to the turbine through a stop valve.
The stop valve is used to shut off steam in an emergency. The steam then
flows through the control valves (2) which regulate the supply of steam to
the turbine automatically.

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FIGURE 5 : STEAM FLOW THROUGH A REHEAT TURBINE

The stop valve and control valves are located in a steam chest. A governor
(3) driven from the main turbine shaft (4) operates the control valves to
regulate the amount of steam used. The quantity of steam needed by the
turbine depends on the electrical output required from the generator.

Steam from the control valves enters the high-pressure (HP) cylinder of the
turbine, where it passes through a ring of stationary blades (5) fixed to the
cylinder wall (6). These act as nozzles and direct the steam onto a ring of
moving blades (7) mounted on a disc secured to the turbine shaft. As a
result of the steam this second ring turns the shaft.

Together the stationary and moving blades constitute a "stage" of the

turbine. In practice many stages are necessary, so the cylinder contains a
number of rings of stationary blades with rings of moving blades arranged
between them. The steam passes through each stage in turn until it reaches
the end of the high-pressure cylinder, and in doing so some of its heat
energy is changed into mechanical energy.

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The steam leaving the high-pressure cylinder goes back to the boiler for
reheating (8) and returns by a further pipe (9) to the intermediate-pressure
(IP) cylinder. Here it passes through another series of stationary and moving
blades. In smaller turbines the steam is not reheated, but passes straight
from the high-pressure cylinder to either the intermediate-pressure cylinder,
or low-pressure (LP) cylinder. Finally, the steam is taken to the low-pressure
cylinders, entering each of them at the centre). It then flows outwards in
opposite directions through the rows of turbine blades to the extremities of
the cylinder. This arrangement is known as a double-flow LP cylinder. As the
steam gives up its heat energy to drive the turbine, its temperature and
pressure falls and the steam expands. To accommodate this expansion
larger and longer blades are fitted towards the low-pressure ends of the
turbine.

The turbine shaft usually rotates at 3000 revolutions per minute. This speed
is determined by the frequency of the electrical system used and the speed
at which a two-pole generator must be driven to generate alternating current
at a frequency of 50 cycles per second.

When the maximum amount of energy has been extracted from the steam,
it is exhausted directly to the condenser. This runs the length of the low-
pressure part of the turbine and is situated beneath or on either side of it. A
Typical condenser consists of a large vessel containing approximately 20
000 tubes, each about 25 mm in diameter.

Cold water is circulated through these tubes and as the steam from the
turbine passes round them it is rapidly condensed into water. This water is
usually referred to as condensate. Some condensers do not have tubes. In
these cases condensate from the condenser is recirculated back into the
same condenser and sprayed into the exhaust steam, thus condensing the
steam.

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The condensate is then pumped from the condenser through low-pressure

feed heaters by the extraction pump, after which its pressure is raised to
boiler pressure by the boiler feed pump. It is then passed through further
feed heaters to the economiser and the boiler where it is again changed into
steam.

NOTE: Due to the nature of involvement of Rotek in the maintenance of

turbines, we will only discuss the construction of Hydraulic and
steam turbines

4. STEAM TURBINE PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

There are two types of blading used on turbines. These are:

- Impulse type blading
- Reaction type blading

For maximum efficiency, modern turbines are usually fitted with both types.

4.1 Impulse turbines

The impulse blade is designed so that the steam slides over the blade
without any tendency to strike it, giving an impulse to the blade which
causes the shaft to rotate. This impulse force acts on the blade by a change
in the direction of the steam only (see Figure 6).

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FIGURE 6 : STEAM ACTING ON AN IMPULSE TURBINE BLADE

The principle is similar to that of a train passing around a bend. The train
exerts an outward thrust on the railway line due to centrifugal force but at no
point does the train actually hit or strike the rail (Figure 7).

FIGURE 7 : IMPULSE EFFECT

In an impulse turbine, the steam is expanded to the required pressure in the

fixed blades which are actually fixed nozzles, and the high-velocity steam
does work on the moving blades. The essential feature of an impulse
turbine is that all the pressure drop occurs in the nozzles and there is no
pressure drop through the moving blades themselves.

Since there is no pressure differential between the two sides of any moving
blade, there is little or no tendency for steam to leak past the blade tips and
the problem of sealing between the two sides of the wheel is simplified
(Figure 6). Since any leakage is minimal all the expanded steam has done
useful work.

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4.2 Reaction turbines

The principle governing the reaction type of turbine is slightly different. The
reversal of direction of the high-velocity steam in the moving blades
continues to give an impulse force. However, the fixed and moving blades
are designed such that the steam expands as it passes through both. This
gives a reaction effect on the expanding steam as it passes through the
moving blades.

A simple example of a reaction effect is shown by the launching of a space

shuttle (Figure 8). The combustion of high octane fuel causes expansion of
the exhaust gases. The reaction of this is lifting of the shuttle from the
ground.

FIGURE 8 : REACTION EFFECT - SHUTTLE LAUNCHING

As a pressure drop occurs across the moving blades in a reaction type of

machine, it is necessary to provide effective sealing at the blade tips. This
prevents steam leaking past the shrouding of the wheel and a consequent
loss in efficiency, particularly at the high-pressure end of the machine. In
spite of this disadvantage, the reaction-type turbine has certain advantages
and is more efficient in practice than an impulse type. The majority of
machines use impulse blading at the high-pressure end where it is

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important to have a good seal for the blading. Reaction blading is used at
the low-pressure end where sealing is less important and where the
pressure drop is low across the low-pressure blading and turbine operation
is purely dependant upon the expansion of the steam.

4.3 Compounding theory

To absorb all the available energy in the steam, it is necessary to use many
rows of blades in the turbine. The process of extracting the energy in steps
is known as compounding.

4.3.1 Compounding for velocity

Rows of moving blades, separated from each other by rings of
fixed guide blades, are arranged in a turbine wheel on the turbine
shaft (Figure 9).

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FIGURE 9 : COMPOUNDING FOR VELOCITY

The steam at boiler pressure is expanded through nozzles and

the resulting high-velocity steam is passed over the first disc of
stationary blades. Only a portion of the high-velocity steam is
absorbed by this blade, the remainder being exhausted onto the
next ring of rotating blades. The guide blades only change the
direction of the steam jet; they do not alter its velocity
appreciably. The jet then passes onto the next disc of fixed and
rotating blades and more velocity is absorbed. As the steam
flows over the remaining pairs of blades this process is repeated
until practically all the velocity has been exhausted.

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Figure 9 also shows a graph of pressure and velocity as they

vary through the turbine. It can be seen that the pressure drop
takes place at the nozzle and that the pressure then remains
constant as the steam flows over the blades. This type of turbine
is known as the impulse turbine.

4.3.2 Compounding for pressure

In this type of compounding, the wheels of moving blades are
again keyed to the shaft, with a ring of fixed nozzles positioned
after each set of moving blades. The pressure of the steam is
reduced as it flows through each set of fixed nozzles and not just
by the first nozzle ring.

FIGURE 10 : COMPOUNDING FOR PRESSURE

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The steam passes through the first nozzle ring in which it only
partially expands. It then passes over the first moving blade
wheel where most of its velocity is absorbed. From the first blade
ring it exhausts into the next nozzle ring and is again partially
expanded reducing the pressure still further. The velocity
obtained from the second nozzle ring is absorbed by the next
wheel of the moving blades. This process is repeated in the
remaining fixed blade rings until the required reduction in
pressure has taken place. Each pair of fixed and moving blades
is known as a "stage".

In Figure 10 the graphs of pressure and velocity for this type of

compounding are shown. By dropping the pressure in stages, it
will be seen from the graph that the velocity of steam entering
the moving blades is considerably reduced compared with that
for velocity compounding only. As no pressure drop takes place
across the moving blades, this turbine is also called an impulse
turbine.

4.3.3 Pressure-velocity compounding

Pressure-velocity compounding is a combination of both the
previous methods and has the advantage of allowing a bigger
pressure drop in each stage and so fewer stages are necessary.
For a given pressure drop the turbine will be shorter. The curves
of pressure and velocity for this type of turbine are shown in
Figure 11. It can be seen that the diameter of the turbine is
increased at each stage to allow for the increasing volume of
steam. A ring of nozzles is fitted at the beginning of each stage
but the pressure is constant over anyone stage and the turbine is
an impulse turbine.

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4.3.4 Reaction blading pressure-velocity turbines

In this type of turbine the pressure drop takes place gradually
over the fixed and moving blades. Since the pressure falls over
the moving blades, the turbine is a reaction turbine. Graphs of
velocity and pressure for this type are shown in Figure 12. The
pressure line falls almost continuously as the steam passes over
the blade rings. The steam never reaches a high velocity as it is
expanding continuously at a slow rate while, at the same time,
the velocity is being absorbed by the moving blades.
Consequently, the blade velocity is relatively low.

FIGURE 11 : COMPOUNDING FOR PRESSURE AND VELOCITY

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FIGURE 12 : REACTION TURBINE

5. STEAM TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
A turbine may have one, two or more cylinders according to its output capacity.
The rotors are supported in journal bearings and located by a thrust bearing.
Other devices are added to control and protect the turbine.

5.1 Construction designs

Turbines are classified according to the direction of steam flow through the
cylinder. The majority of turbines used in modern industry are axial-flow
machines which mean that the steam flow is along or parallel to the
centreline of the shaft. A few older steam turbines are of the Ljungstrm
type and are radial-flow machines. This means that the steam flows at right
angles to the shaft from the centre of the blading outwards to the cylinder.
Some of the larger capacity radial- flow machines have one or two last row
axial stages. Figure 13 shows a simple diagram of an axial-flow turbine, and
Figure 14 shows a simple diagram of a radial-flow turbine. Radial-flow
turbines are commonly used in hydro-stations (also refer to figure 1).

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FIGURE 13 : AXIAL FLOW TURBINE

FIGURE 14 : LJUNGSTRM RADIAL FLOW TURBINE

The number of cylinders necessary for a machine depends on the number
of stages required to deal with the overall steam-pressure drop and on the
quantity of steam flowing through the machine at full load.

In some designs of turbines the flow in a cylinder is sometimes reversed,

either to help balance the thrust of the steam against the turbine rotor
blading or to help control turbine expansion. Figure 15 illustrates the most
common categories of steam flow directions through turbines.

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FIGURE 15 : CATEGORIES OF STEAM FLOW DIRECTIONS THROUGH

TURBINES

Figure 16 shows some examples of turbine configuration. Turbine

configurations are dictated by the manufacturers design.

5.2 Turbine cylinders

A turbine cylinder is a pressure vessel which is capable of withstanding high
internal steam pressures. The cylinders are supported at each end. They
are extremely rigid in order to prevent bending and to allow for accurate
clearances to be machined between themselves and the moving rotor.

On large machines the flanges are so thick that on start-up they warm up
slower than the other parts of the cylinder casing. For this reason warming
passages are provided in the flanges for warming steam to pass through.

The HP cylinder can be constructed with an inner and outer cylinder. The
exhaust steam flows between the cylinders to reduce the difference in

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pressure between the inner and casings (Figure 17). The stationary fixed
blades (nozzles) are attached to the inner casing. Cylinders will be
discussed in more detail later in the manual.

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FIGURE 16 : TYPICAL TURBINE CONFIGURATIONS

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FIGURE 17 : SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH A HIGH PRESSURE DOUBLE

WALLED TURBINE CASING

5.3 Turbine rotors

The part of the rotor which accommodates the moving blades is fixed to the
shaft. This can be in the form of discs which are shrunk onto the shaft, or it
can be a solid-forged drum and shaft (See Figure 18). The blades are fitted
into slots, which are precision machined for a tight fit. The completed rotor is
precision balanced to prevent vibration.

5.4 Turbine impulse stage blading

5.4.1 Moving blades

In the impulse stage the majority of heat drop occurs in the
stationary blading. The driving forces on the stage arise from the
change in momentum of the steam flowing across the moving
blades. The impulse design possesses the advantages of

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compactness and comparative insensitivity to blading clearance

since little pressure drop takes place over the moving blading.
However, the moving blades are

FIGURE 18 : EXAMPLES OF TURBINE ROTOR CONSTRUCTION

subject to disturbances from the nozzle wakes, so resonance
must be avoided and steam bending stresses must be kept low;
also, since the momentum change is relatively high, the moving
blades have to be robust and tend to be heavy. It is therefore
regular practice to attach the individually manufactured blades to
a wheel disc, often by straddle roots which engage with
corresponding axial shoulders machined on the wheel rim.

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One or more protrusions are left at the outer end of the moving
blade. These pass through holes in a cover band which may in
turn fit into a slot machined in the outside of the blade: when
these protrusions or tenons are formed into rivets, they keep the
cover band in place. The cover band acts as a seal and braces
the blading to reduce vibration. Each length of cover band ties a
short length of blades together and may butt up to the next
length or overlap, so that an extremely robust construction is
created. Since a certain degree of reaction builds up towards the
outer diameter of all impulse blades, axial sealing fins are formed
integral with the moving blade shroud or cover band.

5.4.2 Fixed blades

There are two methods of constructing the stationary nozzle
blading. Built-up blades, machined from the solid, are used for
nozzle plates and steel diaphragms, whilst cast-in blades, formed
from steel plates embedded into cast iron diaphragms are used
where temperatures are below 230C. On some of the latest
machines, HP blades have been electrochemically machined. An
impulse stage is frequently used for the first stage of the HP
turbine. The fixed blades may then be incorporated in an integral
nozzle box, thereby obviating the problem of pressure sealing at
the inside of the blade ring. By absorbing a high heat drop, the
nozzle box arrangement also reduces the pressure and
temperature of the steam impinging on the HP rotor and inner
casing.

Since impulse stage diaphragms have to withstand the bulk of

the stage pressure drop, both diaphragm and blades need to be
very robust. The diaphragm has the advantage of a relatively
small diameter at the steam seal between diaphragm and rotor,
but this labyrinth seal must be as good as possible to deal with

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the high pressure drop. The radial labyrinth seal ensures

adequate insensitivity to axial displacement between the rotor
and the casing. A typical impulse stage arrangement is shown in
Figure 19.

5.5 Reaction stage fixed and moving blades

Although called "reaction", these stages in fact employ equal degrees of
impulse and reaction, resulting in the fixed and moving blades being of
identical section.

This type of blading lends itself to economical production of blades from

standard rolled sections. Only a small heat drop can be accommodated per
blade row, due

FIGURE 19 : MODERN IMPULSE STAGE WITH LABYRINTH SEALING

to the comparatively high velocity ratio required for good efficiency. This
means that a large number of expansions are required. Steam approaches
the moving blades with a velocity that is low and substantially axial in

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direction. Consequently, the driving force applied to the moving blades

arises almost entirely from the reaction force of the steam as it accelerates
through the moving blades. The force applied to the moving blades is thus
fairly steady, with very little disturbance arising from the nozzle wakes of the
fixed blades. So, fairly high bending stresses can be employed in the
moving blades without risk of fatigue failure due to vibration.

Since the pressure drop across the fixed blades is small, diaphragms are
not required, but small tip clearances are needed throughout the turbine to
prevent excessive leakage losses. This was achieved in earlier turbines by
axial sealing and end-tightening.

With solidly-coupled shafts which expand either side of a single thrust

bearing and with multi-casing arrangements, end-tightening is not feasible
and a compromise had to be reached between fine clearances to reduce
leakage and large clearances to accommodate differential expansion when
starting.

Modern reaction turbines generally employ a combination of axial and radial

sealing at the stators and rotors. For this purpose, the rotor blades are
provided at their outer edge with shrouds formed of sections integral with
the blade (see Figure 20). These mate with replaceable finned sealing
segments in the casing. Fins formed on the inner diameter of the fixed
blades provide sealing at the rotor.

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FIGURE 20 : SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH A REACTION STAGE

Small reaction-type blades can be manufactured by cutting from rolled bar

of the requisite profile or machining from bar, while larger blades may be
separately cold-rolled after which the root portion is heated and forged.
Blades may also be machined from envelope forgings or produced by
precision forging, so that the profile requires no further machining; this is
valuable where tough materials make machining difficult. Final machining
can also be awkward where integral shrouds and root fixings interfere with
the machine tool. To facilitate manufacture, modern practice is to braze
together short groups of blades before machining the circumferential
serrations on the sides of the roots, see Figure 21. The brazing also permits
easier assembly. Groups of blades are fitted in the rotor or casing in
circumferential grooves which have corresponding circumferential
serrations machined in their walls. The blades arc secured in the grooves"
by similarly serrated side-locking pieces cut from rolled strip. A suitable stop
plate at the half joint locates the fixed blades in the circumferential groove
and prevents the blade segments from rotating due to torque reaction.

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FIGURE 21 : BRAZED REACTION BLADE GROUP

5.6 Turbine rotor blade root attachments

The last stage blades of large turbines develop centrifugal forces of
hundreds of tons when running at operating speed. Very effective methods
of attaching the blades to the turbine rotor had therefore been developed.

Systems presently in use include rhombus fixings in a peripheral slot, finger-

shaped pinned fixing and straight or curved fir-tree roots. Fir-tree roots
provide an excellent method of attachment, since they permit very close
staggering of the blade cascade and the centrifugal force is produced in an
optimum manner in the shaft teeth.

5.6.1 Fir-Tree roots

Fir-tree serrations may be in line with the axis of the machine,
inclined to the axis, or curved (see Figure 22). Curved fir-tree
roots follow the blade chord at the root section. The straight root,
in line with the axis, is used for slightly-twisted end blades. Both
the inclined and the curved fir-tree roots are used for highly-
twisted blades to achieve a closer blade pitch at the inner steam
path. Optimum selection of the dimensions and number of
serrations of the fir-tree root has been made possible by
predetermined element calculations of stresses in the shaft and
root because of unavoidable inaccuracies in manufacture, the pit

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FIGURE 22 : TYPES OF FIR-TREE ROOT

between the supporting plains of the individual fir-tree tips varies.

This is also taken into account in the calculations. Pull-out test on
fir-tree roots have confirmed their reliability. In view of their high
strength and close packing capability, side entry fir-tree roots are
generally used for fixing last stage LP blading.

In earlier turbine stages, fir-tree serrations are machined

circumferentially in grooves in the rotor, and groups of blades are
secured in the grooves by similarly-serrated side locking pieces
cut from rolled strip. The blades of the first row of the HP turbine
are axially attached to a short wheel disc on the rotor by straddle
roots, which engage with corresponding shoulders machined
circumferentially on the wheel rim. The straddle fixing therefore
acts as an inverted fir-tree, (the tree shape) usually with only one
or two branches, being formed on the rotor disc.

5.6.2 Pinned roots

Multi-fork pinned roots are generally easier to manufacture than
fir-tree roots, since the machined faces are plain with no
undercutting and the pin or rivet holes are simply drilled and

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reamed. The enormous force on moving blade roots, particularly

in the LP stages ensures rigidity in any type of root fixing at
synchronous speed but, contrary to the fir-tree root, the multi-fork
pinned root provides a rigid fixing when the machine is stationary.
This enables the zero speed vibration characteristic of the blades
to be confirmed with confidence and ensures a smooth
unstepped spectrum of characteristics, as the machine is run up.
Replacement of multi-forked blades, however, involves further
reaming of the securing pin holes. This is awkward in-situ and
can only be carried out a limited number of times.

5.7 Blade tip movement control

The use of long blades and large blade chords involves an increase in pitch.
This creates complications in the various devices used to stiffen the blade
assembly in order to dampen vibration. A cover band or lacing wire must
behave as a beam spanning the blade pitch in resisting centrifugal loading
and must also accommodate the substantial circumferential stains due to
radial elastic extension of the blades and the tendency of the blade to
untwist at speed.

When lacing wires are used, they are usually of the "loose" type with
circumferential restraint on only one blade in each group, and are free to
move circumferentially in adjacent blades, centrifugal forces providing the
necessary damping through friction. The gaps between adjacent lacing
wires can introduce complications in vibration patterns on long blades and
overlapping lacing wires are sometimes used to give some measure of
continuity around the periphery. A cover band of conventional design is not
feasible for slim sections. Where the peripheral speed may be approaching
Mach 2, a continuous ring of stiffening devices of sufficient elasticity may be
used to accommodate circumferential strain.

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Zigzag spool rods shown in Figure 23 are frequently incorporated in the tips
of the last stage LP blades. The spool rods provide no restraint against
normal expansion or centrifugal untwist. The reduced sections at the ends
of the rods are forced against the holes in the blades by centrifugal action
and the sliding friction provides effective damping, minimising blade
vibration or high frequency flutter at the blade tip.

A recent variant to the spool rod is the ball-jointed tip tie. The dumb-bell-
shaped tie rod fits into a fixed ball-shaped socket in one blade and into a
sliding ball socket in the next blade. In common with the spool rods,
centrifugal strains are not retrained but the ball-joints provide more
controlled damping and the evaluation of tie rod stressing is more reliable.
Some thickening of the blade is required in the region of the tip tie to
accommodate the ball-joint sockets.

FIGURE 23 : ZIGZAG SPOOL ROD TIP-TIES

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5.8 Rotor Balancing

After rotor and blade assembly, the rotor is balanced both statically and
dynamically. In the case of built-up rotors, each blade disc is balanced
individually prior to assembly.

Static balancing means that the weight is evenly disposed around the axis
of the shaft. It can be checked by rolling the rotor on horizontal knife-edge
supports.

Dynamic balancing means that the moments of the out-of-balance weights

along the axis about either bearing add up to zero. This is checked by
spinning the rotor on resilient bearings, detecting the vibration levels.
Weights are added or subtracted until the vibration is within acceptable
values.

A modern balancing machine enables balancing to be carried out with a

high degree of accuracy and eliminates to a large extent the trial and error
processes used in the past.

Rotors are normally balanced at low speed (400r/min) and weight

adjustment made in two convenient planes, one at each end of the rotor.
This adjustment may be by varying screwed plugs in tapped holes, or by
adding balance weights at specific circumferential positions. Tee-slots are
machined circumferentially in the periphery of the rotor front and rear half-
coupling flanges to permit the weights to be positioned and retained.

The aim of balancing is to reduce the amplitude of vibration to a tolerable

level, which can be taken to be about 25m at the bearing pedestals.

As rotors become larger and more flexible, it is increasingly important to

understand their modal behaviour so that balancing can ensure smooth
running over the speed range.

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The larger LP rotors and generator rotors having critical speeds below
running speed are over-speeded and, if necessary, balanced in the fully-
bladed condition in a vacuum chamber, where they can be run without
being overheated due to windage.

In the vacuum chamber and the high speed pit, rotors are run in bearing
bushes and pedestals simulating site conditions as closely as possible.
Facilities are available for measuring journal or pedestal vibration and
balancing can be therefore carried out at closely controlled speeds
anywhere in the range required. Standards of balance obtained during the
factory testing must provide sufficient vibration margin to take account of
site conditions. Balance on-site is likely to be affected by variations in the
stiffness of the bearing, possible shaft misalignment and the coupling of the
individually balanced rotors to form the complete shaft system.

Multi-plane balancing is carried out at speeds associated with each critical

within the running range. Balance weights are attached to correct imbalance
in any of the modes related to these critical speeds, as well as for
imbalance in the modes of up to two critical speeds above normal running
speed. Typical HP and IP turbines are provided with two balance planes.
The LP rotors have three balance planes and generators have facilities to
attach balance weights in almost any axial position.

Should site vibration levels exceed those specified, provision is made for
site trim balancing on the LP rotors via access holes provided in each gland
housing. Figure 24 shows the balance planes and site trim balance
arrangements for a typical 660 MW LP turbine rotor.

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FIGURE 24 : LP ROTOR BALANCE PLANES

FIGURE 25 : LP ROTOR SITE BALANCING FACILITIES

5.8.1 Critical speeds

A stationary shaft supported between bearings has a natural
frequency of vibration, depending on its diameter in relation to
the distance between bearings. If its speed of rotation
corresponds to its natural vibration frequency, the residual out-of-

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balance forces are amplified, and can build up to a dangerous

extent.

This critical speed is either above or below running speed,

depending on rotor construction. If below, the shaft is regarded
as flexible and care must be exercised during run-up to ensure
that the critical is passed as quickly and smoothly as possible.

Critical speeds decrease with increase in rotor length and

decrease in rotor diameter. On large machines, the trend is to
provide a rigid rotor (criticals above running speed). Because of
the increased rotor length (necessary to accommodate the
required number of moving blade stages) on large units, rigidity
has been accomplished by an increase in diameter.

The rotors of large machines are jointed by solid couplings so

that the complete shaft, which my comprise seven individual
rotors, has to be treated as a whole. Each rotor is supported by
two bearings which are not simply supports. The hydrodynamic
oil films have flexibilities that significantly affect the critical speed
of the rotor.

5.9 Rotor couplings

The need for couplings arises from the limited length in which shafts can be
forged in one piece. The frequent need to use different materials for various
conditions of temperature and stress also require the need for shafts to be
joined by couplings. The multi-cylinder construction of large turbine-
generators therefore necessitates the use of a coupled shaft system.

Couplings are essentially devices for transmitting torque but they may also
have to allow relative angular misalignment, transmit axial thrust and ensure
axial location or allow limited relative axial movement. They may be

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classified as flexible, semi-flexible or rigid. On smaller turbine-generators

(i.e., up to 120 MW) semi-flexible and flexible couplings were commonly
used, but for large turbine-generators it is now common practice to use rigid
couplings.

5.9.1 Flexible couplings

These are capable of absorbing small amounts of angular
misalignment, as well as axial movement. Double flexible
couplings can also accommodate eccentricity. Figure 26 shows
some designs in common use. The claw coupling, which may be
single or double, is robust and slides easily when transmitting
light load; on heavy load, however, friction causes it to become
axially rigid. The Bibby coupling is satisfactory up to medium
sizes and provides (in addition to the other features) torsional
resilience, the torsional stiffness increasing with load.

CLAW COUPLING MULTI-TOOTH COUPLING

BIBBY COUPLING

FIGURE 26 : FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

The multi-tooth coupling transmits torque by internal and external

gear teeth of in-volute form, which are curved to accommodate
angular misalignment.

All these couplings require continuous lubrication, normally

obtained from a jet of oil feeding into an annular recess, from

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which it is fed centrifugally to the coupling teeth through drilled

passage-ways.

5.9.2 Semi-flexible couplings

This type of couplings will allow angular bending only. They
require no lubrication and consist of a bellows piece having one
or more convolutions. Figure 27 shows a semi-flexible coupling.

FIGURE 27 : SEMI-FLEXIBLE COUPLING

5.9.3 Rigid couplings

On large turbines, the high torque to be transmitted renders the
use of flexible couplings impracticable. Consequently, it is now
normal practice for rigid couplings to be employed between the
turbine cylinders, so that the turbine shaft behaves as one
continuous rotor.

The long shaft that is formed naturally bends under its own
weight to form a natural catenary. Because of this, the use of
rigid couplings means that the shaft alignment must be set to
ensure that the coupling bending moment forces are minimised.

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Rigid couplings are either integral with shaft forging (monobloc)

or are shrunk on to the shaft. It is now common practice for the
turbine rotors to have monobloc half couplings. Shrunk-on
couplings have been used on turbines and still are used on the
generator. They allow the couplings to be taken off for the
removal of turbine rotor discs, or the generator rotor end-winding
retaining rings (end bells). To minimise stress concentration in
the coupling region, the monobloc design of half coupling has a
large transitional fillet radius. Figure 28 illustrates a typical
monobloc coupling.

FIGURE 28 : RIGID MONOBLOCK COUPLING

Half couplings, which are forged separately from the shaft, are
assembled by heating and shrinking them on to the shaft.
Dowels are then inserted between the bore of the coupling and
the diameter of the shaft. For additional security against axial
movement of the coupling, a screwed ring, secured by locking
screw, is fitted to the shaft end outboard of the flange. An oil
injection point may be provided on the coupling through which oil
can be supplied under pressure to one or two annular grooves in
the coupling. This allows the coupling to be "floated" to ensure

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that it is seated correctly following the shrink on procedure and

also assists removal. Figure 29 shows a typical arrangement of a
shrunk-on type half coupling with oil injection facility, bolted to
monobloc half coupling.

FIGURE 29 : TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF A SHRUNK-ON HALF COUPLING

Earlier designs of shrink-on couplings employed tapered seat,

with a corresponding shaft taper. With this type, an oil injection
system was used to remove the coupling from the shaft.

A forged steel spacer plate is normally fitted in each coupling to

provide a means of axial adjustment of the rotor relative to the
cylinder. This ensures that operational design clearances
between the stage diaphragms and the rotor blades are always
maintained and also facilitates rotor inter-changeability. The
space plate (sandwich plate) is annular in shape and dowelled to
one half coupling and secured by screws with countersunk

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heads. The spacer plates must be sufficiently robust to avoid

distortion.

The couplings are connected by fitted bolts which are arranged

so that torque is transmitted by a combination of axial clamp load
(resulting in friction at the coupling faces) and radial grip
(resulting in shear load on the cross-sectional area of the bolt).
The bolts are tightened in a controlled manner to a
predetermined extension. The use of fitted bolts means that
some final on-site reaming of the bolt holes is necessary at the
assembly stage, which can make it a prolonged operation. In an
attempt to reduce assembly time, it is now normal practice only
to fit sufficient bolts to enable system fault torques to be
transmitted without damage to the bolts. The remaining bolts are
installed with larger clearances to permit speedier assembly.

Couplings should be designed to withstand a close up

three-phase fault or out-of-phase synchronism without damage.
The highest torque under these conditions (typically 4 to 5 times
full load torque) occurs at the generator/turbine coupling and
would almost certainly cause "stepping" of the fitted bolts.

To further reduce the assembly time of couplings, hydraulic bolt

fitting techniques have been developed. These have the
advantage that bolts can be fitted quickly and also removed
quickly without damage to the bolt hole or the bolt.

The standard coupling bolts have cylindrical heads with an

internal hexagon for tightening and are recessed into the
coupling to cut down windage losses and noise.

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5.10 Rotor alignment

The main objective in setting and maintaining rotor alignment is to achieve
satisfactory dynamic behaviour of the running shaft line.

Excessive misalignment can affect the vibration behaviour of the

multi-bearing shaft line. It imposes an effective bending moment at the
couplings which acts like a rotating out-of-balance. Changes between hot
and cold running vibration behaviour may be indicative of misalignment,
with the effect showing as an once-per-revolution vibration. Very drastic
misalignment may have the capacity to cause bearing unloading and hence
alter the shaft vibration behaviour. A long shaft bends naturally under its
own weight to form a catenary, but nevertheless revolves around its curved
centreline during rotation. The alignment is arranged so that the shaft
system has minimum bending moments at the shaft couplings. The
catenary depends solely on the mass and stiffness of the shaft system.

During initial erection, bearings are set at appropriate heights relative to one
another to form the catenary shape.

The final bearing height must ensure that adjacent coupling faces are
square and true to one another, so that there is no transmission of bending
moment through the coupling. Final adjustment of bearings must be made
with all the cylinders fully assembled and all pipes, which may exert a strain
on any turbine cylinder, fully assembled and attached to that cylinder.

6. BEARINGS AND PEDESTALS

The purpose of a turbine bearing is to retain the rotor system in its correct radial
position, relative to the cylinders and to provide a low friction support which will
withstand the static and dynamic loads of shaft rotation together with the frictional
and conducted heat, and to remain free from maintenance except at major
outages.

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6.1 Journal Bearings

Two bearings normally support each section of the turbine shaft, although,
with solid couplings, some designs only use one bearing between cylinders
in order to save length and bearing losses. Plain white metalled journal
bearings are invariably used because of their high loading capacity,
reliability and absence of wear due to hydrodynamically generated films of
lubricating oil. These films are formed automatically during operation by a
high pressure wedge of oil between the white metal and the shaft, the
maintenance of which ensures that no metal-to-metal contact is made. The
oil is continuously fed into the wedge by frictional drag and leaks away
axially towards the edges of the bearing.

The white metal surface is either cast into a mild steel liner to form a
bearing shell and is supported in the bearing body or it may be cast directly
into the bearing body itself (Figure 30).

All bearing assemblies are split in halves on the horizontal centreline and
held together by bolts, the halves being dowelled together to assure precise
location on assembly.

The bearings are normally spherically seated in their pedestals on four pads
under which shims are placed to facilitate precise horizontal and vertical
alignment of the shaft line. The spherical seating feature assures that, on
assembly, the bearing will automatically align its correct axial tilt; this is
necessary because, when coupling faces are set and bolted flat together,
the outer bearing on each shaft needs to be higher than the inner bearing
due to the natural bending catenary adopted by each shaft under its own
weight. The spherical seat is restrained in normal operation.

Typical large turbine bearings are up to 530mm diameter and have

length/diameter (L/D) ratios in be order of 0.5 to 0.7. Generator bearings

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 43

tend to be rather longer, with L/D ratios of 0.6 to 1.0 to take account, of the
heavier generator rotor in relation to the weight of individual turbine rotors.
In this way, a typical load on projected bearing area is kept below about
15kPa.

Two main white metal -profiles are in common use in modern turbine plant;
these are known as elliptical and three-land respectively.

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FIGURE : 30 MAIN ROTOR BEARING SHOWING STEEL-BACK WHITE METAL

LINER

The elliptical bore is produced by first machining a circular bore with shims
in the bearing horizontal half joint and then assembling the bearing without
the shims. This results in typical clearance ratios (diametral

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 45

clearance/diameter) of 0.001 vertically and 0.0015 horizontally. Oil is fed

into the bearing via lead-in ports at two diametrically opposite points on the
horizontal centreline.
The three-land design has three separate bearing surfaces, or lands of
equal width but of different arc lengths; one land in the bottom half and two
in the top half.

There is an oil supply groove with lead-in at the beginning of each land and
a drain groove at the end. Recirculation of oil is limited by an axial strip of
bearing surface between each drain groove and the following supply
groove. The three-land bearing is generally of circular bore with a clearance
ratio of about 0.0013. This design is more resistant to low frequency whirl.

Oil is supplied from the main turbine lubricating-oil pump at about 100kPa
and 30-40C to cool and lubricate the bearings. Each bearing also has a
separate high pressure (3MPa maximum) jacking oil supply which is
injected at the bottom of the bearing. This lifts the journal in the bearing
when starting from rest, thereby preventing wear and reducing the starting
torque required from the turning-gear drive motor.

6.1.1 Instrumentation
Instrumentation specific to the performance of the bearing
normally comprises white-metal temperature and oil inlet
pressure, indicated both locally and in the Control Room. Bearing
oil outlet temperature is normally indicated locally with remote
alarm facilities. Provision is also made at the bearing housing to
monitor vertical and horizontal vibration modes. Jacking oil
pressure is monitored local to each bearing with alarm indication
in the Control Room.

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6.1.2 Bearing performance

The first step towards understanding the performance of a
bearing under dynamic conditions is to know the condition of the
bearing oil film in vibration.

FIGURE 31 : OIL FILM REGIMES IN JOURNAL BEARING VIBRATION

When a sufficiently large journal vibration is superimposed on the

steady state running condition, changes in the oil film thickness
and circumferential movement of the pressure bearing oil film
take place, accompanying the movement of the journal. The way
in which the oil film is redistributed depends on the character of
the vibration. This is one of the sources of complication of the
dynamics of turbine bearings. Figure 31 illustrates the steady
running state film and other film regimes which may apply to the
pressure bearing oil film with the journal vibrating. Figure 31(a)
illustrates the steady state film, with the film starting at the
position of maximum clearance, (b) an oscillating film, (c) rotating

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 47

trailing film, (d) rotating leading film and (e) rotating transition
film.
The oscillating-film condition, (b), is obtained when a small
amplitude of vibration is superimposed on the steady-running
condition; this vibration is sustained by a fluctuating force
superimposed on the steady load. The motion of the journal axis
results in both squeeze and angular swing of the film. This
oscillating-film occurs frequently on bearings in service. It is
closely related to the steady-running condition.
In severe vibration, the journal motion may become a whirl of
such large amplitude that the position of minimum film thickness
travels round the bearing with the whirl. The pressure-bearing
film then travels round with the journal and the operating
condition is no longer closely related to the steady running
condition.
In a journal whirl of sustained magnitude at constant eccentricity,
the idealised bearing is in a condition of steady running relative
to axes rotating with the whirl. There is an effective speed of
rotation, relative to these axes, of (N-2F), where N is the speed
of rotation of the journal and F is the frequency of whirl measured
in the same direction. The position of formation of the
pressure-bearing film depends on the direction of the mean
peripheral speed of the bearing and journal relative to the
rotating axes; that is on whether N is greater or smaller than 2F.
When the frequency of whirl is less than half the journal speed,
the pressure-bearing film is built up on the trailing side of the
minimum film thickness, as in Figure 31(c). When the frequency
of whirl is greater than half the journal speed, the pressure-
bearing film is built up on the leading side of the minimum film
thickness, as in Figure 31(d). The diagrams show, for each case,
the direction of the reaction applied by the journal to the bearing.

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 48

When a rotating load is superimposed on a much smaller steady

load, there is a variation of eccentricity during each whirl rotation,
but the film regimes obtained resemble those given by whirl of
constant eccentricity.
With rotating trailing film the reaction of the bearing on the journal
(opposite to the reaction just mentioned) has a component
normal to the attitude radius in the direction of the whirl. This
component tends to increase the whirl. An explanation is thus
offered of why a rotating trailing film is associated with tendency
to instability. As reaction force increases and minimum film
thickness decreases, the direction of the reaction swings closer
to the attitude radius, so that if there is damping elsewhere in the
system, a steady condition of whirl may be attained.
With rotating leading film the corresponding component tends to
damp the whirl. A bearing in this regime does not excite
instability.
The transition between these last two conditions is of
importance, because it may exhibit a sharply resonant tendency
to maintain rotor whirl when there is a natural frequency close to
half running speed. Figure 31(d) gives a diagrammatic
representation of this film condition; the angular extent of the
pressure-bearing film is not known.
Prediction of rotor dynamic behaviour depends on an adequate
understanding of the bearing performance for which full-size
bearing test rigs are commonly used. Dynamic behaviour can
also be influenced by the stiffness of the support structure and
the effectiveness of the connection between bearing pedestals
and the turbine foundations. In this latter respect, bolting to steel
foundations is more predictable than bolting to soleplates
grouted into mass concrete foundation blocks.

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6.1.3 Factors affecting bearing life

Wear of journal bearings mainly occurs with an oil film of very
small minimum thickness and mild local wear, especially as new
bearings "bed-in", is to be expected. However, severe wear is a
symptom of trouble and can be caused by:

Contacting asperities on substandard journal and bearing

surfaces
Scoring by oil-borne solid particles
Excessive local pressure or temperature
Electrical pitting
Fatigue cracking of the white metal surface can be caused by
heavy vibration or cavitation within the oil film; the latter is usually
caused by a restricted supply of oil.
Corrosion rarely occurs, due to the control by treatment plant of
moisture in the turbine lubricating oil system.
Electrical erosion of bearings and journals has occasionally given
trouble. Small shaft voltages are set up by electromagnetic
induction in the generator rotor. Higher voltages sometimes
occur in the turbine, produced electrostatically. Bearing erosion is
prevented by effective insulation of the generator bearings from
earth and the application of an earthing brush to a suitable point
on the turbine rotor system. Both insulation and earthing brush
gear require good maintenance as well as good design to assure
their correct functioning.
6.2 Thrust bearings
The purpose of the turbine thrust bearing is to provide a positive axial
location for the turbine rotors relative to the cylinders. To achieve this, it
must be able to withstand the unbalanced thrusts due to blade reaction and
steam pressure acting on unbalanced areas. It must be free from
maintenance, except at major outages.

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FIGURE 32 : MITCHELL TILTING PAD THRUST BEARING

Since it is universal practice to use solid couplings between rotors, only one
thrust bearing is required in each complete shaft line. It is normally located
close to the areas where blade / cylinder clearances are minimum and
operating temperatures are highest and is split on the horizontal centreline

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for ease of assembly and maintenance. All large steam turbines use the
Mitchell tilting pad thrust bearing (Figure 32).
Although the net thrust on the white-metalled pads in the on-load condition
is always in one direction, i.e. typically towards the generator, a second set
of pads, termed surge pads, are incorporated on the opposite side of the
integral shaft collar to take account of transient reversals of thrust which
occur during load reduction and following a turbine trip.
In operation, the pad faces are slightly inclined to the face of the thrust collar
and the wedge-shaped cavity thus formed fills with oil. As thrust pressure is
applied, the wedge narrows and oil is forced to the restricted end. This
ensures that metal-to-metal contact between the pads and the thrust collar
is prevented. The pads are shaped and mounted so that each is able, to
pivot independently.
Since the function of the thrust bearing is critical in controlling axial
clearances between stationary and rotating turbine components, particular
precautions are taken to protect its integrity.
Because of the close tolerances between the pads and the shaft collar, the
oil supply to the thrust bearing is individually filtered. A portion of the oil is
fed straight to the thrust pad / shaft collar interface to maintain the load
bearing oil film. The balance of the oil supply is diverted around and behind
the thrust pads to provide cooling; since as a result the thrust bearing runs
flooded, the consequent churning loss has also to be removed and
therefore this portion of the oil supply is a significant proportion of the whole.
Thrust pad wear measurement is facilitated by the provision of oil pressure
nozzles between the white metal pads and mounted on the thrust and surge
sides of the shaft collar (Figure 33).

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FIGURE 33 : THRUST PAD WEAR MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

These nozzles are set at a distance slightly greater from the shaft collar
than the normal pad running clearance. A separately-filtered constant
pressure oil supply is delivered to these nozzles and the discharge pressure

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 53

is continuously monitored. As pad wear takes place, the nozzle-to-collar gap

is reduced and the increasing nozzle discharge pressure is locally indicated
and alarmed in the Control Room to give indication of worn white metal
thrust pads.
Thrust pad temperatures are monitored by embedded thermocouples, with
local and remote indication and alarm facilities.

6.3 Pedestals
The main purpose of the bearing pedestals is to support the turbine rotor,
via the journal bearings in a fixed relationship to the cylinders so that gland
clearances are maintained during all phases of operation. To this end, all
pedestals and rovers are rigidly fabricated in steel, amply stiffened by ribs
and gusset plates to support the bearings in a fixed relation to the cylinder
supports. Fabrication of pedestals has been adopted on large turbines
because of the advantage offered in terms of increased support stiffness,
whilst maintaining a compact overall pedestal size with good resistance to
impact loading.
Improved cast materials, such as spheroidal graphite iron, may find future
application with improved casting techniques.

7. TURNING GEAR

The turning gear fitted to a turbine has a double purpose:

When starting the turbine, the operation of the turning gear avoids the need
for a sudden large inflow of steam to start the rotor moving from rest.
Consequently, the turning gear prevents severe temperature gradients from
occurring.

After a turbine has been taken off load, the various parts will virtually be at
their working temperature, except for a slight drop in temperature during the
unloading period. As the convection currents in the air surrounding the

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 54

turbine and in the cylinders flow upwards, heat is transferred from the lower
to the upper parts. The turning gear rotates the shaft slowly and prevents
the uneven cooling of the casings and rotor which would otherwise occur.
Uneven cooling would prevent a turbine from being returned to service
quickly after a short shut-down period. This is because the bending and
misalignment resulting from the uneven cooling would lead to fouling of the
fixed and working parts during run-up.

FIGURE 34 : BENDING OF SHAFT RESULTING FROM UNEVEN COOLING /

HEATING
A turning gear speed of about 30 r/min ensures satisfactory lubrication of the
bearings and, at the same time, circulates air in the turbine casings (particularly
at the low-pressure end) to aid uniform cooling of the casing and the rotor.
The turbine must remain on turning gear until the metal temperatures have
dropped below 150C; with normal cooling, this may take up to 72 hours. To
avoid damage to the bearing metal, lubricating oil should be supplied to the
bearings until the shaft temperatures near the bearings are below 120C. These
temperatures vary with different manufacturers.
The turbo alternator usually has to come to rest for the turning gear to be
engaged. On larger turbines, automatic self-engaging and disengaging clutches
are fitted. These allow the turning gear to become fully automatic so that when
starting from rest or during the run-down of a turbo-alternator, it may be engaged
and rotate the turbine shaft. The clutches may also be used to disengage and
shut down the turning gear during the run-up of a turbine.

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The assembly consists of an electric motor driving a train of reduction gearing,

the last pinion of which meshes with a gear ring on the turboa1ternator shaft. As
the machine comes to rest, a gear lever is manually operated to slide the pinion
into mesh along its splined shaft. The automatic clutch is engaged as the
machine slows down to 100 - 120 r/min.
Before the turning gear motor is started, certain conditions must be met:

- The bearing oil pressure must be satisfactory.

- The barring gear must be engaged.
- The jacking oil pump must be running.

These features are sometimes interlocked.

The jacking oil pump provides a high-pressure oil supply under strategic journals
of the turbo alternator and the oil lifts the shaft slightly. This ensures that there is
no metal-to-metal contact between a journal and the bearing, and also greatly
reduces the static friction and bearing wear; the starting torque needed by the
motor is, therefore, also reduced.
On larger machines with heavier rotors, it is essential to leave the jacking oil
pump in service while the turning gear is being used.
We said that one of the purposes of the turning gear was to prevent uneven
cooling of the rotor which would occur if the machine was allowed to stand after
coming off load. However, on large machines, if the turning gear fails to operate,
they should be left to stand until completely cold. Unfortunately this may take up
to six days, but only then should an attempt be made to prove that the shafts are
straight by putting the machine on turning gear. On smaller sets, hand barring
equipment is provided.

7.1 Hand barring arrangement

Should the Electrical Turning Gear be unavailable, provision is made to turn
the rotors manually by mounting a lever and fulcrum apparatus at a
prearranged point on the cover of a bearing pedestal. This lever operates
on a permanent toothed-wheel between two turbine rotors (Figure 35). This

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is usually an operational feature to protect the turbine in a heat-soaked

condition.
Further hand barring (for maintenance purposes only) can often be carried
out by using a simple crowbar against a toothed barring ring, replacing the
normal spacing ring between rotor couplings, and levering against a simple
fulcrum plate secured to the pedestal horizontal joint face (Figure 36).

FIGURE 35 : HAND BARRING EQUIPMENT

FIGURE 36 : TURBINE COUPLING END SHOWING PROVISION FOR HAND

BARRING DURING MAINTENANCE / OUTAGES

7.2 Electrical Turning Gear (ETG)

The rotors are turned slowly, typically less than 30r/min, during start-up and
shutdown by the ETG. An electric drive motor turns the rotors through a

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worm-shaft and worm wheel, thereby providing a reduction gear. A jacking

oil pump supplies high pressure lubricating oil to the reduction gear.
Manual control of the motor is provided in the Control Room, and automatic
stop and start facilities are also included in the motor switchgear. The motor
overload trip is set at a value which prevents excessive torque being applied
to a seized rotor. Electrical interlocking prevents the motor being started
until jacking oil pressure is established.

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FIGURE 37 : SELF ACTING SYNCHRONOUS CLUTCH

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A Self-Shifting Synchronous (SSS) clutch is installed between the drive

motor and the turbine shaft and provides a simple mechanical means of
automatically connecting or disconnecting the turning gear drive. The SSS
clutch is a positive tooth-type overrunning clutch which is self-engaging
when passing through synchronism, that is, immediately the speed of the
input shaft exceeds that of the output shaft. The clutch disengages
automatically when the torque reverses, that is, when the speed of the
output shaft exceeds that of the input shaft (Figure 37).
At standstill, when the driving shaft begins to provide torque, the clutch will
engage; if after this the torque ceases, the clutch will disengage. It will
reengage if the speed of the driving shaft exceeds that of the driven shaft,
whether at full barring speed or at any lesser speed.
Spring-loaded pawls, acting on a ratchet, sense the relative speeds of the
input and output shafts; when the input shaft is about to overtake the other,
the pawls "bite" and reactive torque is applied to the helically-splined sleeve
which moves axially and slides the clutch teeth into engagement.
The positions of the pawls and ratchet teeth ensure that the clutch teeth
pass between each other exactly, without making contact until full
engagement is reached; at this point the pawls leave the ratchet teeth, and
the flanks of the clutch teeth meet to take up the drive.
It is important to note that the pawls merely sense zero relative speed and
angular location; they do not carry the main torque. To prevent ratcheting
and consequent wear when the relative speed is high, the pawls are
designed to disengage centrifugally.
The only load imposed on the pawls is the force required to engage the
clutch. In a very large clutch, this could overload the pawls and so a relay
clutch is used. Here the primary mechanism is exactly as described above,
but the helically-splined sleeve, in moving forward, engages teeth to move a
much heavier helically-splined sleeve on which the clutch teeth are cut. A
further refinement is an oil dashpot, which cushions the engaging action,
and prevents disengagement as a result of rapid transient torque reversal.

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8. JACKING OIL SYSTEM

The arrangement of the jacking oil system for a typical 500 MW turbine is shown
in Figure 38. You can see that the shaft is lifted at twelve points by two jacking oil
pumps, each supplying six bearings. Each pump has a standby pump.
Lubricating oil from the supply to the thrust bearing is piped to the suction side of
two pairs of positive displacement pumps, each pair being driven by an induction
motor. Each pump incorporates six pump units and, as illustrated in Figure 38,
the oil supplies from two units (not on the same pump) are combined to feed a
single bearing. Each of these common discharge lines incorporates a pressure-
relief valve, set to operate at 17, 2 MPa, all of which discharge into a 50mm bore
pipe connected to the oil tank. Jacking oil is delivered to each bearing pedestal
where the flow divides to two feed holes provided in the white metal lining of the
bearing. Pressure gauges are fitted adjacent to the bearings which they serve.
The jacking oil pump motors are electrically interlocked with the electrical turning
gear. A pressure switch serves the jacking oil pump supply suction pressure and
switches the motors off when the pressure falls below 35 kPa. The jacking oil
pumps are started automatically during turbine run-down when the turbine shaft
speed falls to 80r/min. In some arrangements, the electrical interlocks prevent the
turning gear from starting unless the jacking oil pump motors are running.
The four jacking oil pumps are identical and each pair is mounted on a common
base plate, one pump on either side of a double-shaft motor. Figure 39 shows a
pump consisting of a cast-iron body incorporating six radial bores, each housing
a piston assembly. The pistons are actuated by a double-row roller bearing
mounted on an eccentric section of a control shaft which is supported on either
side of the eccentric by a double-row roller bearing.
Oil enters the pump through an inlet connection and flows through the annulus to
all six suction valves and through a hole to the roller bearing on the eccentric
section of the shaft. As each piston is moved inwards (by the spring), the suction,
together with the oil pressure, is sufficient to force the ball in the suction valve off
its seat and the oil flows into the cylinder bore.

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FIGURE 38 : TYPICAL JACKING OIL SYSTEM

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FIGURE 39 : TYPICAL JACKING OIL PUMP

When the eccentric section moves the piston outwards, the pressure created in
the cylinder forces the suction ball valve on to its seat and raises the ball in the
discharge valve.

9. LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

The turbine lubricating system fulfils four functions:

Supply oil to the journal bearings to form an oil wedge as the shaft rotates;
Maintain the temperature of the turbine bearings constant at the required
level. The oil does this by removing the heat which is produced by the shaft
conduction. the surface friction and the turbulence conditions in the oil;

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Provide a medium for operating the governor gear hydraulically and

controlling the steam admission valves;
Provide a sealing medium for hydrogen-cooled generators to prevent
hydrogen leaking along the shaft.
For units of 500 MW and above it is becoming custom to use fire resistant fluids
instead of lubricating oil to control governor gear and steam-admission valves.
These fluids eliminate the risk of fire from leaks which are particularly likely to
occur when higher fluid pressures are used.
Lubricating oil is normally delivered to the turbine bearings at a gauge pressure of
70 to 300kPa. This is sufficient to overcome the friction in the oil delivery pipes
and it will also maintain the oil wedge which forms as the shaft rotates at high
speed.
The oil leaving the bearing should not exceed a temperature of 70C to 75C.
After passing through coolers, the oil returning to the bearing is controlled
between 35C to 45C.
Therefore, a supply of lubricating oil has to be available at the correct
temperature and pressure for all operating conditions of the turbine. The oil has to
be clean, free from moisture and must not be allowed to overheat. If the oil is not
maintained in this condition it will deteriorate and subsequently cause damage to
bearings, journals, gears and other components of a lubricating system.

9.1 Components and general description of a typical lubricating oil

system
A lubricating oil system comprises of five major items. These are:

main oil tank

pumps
coolers and filters
pressure regulators
oil purifier

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Oil is supplied to the system by four electrically motor driven pumps

arranged to operate in sequence and to maintain a supply of oil under all
running conditions. A main oil pump (MECHANICAL) driven from the turbine
shaft (Figure 40) supplies oil to the bearings during normal turbine
operation. The electric motor driven pumps are used during start-up run
down and off-load conditions.

FIGURE 40 : TYPICAL SHAFT DRIVEN (MECHANICAL) MAIN OIL

PUMP

Each pump draws oil from the main tank and discharges it through a
common line to a bank of coolers. Here it is filtered and then cooled before
passing into the bearing oil feed manifold pipe which runs along the length
of the turbine and generator set.

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Individual oil feed pipes branch off from the manifold to single bearings or to
groups of bearings. Oil from the bearings is drained from bearing block oil
wells, through pipes fitted with sight glasses (for visual inspection of the oil
flow), to a main drain reservoir pipe, also running along the length of the
turbo-generator.
The pipe has a large enough diameter to take the normal flow of drain oil
without running full and it slopes gently to the oil tank. The slow passing of
oil along the pipe to the tank assists in its deaeration; a vapour extraction
fan is mounted on the pipe away from the tank to remove any air or vapour
that is released.
The drain pipes, except those from the generator bearing and adjacent
turbine bearings, are led directly to the reservoir pipe. The bearing drains of
the generator and adjacent turbine pass through a loop seal drain chamber
before entering another reservoir pipe which drains to the main oil tank.
Any hydrogen which may be entrained in the oil is released in the loop seal
drain chamber. The gas is then sucked out to atmosphere by a vapour
extractor fan, which prevents hydrogen from entering the main oil tank.
An oil purifier or centrifuge takes oil from the main oil tank drain, cleans it
and discharges it back into the tank via the main drain oil reservoir pipe.

10. TURBINE CASINGS

10.1 Casing construction
A turbine cylinder is essentially a pressure vessel with its weight supported
at each end on the horizontal centreline. It is designed to withstand hoop
stresses in the transverse plane, and to be very stiff in the longitudinal
direction in order to maintain accurate clearances between the stationary
and rotating parts of the turbine.
The design is complicated by the need for internal access, all casings being
split along their horizontal centreline. This allows the rotor to be inserted as
a complete assembly.

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Substantial flanges and bolting are required to withstand the pressure

forces at the horizontal joints. The relatively massive flanges respond more
slowly to temperature changes than the rest of the casing, resulting in
different rates of expansion and the setting-up of temperature stresses and
distortion, although these are greatly minimised by the application of flange
warming steam. Further stress complexities are set up by the gland housing
and steam entry and exit passages.
HP and IP casings are of cast construction and are circular in cross-section
to minimise non-membrane stresses. Flanges, bolting, steam penetrations
and other features are as far as possible symmetrically arranged to reduce
thermal asymmetry and hence distortion. LP casings maybe fabricated or it
may be constructed of a combination of castings and fabrications.
As with all pressure vessels, the integrity of the design is checked after
manufacture with a hydraulic pressure test, to 150% of the highest working
pressure.
10.1.1 High pressure cylinder casings
Most modern turbines operating at steam pressures higher than
1MPa and a generating capacity in excess of 100MW have HP
casings of the double shell design (Figure 41 sectional view and
Figure 42 cross sectional view). and pressure differentials. This
has been adopted because of the difficulty of designing a single
casing to withstand the thermal and pressure stresses while
maintaining flexibility of operation. With a double shell design,
the space between the shells is filled with steam which is at
cylinder exhaust pressure. This allows the casings to be
designed for smaller temperature

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FIGURE 41 : SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH A HIGH PRESSURE

DOUBLE SHELL TURBINE CASING

FIGURE 42 : CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH A HIGH PRESSURE

DOUBLE SHELL TURBINE CASING

A baffle is formed between the two casings near the exhaust end
which forms part of the inner casing. The baffle extends almost to
the outer casing but does not seal against it. The turbulent

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exhaust steam is directed by the baffle to the exhaust

connections and prevented from cooling the inner casing; this
reduces the temperature differentials and hence stresses on the
inlet end of the inner casing.

Steam leaking through the gland between the inner casing and
the rotor at the inlet end is piped away to the exhaust
connections, so the space between the casings contains steam
at exhaust conditions with a gentle flow being maintained by
leakage through the outer casing gland. The smaller pressure
differential permits a thinner shell which, combined with the
larger surface area of a double casing, allows quicker warming of
the turbine on start-up. Thinner shells are also easier to cast and
are likely to have fewer defects.

On some machines, reversed flow blading has been adopted,

where the steam is diverted back between the casings part way
through its expansion, continuing through the final stages in the
opposite direction. This arrangement gives a higher inter-shell
pressure and temperature, reducing the stress on the hot inner
shell at the expense of the outer shell. It also permits simple
bled-steam tapping at the inter-shell conditions and reduces the
net thrust on the HP rotor.

Triple casings have been used on some modern turbines to

further reduce the stresses on the hot inner casing, and hence
reduce thermal distortion. The inner casing is enclosed in a
barrel-like sleeve which has no horizontal joint. The inner casing
is only lightly stressed and can be relatively thin with light
flanges, whilst the barrel casing which encloses it is more highly
stressed. The barrel casing, however, having no flanges and
being of uniform thickness, can easily be designed to

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accommodate the stresses whilst also remaining relatively thin.

The pressure between the inner casing and the barrel is
controlled by small radial passages through the inner cylinder
walls and piston ring seals between the inner and barrel casings.

One disadvantage of this form of triple casing is the difficulty in

assembling and dismantling the HP cylinder. On assembly, the
rotor has to be fitted into the inner and outer lower half, the inner
casing bolted up, and then the rotor and inner casing lifted and
mounted in a special jig to allow the barrel to be threaded over
them. The assembly can then be lowered back into the bottom
half of the outer casing, and the top-half outer casing added.

The steam inlet pipes pass through the outer casing and deliver
the steam into the inlet belt of the inner casing. The inlet belt is
formed by an extension to the main casing which ensures that
the inlet steam cannot come directly into contact with the rotor
but must first pass out through the nozzles and the first row of
moving blades. The inlet belt is often blanked at the casing joint
to reduce the pressure on the joint face, although care must be
taken that the admission of steam to the first stage is not
interrupted.

With steam temperatures at inlet in excess of 538C, separate

nozzle boxes of heat-resistant steel are sometimes used to
protect the casing from the full temperature. These take the
place of the inlet belt, delivering steam from the inlet penetrations
to the first stage nozzles.

Some units have nozzle governing instead of the throttle

governing. With nozzle governing, the inlet belt is divided into
sections, each controlled by a separate valve opening in

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sequence, resulting in a more complicated casting and the need

for stronger first-stage moving blades.

The stationary blading is carried in diaphragms which are

supported and guided in the inner cylinder by keys near the
horizontal joint and vertical centreline, permitting concentric
expansion. On modern machines the tip seals and shrouding for
the moving blades are usually carried on an extension of the
adjacent diaphragm. Earlier designs had separate sealing strips
supported between the diaphragms.

10.1.2 Intermediate Pressure cylinder casings

In modern reheat machines, the design considerations for IP
cylinders are similar to those for HP cylinders, the steam being at
a similar temperature but lower pressure, which allows IP
casings to be constructed thinner. In general, machines over 300
MW rating have at least a partial double-casing covering the first
few stages, subsequent stages being supported by carrier rings
(Figures 43 and 44).

Both the inner casing and the carrier rings reduce pressure and
temperature loading on the outer casing. It also allows a smooth
outer casing which has better thermal response and is simple to
design and manufacture. Carrier rings allow greater flexibility in
design, as changes in blading do not require changes to the
main casings, and one casing design can serve different stage
arrangements.

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FIGURE 43 : AXIAL SECTION OF AN IP CYLINDER

FIGURE 44 : CROSS SECTION OF AN IP CYLINDER

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IP cylinders are often of double-flow design and found on large

modern machines. The decision for single or double-flow is
primarily made on blading design. A double-flow casing also has
the advantage of the rotor gland at the high pressure end is not
required. As with the HP cylinder, the rotor is protected from the
high temperature steam at the inlet. A deflector ring directs inlet
steam to the nozzles, while at the same time a supply of cooler
HP exhaust steam is piped into the centre of the deflector ring
adjacent to the rotor. The deflector ring is supported either
independently on keys in the inner casing, or from the inside of
the first-stage nozzles.

A cooling flow of steam around the partial inner casing can be

achieved by slight differences in the blading in the two flows
producing different pressures either end; this keeps the outside
of the casing and the bolts cooler, allowing smaller diameter bolts
to be used.

10.1.3 Low pressure cylinder casings

LP cylinders (Figure 45) are often of double-casing construction
with an inner casing containing diaphragm supports, bled-steam
and water extraction belts, and an outer casing directing the
exhaust to the condensers and providing structural support for
the inner casing (Figure 45). This is not always so, however,
particularly with pannier condensers where a single casing may
be employed. The large size of LP outer casings combined with
their low pressure loading favours a fabricated rather than cast
construction. Inner casings which are more complex can be
fabricated or cast depending on economic considerations. All
casings have bolted horizontal joints.

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LP cylinders are virtually all double-flow design but vary greatly in

layout due to the different condenser configurations. The latest
practice for condensers is similar to early "underslung" designs
with separate condensers underneath each cylinder, tubed
transversely, allowing easy access to both condenser and LP
cylinder. Foundation columns, bearing and cylinder supports are
located between the condensers. However, during the
development of 500 MW machines, experiments

FIGURE 45 : AXIAL SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN LP CYLINDER

was done on a variety of the turbine and condenser

arrangements, both to simplify the LP casing support

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arrangements, to increase the area and shorten the exhaust

connections. The four arrangements used were:

The axial condenser; which permits the LP turbines to be

supported on two parallel walls. Space has to be allowed
beneath the generator for tube withdrawal.

The bridge condenser; which bridges the gap between

the IP turbine block and the generator. It is constructed in
the form of two deep girders, which carry two parallel rigid
soleplates for the LP turbine support. The condenser tubes
are mounted transversely. This construction uses a lot of
steel.

The pannier condenser; here the tubes are mounted

axially with the condensers themselves mounted on either
side of the turbine, so that the steam is exhausted
horizontally into the condensers. The advantage of this
arrangement is that the exhaust steam flow from the
turbines is facilitated, which cuts down the hood loss; in
addition, construction savings are made by having a
reduced basement depth.

The integral condenser; which is a development of the

pannier type; the condensers and LP turbine outer casings
are combined in a single structure containing internal ribs to
give it adequate stiffness. Access to the bearings is
obtained via wells, and access to the turbine inner shells is
obtained by removing the top cover plates. Here again, the
basement depth is small and there is direct support
beneath the bearings.

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The LP exhaust casings are designed to give the maximum

possible area of flow for the exhaust steam, so that the pressure
drop is kept to a minimum. To turn the huge volume of steam
through 90 without "bunching", curved vanes are employed and,
by careful design, these can be made to have a diffusing action
(i.e. they can make use of the kinetic energy of the steam to
produce a pressure difference) so that the pressure at the
blading exhaust annulus is slightly lower than that in the
condenser.

To minimise the losses in the flow to the condenser, the entire

volume of the outer casing may be used, steam from the top
sections of the exhausts passing down the side of the casing and
exiting to the condenser in the centre of the lower casing in an
underslung condenser design.

In many designs of LP cylinder the outer casing also provides

support for the LP bearings; if not, then the bearing may be
supported on a pedestal located in a recess at the end of the
outer casing, in order to keep the rotor length between bearings
as short as possible. The outer casing contains structural
member to transfer the weight to the support points at the ends,
sides, or corners of the casing and to withstand the atmospheric
pressure, as the inside of the outer casing is entirely at
condenser vacuum conditions.

Water sprays are provided in the exhaust area of the casings to

cool the exhausts during prolonged periods of light load or poor
vacuum running. To prevent over-pressurisation of the LP outer
casing, "bursting disc" (sometimes referred to as rupture discs)
pressure relief valves are fitted at the top of the casing.

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10.2 Casing joints and flanges

10.2.1 Horizontal casing joints

Horizontal joints in turbine casings are essential for the
construction and maintenance of the turbines, but they cause
several problems. The flanges have to be substantially thicker
than the rest of the casing to allow room for the bolts and bearing
surfaces and for the nuts (Figure 46). Because of the extra
thickness, the flanges warm up slower than the rest of the
casing, resulting in thermal stresses and distortion. These are
minimised by a flange warming system which passes steam
through passage ways or holes drilled in the flanges, warming
them up at a rate more or less similar to the rest of the casing.
The bolt holes themselves may be used for this, with small
interconnecting passages drilled diagonally between them.

10.2.2 Casing Flanges

The forces taken into account in flange design are illustrated in
Figure 47. The flange is assumed to seal at the inside edge, with
the faces subject to a contact pressure greater than the internal
cylinder pressure.

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FIGURE 46 : TURBINE HP AND IP FLANGES SHOWING

BOLT HOLES AND FLANGE WARMING PASSAGES

FIGURE 47 : TURBINE CASING HORIZONTAL JOINT

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To minimise bending stress on the flanges, the bolt centreline is

arranged tangential to the shell as can be seen in Figures 42 and
44; this produces the typical thick narrow flange seen on HP and
IP cylinders. The seal is obtained by simple metal-to-metal
contact of the flange faces, after careful bedding on initial
assembly.

When flanges on HP and IP cylinders are unbolted after a period

in service, they are often found to have distorted so that they no
longer fit, typically leaving a gap between the flanges on the
inside face. This is due to temperature differences through the
casing on-load causing thermal stresses which relax by creep.
When off-load, opposite stresses are the induced which distort
the casing. This is generally confined to inner casings as there is
very little temperature differential through an outer casing on-load
due to the external lagging. In addition, distortion can occur due
to relaxation of residual casting stresses. If distortion causes a
small flange leak on an inner casing, it may not be noticed unless
large enough to have an effect on the measured efficiency of the
turbine, unless it is a wet steam turbine, when rapid erosion of
the joint face at the leak may occur.

LP inner casings may also distort substantially due to their

complicated design of webs, bled-steam belts, etc., and to the
substantial temperature differences between different parts of the
casing. This can lead to crushing of the webs and distortion of
horizontal joints, though leakage can be minimised by
incorporating spring sealing-strips in the half-joint faces.

10.2.3 Casing flange bolting

The design of bolting on HP and IP cylinders is complicated by
the need to place the bolts close together to get the necessary

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distribution of stress in the flange. Special nuts are used to allow

close spacing, either cap nuts with faces cut on the reduced
head of the nut or entirely circular nuts with small holes drilled in
them, allowing them to be turned by tommy bars. Because of
friction, the necessary bolt tension could not be achieved in the
large diameter casing bolts simply by turning the nuts, even if
large flogging spanners could be used. Instead, the nuts are first
tightened by hand; the bolts are then heated to expand them,
and the nuts again tightened by hand through an angle
calculated to give the correct bolt-tension after the bolt cools
down. By measuring the bolt length before and after tightening,
the extension (and hence the bolt tension) can be checked. The
bolts are heated by inserting an electric heating rod into a thin
hole drilled down the centre of each bolt, thus heating the bolt
without significantly warming the flanges (Figure 48). The same
method can be used for undoing or retightening the bolts.

FIGURE 48 : BOLT HEATING ARRANGEMENT

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An alternative method of tightening the bolts is by hydraulic

tightening. This is similar to the heating method except that the
elongation is achieved by stretching it with hydraulic jacks
reacting against the flange or adjacent bolts, instead of by
thermal expansion. The hydraulic equipment is more
cumbersome but has the advantage of allowing immediate
checking of the bolt tension without waiting for temperatures to
stabilise, again by measuring the extension.

Inner cylinders are assembled with the lower half of the casing
resting in its final position inside the outer casing. It is thus
awkward to use normal bolts on the inner casing and studs are
often used instead, being screwed into the lower casing and then
tightened in the normal manner. Alternatively, a square collar on
the bolt at the horizontal joint allows the lower nut to be
assembled and tightened before the casing is positioned.

HP and IP casings are only bolted together around the external

flange, but LP casings may also be bolted along some of the
internal webs if access through manholes is possible. The bolts
used on LP casings, being of small diameter, are tightened by
spanner in the conventional manner to a controlled torque.

High temperature bolts operating above 370C suffer from stress

relaxation in use due to creep and such bolts need periodic
retightening to prevent leakage of steam at the joint, typically
after 30 000 hour service. Some nickel-based alloy bolts
operating below 538C may, however, increase their tension with
time and require slackening and retightening to prevent early bolt
failure. A record of the history of all high temperature bolts is
kept, so that they can be retightened or replaced at appropriate

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times. Bolts must be replaced before the accumulated creep

strain exceeds the creep ductility of the material; this often
means changing steam chest cover bolts, but this is rarely
necessary for turbine casing bolts.

10.3 Flange warming system

10.3.1 Function and system layout

The cylinder casings of the turbine each consist of top and
bottom halves; the top halves may be lifted clear for inspection
and maintenance. The two halves of each casing are bolted
together at the horizontal flange (see Figure 49).

FIGURE 49 : TURBINE FLANGES

During turbine starting, the relatively thin walls of the HP and IP

casings tend to heat up more rapidly than the large masses of
metal in the horizontal joint flanges. The function of the flange
heating system is to provide steam heating (at appropriate
conditions) to the HP and IP outer cylinder flanges, thereby
reducing the difference in temperature between each of the
cylinder casings and their associated flanges and bolts. This
prevents excessive thermal stressing and cylinder distortions.

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There are usually two flange heating systems, one supplying the
HP and the other supplying the IP. Although they are completely
separate systems, both are similar in function and layout and a
typical flange heating system is shown in Figure 50.

The flanges on the HP cylinder are supplied with steam from

downstream of the HP governing valves (between governing
valve and turbine cylinder) and the IP flanges are supplied with
steam from downstream of the IP governing valves.

Each cylinder flange heating supply line is provided with an

isolating valve, a preset regulating valve or orifice and a
permanent drain controlled by an orifice plate. The drain
incorporates a dirt trap which prevents a blockage of the hole in
the orifice plate. Each supply line separates into two, feeding the
right-hand flange and the left-hand flange.

FIGURE 50 : TYPICAL GLAND STEAM SYSTEM LAYOUT

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Between adjacent flange bolt holes, there are alternate top and
bottom cross-drillings which provide passages enabling the hot
steam to flow freely through the flange. This is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 51.

FIGURE 51 : STEAM FLOW THROUGH FLANGES

The heating steam enters and leaves the flanges at several
points by way of drillings from the flange outer surface into the
bolt holes, the inlets and exits being suitably spaced to give even
heating throughout the flanges. The annular spaces between the
bolts and holes are swept throughout their length by the hot
steam, thus preventing the accumulation of water in the
recesses.

Steam leaves each flange from outlet pipes which converge into
one pipe, fitted with a flow regulating orifice.
Subsequently, the combined flows from each side of the turbine
are joined and led either to a suitable feed water heater or to a
drains receiver.

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10.4 Steam inlets - HP and IP

Steam inlets to HP and IP cylinders are usually arranged symmetrically in
top and bottom casings, with the centreline of the inlet pipe along a radial
direction in order to minimise inlet losses. Usually either two or four inlets
are used; with two, the pipes are vertical, making it easy to withdraw the
inlet pipe from the casing; with four, all the pipes enter at an angle by the
barrel casing, it is possible to have exhausts at all four bottom corners of the
lower casing.

10.5 IP Exhaust pipe work arrangement

IP cylinders generally have two or four inlets arranged in a similar manner to
the HP. The IP exhaust positions are determined by the positions of the
crossover pipes to the LP inlets. With underslung condensers, the LP inlets
and crossovers are usually on the top half; hence IP exhausts are also at
the top. However, arranging IP exhaust and LP inlet pipes in the lower half
casing reduces the amount of pipe work to be disconnected when cylinders
are opened and is thus easier if the condenser arrangement allows it.

10.6 HP and IP Cylinder steam inlet thermal skirts and piston rings
To allow for differences in temperature where the inlet pipes enter the
cylinder, the HP and IP pipes are attached to the outer casing through
flanged thermal skirts (Figures 41and 43). The skirt, which is bolted to the
outer casing, reduces the conduction of heat from the inlet pipe to the
casing and accommodates the differential expansion between the hot pipe
and the cooler casing by elastic deformation. It also carries the pipe forces
into the outer casing; minimising the load on the inner. The outer casing is
reinforced to minimise stresses and thermal discontinuities at the joint.
Piston rings are used to seal the joint between the pipe and the inner
casing; these allow for differential expansion in the radial direction between
the casings and a small degree of transverse movement.

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The piston rings may be of the conventional split type, housed in a groove,
or unsplit rings in the "stacked" ring design. The split type may be
"outspringing", housed in grooves in the pipe and springing out against the
casing; or "inspringing", which are housed between spacers in the casing
and spring in to seal against the pipe.

The "stacked" design uses unsplit rings stacked in the gap between the pipe
and the casing. They are not sprung against either surface but are a close
tolerance against the pipe and the casing alternately (Figure 52). Several
rings are used in series to reduce the pressure drop across each, and
hence reduce steam leakage; however, there should not be too many rings,
as a lightly loaded ring can vibrate

FIGURE 52 : INLET PIPE PISTON RINGS

and wear excessively. The split rings are made of a high temperature creep-
resistant material, such as Stellite or a Nimonic alloy, in order to retain their
springiness; the unsplit rings are made from a low alloy steel. Stellite-coated
bearing surfaces or Stellite inserts in the casings reduce wear.

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The exhaust steam connections are attached directly to the outer casing.
When attached to the lower casing, where they are unlikely to need
disconnecting, they are simply welded to stubs on the casing.

10.7 LP cylinder steam inlet pipe work arrangement

Steam connections to LP casings are made with bellows pieces to
accommodate differential expansions. The bellows are short sections of
pipe with thin corrugated walls, allowing relative movements of the ends in
both longitudinal and transverse directions. With underslung condensers, a
rigid bolted joint can be used between the LP outer casing and the
condenser, the condenser being mounted on springs to support its weight
but allowing the required flexibility. Bellows can be used on the exhausts
with a floor-mounted condenser but are inconvenient because of the large
area of the exhausts and because the bellows, being flexible, transfer the
vacuum forces to the cylinder and condenser foundations.

10.8 Gland sealing arrangements

10.8.1 Function and system layout

Glands and seals are used on turbines to prevent or reduce the
leakage of steam or air between rotating and stationary
components that have a pressure difference across them, for
example, where the turbine shaft is extended through the
cylinder end-walls to the atmosphere. When the cylinder
pressure is higher than atmospheric, there will be a general
steam leakage outwards: if the cylinder contains steam below
atmospheric pressure, the tendency is for air to leak inwards and
the sealing system is designed to prevent the air from entering
the cylinder and the condenser.

As most of the steam leakage from glands does not pass through
the turbine stages, a loss of power output is involved and every

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effort is made to reduce this power loss by an efficient

arrangement of seals and glands.

In the more recent larger steam-turbines, the labyrinth gland is in

general use, although the carbon ring gland and the water seal
gland may be found in older turbines. The labyrinth gland acts as
a restrictor to both steam and air leakage.

10.8.2 Labyrinth glands

The labyrinth gland has superseded the carbon ring gland on
large steam turbines because it can withstand higher steam
conditions. The labyrinth gland consists of a ring with a series of
machined fins that form a number of fine annular restrictions,
every restriction being followed by an expansion chamber. A
simple form of labyrinth seal is shown in Figure 53(a).

As steam enters the restriction, the velocity increases and kinetic

energy is developed at the expense of pressure energy; ideally,
when the steam enters the expansion chamber, the kinetic
energy is converted by turbulence into heat with no recovery of
pressure energy. In practice, as the steam is throttled at
successive restrictions at approximately constant enthalpy the
pressure is progressively reduced.

FIGURE 53 : PLAIN, STEPPED AND VERNIER LABYRINTH

GLANDS

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To ensure that the maximum kinetic energy is converted in the

expansion chambers, the finned ring and the shaft are usually
stepped as shown in Figure 53(b). This type of gland can only be
used where the axial differential expansions between the rotor
and casing are small. Stepped labyrinth glands may have an
alternative arrangement with two or more large diameter fins as
shown in Figure 53(c). This arrangement is able to accept a
larger change in relative axial dimension since, under all
conditions, at least two of the three fins per pitch form effective
restrictions.

This principle can be extended to a greater number of large

diameter fins, but the number of effective restrictions per unit of
axial length becomes progressively less and it becomes
preferable to adopt a simpler form of seal, such as those shown
in Figure 53(a), where the larger number of restrictions
compensate for the decreased efficiency compared with the
stepped gland.

Another design of gland that is independent of differential

expansion is the vernier gland shown in Figure 53(d). Both the
shaft and seal ring are finned, the pitch of the fins being slightly
different on the two seal components. This has the advantage
that some of the fins will always be directly opposite, providing a
greater restriction.

Figure 54(a) shows a form of labyrinth gland with axial as well as

radial fins which increases the number of restrictions in a given
length of gland.

The tip thickness of labyrinth glands is made as thin as

practicable so that if an accidental rub occurs between the shaft

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and the gland, the fins will rub away with little heating of the
shaft. A heavy rub would quickly generate so much heat that the
shaft would bend and become unbalanced.

FIGURE 54 : AXIAL RADIAL AND SPRING-BACK LABYRINTH GLANDS

The radial clearance and diameter of the labyrinth gland is made

as small as possible, since the leakage flow through the gland is
directly proportional to the leakage area. In practice, the
minimum radial clearance adopted is approximately 0.5 mm. To
minimise the effects of a "rub" with close-clearance glands, the
gland rings are often spring-loaded as shown in Figure 54(b).
The gland rings are usually made up of four or more segments.

The flow through a labyrinth gland is a function of the initial

pressure and temperature, the final pressure and the clearance
area under the restrictions. As the mass flow through a series of
restrictions is constant, the velocity of the steam through the
successive throttlings must increase as the steam is expanding;
the velocity through the final restriction cannot exceed the sonic
velocity. The pressure ratio across the last restriction is then
equal to the critical value and if the back pressure is further
reduced, no increase in mass flow will occur. Thus for a gland
with a given number of restrictions, there is an associated

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pressure ratio that produces the maximum leakage through the

gland.

The gland sealing system is designed to supply steam to seal the

turbine shaft glands at all operating conditions and to extract
leak-off steam from the glands.

10.8.3 System layout

A typical gland sealing system is shown in Figure 55. In order to
accommodate the range of temperatures experienced
throughout the turbine, the system is usually divided into two
parts: one part supplies steam to the HP and IP turbine glands
and the other to the LP turbine glands.

Two modes of operation are used: one employs a supply of

steam at superheater outlet conditions, which is referred to as
"live steam" and is used during start-up, shutdown and low load
operation. In the other mode, steam leaked off from the HP and
IP turbine is employed to seal the LP glands when the turbine is
operating on-load. The use of HP/IP glands leak-off steam
produces a useful thermal gain over the permanent use of live
steam. The changeover from one source of sealing steam to the
other is entirely automatic.

To ensure that the steam is supplied to the glands at a suitable

temperature, it is cooled by desuperheaters. An HP
desuperheater regulates the temperature of the steam of the
HP/IP glands and an LP desuperheater regulates the
temperature of the steam to the LP glands. Some systems also
employ a third desuperheater to cool the steam which is bled to
an LP heater during on-load operation.

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NOTE: A desuperheater is a device that is used to cool steam

to a specific temperature. These operate at the same
principle as an ordinary cooler.

FIGURE 55 : LAYOUT OF A TYPICAL GLAND STEAM SYSTEM

In order to reduce the loss of energy in external glands at the

ends of the HP and IP cylinders and to promote a gradual

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temperature gradient along a shaft, it is usual to divide such

glands into sections, leading steam back to an appropriate stage
in the turbine or to a feed heater after each section. As a result,
heat is returned to the cycle.
The arrangement of the final glands section for an HP cylinder is
shown in Figure 56(a).

The HP leak-off belt is usually connected to the IP/LP crossover

pipes and the pressure is thereby maintained at the IP exhaust
pressure. The pressure at the packing/leak-off point is usually
stabilised slightly above atmospheric by the pressure control
system. The steam bled from this leak-off is normally used to
seal the glands of the LP cylinders; the LP cylinder gland
arrangement is shown in Figure 56(b). The out flowing steam
prevents the ingress of air into the cylinder and condenser. The
final belt in all of the glands is connected to the gland steam
condenser which maintains the pressure at the belts slightly
below atmospheric. This prevents steam leaking into the turbine
hall by maintaining an inward flow of air through the outboard
gland section.

At low loads, live steam enters the system through a motorised

isolating valve and a pressure reducing valve to the HP
desuperheater. Here the steam is cooled to a temperature
suitable for the HP/IP glands.

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FIGURE 56 A: TYPICAL TURBINE GLAND CONFIGURATIONS

FIGURE 56 B: TYPICAL TURBINE GLAND CONFIGURATIONS

It then passes through a motorised isolating valve to the HP/IP

glands or, via a separate motorised valve, to the LP
desuperheater which further cools the steam to temperature
suitable for the LP glands.

At higher loads, when the HP/IP glands are self sealing, excess
steam from these glands flows to the LP desuperheater and is
used to seal the LP glands The steam flowing from the HP/IP

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glands tends to increase the pressure in the system. This is

sensed by the control system (see below) which closes the
pressure reducing valve in the live steam supply line. If more
steam is available from the HP/IP glands than is require to seal
the LP glands, the control system opens the dump valve which
allows the excess steam to pass to an appropriate LP heater.

To prevent any foreign matter from entering the turbine shaft

glands, two strainers are provided, on for the HP/LP system and
the other for the LP system, with each strainer positioned after
the appropriate desuperheater.

10.9 Bled-steam connections

Steam for feed heating is bled from the LP turbines and additionally from
either the IP turbine or the HP turbine. In current practice, steam is usually
bled from the HP turbine at the exhaust, although future designs with higher
final feed temperatures may bleed steam from the later HP cylinder stages.
In LP cylinders (Figure 45) the steam is bled off into annular belts within the
fabricated inner casing from which it is piped to the feed heaters, bellows
being used to take up differential expansions between inner and outer
cylinders. The connection to the bled steam belt is usually made at the
bottom; if made elsewhere, a drain connection must be provided at the
bottom. The bled-steam connections are identical in each half of the double-
flow LP cylinder so that changes in steam flow to the heater do not affect
the thrust forces on the rotor.

However, the connections may not be the same on all LP cylinders on a

unit. If, for instance, bled-steam is required at stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4
conditions, it may be taken from each stage on each cylinder, or it may be
taken from stage 2 on one cylinder, stage 3 on another and stage 4 on the
third (for a three-LP cylinder machine). The latter method involves simpler
pipe work but has the penalty of less interchange ability of spares between

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the cylinders. Usual practice is to favour the arrangement requiring

minimum spares holdings.

IP cylinders usually only have one stage of bled steam from within the
cylinder, although it may also be taken from the IP exhaust.

On double-casing cylinders, the steam may be bled between the inner

casing and a carrier ring, or between carrier rings, into a belt between the
ring and the outer casing. On single-casing IP turbines the bled-steam belt
is cast into the casing, with slots cut to allow the steam to bleed from the
main steam path into the belt. The bled-steam pipe work can then simply be
bolted to the outer casing. Many IP cylinders have no bled-steam tappings,
as steam is taken from the boiler feed pump turbine instead; however, latest
practice with development of variable-speed electric drives, is for electric
boiler feed pumps and hence bled-steam is taken from the IP cylinder.

Steam bled from HP turbines in the future is likely to be via a belt cast into
the inner cylinder wall, with connections similar to the HP inlet connections.

10.10 Diaphragms
All diaphragms are divided at the horizontal joint into two semicircular
halves to permit assembly.

Diaphragms are located in the turbine cylinder as close as practical to the

horizontal and vertical axes of the machine. This is done to reduce the
effects of differential expansion to a minimum. Particularly when the
machine is small, the loss in output arising from the internal clearances can
be significant. It is for this reason that the practice developed of supporting
and guiding the diaphragms in the inner cylinder by keys in each half. This
method of location, which is known as kinematic support, is generally used
on current HP and IP turbines of the disc and diaphragm type, and on the
early stages of LP turbines.

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The details of a kinematic support system are influenced by the method of

manufacture. As the adjacent surfaces of the cylinder and diaphragm are
circular, the diaphragm has to be supported on keys fitted into milled
recesses in both cylinder and diaphragm, as close to the horizontal joint as
practical. Transverse location of the diaphragm is achieved by keys on the
vertical centreline fitted into milled keyways. Adequate clearances are
provided on fitting the keys to ensure freedom of movement for differential
expansion. To avoid steam leakage between the two halves of the
diaphragm, the top half sits on the bottom half, and keys at the half-joint are
arranged in line with, and transverse to, the machine centreline.

This locates the top half-diaphragm axially and radially with the bottom half-
diaphragm, and provides an effective steam seal. The keys on the bottom
half horizontal joint have to be sized to take the weight of the complete
diaphragm.

To enable the top half-diaphragm to be retained in the top half cylinder when
it is raised, stop-plates are provided at the horizontal joint on each side. The
diaphragm is located axially against a machined recess in the cylinder
which offers frictional resistance to the expansion of the diaphragm relative
to the cylinder. When sizing the support keys, it is usual to take into account
the torque reaction on the diaphragm.

All keys have provision for adjustment, so that correct alignment of the
diaphragms can be achieved.

A typical arrangement of diaphragm support and location keys is shown in

Figure 57.

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FIGURE 57 : DIAPHRAGM SUPPORT AND LOCATION KEYS

10.10.1 Radial support pads

The provision of this system of kinematic support becomes
progressively more difficult as the diameter of the diaphragm
increases. As the size of turbine has increased, the basic
concept of kinematic support has been modified to suit the
circumstances.

One alternative has been to fit keys in both half-diaphragms so

that each is supported independently at the horizontal joint. This
arrangement requires that there is a gap between the half-
diaphragms for expansion, resulting in a steam leakage across
the half joint: it also requires more machining and fitting.

The difficulty in providing kinematic support for large diaphragms

occurs mainly in LP turbines, where the outer ring diameter is
large. In the LP turbine, the differential temperature between

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diaphragm and cylinder that has to be accommodated is much

reduced. This, together with the need to provide some form of
stop-plate for the top half-diaphragms, led to an alternative
arrangement where, in the running condition, the top half-
diaphragm is supported on the bottom half-diaphragm, which
itself just rests in the recess in the cylinder. The clearance for
differential expansion is achieved by exact machining of the
outer diameter of the diaphragm.

A more practical arrangement is to machine a generous radial

clearance between cylinder and diaphragm and to fit the half-
diaphragm with a number of radial support pads which are then
dressed to obtain the required location of the half-diaphragm.

Differential steam pressure forces the diaphragm outer rings

against the downstream axial face of the circumferential recess
in the inner cylinder. To prevent the diaphragms seizing in this
recess, and to permit adjustment, small crushing pegs are fitted
in the upstream face of the locating spigot.

Temporary support pads may be fitted and adjusted to achieve

the correct positioning of the diaphragm in the cylinder. The
packing bush radial clearances are bored to a charted size and
checked with the rotor in position. If necessary, the temporary
pads are adjusted to optimise radial clearances. When the
desired alignment has been obtained, the thickness of the
temporary support pads is gauged and the final support pads
ground to size.

10.11 Casing support and alignment

To achieve maximum efficiency in a steam turbine, only small clearances
are permitted between fixed and moving parts at casing and diaphragm

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glands, and at blade tip seals. These clearances must be maintained under
all operating conditions, so the inner and outer casings must be supported
in such a way as to maintain concentricity with the rotor as they expand and
contract.

The total axial expansion of a 500 MW turbine rotor between cold and hot
conditions is about 50 mm, occurring mainly in the HP and IP cylinders,
where the temperature change is greatest. The casings are supported to
allow axial expansion and yet maintain the axial clearances between fixed
and moving blades which may be only a few millimetres. Maintaining both
concentricity and correct axial expansion leads to a complicated system of
sliding supports and keys (Figure 58).

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FIGURE 58 : SUPPORT AND ALIGNMENT KEYS FOR OUTER HP, IP AND LP

CASINGS

10.11.1 HP and IP cylinder supports

HP and IP cylinders are fitted with "paw" supports at each end
which rest on the bearing pedestals (Figure 59). The paws are
horizontal with the palms aligned with the horizontal joint; they
are well spaced towards the outer edges of the casing, as they
carry the torque reaction from the rotor into the foundations. In
some cases, the paws are part of the lower half casing as
illustrated, alternatively they may be part of the upper half,
simplifying the casting but necessitating temporary supports for
the lower half casing when the halves are unbolted. Vertical
guides on the vertical centreline of the rotor act in conjunction
with sliding at the paw faces to ensure that the outer casing
remains concentric with the bearing pedestal and rotor during
expansion. Similar arrangements support the inner casing inside
the outer, with paw supports on either side to take the weight and
torque reaction, radial keys in the plane of the steam inlets
permitting concentric expansion only, and axial keys at the
exhaust end allowing for differential axial expansions.

FIGURE 59 : DETAIL OF SUPPORT FOR HP AND IP OUTER

CASING

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The paw supports of the outer casings contain transverse keys

so that the HP and IP casings and bearing blocks expand axially
as one unit away from a fixed point between IP and LP cylinders.
The axial location between the rotor and the casings is at the
thrust bearing between HP and IP cylinders: this arrangement
ensures that the close clearances between fixed and moving
blades in these cylinders are affected as little as possible by
differential axial expansion between rotor and casing on start-up
and shutdown.

10.11.2 LP cylinder supports

The LP cylinder casings are supported on feet in a similar
manner to the HP and IP casings, but because of their
relationship with the condenser they are limited in axial
movement. Consequently they are either joined together while
they are fixed axially to the foundation at the centre or each fixed
individually at one end. This causes larger differential axial
expansion between rotor and casing than in the other cylinders,
so the axial clearances are greater.

Diaphragms and carrier rings are located axially within cylinders

by circumferential grooves in the casings. They are maintained
concentric with the casing by radial keys at the horizontal and
vertical centrelines.

The casings are all aligned by reference to the horizontal and

vertical centrelines of the rotor at each bearing.

10.12 Casing and diaphragm glands

Glands are used to provide a steam seal between fixed and rotating parts of
the turbine; in particular, between the rotor and the diaphragms and
between the rotor and the cylinder casing. The glands are of the labyrinth

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type, consisting of a series of fins on the inside of the diaphragm or casing

in close proximity to the rotor surface. Steam trying to escape between the
fins and the rotor suffers a series of expansions which reduces its pressure
in stages and restricts the flow through the gland.

The HP cylinder has glands at both ends of the outer casing and the inlet
end of the inner casing (Figure 41). They are housed in gland carriers,
which are supported either on keys to allow differential expansion or simply
on spigots in machined recesses in the casing.

The HP glands are longer than those in other cylinders because of the
higher pressure drop required across the gland, and are often divided into
several sections. The IP glands are similarly supported (Figure 43), but the
LP glands may differ; if the bearings are separate from the LP outer casing,
then the LP gland carriers may be supported from the bearings and
connected to the rest of the casing by a bellows piece (Figure 45).

The LP glands prevent air entering the cylinder, unlike the HP and IP glands
which prevent steam escaping. Thus the LP glands need a continuous
supply of higher pressure steam, whereas the HP and IP glands need
additional steam only at start-up.

The gland carriers are split, like casings, along the horizontal centreline and
bolted together.
10.13 Turbine casing lagging
The hot external surfaces of the cylinders are lagged, i.e., covered with a
thick layer of thermal insulation. There are several reasons for this:

The loss of heat from the steam is reduced.

The thermal stresses in the outer casing are substantially reduced.

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The insulation consists of up to 150 mm thickness of mineral fibre which is

applied either as fibre "mattresses" or sprayed on as loose fibres, with a
binder to set them in position. The thickness is largely dependent on the
temperature of the surface to be covered, enough insulation being used to
reduce the outside temperature to about 50C. Asbestos was used
extensively for sprayed insulation in the past, but all modern insulation is
asbestos-free, because of the health risk of inhaled asbestos fibres.

The mineral fibre is held in position by wire mesh which covers it and is
attached to studs welded to the outer casing and passing out through the
mineral fibre (Figure 60). If the mineral fibre is thicker than 100 mm it is
applied in two layers with an additional wire mesh support between them.
The outside wire mesh is then covered with 6-8 mm of cement followed by a
thin coat of oil-proof and waterproof sealant. A glass reinforced plastic may
be used as the sealant to provide suitable mechanical strength and life.

FIGURE 60 : THERMAL INSULATION ON TURBINE CASING

The insulation extends over the horizontal joint covering the bolt heads and
has to be chipped off before the casings can be separated: the joint re-
lagged on reassembly.

It is essential that oil is not allowed to enter the lagging through gaps or
damage to the covering, as hot oil-soaked lagging has been responsible for
some severe turbine fires.

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10.14 LP exhaust spray cooling system

10.14.1 Function and system layout

During the low-load running of a turbine-generator unit, the
volume of steam flowing through the last row of the LP turbine
blades is reduced considerably and the smooth aerodynamic
flow of steam through these blades is lost. The LP exhaust steam
is recirculated and, as a result, energy is transferred from the
blades to the steam, resulting in a significant temperature rise of
the circulating steam. In addition, if the condenser back pressure
is high, a smaller volume of steam will flow through the system,
causing a significant worsening of the situation.

The excessive temperature rise caused by these effects can

result in an undesirable restriction on the length of time that the
turbine can run with no load, and possible uneven heating of the
exhaust casings leading to serious distortion and adverse effects
on turbine alignment.

The LP spray cooling system is provided to ensure that exhaust

temperatures under these conditions are maintained within
defined limits, thereby minimising the possibility of excessive
casing distortion. This is done by spraying cooling water into the
exhaust space, whenever necessary, downstream of the exhaust
guide vanes. The exhaust steam is cooled and then recirculated
to cool the casing. A typical LP exhaust cooling system is shown
in Figure 61.

During normal running of the turbine, the condensate extraction

pump supplies the spray water to the system. The condensate
supply, before reaching the spray nozzles in each end of the LP

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turbine cylinder exhaust, normally passes through a manual

isolating valve, a pressure reducing valve, a strainer to remove
dirt particles, a flow indicating switch (measuring water flow to
sprays) and a pneumatic flow control valve, with manual inlet and
outlet isolating valves. A pressure switch is usually fitted across
the strainer to measure any difference in pressure, thus
indicating whether blocking has occurred. A by-pass, with a
manual isolating valve, is usually provided round the spray
control valve and its associated isolating valves.

FIGURE 61 : TYPICAL LP HOOD SPRAY SYSTEM

An emergency spray water pump driven from a DC protected

power supply will cut in automatically in the event of a failure of
the normal spray water supply. The emergency pump draws its
water from an auxiliary water tank and discharges into the spray
water line upstream of the strainer. The emergency supply line

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normally contains a manual isolating valve, an emergency spray

water pump and a self-activated isolating valve.
Each LP turbine exhaust flow incorporates a split ring of spray
nozzles, the ring being located outboard of the exhaust guide
vanes. Initially, a number of these nozzles may be blanked off, to
be used as additional "spray nozzles if extra spray water is found
to be necessary during the subsequent running of the turbine.
The arrangement of the spray water nozzles is shown in Figure
62.

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FIGURE 62 : LP HOOD SPRAY WATER NOZZLES

Each nozzle is designed to provide a spray of atomised particles

which will evaporate quickly, thus promoting rapid cooling of the
exhaust steam.

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Suitable safety measures are built into the system to correctly

maintain spray water supplies so that an effective atomised
spray is available when required. This is normally achieved by
installing an automatic valve in the supply system to ensure that
the spray water flow is above a set minimum level. This valve is
arranged to open or close rapidly near this minimum set point.
The minimum flow requirement may result in a slow cycle of
valve opening and closing during low load, but this is acceptable.

A temperature detector is located in the path of the exhaust

steam downstream of the spray nozzles to provide the signal for
the automatic start and control of the spray water quantity.

11. CONDENSERS
A condenser is a vessel into which steam is exhausted and condensed, instead
of being rejected into the atmosphere. The principal object of the condenser is to
remove, as far as possible, the effect of atmospheric pressure on the turbine
exhaust, and to convert the exhaust steam to water for reuse in the boiler.

The condenser does this by receiving exhaust steam, which occupies a large
volume per kilogram, and condensing it into water. At a vacuum of 86kPa abs, the
reduction in volume from condensing steam into water is about 20 000 to 1. The
vacuum will be maintained provided that the condensed steam or CONDENSATE
is removed by pumping and that all air is removed from the condenser.

The reason for requiring a reduced pressure or vacuum in the condenser is to

enable more heat to be extracted from the steam passing through the turbine
than would be the case if the steam were exhausted into the atmosphere. This is
very important in turbine operation and every effort should be made to achieve
the most powerful vacuum in the condenser.

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In all types of condensers it is impossible to prevent small quantities of air leaking

into the steam spaces. If this air is allowed to accumulate in the condenser the
vacuum decays and has a negative influence on the turbine overall performance.
All condensing plant is provided with air extraction equipment which extracts the
air from the condenser and discharges it into the atmosphere.

A further advantage of a condenser is that the condensate produced in it is very

pure water and is suitable for use in the boiler.

The most commonly used type of condenser in power stations is the SURFACE
CONDENSER. This type employs cold metallic surfaces which condense the
steam into water. The metallic surfaces are kept cool by COOLING WATER. The
condenser is designed in such a way that the condensate and cooling water are
kept separate; therefore the cooling water need not be very clean. The cooling
water is, in fact, drawn from rivers, lakes or the sea.

Cooling water for the surface condenser is pumped through tubes which run
across the path of the steam flow. As the steam is condensed it falls to the
bottom of the condenser shell and is removed by the EXTRACTION PUMP.

Another type of condenser, which has had very limited use in power stations, is
the JET CONDENSER. In this type, the cooling water is sprayed into the steam
space and mixes directly with the exhaust steam. This type of condenser
demands very pure cooling water and is also referred to as a "Direct Contact
Condenser".

Due to the shortage of water in South Africa, some experiments with the concept
of direct air-cooled condensers were performed. In this type, steam passes
through finned tubes and air is blown by fans over the tubes for condensation.

11.1 Types of surface condensers

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The different types of condensers are illustrated in Figure 63. There are
various terms used to describe the positioning of condensers and the
direction of flow of cooling water within them as explained below.

FIGURE 63 : DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONDENSERS

The majority of condensers are mounted beneath the steam turbine and are
therefore called underslung. The cooling-water flow may be axial with the
turbine shaft, or transverse. On the larger turbines, two other designs of a
condenser have been developed: the integral where the condenser shell is

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mounted round the turbine, and the pannier where the condenser is split in
two and mounted on either side of the turbine.

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FIGURE 64 : TYPICAL TRANSVERSE UNDERSLUNG (BRIDGE)

CONDENSER

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Condensers are also classified by the pattern of flow of cooling water

through them. They may be double pass, where the cooling water passes
into one water box and through some of the tubes to the other water box,
where it then turns around and passes through the remainder of the tubes
in the opposite direction. On the other hand they may be single pass (which
is self-explanatory) or contra flow, where some of the water flows into one
water box and along some tubes in one direction, while the rest of the water
flows into the other water box and along the other tubes in the opposite
direction.

11.2 Leaks in condenser tubes

If cooling water leaks into the boiler feed water system via a condenser tube
leak, the boiler water will eventually be contaminated above normal
operating limits. Contaminated boiler feed water in turn results in boiler tube
leaks.

Detecting leaks have become more important as boiler temperatures and

pressures have increased. In older plants, the feed water was monitored by
the Station Chemist on a routine basis to determine the presence of
chlorides. However, in modern plant it is usual to provide on-line monitoring
of the purity of the feed water. For stations with once-through boilers this is
essential to protect the superheater tubes. This gives operators an early
warning of a condenser leak.

One method of monitoring is to measure the conductivity of the feed water.

If the water is uncontaminated, it is pure and its conductivity is low. If
chlorides or impurities are present, the conductivity will be higher.
Conductivity is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance in ohms
measured between opposing surfaces.

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If a high conductivity reading is detected in the feed water coming from a

condenser, the leaking tube must be plugged to stop contamination. Various
methods are used to determine the actual tube which is leaking. Owing to
high outage costs, it is preferable if some form of on-load leak detection is
tried before the plant is shut down.

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11.2.1 Typical methods of leak detection

With a turbine on condenser under vacuum

- Plastic sheeting may be placed over the tube ends in

the water box. The leak is detected by the plastic sheeting
being drawn into the leaking tube by the vacuum.
- Water gauge or bubbler method. Individual tubes are
blanked at one end and a manometer (water gauge)
or bubbler is connected to the other end. This is done on
each tube. A leak is indicated by the difference in level of
the water gauge, or by air bubbles being drawn in through
the bubbler. Two people are required to operate this
method, one in each water box, and they have to work in
complete synchronism.
- Flame testing using tapers or candles. With the
condenser water box empty, but a vacuum still in the
turbine, a lighted taper is held in the water box adjacent to
the ends of the tube. The vacuum draws air through any
tube with a leak in it. Any motion of air towards the leaking
tube is indicated by a movement of the flame. Although this
is an on-load method, it is relatively coarse and small
leaks cannot be detected easily from it.
- Foam testing is also used with the condenser water
box empty, and with a vacuum in the turbine. Foam is
sprayed on to the inlet and outlet tube plates. The vacuum
tends to pull the foam into the leaking tube. This is a
very sensitive test and has been used very successfully at
some power stations.
- A halogen detector, in which a halogen gas such as a
chlorine compound is sprayed into the condenser

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tubes. Gas samples are taken at the air ejector outlet vent.
If halogen is detected, this locates the leaking tube.
- Sonic testing, where a sound detector is used to
detect the particular frequency of air leaking through a tube.

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With the cooling water being drained from part of the

condenser

At some power stations, samples of condensate are taken

from various levels in the condenser steam space. This helps
to give a quick identification of the row in the condenser which
contains the leaking tubes. Level gauges may also be used on
the condenser water box. These can indicate the approximate
height of the row of the leaking tube, if the conductivity of the
feed water is studied, as the cooling water is emptied slowly
from the condenser.

With the cooling water drained from the condenser

Fluorescing dye is added to potable water, which is pumped

into the condenser steam space until it is full. An ultraviolet
lamp is then used by the person working in the condenser
water box to detect the individual tube leaks as the dye
fluoresces (glows) under the ultraviolet light. This is an off-load
detection method, well tried and traditionally the best.
However, this method cannot be used with pannier and
integral-type condensers. In these cases both the turbine shaft
and the casing would be flooded with water.

11.2.2 Typical methods of condenser tube leak repair

Considering that the condenser of a 600MW turbine has
approximately 32000 condenser tubes, it will be uneconomical to
arrange an extended outage to replace one condenser tube
which is leaking.

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The generally accepted practice is to "plug" leaking tubes. This

can be achieved by reducing the turbine load to half of full
capacity and draining only the CW inlet and outlet water boxes of
the half where the leak is. The tube is then plugged and the
condenser can be placed back in service.

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11.3 On-load cleaning of condenser tubes

To ensure the optimum performance of a condenser, the tubes must be kept
clean. Normally the turbine is taken off load, the condenser water boxes are
drained down and the tubes cleaned manually.

FIGURE 65 : TYPICAL ON LOAD TUBE CLEANING ARRANGEMENT

A method of on-load cleaning has been developed which uses foam rubber
balls slightly larger in diameter than the bore of the condenser tubes. The
balls are circulated continuously, trapped and circulated again through the
condenser.

11.4 Condenser vacuum and vacuum raising

Condenser vacuum and the maintenance thereof are of vital importance for
efficient operation of a turbine. Creating and maintaining vacuum in the
condenser ensures that the maximum amount of heat energy can be
extracted from the steam for turbine operation.

11.4.1 Vacuum raising and maintenance

Before the turbine is run up, vacuum must be established in the
condenser steam space. This is achieved by the provision of

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vacuum raising equipment which may be in the form of steam

ejectors, water ejectors or vacuum pumps.

Steam ejectors
These are normally referred to as quick start air ejectors.
They are used to create the condenser vacuum. Once a
minimum steam flow is established and the vacuum is at its
designed value, they are
removed from service. This is because the vacuum is then
partially self sustained by the condensation from steam to
water.

NOTE: Water expands approximately 1600 times when

evaporating into steam. Thus if it condenses back
from steam to water in a closed container (like a
condenser), it creates a vacuum.

Prolonged operation of steam air ejectors are not

recommended because they tend to overheat. Once over
heating occurs, their operation is negatively affected.

On some older plants steam ejectors are also used to

maintain condenser vacuum during normal turbine operation.

Hydraulic ejectors (Figure 66)

On large machines, there is a modern tendency to use water
ejectors to maintain vacuum during normal turbine operation.
The usual arrangement is to have four 33% capacity hydraulic
ejectors. Three ejectors remain in service while the remaining
two are used as standby units.

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Air pumps (Figure 67)

This is essentially a centrifugal displacement pump. It
consists of a multi-blade impeller within an offset casing,
which is partially filled with water. The rotating impeller throws
the liquid outwards resulting in a solid ring of liquid revolving
inside the casing at the same speed as the pump rotor. The
rotating water ring follows the shape of the casing.

In Figure 67 it can be seen how this alternately causes the

liquid to enter and recede from the interblade spaces on the
impeller.

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FIGURE 66 : TYPICAL HYDRAULIC EJECTOR ARRANGMENT

The provision of inlet and outlet ports enables the pump action
to be used for evacuation of air from the condenser. The
advantages of this type of pump are that it is simple and
reliable with large clearances between the moving parts and
that is has no valves or pistons.

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FIGURE 67 : TYPICAL LIQUID-RING TYPE AIR PUMP

11.5 Condenser Hotwell

The hotwell is the lowest area in the condenser where the condensate
accumulates to provide a suction head for the condensate extraction
pumps. Some condensers have more than one hotwell, depending on the
condenser design.

11.6 Condensate extraction system

Two 100%-duty condenser extraction pumps are normally provided with the
standby being ready for immediate operation when required. The extraction
pumps are designed to pump condensate from the condenser at a
saturation temperature corresponding to the sub-atmospheric pressure
within the condenser. Under these conditions, the available positive suction
head is very low and suction conditions very stringent. The rotational speed
of the pump and the flow of condensate into the first stage impeller should
be kept as low as possible. The impeller eye must also have the maximum
capacity for handling water in order to provide the minimum NPSH

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requirements. This also assists in avoiding unnecessary depth of the

extraction pumps below the condenser.

For many years, the power generation industry has relied on horizontal split-
casing type extractions pumps (Figure 68) and these have generally given
satisfactory service. The generated heads developed by these pumps were
modest at around 100m on 500 MW and early 660 MW stations.

With horizontal extraction pump designs, one of the most important factors
is the avoidance of oxygen ingress into the condensate through glands
which may be required to seal against sub-atmospheric pressures. A secure
supply of seal water is necessary and this is usually provided from a
common manifold which is supplied by connections in each pump volute.

FIGURE 68 : TYPICAL HORIZONTALY SPLIT CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP

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This caters for both running and standby conditions. Water from the
manifold can also be used as a supplementary supply to any inter-stage
water lubricated bearings.

To prevent the accumulation of vapour at the impeller inlet, the first stage
impeller eye of a horizontal extraction pump should be vented back to the
vapour space in the condenser, with the vent piping having an upward slope
to the condenser.

12. LP AND HP FEED WATER HEATING

12.1 Bled steam extraction for feed heating

To increase the efficiency of the system, steam known as bled steam, is
taken off the turbine at various stages.

Bled steam is described as steam from which some energy has already
been extracted by the turbine. The temperature and pressure of the steam
has been reduced and can be easily used in feed heaters or to drive the
steam feed pump turbine.

The stages along the turbine cylinder from which the steam is extracted
correspond to the condition required by the Feed Heater. Thus each feed
heater is supplied with steam from a different tapping point on the turbine.

Generally there is no bled steam taken from the HP turbine, but the exhaust
steam can be used. The first tapping will be from the IP cylinder to the
deaerator with the remainder to the LP heaters from the LP cylinder.

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12.2 Components of a typical LP condensate system

The following components are typically those found in a Low Pressure feed
heating system (Figure 69):

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FIGURE 69 : TYPICAL LP FEED HEATING SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED

COMPONENTS

12.2.1 Condensate dump control valve

This valve works in conjunction with the deaerator level control
valve. When the deaerator level rises above its normal working
level, the condensate dump control valve will open and dump the
excess condensate back into the RFWT (Reserve Feed Water
Tank).

12.2.2 Gland steam condenser

Excess steam from the turbine glands is drained to and cooled
inside the gland steam condenser. The condensate is then
returned to the condensate system.

12.2.3 Condensate recirculating valve

When the condenser level falls below its normal working level,
the condensate recirculating valve will open and recirculate the
condensate through the extraction pump and condensate
recirculating valve back to the condenser. This operation
ensures that the extraction pump does not churn when the
condenser level control valve is closed.

12.2.4 Condenser level control valve

The condensate level control valve is situated in the discharge
pipe work of the condensate extraction pump and controls the
level of the condensate inside the condenser.

12.2.5 Distillate drains cooler

The distillate drains cooler receives the distillate drains from
various turbine auxiliary systems and returns it into the
condensate system.

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12.2.6 LP Heaters
The LP heaters receive their bled steam from the LP cylinder
stages and heat the condensate passing through the heaters
(Figure 70). As mentioned above, the distillate is returned to the
condensate system via the distillate drains cooler.

FIGURE 70 : TYPICAL LAYOUT OF HORIZONTAL LP HEATERS

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12.2.7 Deaerator level control valve

The deaerator level control valve regulates the level of the
deaerator storage tanks.

12.2.6 Deaerator
The deaerator removes any incondensable oxygen from the
condensate and passes it into the deaerator storage tank.
During the oxygen removal process, the condensate is heated to
a temperature just below the boiling temperature (typically about
145C) for the working pressure (typically approximately 240kPa)
of the deaerator vessel. Bled steam from the turbine is used in
this heating process.

12.2.7 Deaerator Storage Tank (DST)

The deaerator storage tanks serve as temporary storage facility
for the boiler feed water. The boiler feed pumps take suction
from the storage tanks and pumps the water via the HP feed
heating system to the boiler.

12.2.8 Condensate make-up valve

When the DST level falls below its normal working level, the
make-up valve will open and add water from the RWT to the
condenser to bring it back to normal level.

13. BOILER FEED PUMPS

The design and arrangement of boiler feed pumps has a significant impact on
overall unit availability. In determining the optimum arrangement of feed pumping
plant, the economic assessment needs to take account of capital costs,
capitalised running costs, repair and maintenance costs, and the likely effects of
loss of availability. Other constraints which should be considered are:

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The need to ensure that failure of a single pump does not impair the start-up
of the main unit affect output capability. Standby capacity equivalent to the
largest duty pump set is indicated with a rapid start-up capability, sufficient
to prevent the loss of boiler drum level and consequent unit trip.

The need to ensure that the plant is able to operate satisfactorily during and
after a large load rejection by the turbine-generator unit. This requires that
the drives for the duty pumps and the power supplies must be suitable for
this operating condition. Alternatively, a suitable rapid starting standby pump
set is necessary.

The need to provide adequate NPSH margins taking into account that the
pumps are supplied from a direct contact heater (deaerator), which be
subject to pressure decay following a reduction in turbine load.
There should be at least two pump sets capable starting the unit. If a turbine
drive unit is to fulfil this function, then a steam supply independent of the
main boiler (i.e., an auxiliary boiler) is required.

If two or more pumps are required to operate in parallel, then the pump sets
should be able to accommodate run-out duties following loss of the
operating pump.

The provision of sufficient pumping capacity to meet flow requirements

under all operational circumstances. It is normal practice to include a flow
margin to accommodate additional demand by the turbine above its design
rating during transient flow disturbances. A margin on pump generated
head is also appropriate to cover for deterioration resulting from internal
wear during periods between overhaul. In the interests of keeping pump set
sizes and powers to a reasonable minimum, consistent with maintaining the
pump best efficiency close to the duty point operation, these margins have
been optimised as 5% on flow and 3% on generated head.

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13.1 Boiler feed pump construction

Pumps used to supply feed water for boiler operation are of the multi stage
centrifugal design. These pumps are capable of supplying feed water at
discharge pressures up to 23MPa for a typical 600MW once through boiler.
Figure 71 illustrates a typical boiler feed pump used on modern plant.

13.2 Boiler feed pump drives

Modern power plants are usually equipped with 3 boiler feed pumps. These
are:

One 100% duty pump which is driven by a steam turbine. Control

over the delivery duty of the pump is achieved by employing a turbine
governor control system.

Two 50% duty pumps which are normally driven by 6,6kV or 11kV
electric induction motors. In this case, hydraulic speed control is
employed to provide control over the delivery of the pump. Figure 72
illustrates a typical hydraulic speed control of an electric feed pump.

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FIGURE 71 : TYPICAL MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL BOILER FEED PUMP

FIGURE 72 : ELECTRIC FEED PUMP HYDRAULIC SPEED CONTROL

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13.3 Feed water control

13.3.1 Drum boiler

Arrangements must be made in the feed system to
accommodate the fluctuations between boiler demand and
the output of the extraction pump. It is also necessary for
the system to accept treated "makeup" water which makes
up the losses of water due to leakage and boiler blow
down. The introduction of this water provides an entrance
for oxygen through the surface of the water in a feed tank
being open to atmosphere. On a modern unit, water is
admitted under normal conditions via the deaerator into the
feed system.

The main objective in regulating feed flow to the boiler is to

maintain a constant drum water level as feed water varies
with load variations. The system used to operate the feed
water regulator is of the three-element type. The controller
takes account of drum level, feed water flow into the boiler
and steam flow out of the boiler. The controller can,
therefore, anticipate the water "swell" or "shrinkage" which
occurs in a boiler during load changes.

13.3.2 Once-through boiler

When regulating the feed flow in a once-through boiler the
aim is to maintain a constant water level in the evaporator
tubes. A control system is used that takes into account:

Boiler load set point. As the boiler load is raised the

feed water control signal is increased, thereby
increasing the feed flow.

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Live-steam pressure. This signal trims the signal to

the feed water regulating valves from the boiler load
set point to maintain the boiler pressure.

Superheat temperature. This signal is usually derived

from the boiler spray-water control and measures the
temperature difference across a superheater. If the
feed flow is too low then the differential temperature
will be too high as more superheat is added.
Conversely, if the feed flow is too high the differential
temperature will be too-low, since some of the heat
needed by the superheater is used to heat the extra
feed water.

13.3.3 Feed water Regulation

Boiler feed water control can be obtained by two basic
methods:
by regulation of the feed valve opening with feed
pumps at constant speed;
by variation of the feed pump speed with a constant
valve opening.

In both of these basic methods, however, the pressure at

the feed water inlet manifold - and consequently the flow
rate of the desuperheater spray water - varies either
inversely or directly with the boiler demand. It is necessary
to maintain a controlled differential pressure across the
feed regulator valves to achieve satisfactory desuperheater
spray control which can be obtained by the same two basic
methods as the control of the feed water itself. The two
systems in current use of large boiler units are either feed
water control by means of feed regulating valves with a

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feed pump speed control compensation to maintain the

required feed differential pressure across the valves, or
feed water control by means of feed pump speed with a
compensation control on feed valve opening to maintain the
required feed differential pressure.

The mechanical problems of throttling at the boiler feed

valves combined with the additional cost of power loss at
the pump was the reason for preference for a combination
of throttling and speed-regulated pumps to be adopted for
the larger unit.
In addition, with the larger pumps being utilised, the main
feed regulating valves cannot control at loads below 20% to
maintain an accurate flow control and the feed pump flow
against discharge pressure within the correct operational
values to prevent damage to the pump.

14. HIGH PRESSURE FEED HEATERS

HP heaters obtain their bled steam from the HP turbine stages where the
pressure matches the pressure required for optimum HP heater operation.

The distillate formed in the HP heater shell is cascaded from HP heater to HP

heater (Figure 73). The last HP heater in the bank releases it distillate to a flash
vessel where the distillate is cooled sufficiently to enable it to be returned into the
main condenser.

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FIGURE 73 : RELATIONSHIP OF LP AND HP FEED HEATING SYSTEMS

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FIGURE 73 : HP HEATERS SHOWING FEED WATER FLOW AND DISTILLATE

CASCADING

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Feed water at high pressure from the boiler feed pumps passes through the HP
heaters on its way to the boiler.

FIGURE 74 : TYPICAL VERTICAL HP HEATER INSTALLATION

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15. TURBINE GOVERNING SYSTEM

Steam admission to the turbine is controlled by emergency stop valves and

governor valves which are controlled by an electronic governing system.

The main functions of the governing system are:

To contain the speed rise within acceptable limits should the unit become
disconnected from the load.

To control the steam valve positions (and hence the load generated) in
response to signals from the operator, or from a separate station automatic
control system.

To control the initial run-up and synchronisation of the machine.

To assist in matching the power generated to that demanded by responding

to network frequency changes.

The first of these functions is a vital one for the safety and availability of the plant.
Consider a unit at full-load supplying a power network through its generator
connections. If these connections are opened, either by a power system fault or
by the units own protection system, the steam flow at the instant of disconnection
exceeds the steam flow necessary for steady state operation at 50 Hz (3000
r/min) by the amount necessary to generate full-load. The excess energy input
must be reduced rapidly if an unacceptable overspeed is to be avoided. The
governor performs this function by responding to the initial change in speed to
close the steam valves.

Separate overspeed trips are provided to guard against possible governor failure
and ensure that the safety of the plant and personnel is always maintained. The
governor supplements this safety function and, since it maintains the unit at the

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running speed, ensures the continuity of unit supplies from its own generator as
well as the ability to reconnect the generator to the power system. The initial
transient speed rise following such a load rejection, contained by the governor, is
primarily due to two factors:

The stored energy of steam within the turbine and its associated pipe work;
The time taken by the turbine valves to close in response to the sensed
overspeed.

To be able to accomplish the governing requirements as described above, the

operation of the ESV's and Governor valves must be very reliable. Figure 75 and
76 illustrates typical ESV and Governing valves respectively.

16. TURBINE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Turbine protection systems usually work through a turbine protection relay

system. All protection signals are issued to the protection relay in triplicate and
passes through a voting logic (2/3 or 3/4 etc). This system ensures that the
protection system does not operate if a transmitted should fail for any reason.

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FIGURE 75 : TYPICAL ESV

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FIGURE 76 : TYPICAL GOVERNOR VALVE

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The following protections are usually provided on turbines:

16.1 Overspeed protection

The overspeed protection signals are obtained from a speed sensing
device located on the turbine shaft. There are usually two values at
which the overspeed protection will come into operation.

Should the turbine speed rise above 10% of normal operating speed
(i.e. 3 300 RPM) the first overspeed signal (trip bolt) will trip the ESV's
thus shutting down the machine. Should the 10% signal fail for some
mysterious reason, the turbine will be tripped by a second signal (trip
bolt) set at 11%.

16.2 Thrust bearing wear protection

Thrust bearing wear is indicated by the oil pressure supply to the
thrust bearing. Should excessive thrust occur on the turbine rotor this
oil pressure will rise above the normal pressure and upon reaching a
predetermined value, the turbine will be tripped.

16.3 Bearing temperature high protection

Bearing temperatures are monitored by thermocouples installed in
each bearing housing. Typically, when bearing temperature increases
to 75C, a turbine trip will be initiated.

16.4 Condenser level protection

Level probes monitor the condenser water level and should the level
rise to the trip value which is typically approximately 900mm, the
turbine will be tripped.

16.5 Low vacuum protection

The turbine vacuum conditions are monitored by pressure transmitters
located at the condenser. Should the condenser vacuum decay to

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typically 16kPa absolute, the turbine will start shedding load. If the
vacuum continues to decay and reach a pressure of 22kPa absolute,
the turbine will trip.

16.6 LP Exhaust temperature

The LP turbine exhaust temperature is monitored by thermocouples
installed after the last stages of LP turbine blades. Should this
temperature rise to typically 85C the turbine trip will be initiated.

17. SELF ASSESSMENT

After having studied all the material, you can now request the Self Assessment
from your Facilitator. Make sure that you have mastered all the information
contained in this manual and attempt not to look for the correct answers in the
text.

If you do not master the Self Assessment at the first attempt, re-study the
material, make notes of the topics that are not absolutely clear to you and
approach your Facilitator to explain these issues again.

When you feel confident that you have mastered this manual, you can then
request to write the Criterion Test.

GOOD LUCK!

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