Chapter9

Eclecticgardens18001900
Historyandphilosophy
Around1800,gardendesigntheorystruckaproblemthat,eventoday,isscarcelyresolved.Gotheinsanalysiswasthatprac
titionershadceasedtolookforartatall,1sothat,thewholeofthenineteenthcenturymustcompleteitstaleofsinsbeforeth
efoundationsareshattered.2Nineteenth-
centuryarchitecturesufferedacomparablefate.Itwasseen,withlessclarity,asthedilemmaofwhichhistoricstyletoapplyi
nwhichcircumstances.Artistsalsoturnedtohistoricthemesbutsomeindividuals,lessdependentonpatronagethandesig
ners,wereabletocharttheirownfutures
afreedomthatpermittedtherealisationofapersonalvision.Gombrichcommentedthat
9.1Artornature?AspartofBlenheimParkinOxfordshire,thismustbeclassifiedasaworkofart

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itwasonlyinthenineteenthcenturythattherealgulfopenedbetweenthesuccessfulartists
whocontributedtoofficialartandthenonconformists,whoweremainlyappreciatedaftertheirdeath.3
Gardendesigners,likearchitects,andsuccessfulartists,neglectedthequestforarttoimitatethenatureoftheworld.Th
eysawonlythesuperficialworldofnature,soontobecapturedbyphotography.
QuatremredeQuincy,anastuteFrenchcritic,wasoneofthefirsttoappreciatethegardendesignersproblem.In1823he
explainedthedilemmafacingtheirregularsystemoflandscapegardeningasfollows:Whatpretendstobeanimageofnat
ureisnothingmoreorlessthannatureherself.Themeansoftheartarereality.Everyoneknowsthatthemeritofitsworksco
nsistsinobviatinganysuspicionofart.Toconstituteaperfectgarden,accordingtotheirregularsystemoflandscapegarde
ning,wemustnothavetheleastsuspicionthatthegroundshavebeenlaidoutbyart.4
Whatcouldthedesignerdo?Itappearedthat:
Tobeworksofart,gardensmustimitatenature
Iftheyimitatenature,gardenscannotbeworksofart.
Thefirstpropositionhadbeenagreedbyallsinceancienttimes.ItisthefoundationofNeoplatonicaesthetics.Thesecondpr
opositionarosefromtheempiricistaim,explainedinthepreviouschapter,ofcreatingnaturalgardensusingnativeplants,
rocks,waterandjaggedlines.PicturesquegardensbecameindistinguishablefromMotherNatureherself:romantic,wild,
unadorned,intenselydesirable
butimpossibletolivewith.InBritain,andelsewhere,gardendesignreachedanimpassewhichcannotbeexplainedusingth
eusualBritishdesign-
historicalcategoriesofStuartGeorgianandVictorianGardens.Theselabelsdonotilluminatethewhyorwhereforeofga
rdendesign.
Whentherewasnoobviouswayforward,mostdesignersturnedbackward:theyreproducedancientstylesandcombin
edtheminnewways.ThisopenedadebatethatledtoaGreatTurningPoint,andfourdesignapproaches:
Thelandscapestyle:usingideasselectedfromthepastinastructuredsequence
TheMixedstyle:usingdesignstylesselectedfromothercountriesanddisplayedasifinamuseum
Thegardenesquestyle:usingplantsselectedfromfavouriteregionsoftheworldandarrangedtodisplaytheirindividu
ality
Nationalisticstyles:usingdesignideasselectedfromgloriouserasinthehistoriesofthenationsinwhichthegardenswe
remade.
9.2Afterasweetprogressionthroughtheeighteenthcentury,gardendesigntheorybranchedconfusingly,asdiddesig
nstyles
Thewordselectedisusedineachoftheaboveaccountstounderlinetheircommonaspect.EclecticderivesfromtheGreek
eklektikos,meaningtoselectorpickout.In
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AncientGreece,theEclecticswerephilosopherswho,onprinciple,selectedandcombinedthebestideasfromeverysource.
Systematicphilosophersdisdainthepracticebutmostofusdoittoagreaterorlesserextent.
Intheabsenceofaworkabledesigntheory,eclecticismranamokinthegardensofthenineteenthcentury.Thelandscapest
ylewasmostpopularinBritainandGermany.InBritainitledtotheadditionofterracesandwoodlandgardenstoBrownianp
arks;inGermany,Picturesqueparkswerewrappedroundbaroquegardens.TheMixedstylewaspopularinmostpartsofE
uropeandalsoinNorthAmerica.Thegardenesquestyleaffectedbotanicalgardenseverywhereandprivatewoodlandgar
densinBritain.Nationalismaffectedmostcountries.Beforeexaminingtheseapproachesindetail,onepointshouldbeem
phasised:someoftheresultinggardenswereofhighquality.Onemayfindthemlackinginaspiritualorartisticdimensionbu
tthis
isakintocriticisingBerliozfornotbeingBach,orahousefornotbeingachurch.Thefourapproachesrestedonasophisticate
dtheoreticaldebate,whichalsocreatedthemodernprofessionoflandscapearchitecture.Inthelongerterm,theideaswer
eofmoreimportancethantheirdesignconsequences.
TheGreatDebate
Between1793and1815,whilecontinentalEuropewasinthralltoNapoleon,threeEnglishsquires
SirUvedalePrice,RichardPayneKnight,andHumphryRepton
conductedadiscussionofgardentheory.Mostnineteenthcenturygardentheorists,includingJ.C.Loudon,PrincePckler
-
Muskau,FrederickLawOlmstedandGertrudeJekyll,tookthisdebateasthestartingpointfortheirowndeliberations.Itals
ohadadeepinfluenceontwentieth-
centurytownandcountryplanning.TheprinciplesofMrPrice,thetheoriesofMrKnight,theworksofMrReptonandthephe
nomenalliteraryoutputofMrLoudonspreadroundtheworld,aidedbytheimprovementintransportandtheindustrialisati
onofbookproduction.Thedebateitselfcentredontheclassicthemesofutility,firmnessandbeauty(seeChapter1).
Knightwasawealthydilettante,thegrandsonofanironmasterandthebrotherofafamoushorticulturalist.Heopenedthed
ebatewithaGilpinesqueattackonBrownsstyleoflandscapegardening.5Theillustrationssupportinghisargumentshow
edBrownsworkasbaldandshavenincontrastwiththeromanticcharmofDameNature.AjibeagainstReptonwasinclude
d,becausehehadproclaimedhimselfBrownssuccessor.Reptonwashurt,andworriedthathisbusinessmightsuffer.Hee
nteredthedebate,emphasisingutility,andpokedfunatKnightforplacingpicturesquerocksonhisfrontlawn(seep.201).P
riceagreedthiswasimpracticalbutjoinedKnightinwritinglyricallyaboutDameNaturesseductivebeautyandharmonywi
ththe
masculinityofclassicalarchitecture.Acompromisewasreached,inthebesttraditionofEnglishdiplomacy.In1986,albeit
unrequested,Iputmyservicesasatechnicaleditoratthedisposalofthedepartedsquiresbywritingacollectiveopinionfort
hemtogiveaclientwhowishedtoimprovehisestate.6Aneditedversionofthisopinionfollows.
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9.3Linderhof,Bavaria:itisnotknownifLudwigIIwasinfluencedbythethreeEnglishsquiresbuthedevelopedasimilarly
eclecticenthusiasm.Linderhofhasatransitionfromarttonature,aterraceforsocialevents,aserpentinepark,asublime
backgroundandexoticbuildingsinvariousstyles
Goodmorning.WehavecompletedastudyofyourestateandMrReptonhasmadesketchesfromseveralviewpoints.Thec
hangesweproposearedesignedtofittheexistingsiteandcreateimprovements.Thenewlandscapeshouldbeusefuland
beautiful,withasmoothtransitionfromyourhousetoNature.
WecanbestexplainthisideabyreferringtotheworkofthegreatlandscapepaintersofItaly.Theforegroundofyourviewsh
ouldbeaterracewithaprofusionofflowers.ItshouldbeBeautifulandwell-
keptforfamilyuse,withsomethingofthecharacterofagardenscenebyWatteau.The middlegroundshouldbe
anoblepark,laidoutwithaviewtoPicturesqueeffectbutavailableforagriculture.ClaudeandPoussinshowhowsheepand
herdsmencanmakesceneryPicturesque.ThebackgroundshouldbeSublime.We
recommendopeningviewstothewildscenerybeyond.Eachofthethreegroundscancontainmorethanonetypeofcharact
erbuttheBeautifulshouldpredominateintheforeground,thePicturesqueinthemiddlegroundandtheSublimeintheback
ground.
Yournewmansionshouldbecarefullyplaced:tohaveagoodmicroclimateandtocommandfineviews.Itshoulddominatet
heforegroundbutshouldonlybeanincidentinthelandscapewhenseenfromafar.LancelotBrown,thoughhedidnotappre
ciatewildnature,hadgoodtasteintheselectionofsitesandinthecompositionofparklandwithwoodsandwater.Astothech
oiceofanarchitecturalstyle,werecommendanItalianstyleforClaudiansitesandaGrecianstyleforPoussinesquesites.Bu
tforEnglishparkland,likeyours,weadvisetheoldcastlestyle.
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Finally,weproposeasmallPalladiantempleoverlookingthelakesothatwecanjoinyouforanoutdoorrepastinsummer.Its
houldrestonthebrowofthehill,tobeseenfromyourdrawingroom,andwesuggestthatyouinscribeitwiththefamouslines
byAlexanderPopewhichhaveguidedourcomposition:
Tobuild,toplant,whateveryouintend,Torear
theColumn,ortheArchtobend,ToswelltheTe
rras,ortosinktheGrot;Inall,letNatureneverb
eforgot.
ConsulttheGeniusofthePlaceinall
Thattellsthewatersortorise,orfall.
Joinswillingwoods,andvariesshadesfromshades
NowBreaks,ornowdirects,thintending
Lines;Paintsasyouplant,andasyouwork,Designs7
Thiscollectiveopinionisbasedonthefollowingprinciples:
Thereshouldbeagrandtransitionfromtherealmofarttotherealmofnature
Theforeground,nearthedwellinghouse,shouldbetherealmofart
Exoticplantsshouldbeusednearthedwellingbutnotelsewhereintheestate
Thelayoutshouldbebasedonnaturalcomposition,asillustratedintheworkofthegreatlandscapepaintingsofIta
ly
Thedesignshouldrespondtothecharacterofthelocalityintermsofclimate,materialsanddesigntraditions.
Intime,thefirstoftheseprinciplesledtothelandscapestyle,thesecondtotheMixedstyleandthethirdtothegardenesque
style.Thefourthprincipleledtothetermlandscapearchitecture.Thefifthprincipleinfluencednationalisticapproachest
odesignandtheArtsandCraftsmovement.Hadtheprinciplesbeenbetterunderstoodbytheirprotagonistsandthepublic
,theymighthaveresultedinevenbettergardens.Butscalewasaproblem.Thefiveideasworkedwellonthe300-
hectareestatestypicalofroyalandaristocraticgardens.Theywerelesscompanionableinthesmallsuburbanestatesofth
erisingmiddleclass.
Thedebateisoftendescribedasthepicturesquecontroversy,becauseitcentredontherelevanceoflandscapepaintings
tolandscapedesign,butthislabeldoeslittlejusticetotheparticipants.KnightandPricehadakeeninterestinaesthetictheo
ry.Reptoncaredabouteveryaspectoftherelationshipbetweenlandform,water,planting,buildingsandgardens.Allthre
ewishedtoseeajustbalancebetweentheVitruvianvalues.8
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Thelandscapestyle
InitialcapitalshavebeenusedintheaccountofKnight,PriceandReptonforthewordsBeautiful,SublimeandPicturesque,t
omarktheiruseaspartofaspecialisedaestheticvocabulary.AsexplainedbyEdmundBurke,Beautifulmeantsmooth,flow
ing,likethebodyofabeautifulwoman.Sublimemeantwildandfrightening,likearoughseaortheviewsthatmightbeobtai
nedwhilecrossingtheAlpsonarockytrackinahorsedrawncoach.Picturesquewasanintermediateterm,introducedafter
Burke,todescribeascenewithelementsoftheBeautifulandtheSublime.Withoutitsinitialcapital,Picturesquemeanslike
apicture.Inwhatiscalledthelandscapestyleinthisbook,PicturesquegardenshaveasequentialtransitionfromaBeautiful
foreground,throughaPicturesquemiddlegroundtoaSublimebackground.Composinggardenslikepaintingsintegrated
thedesignideasoftheeighteenthcenturytocreatealandscapedesignconceptofsignificantgrandeurandexceptionallywi
deapplication.
ThelandscapestyleisthechiefsupportfortheclaimthatBritishdesignersmadeauniquecontributiontowesterncultur
eduringtheeighteenthcentury.Inhis1955ReithLecturesNikolausPevsnerusedtheterm
EnglishpicturesquetheoryforwhathedescribedasanEnglishnationalplanningtheory.9Pevsnerstatedthatitlieshidd
eninthewritingsoftheimproversfromPopetoUvedalePrice,andPayneKnightandthatitgaveEnglishtownplannersso
methingofgreatvaluetooffertoothernations.Hethenaskedwhetherthesamecanbesaidofpainting,ofsculpture,ando
farchitectureproper.HisanswerwasthatHenryMooreandothersculptorshadgivenEnglandapositioninEuropeanscul
pturesuchasshehasneverbeforeheld,butthatEnglishpaintingandarchitectureoftheperiodwereofmarkedlylowerqu
ality.
9.4BeautifulandSublime:girlsinaroughseaandinthegardenofYorkHouseinLondon

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Attheendofthetwentiethcentury,Moorewasstillregardedasagreatartistandtheimportanc
eofthelandscapeplanningtheoryidentifiedbyPevsnertookonaglobalrelevance.
PartlyinspiredbyPevsner,Iwrote,inLandscapePlanningandEnvironmentalImpactDesign,thatTheideaofforminga
gradedtransitionfromarttonatureremainedattheheartofEnglishgardendesignfrom1793until
1947.Whenthe1947TownandCountryPlanningActimposedasqueezeongardensize,thetransi
tionidealeaptthegardenwallandoccupiedthe
country.Plannersbecameenthusedwiththenotionthattownsshouldbetightlyurbaninchar
acterandsurroundedbyaBrownianagriculturalhinterland,itselfgivingwaytowildlyirregula
rnationalparksandareasofoutstandingnaturalbeauty.Strictplanningcontrolswereimpos
edondevelopmentsinthegreenbelt,sothattownswouldbecomedenserandthespacesbet
weenbuildingscoulddevelopatownscapecharacter,withurbansquaresandcircusesliketh
oseofRenaissancetowns.10Itprovidesagoodtheoreticalbaseforthelandscapearchitectu
reprofession(seep.243).
9.5SheringhamexemplifiesReptonsuseofterracestocreategarden-to-parktransitions
9.6BrownsserpentineparkatHarewoodHouse,Yorkshire,wasadaptedtothelandscapestyl
ebytheadditionofaterrace,designedbyCharlesBarry,inthenineteenthcentury
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9.7Blenheim,Oxfordshire,andHowickHall,Northumberland,haveterracesaddedinthenineteenthcentury
9.8Charlottenburg,Berlin,hasafulltransitionfromformaltoinformal

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TheMixedstyle
Thenineteenthcenturywasmoreatimeofindustrialthanagriculturalrevolution.Fortunesweremadeandeighteenth-
centuryparkswereadornedwithcostlygardensaroundtheirmansions.Thethreesquiresoriginalideahadbeentomak
earealmofart(e.g.aterrace)nearthehouse,presumablysothatfamiliescouldenjoytheutilitarianpleasureofafternoo
nteawhilewatchingchildreninsailorsuitsgambolonthelawn.Reptonsimaginationleapttheterrace.Hebeganrecom
mendingarichmixtureofdifferenttypesofgarden:
Thereisnomoreabsurdityincollectinggardensofdifferentstyles,dates,characters,anddimensions,inthesameenclosu
re,thaninplacingtheworksofaRaphaelandaTeniersinthesamecabinet,orbookssacredandprofaneinthesamelibrary.1

9.9TheChineseDairyatWoburnAbbey,Bedfordshire,anestateforwhichReptonproducedaRedBookof
beforeandafterviews
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9.10AltonTowers,Staffordshire,wassharplycriticisedbyJ.C.Loudonforitseclecticism,thoughtitisoftenassociatedwi
thhisname
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9.11ThetwentiethcenturyThemeParkhasaddedtothemixtureoffeaturesatAltonTowers
Thisbecametheeclecticscharter,providingalogicalfoundationforwhatEdwardKempwaslatertocalltheMixedstyle.Re
ptonwasthefirsttheoristtoadvocatecollectionsofgardensindiversestyles.HesawhimselfasasuccessortoBrown,which
,intermsofprofessionalstatus,hewas.LatercommentatorssawReptonas
astylistinthemannerofBrown,whichhewasnot.TheyalsosawLoudonasanadvocateoftheMixedstyle,whichheneverwa
s.12
TheeclectictrendwhichReptonbegansoonledtowholegardensbeinglaidoutinstylesassociatedwithparticularcountries
:ChineseGardens,JapaneseGardens,SwissGardens,IndianGardens,AmericanGardens,ItalianGardens.Sometimesth
estyleswereusedincompartments,sometimestheywereverymixed.ItalianGardens
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9.12BiddulphGrange,Staffordshire,hasanItalianGarden,anEgyptianGardenandagardenbasedonthe
GreatWallofChina
werethemostpopular.Theintroductionofexoticplantspeciesfromallovertheworldassistedthemixtureofstyles.Twoo
fthebesteclecticgardensinEnglandBiddulphGrangeandAltonTowers
wereintheEnglishMidlands,animportantmanufacturingregion.Itmaybethatmanufacturershadthemostmoneyorit
maybethattheyhadthemostinterestinforeignparts.AtBiddulphGrange,brilliantuseismadeof
tunnelstokeepthestylisticzonesapart.Inothergardensthesearchforvarietyandcontrastwasassistedbyelaboratebeddi
ngarrangements.KempsaccountoftheMixedstyle,supportsGotheinsopinionthatdesignersforgottolookforartatall:
Serpentineorwavylinesmayberegardedasthecharacteristicfeaturesofthemixedstyle.Itsobjectisbeautyoflines,andge
neralvariety.Roundness,smoothness,freedomfromangularity,andgraceratherthandignityor
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9.13BranitzinCottbus,Germany,wasdesignedbyanadmirerofRepton.Theareanearthehousewasconsideredbe
stsuitedtotheuseofexoticbeddingplants,paintedstatuesandcastiron
grandeur,areamongitsnumerousindications.Itdoesnotrejectstraightlinesentirelynearthehouse,orinconnexionwith
aflower-
garden,orarosary,orasubordinatebuilding(asagreenhouse)thathasaseparatepieceofgardentoit.Nordoesitrefuseto
borrowfromthepicturesqueinregardtothearrangementandgroupingofplantsIthasallthegraceofnaturewithoutitsr
uggedness,andtherefinementofartapartfromitsstiffnessandseverity.13
Inconsideringhowthechastemannersoftheeighteenthcenturyevolvedintothenineteenthcenturyspromiscuouse
clecticism,oneshouldrememberbothReptonstheoreticalpositionandthedifferentcircumstancesofourpredecess
ors.ShouldyouorIwishtoseeforeigngardensorplants,wecanusetheinternettoviewimagesor

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9.14Brighton,Sussex:theVictorianfashionforcarpetbeddingenduresinpublicparks
9.15TheMixedstyleappliedtotheareanearthehouseadesignbyEdwardKemp
bookaflight.Ourpredecessorsheardtravellerstalesofamazingplacesbuthadtorelyonengravingsandsouvenirstolearn
more.BombaycouldnotbeaholidaydestinationwhentheshipwentviaCapeTown,tookthreemonthsandexposedtravell
erstoincurablediseases.TomoderneyestheeclecticismofVictoriangardensmaybeexcessive.14ToVictorianeyes,itexp
ressedamulticulturalenthusiasmandwasameansoftransportingtheimaginationtofar-awayplacesandfar-
offtimes.ItshouldalsoberememberedthattheAugustanstylehaditselfusedaneclecticrangeofgardenfollies.They,and
theMixedstyle,wereproductsofRomanticism.
WhenAncientEgyptwasuncoveredbyNapoleon,therewasacrazeforEgyptology:BiddulphhasanEgyptianGarden.Wh
enseriousexcavationsbeganatPompeii,therewascrazeforRomanGardens:SchinkeladdedaRomanGardentothePots
damlandscape.Whenplantcollectorsreturnedfromthemountains,everyonewantedanAlpinegarden.Manyofthebest
andworstnineteenth-centurygardenswereinEngland,becauseofhersea-
powerandwealth.OtherswereinAmerica,liketheDuPontfamilysLongwoodGardensinPennsylvania(1907).Nordidthe
Mixedstylediewiththenineteenthcentury.Inthetwentiethcenturyitwaswidelyusedforthemeparks.TheoriginalDisney
land,inCalifornia,letvisitorstastethe
romanceoftheOldWorldandtheWildWestwithoutapassport.DisneylandPariswaslocatedoutsideanOld
WorldcapitalbutitsMagicKingdomwasinspiredbynineteenth-centuryromanticism:theNeuswansteinof
madKingLudwigIIofBavaria,ortherebuiltcastleofSegoviainSpain.AltonTowerswasafineexampleoftheMixedstylebe
foreitbecame,veryappropriately,thelocationofBritainslargestthemepark.Postmodernisttheorydidmuchtolegitimat
ethetheoreticalbasisofeclecticism.Theargument,inshort,wasthatmodernismwaselitistandautocratic;itprescribedas
ingleapproach,theInternationalstyle,asmorallyandaestheticallyacceptable.Postmodernismboastsofbeingmulticult
uralandmulti-ethnic,arguingthateastisasgoodaswest,womenasgoodasmen,blackasgoodaswhite,Hinduasgoodas
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9.16ReptonconceivedtheRoyalPavilioninBrighton,Sussex,andNashexecutedthedesign
9.17TheRomanBathsatPotsdam,designedbyKarlFriedrichvonSchinkel

9.18LongwoodGardens,Pennsylvania:designedbytheco-
ownerofachemicalcompany.PierreS.DuPontwasameticulousengineerwithaspecialinterestinfountains.Hedrewinsp
irationfrombooksandvisitstoFrenchgardens

9.19Crystalpalaceswerebuilttohouseexoticplantsfromdistantlands:BuenRetiro,Madrid
Christianandeclecticismasgoodasrationalism.Reptonmightwellhaveagreed,anditisapitythatthisaspectofhislegacyis
notbetterremembered.Hewas,forexample,responsibleforpersuadingthePrinceofWalestobuildanIndianPavilioninth
eheartofBrighton,ontheSussexcoast.15
Thegardenesquestyle
Loudonbeganhiscareerwithagutter-
lowopinionofReptonandnoappreciationofthelandscapestyle.HewasdeterminedtofollowtheprinciplesofMrPrice(s
eeChapter8),andhislavishtwo-volumework,
CountryResidences,of1806,wasfullofproposalsforconvertingestateslaidoutinthemannerofCapabilityBrowntoMrPr
icesprinciples,meaningPicturesqueirregularity.16Onehastodoubtthepopularityofthisstylewithclients:fromtheillustr
ations,itlooks,asthoughLoudonspecialisedinconvertingneatparkstotractsofweeds.
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Ill-
healthterminatedLoudonsPicturesquequestinthe1810s.Butinthe1820sLoudonreturnedtolandscapegardening,thi
stimeasanauthorwithafullappreciationofthelogicalimpasse.DrawingintellectualsupportfromQuatremredeQuincy,
Loudonproposedthatgardensintheirregular,orPicturesque,styleshouldbeplantedwithexoticspecies,tomakethemr
ecognizableasworksofartentirelydistinctfromunadornednature.17Thisaspectofthegardenesque,whichLoudonna
medthePrincipleofRecognition,wasconstant.ButLoudonspreadconfusionbyusingthetermindifferentwaysondiffere
ntoccasions.Circularbedscouldbegardenesque,iftheydisplayedagardenersskill.18Anarboretumcouldbegardenesq
ue,ifitshowedtheindividualcharacterofeachspecimentobesteffect.Inmyview,thebestapplicationoftheideawasinco
mposingexoticplantsinthenaturalarrangementscharacteristicoflandscapepaintings.Thisledtoagenuinelyoriginal,a
ndstillpopular,nineteenth-
centuryidea,onethatremainspopulartoday:thewoodlandgarden.Itworksparticularlywellinthewarm,wetconditionst
hatfavourthenaturalisationofrhododendronspecies,includingthecypressswampsofthesouthernUnitedStatesandth
ewoodlandvalleysofsouth-westEngland.

9.20Trebah,Cornwall,hasanexoticwoodlandgarden

9.21JardindesPlantes,Angers,designedbyEdouardAndr,hasexoticplantsinanaturalisticcomposition
9.22Kew,Surrey,isabotanicgardenwithanessentiallyGardenesquelayout
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9.23Cragside,Northumberland,isimmediatelyrecognisableasaworkofman,ratherthanwildnature,becauseofit
sstraightlinesandexoticplants
9.24CircularbedsinGreenwichPark,London
Nationalisticstyles
Thenationalismthatblewthroughnineteenth-
centuryEuropehaditseffectongardens.DespitethefactthatRomanticgardentheorists,likeChristianHirschfeld19inGer
manyandJ.C.LoudoninBritain,hadcautionedagainstmixingstyles,theirwritingsfuelledeclecticism.Asthenineteenthc
 enturydrewtoitsclose,writersanddesignerssawnationalismasapotentiallypurifyingforce.Gardenhistorianstendtowel
cometheinfluenceofnationalisticmovementsontheappreciationofoldgardens,
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butlamentsomeofthespeculative(andthereforepotentiallyinaccurate)restorationsofgardenscarriedoutintheninete
enthcentury
ratherasVictorianarchitectshavebeencastigatedfortheirrestorationsofmedievalchurches.(Adifferentcomplaintism
adeaboutpresent-
dayreconstructions:withtheiremphasisonarchaeologicalanddocumentaryevidence,theycanbesoaccuratethattheya
reboring.)
9.25DuchnesrecreationofthestyleofLeNtre,atCourances,hasanelegantcharmscarcelyfoundinthemastersownwo
rk
France,afterthe1870warwithPrussia,wasoneofthefirstcountriestobetouchedbyartisticnationalism.Frenchcriticsfou
ndfaultwithGermanmusicforaestheticandnationalisticreasons.TheAnglo-
ChinesestyleofgardendesignwasseenasaforeigninvaderwhichcouldbeexpelledrathermoreeasilythantheGermanar
my.TheFranceofLouisXIVwasreveredasatriumphantexampleofthenationalgenius.HenriDuchnesetuphisofficein18
77andhisson,Achille,joinedhimattheageof12.Theirfirstgreatproject,forawealthyandpatrioticindustrialist,wastheres
torationofLeNtresdesignatVaux-le-
Vicomte.Itwasverysuccessfulandtheofficeprospered.InadditiontorestoringotherLeNtreParks(e.g.Champssur-
Marne,Le
MaraisandCourances),theydesignednewparkssomewhatinthestyleofleNtre.TheseincludedVoisinsin
FranceandthewaterparterreatBlenheimPalaceinEngland.
Germanyhadseveralreasonsforanationalistapproachtolandscape.First,aloveofGermanforestsandsoilhadbeenprese
ntintheculturesinceancienttimes.Second,theromanticloveofnature,fannedbyGoethe,hadgrownstrong.Third,thest
udyofecologyandnativehabitatshadoriginatedinGermany,undertheinfluenceofHumboldtandHaeckel.Fourth,thena
tion,unifiedinthe1870s,tookanewprideinitshistory.
InHeimatschutz(HomelandProtection),publishedin1901,ErnstRudorffprotestedatthedestructionofnatureandcalle
dforprotectedreserves.ThearchitectPaulSchultze-
NaumburgusedtheseideasinhisbooksGrten(Gardens;1902)andDieEntstellungunseresLandes(TheDisfiguremen
tofOurCountryside;1905).WillyLange,oftenreferringtoRousseau,Goethe,SchillerandHumboldt,advocatednaturega
rdensinhisbook,GartengestaltungderNeuzeit(GardenDesignforModernTimes;1907).Suchideaswerediscreditedaf
tertheSecondWorldWarbecauseHitlerhadsupportedthem.
HollanddevelopedanecologicalapproachtogardensundertheinfluenceofJacP.Thijsseandothers.Theresultscanbese
enattheAmsterdamBosPark,theJacP.ThijsseParkandtheThijsseHof.Thijssefavouredtheuseofnativeplantsingarden
design.
Englandwasinfluencedbynationalisminthelatenineteenthcentury,forsentimental,patrioticandartisticreasons.20Wri
tersandartistsrebelledagainstHighVictorianeclecticismandyearnedforgardenstobeastheyhadbeeninthemerriedays
ofBaconandShakespeare.TherestorationofPenshurstinthe1870s,basedonanillustrationfromKip,wasanearlyproduc
tofthissentiment.Pre-
RaphaelitepaintersdreamedofOldeEngland,andpaintedtheirvisions.ThiscontributedtotheArtsandCraftsmovement
and,supportedbyWilliamMorris,thedreamledtotheestablishmentofBritainsNationalTrustanditsownstyleofgardenm
anagement.
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AmericawasproudofitsnationhoodbutalwaysawareofitsEuropeanroots.Itwasnaturalfordesignerstoadoptaneclecti
capproach,basedonpaintings,drawingsandplansfromtheOldWorld.Colonialgardenswereoftentheworkofimmigran
tdesignersandEuropeaninfluenceremainedstrongintheworkofAndrewJacksonDowning,CalvertVaux,FrederickLa
wOlmsted,CharlesPlatt,BeatrixFarrandandothers.YetthetwentiethcenturysawagrowingdemandforanAmericansty
le.
Australia,largelypeopledbyBritishandIrishsettlers,hadastrongsenseoftheoldcountry.Colonistsyearnedforgardens
andparkslikethosetheyhadknowninVictorianBritain.ItwasonlytowardstheendofthetwentiethcenturythatAustralian
gardendesignerstookaninterestinthenativefloraandinthegardenculturesoftheothernationsfromwhichimmigration
wasthenallowed.
9.26ThecoverofThijssesbookDebloemeninonzentuindoor(Theplantsinourgarden)celebratesnativeplants
Landscapearchitecture
Repton,PriceandKnightacceptedthecompositionalprinciplesofthegreatlandscapepaintingsasanunimpeachablesta
ndardofgoodtaste.SirWalterScottwasofthesameopinionandoneofhisfriendstooktheideafurther.GilbertLaingMeaso
npublished150copiesofabookonTheLandscapeArchitectureoftheGreatPaintersofItalyin1828.21Measonadvisedd
esignerstostudyrelationshipsbetweenbuildingsandtheirsettingsinthelandscapepaintingsofGiotto,Titian,Poussin,V
eronese,Claude,Tintoretto,Raphael,Domenichino,Michelangeloandothers.Measondidnotmakeanameforhimselfwi
ththisideabutthemostprolificgardenauthorofthedaylikedthetitleofhisbook.Loudonusedthetermlandscapearchitec
tureinhis1840editionofReptonsworks:TheLandscapeGardeningandLandscapeArchitectureoftheLateH.
ReptonEsq.ItwasthentakenupbytheAmericanauthor,AndrewJacksonDowning,whoconsideredLoudon
themostdistinguishedgardeningauthoroftheage.22

9.27Thelandscapestyleled,inthetwentiethcentury,totheideaofplanningcompacttowns,greenwaysthroughanag
riculturalhinterlandandnationalparksindistanthillsandvalleys
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Page244
CalvertVaux,ayoungarchitectpersuadedbyDowningtomovefromLondontoNewYork,alsolikedtheterm.Whenhecolla
boratedwithFrederickLawOlmstedonanentryfortheCentralParkcompetitionof1858theydescribedthemselvesasland
scapearchitects.SinceOlmstedspentmostofhissubsequentcareeronparksandparksystems,hischosenprofessionaltit
lebecameassociatedwithpublicprojects,asdistinctfromprivategardens,andthisremainsitspredominantuse.Thestren
gthslandscapearchitecturedrawsfromitsgardendesignheritageinclude:
9.28MeasonsownhouseatLindertis,Tayside,wasanexampleoflandscapearchitecturebasedonthegreatpainter
sofItaly
TheVitruviandesigntraditionofbalancingutility,firmnessandbeauty
Useofthewordlandscapetomeanagoodplaceastheobjectiveofthedesignprocess
Acomprehensiveapproachtoopenspaceplanninginvolvingcityparks,greenwaysandnatureparksoutsidetow
ns
Aplanningtheoryaboutthecontextualisationofdevelopmentprojects
Theprinciplethatdevelopmentplansshouldbeadaptedtotheirlandscapecontext.
Landscapearchitectureisnowaninternationallyacceptedprofessionaltitleforexponentsoftheseskills.Itsadoptioncaus
edgardendesignandlandscapearchitecturetosplitapart,withsignificantdamagetobothactivities.Landscapearchitects
,thoughwelltrained,weredeprivedofahistoryortheoryfortheirprofession.Gardendesignsufferedthesamefateforadiff
erentreason:itbecameabranchofhorticulture,supportedbyalargelyscientificandtechnicaleducation.Aftertheestablis
hmentoftheworldsfirstlandscapearchitecturecourse,atHarvardUniversityin1900,mosteducationcoursesadoptedthi
stitleduringthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.AttheUniversityofGreenwich,whereIwork,wehavetriedtohealtheb
reachataneducationallevelbyestablishingparalleldegreesinLandscapeArchitectureandGardenDesign.Theformerem
phasisesopenspaceandpublicprojects;thelatteremphasisesenclosedspaceandprivateprojects.Technicalandtheoreti
calcoursesareshared.
Landscapearchitecturewasoftenconcernedwithcreatingareasofnaturalsceneryandpublicgardensintowns.TheOlms
tedandVauxdesignforCentralParkhadareasequivalenttothestagesofatransitionfromarttonature.OlmstedandEliota
ppliedthesameideaoftransitiontotheentireBostonmetropolitanregion.ThefirstEuropeantouselandscapearchitecta
saprofessionaltitle,PatrickGeddes,designedaparkinDunfermlineandwentontobecomeoneofthemostinspirationalpl
anningtheoristsofthetwentieth
century.SomeofthebestexamplesoflandscapeplanningatthescaleofanurbanregionareincontinentalEurope,includin
gthecitiesofStockholm,StuttgartandBarcelona.InAmerica,theGreenwaysMovementhasinjectednewenergyintoope
nspaceplanningandnewlifeintooldcities.23
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Page245
Stylesandexamples
Gardenesquestyle
 9.29Gardenesquestyle
Use:Picturesquegardens,ofthetypediscussedinthepreviouschapter,cametobeusedforcollectionsofexoticplants.Loud
on,believingthisshouldbeaprimaryroleofgardens,inventedtheterm
gardenesquetodescribeaPicturesquedesignwhichwasrecognisableasaworkofartbecauseitincorporatednon-
native(garden)plants.Healsoarguedthatsuchplaceswouldhelpworkingmentoeducatethemselvesandthusimprovethei
reconomicstatus.
KewGardens1841
Form:Tobeginwith,fewaristocraticownerswerewillingtosurroundtheirdwellingswithwholly
irregulargardens.Butinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturymanywoodlandvalleyswereconvertedintonaturalco
mpositionsofexotics.Himalayanplants(e.g.rhodo-
dendronsandcamellias)andNorthAmericanplantsprovedparticularlywellsuitedtothisidea.ThediagramshowsaPictur
esqueestate,convertedtothegardenesquebyplantingexotics.Loudonfavouredcircularbedsbecausetheyallowplants
mentoshowtheirskillincombiningplantsinschemesthatlookgoodfromallangles.Suchbedscanstillbeseenintheflowerg
ardenatGreenwichPark.
TheoriginalgardenwascreatedforAugusta,PrincessofWalesaroundKewPalace.ShewashelpedbySirWilliamChambers
,asharpcriticofBrownsvapidityandanadmirerofChinesegardens,whodesignedthePagodaandotherbuildingsforKew.
Theestatewasacquiredbythenationin1841,asacentreforhorticulture,andnowcontainswhatissaidtobethelargestcolle
ctionofplantsintheworld.Thevarietyisoverwhelming.DesignerscomplainaboutthelackofaestheticorderbutLoudon,o
necannotdoubt,wouldhaveseenitasaprimeexampleofhisgardenesqueprinciples.Hewouldalsohaveadmiredsplendid
examplesofthebuildingtypehedidmuchtopromoteinhisyouth:theglasshouse,usedfortropicalandsub-tropicalplants.
AtKew,avenuesofdifferentspecieswereplantedinvariouspartsofthegrounds,takingtheirpositionfromlocalfeaturesof
groundandwaterwithoutbeingalignedononefocusorinamutuallysymmetricalpatternwhenNesfieldproposedgradi
ngtreesbyheightinthevistasatKew,andabandoningrigorousbotanicalorder,Glendinningaccusedhimofsacrificingthe
objectofanarboretumforthesakeofappearance.24

9.30KewGardens,Surrey
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Page246
Leonardslee1889
LeonardsleeisadevelopmentoftheplantingideasofSirUvedalePrice,RichardPayneKnightandJ.C.Loudon.Itdisplaysth
eGardenesqueprincipleofcomposingexoticplantsinapicturesquemanner,derivedfromlandscapepainting.SirEdmun
dLoderboughttheestatein1888andimportedaherdofWallabies,whosedescendantsstillthriveonthesite.Thegardenli
esinashelteredvalleywithastringofponds,madeacenturyearliertoprovidewaterpowerforthelocalironindustry.Being
dampandslightlyacid,thesoiliswellsuitedtorhododendrons,camelliasandmagnolias.LikeSirEdmund,onecanwalkthr
oughthegardenimaginingoneselfinamistyHimalayanvalley.BeforevisitingthegardenonemightreadSirJosephHooke
rs
HimalayanJournals.Hooker,whocollectedRhododendrongriffithianum,aparentoftheLoderihybrids,tellsofhighadv
entureandintrepidplantcollecting.Leonardsleeexudestheromanceoftravelandadventure.
9.31Leonardslee,Sussex
TheremustalwayshavebeenforesthereandsoitisaperfectsiteforawoodlandgardenwhichispreciselywhatSirEdmundL
odersetouttocreatewhenhestartedplantingin1888.Withinafewyearshewasraisingnewrhododendronsaswellasbuyin
gexistingones.ManyfinehybridswereproducedbySirEdmundandhissuccessors,butnonedestinedtohaveagreaterimp
actonrhododendronbreedingthanRhododendronloderi.25
Mixedstyle
9.32Mixedstyle
Use:Thegardenesquetasteforplantcollectingdevelopedintoawiderenthusiasmforcollectingstylesofgardendesign.The
collectionhelpedtheownerenvisagehistoricallyandgeographicallyremoteareas.Aswiththelandscapestyle,theareanear
thedwellingwasusedfordomesticpleasure.Ownerswouldtaketea,playsummergamesandadmiretheircollections.Gard
ensslakedthenineteenth-centurythirstforawe,landscapepainting,travel,adventureandscientificknowledge.
Form:Towardstheendofhiscareer,HumphryReptonarguedthatthereisnomoreabsurdityincollectingstylesinagardent
hanbooksinalibraryorpicturesinagallery.ThisledtoavogueforAmerican,Chinese,Japanese,Italianandothereclecticgar
dens.Victoriangardenscametobecharacterisedbytheirmixedcollectionsofzoneslaidoutindifferentstyles,although,ast
hecenturyprogressed,theItalianstylebecamethemostpopular.Thediagramshowsthestyleasitwasusedinsuburbang
ardens.Inlargeparks,therewasscopeforlargercollectionsofstyles.
<previouspage page_247 nextpage>
Page247
AltonTowers1827
AnearlyexampleoftheMixedstyle,AltonTowersbecameapopularthemeparkinthetwentiethcentury.Thegardenwasb
egunbytheeccentricfifteenthEarlofShrewsbury,who,Loudonrelates,consultedeveryauthority,onlytoavoidwhateve
ranartistmightrecommend.LoudonhimselfandperhapsReptonalso
wasoneoftheartists,yetAltonTowersgrewundertheReptonianprinciplethatcollectingdesignstylesinagardenisnomo
reabsurdthancollectingdiversepicturesinagalleryorbooksinalibrary.ThereisaSwissCottage,aStonehenge,aDutchg
arden,aPagodaFountain,aChoragicMonumentcopiedfromAthensandmuchelse.Theridesandslidesofthemodernthe
meparkmerelyaddtotheeccentricityofanearlynineteenth-centuryearlsfancy.
9.33AltonTowers,Staffordshire
Thisnobleman,aboundinginwealth,alwaysfondofarchitectureandgardening,butwithmuchmorefancythansoundju
dgement,seemstohavewishedtoproducesomethingdifferentfromeverythingelse.Thoughheconsultedalmostevery
artist,ourselvesamongtherest,heseemsonlytohavedonesoforthepurposeofavoidingwhateveranartistmightrecom
mend.26
Branitz1846
ThisisthesmallestatewhichPrincePckler-
MuskauboughtwhenforcedtoleaveMuskau(seep.211).StillworkingwithEnglishprecedents,hemadeaSerpentineLak
e,aPyramidLake,aBlueGarden,aSmithyGarden,aRoseMount,aMoonMountandIslandofVenus,alightironKioskandas
eriesofwaterways.ItisagoodexampleoftheMixedstyle.ThePrinceandhiswifelieatrestinapyramidtomb,inalake,witha
ninscriptionfromtheKoran:Gravesarethemountaintopsofadistant,lovelyland.
Fortheprince,anindispensablecomponentoftheartisticeffectofthegardenwasitsseparationfromthepark.Thegardenw
asrelatedtothecastle,andwasseenbyhimasanextendeddwellingplace,whereasheinterpretedthesurroundingparkar
eaasconcentratedidealizednature.27
9.34Branitz,Cottbus
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Page248
BiddulphGrange1860
BiddulphGrangeepitomisestheMixedstyleaseffectivelyasVaux-le-
VicomteandStourheadrepresentthestylesofthetwoprecedingcenturies.Thewayinwhichfundingwasobtainedforthes
erepresentativeprojectsisindicativeofthewayinwhichpowermoved:Vauxwasmadeforagovernmentminister,Stourh
eadforabanker,Biddulphforamanufacturer.Ifonedoesnotadmireeclecticism,onewillnotadmirethisgarden.
ThegardenatBiddulphGrange,byevokingvanishedandaliencivilisations,servedasanaffirmationthatthemillenniumw
ascomingBatemanmaywellhaveoverstretchedhisresourcesinhisworksatBiddulphButbythetimeofBatemansdep
arture,theimpactofBiddulphonthedevelopmentofVictoriangardenshadalreadybeendecisive.28
Linderhof1874
Thisgarden,madeforthemadKingLudwigIIofBavaria,isachoiceGermanexampleoftheRomanticenthusiasmformixin
gstyles.Afteralonelyyouth,Ludwigturnedtofantasy,dreams,historicalepicsandwildbuildings.HiscastleatNeuschwans
teinisjustlyfamous.ItparodiesEuropeancastle-architecture,justasLinderhofparodiespalace-
architecture.Ludwig,wantingtobeanabsolutemonarch,thoughtofnamingtheplaceMeicostEttaI,ananagramofLouis
XIVsepigram,Ltatcestmoi.SchlossLinderhofhasaneo-
rococostyle.ThegardenwasdesignedbytheBavarianRoyalGardenDirector,KarlvonEffner.Theancientlimetree,afterw
hichtheestateisnamed,isnearthesouthernterrace.LinderhofhasasunkenparterrewithaFrenchpondandfountain.Bes
idetheSchloss,Italiangardenroomsandwaterstepsleadtoagazebo.Theadjoiningpark,intheEnglishstyle,makesima
ginativeuseofavalleyinthefoothillsofthe,real,Alps.TheVenusGrotto,inspiredbyLudwigsloveofWagner,hasashell-
throne,acoraltableandamural
depictingascenefromActIof
9.35BiddulphGrange,Staffordshire
9.36Linderhof,Bavaria
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Page249
Tannhuser.HandingsHut,twicedestroyedandtwicerestored,wasdesignedusingthelibrettofromthe
RingoftheNibelungen.Unquestionably,LinderhofisaproductoftheRomanticmovement.
InthemidstofthesolitudeoftheGraswangValley,hesoughtwhilesmokingachiboukintheMoorishKioskandintheMoroc
canHousetorevivethefairytaleworldoftheArabianNights;inHundingsCabinlyingonbearskinswithhisretainersanddri
nkingmead,hewantedtore-
experiencethemythicalcontentoftheValkyrie;inthegoldenskiffonthelakeoftheVenusGrottohedesiredtofeeltheench
antmentofTannhuserandonthemorningofGoodFridaytosensetheconsecratingeffectofParsifalinGurnemanzsher
mitage.29
Landscapestyle
9.37Landscapestyle
Use:Theplancomprisedthreezoneswithdistinctfunctions:
Azonenearthehouseforthequietenjoymentsofpolitesociety

Form:Theformalsocomprisedthreezones:

Arectilinearorterracedzonewithbedsofcolourfulplantsnearthehouse
Aparkforfarmanimalsandforesttrees
Aserpentineparkwithundulatingground,woodsandwater

Ascenicbackdropfortheaestheticpleasureoflookingatnature.

CrystalPalace1852
Anirregularnaturalareaofwoodland,mountain,coast,riverorwildvegetation.
Theestatewasthuscomposed,likealandscapepaintingwithforeground,middlegroundandbackground.Repton,Pricea
ndKnightsuppliedtheprinciplebehindthestylec.1794anditwasusedthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.InEngland,ther
ewasgenerallyalineartransitionfromforegroundtobackground,whileinGermanyandothercontinentalEuropeancountr
ies,thetransitionwasachievedbysurroundingabaroquegardenwithanaturalisticpark.

TheCrystalPalacewasdesignedbyJosephPaxtonfortheGreatExhibitionin1851andfirsterectedontheexhibitionsitei
nHydePark.ItwasmovedtoSydenhamin1852andsetinalargeItalianatepark,alsodesignedbyPaxton.Mostofthepark
has
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Page250
gonebutonefineterracesurvives,asdoPaxtonsextraordinaryprehistoricmonstersroundthelakeinthesoutherncorner
ofthepark.ThecentralareaofthesitehasbeenlaidoutastheNationalSportsCentreinagrimSovietstyle.
9.38TheCrystalPalace,Sydenham,in1860
Asidefromthecentralaxisandthewaterworks,thelayoutoftheparklostitsformalityafterdescendingfromtheterraces,an
dthewindingpathsandwoodsofPaxtonslandscapestylesupersededtheItalianatefeaturesabovethem,althoughthere
weretwofurthercircularmotifs,themazeandtherosary.30
Nymphenburg1820
MaximilianEmanuelspark,2kmfromthecentreofMunich,hasabaroqueheart.LudwigIIlivedhereasachildandlaterrem
emberedwithdistastetheformalityofthesurroundings,whichwasofapiecewiththestrictnessofhisupbringing.LikeSchl
eissheim,itwasdesignedbyZuccaliandGirardwithacentralcanal,onwhichagondolaserviceusedtooperate.Canalettop
aintedthegardenin1761.Attheendofeighteenthcentury,thebaroquegardenwasfringedwithalandscapepark.Theclas
sicalandRomanticgeometriesworkwelltogether.Thethreeelegantbaroquepavilionsoncehadgeometricalgardens:th
ePagodenburg(1716),theBadenburg(1719)andahermitageknownastheMagdalenenklause(1725).Todaythetemple
sstandinalandscapeparkdesigned(c.1800)byGermanysleadingexponentofthelandscapestyle:LudwigvonSckell.He
hasthecreditofmakinganEnglishgardenwithoutdestroyingabaroquegarden.Acirculartemple,theMonopetros,wasa
ddedin1865.Thecanalsoftenfreezeinwinterandareusedbyskatersandcurlers.

9.39Nymphenburg,Munich
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Page251
AlthoughFriedrichLudwigvonSckellturnedmostofthegardenintoaromanticparkwithnatural-
lookinglakesinfrontoftwopavilionsin1804
23,heincorporatedsomeelementsofthebaroquelayoutinhiswiderscheme,includingthebasinsurroundedbyfountain
sandtheparterredebroderieunderthewestfront.31
Landscapearchitecture
 9.40Landscapearchitecture
Use:Whenlandscapearchitecturebecameanorganisedprofession,firstinAmerica,theninEuropeandtherestofthe
world,itledtotheplanningofopenspaceswithdistinctuses:
Cityparksandsquaresforurbanuses
Greenways,usingcoasts,rivervalleysandothercorridors,forrecreation:hiking,cycling,riding,organisedgames,water
conservation,natureconservation,scenicpreservation,historicconservation,etc.
Protective ordinances and reservations in country areas
variouslydescribedasmetropolitanparks,countryparks,natureparksandnationalparks
fortheenjoymentofnatureandnaturalscenery.
Bostonlandscapeplan1890

Form:Landscapearchitecturewasfoundedontheideaofusingthecompositionalprinciplesofthegreatlandscapepaintin
gsofItalytoestablishrelationshipsbetweenbuildingsandcontexts.Thisledtotheplanningofforegrounds,middleground
sandbackgrounds.Landuseplanning,zoningandenvironmentalregulationswereusedtoencourage
theformationofcompactcitieswithgoodopenspaces;greenwaysandpublicopenspacecorridorswereusedtoprovidena
turalareaswithintownsandlinkstothecountryside,andconservationpolicieswereusedtoprovidepublicaccessandenvir
onmentalprotectionforareasoffarming,forestryandnaturalscenery.
When asked to advise on the selection of land for open space development tin Boston , in1880,
OlmstedproposedachainofparkswhichbecameworldfamousasBostonsEmeraldNecklace.Itlinkedthe
foregroundofBostonCommontothebackgroundofFranklinPark.In1890CharlesEliotextendedOlmstedsschemein
toaproposalfortheBostonMetropolitanregion.Eliot pressed,successfully,for
legislationtoestablishtheTrusteesforReservations,whichprotectshistoricspacesbyholdingthemintrustforthenation
.
[Eliot]suggested that for a distric tsuchas oursthesystemasawholeoughttoincludefivetypesofarea: spaces on
the
oceanfront,shoresandislandsoftheinnerbay,thecoursesofthelargertidalestuaries,twoorthreelargeareasofwildfore
stontheouterrim,andsmallsquares,playgrounds,

9.41Boston,Massachusetts,withOlmstedsEmeraldNecklaceingreenandCharlesEliotsMetropolitan
OpenSpaceSysteminblack
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Page252
andparksinthedenselypopulatedsections,tobeprovidedbythelocalcommunities.32
Stockholm1938
SwedenscapitalcitydevelopedoneofthefirstmodernparksystemsinEurope.HolgerBlomtookchargeoftheParksDepar
tmentin1938,attheageof31.Heplannedaparksystemwhichspreadoutfromtheoldcitycentre,alongtheshoreofLakeM
larenandintotheStockholmregion.BlomsdesignsforNorrMlastrandandFredhllsparkenbecamefamousoutsideS
weden.Heusednaturalmaterialsandwasagreatadvocateofchildrensplayareas.Onecanvisitthemostinterestingsecti
onbytakingthemetrotoKristinebergandwalkingbacktotheStadhuset(CityHall).
Stockholmsparksarepartofaverycompleteparksystem
notlargesegregatedparks,butratherasystemoflinkedstrips
whichisgraduallybeingdevelopedInalmosteveryothercitythislakefront[onLakeMlaren]wouldhavebeenanurban
promenade:hereanaturalandvariedlandscapehasbeencreatedinwhichonecanwalkorstrollorpicnic,wheremothersc
anrestandchildrenplay.33
Stuttgart1950
Aseriesofgardenshowsheldover50yearshasestablishedachainofgreenspacesintheformoftheletter
U.Itproceedsnorthfromthecitycentre,reachestheRiverNeckarandthenturnsbackonitself.Gardenshowswereheldi
n1939,1950,1961,1977and1993.The1939and1950designsfortheKillesbergquarryusedatraditional
9.42Stuttgart
9.43Stockholm
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Page253
approachwithdrystonewallsandsteps.HansLuzandPartners,aslandscapearchitects,wereinvolvedinfourofthegar
denshows.The1961schemefortheUpperSchlossgartenisaprimeexampleofrectilinearabstractmodernism
theoutdoorequivalentofacubistpainting.The1977schemecanbecategorisedascurvilinearabstractexpressionism.
The1993designteam,whichincludedecologistsandsocialscientists,aimedatamoreecologicalapproachfortheRose
nsteinpark,encouragingcontactbetweenpeopleandnature.WalkingfromthecitycentretotheRosensteinallowson
etoseetextbookexamplesofdesignevolutionfrom1939to1993.
Onbothacitywideandhumanscale,theparksandworkinglandscapeswithinandsurroundingStuttgartareamongthemo
stclimaticallyfunctional,sociallyusefulandaestheticallypleasingofanymoderncityinthewesternworld.34
Barcelona1992
TwoeventsoccasionedtheoutpouringofdesignenergywhichledtotheplanningofBarcelonasopenspacesystem:thede
athofGeneralFrancoin1975andthepreparationsforthe1992OlympicGames.TheGeneraloppressedthecitybecauseith
adopposedhimintheSpanishCivilWar.Afterhedied,powerwasdevolvedtotheregionofCataloniaandaprogrammeofciv
icimprovementswaslaunched.TheRamblawasextendedfromthecitycentretotheoldport(PortVell)andawaterfrontgr
eenwayleadstoanextensivebeachparkandtoMontjuic.In1987theencirclinghillscameunderamanagementplan,asthe
ParcdeCollserola.Aswimmingpark(ParcdelaCreuetadelColl)wasmadeneartheParcGell,wherethehillstouchthecity.
Thedenseurbanfabricwasenlivenedwithaseriesofnewparksandsquaresdesignedbyteamsofsculptorsandarchitects.
Publicartbecameasymbolofthecitysrenewal.Over70publicgardensweremade,withmanysuccessesandfailures.
ThegreatsuccessofBarcelonaisinthetotalacceptanceofcontemporaryneedsandvalues.Foroncetheneedsofthepe
destrianandtheinhabitanthavebeenrecognisedNoothermetropolishassocleverlyutilizedpublicspaceasafound
ationforre-thinkingtheconceptofthecity(Domus1992).35
9.44Barcelona
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Page254
Notes
1Gothein,M-L.,AHistoryofGardenArt,London:J.M.Dent,1928,Vol.2,p.325.
2,op.cit.,Vol.2,p.318
3Gombrich,E.H.,TheStoryofArt,London:Phaidon,1995,p.503.
4QuatremredeQuincy,A.C.,AnEssayontheNature,theEndandtheMeansofImitationintheFineArts,
transl.Kent,J.C.,London,1837.
5Knight,R.P.Thelandscape:adidacticpoem,London,1795.
6Turner,T.,EnglishGardenDesign,Woodbridge:AntiqueCollectorsClub,1986,p.115.
7Pope,A.,EpistletoLordBurlington,London1731.
8Turner,T.,op.cit.,ChapterIV.
9Pevsner,N.,TheEnglishnessofEnglishArt,London:ArchitecturalPress,1956,p.168.
10Turner,T.,LandscapePlanningandEnvironmentalImpactDesign,London:Spon,1998,p.92.
11Loudon,J.C.(ed.),TheLandscapeGardeningandLandscapeArchitectureoftheLateH.ReptonEsq,
London,1840,p,536.
12Turner,T.,Loudonsstylisticdevelopment,JournalofGardenHistory,Vol.2,No.2,1982,pp.17588.
13Kemp,E.,HowtoLayOutaSmallGarden,London:BradburyEvans,1864,p.117.
14Newton,N.T.,DesignontheLand:Thedevelopmentoflandscapearchitecture,Harvard:BelknapPress,
1971,p.337.
15Loudon,J.C.,op.cit.,p.331ff.
16PicturesqueimprovementisthesubjectofthesecondvolumeofJ.C.LoudonsCountryResidences,1806.
17Loudon,J.C.,TheSuburbanGardenerandVillaGardener,London,1838,p.137.
18,GardenersMagazine,Vol.XVI,1840,p.622.
19Hirschfeld,C.C.L.,TheoryofGardenArt,(abridgedandeditedbyLindaB.Parshall),PennStudiesin
LandscapeArchitecturePhiladelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2001).
20Elliot,B.,VictorianGardens,London:Batsford,1986,p.162.
21Mycopyofthebookcontainsaletter,dated28May1828,whichincludesthefollowing:MrLaingMeasonrequestsLordGr
anvillewilldohimthehonourofacceptingacopyofaworkwhichhehasprintedprivately,andgivenonlyahundredforsaleto
abookseller,OntheLandscapeArchitectureofthegreatpaintersofItaly.HadMrMeasonhadtheopportunityofvisitingIt
aly,andofcomparingtheremainsofancientcountryresidenceswiththespecimenstobefoundintheItalianpictures,thew
orkmighthavebeenmademoreinteresting,andmoredecisiveontheartistryofthosebuildings.
22Downing.A.J.,ATreatiseontheTheoryandPracticeofLandscapeGardeningAdaptedtoNorthAmerica,
NewYork:Putnam,1850.
23Fabos,J.G.andAhern,J.Greenways:thebeginningofaninternationalmovement,Amsterdam:Elsevier,
1996.
24Elliott,B.,VictorianGardens,London:B.T.Batsford,1986,p.118.
25Hellyer,A.,TheShellGuidetoGardens,London:Heinemann,1977,p.169.
26Loudon,J.C.,GardenersMagazine,1831,VolVII,p.390.
27Kluckert,E.,EuropeanGardenDesign,Cologne:Konemann,2000,p.436.
28Elliott,B.,op.cit.,p.106.
29Hojer,G.,andSchmid,E.D.,LinderhofPalace,Mnchen,BayerischeVertwaltungDerStaatlichen
Schlosser,1999.
30Chadwick,G.F.,TheParkandtheTown,ArchitecturalPress,1966.p.92.
31Hobhouse,P.andTaylor,P.,TheGardensofEurope,GeorgePhilipLtd,1990,p.268.
32Newton,N.T.,op.cit.,p.326.
33Shepherd,P.,ModernGardens,London:ArchitecturalPress,1953,p.120.
34Hough,M.,CityFormandNaturalProcess,London:Routledge,1995,p.279.
35Lancaster,M.,TheNewEuropeanLandscape,London:ButterworthArchitecture,1994,p.93.
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Chapter10
Abstractandpost-abstractgardens19002000
Historyandphilosophy
Visually,itiseasytoidentifytheart,architectureandgardensofthetwentiethcentury.Buttheadjective
modern,usedtodescribethiswork,hasaninherentlylimitedshelf-
life1andinmyviewtheyear2000wastheexpirydate.Areplacementisdueandinthischapterabstractwillbetriedasanalte
rnative.Itpinpointsakeyfeatureoftwentieth-
centurygardens:theabstractionofuniversalprinciplesfromtheeverydayworld.Artistsanddesigners,admiringtheways
cientistsabstractedthelawsofnatureandappliedthemastechnology,soughtananalogousdesignprocedure.Painting,a
rchitecture,gardens,furnitureandfashiondesignthusbecamecharacterisedbyanalyticallycleanlines,freedomfromor
nament,simplecoloursandgeometricalelegance.
Thecentralphaseofhighmodernismwasfollowedbyaperiodofdiversitywhichisusuallydescribedaspostmodern
usingatermwhichcannotlongoutliveitsparent.Post-
abstractismoreexplanatory,indicatingaretreatfromtheclinicalpurityofabstractionandareturntotherealmofstories,sy
mbolsandmeanings.ThedesignersofHatshepsutstemple,Pompeii,thegardensoftheMiddleAges,theVillaLante,Versa
illes
andStoweuseddesigntospeakofotherthings:allegorywastheirpreoccupation.Thewordderivesfromallos(other),and
-
agoria(speaking).Children,theVictorianssaid,shouldbeseenandnotheard.Butwhyshouldgardensbesilent?Fortwore
asons:first,thedeliberaterejectionofsymbols,allegoryandliterarythemesinhighmoderndesign;second,theuseofpest
icides,asdescribedinRachelCarsonsSilentSpring.2
ThepreviouschapterbeganwithGotheinsremarkthatthenineteenthcenturymustcompleteitstaleofsinsbeforethefou
ndationsareshattered.Duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturythesinofmostconcerntoavant-
gardedesignerswastheveryfoundationofVictoriangardens:eclecticism.In1938ChristopherTunnardchargedthat
10.1Abstractgardendesignwascharacterisedbycleanlinesandfreedomfromornament:GermanPavilion,Barcelona,b
yMiesvanderRohe