Civil Structures

Bridges

Beam

Simple Beam

- Fixed on both ends

Cantilevered Beam

- Fixed on one end

Materials:

- Reinforced or prestressed concrete box girders with steel reo-bars

- May have steel truss above beam for added strength

Arch

Stone Arch

- Utilises stones natural compressive strength

- Has a keystone on top to place entire structure in compression
- Generally used in short spans or multiple arches

Cast Iron Arch

- Cast iron has similar properties to stone, high compressive strength

- Cheaper to cast iron than to carve stone
- Lighter than stone by casting an open frame
- Arch is made of cast iron segments

Steel Arch

- Segments of steel are riveted or bolted together to form an arching truss

- Ends of truss are fixed to concrete foundations to keep structure in compression

Concrete Arch

- Concrete has excellent compressive strength ideal for arch bridges

- Concrete arch bridges have a third hinge in the centre to counteract shrinking over time
- Generally prestressed concrete with steel reinforcing rods is used

Suspension

- Two sets of cables, a primary and a secondary

- Primary cables are strung from pylons
- Secondary cables are strung vertically from the primary cable and connect to the deck
- Cables are made from steel wire cables
 - The deck is a fin-shaped box section which is more aerodynamic, lighter, but produces
vibration at low wind speeds. This can be overcome by alternately inclining cables

Cable Stayed

- Similar to suspension but only has one set of cables

- Primary cables connect deck directly to pylons
- Lighter bridge as it eliminates a whole set of cables

Bridge Materials

Timber

- Readily available
- Warps if not treated
- Naturally rots and decays

Rope

- Woven plant fibres

- Cheap
- Low tensile strength
- Naturally rots and decays

Stone

- Readily available
- High compressive strength
- High amount of energy and cost for carving

Brick

- High compressive strength

- Does not need carving
- Easy to produce
- Requires mortar

Cast Iron

- High compressive strength

- Low tensile strength
- Can be cast to specific shapes
- Higher strength to weight ratio than stone

Steel

- Easily produced
- High tensile strength for cables
- Medium compressive strength
- Can be used to compensate concretes low tensile strength
Concrete pre-stressed/post-stressed

- High compressive strength

- Low tensile strength
- Can be reinforced by steel reinforcing cables

Stainless Steel

- Corrosion resistant
- High tensile strength
- Medium compressive strength
- Expensive to produce

Environmental Implications of Materials

Timber

- Timber takes years to grow, and although currently readily available, resources will slowly
become depleted over time degrading the environment

Stone

- Stone needs to be quarried, this damages landscape and affects habitat for organisms

Bricks

- Resources needed to make bricks are often acquired from large pits, which damage the
environment similar to that of quarries

Cast and Wrought Iron

- The mining, refining, and smelting processes involved with cast and wrought iron all require
energy. This energy comes from the combustion of fossil fuels which releases greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere. Also, sulfur oxides from sulfur ores are also released which can
cause acid rain.

Steel

- Steel too requires energy to produce, and as its demand is exponentially increasing, more
and more energy is required. This increases or greenhouse gas output.
- Steel allows for longer concrete beams, longer spans, thus fewer pylons. Fewer pylons
means there are fewer interruptions to aquatic environments if the bridge is over a body of
water.

Concrete

- Similar to stone and brick, requires minerals to create. Acquiring these materials often
leaves adverse environmental impacts.
- In conjunction to steel, it allows for longer spans as it is a strong material. Longer spans
mean fewer pylons and etc.
Mechanics

Terminology

Engineering stress

Engineering stress is calculated by load on a constant area, regardless of deformation.

True stress

True stress caters for deformation is calculated by load on area at that specific load.

Working stress

Working stress is the amount of allowable stress in a material before compromise in safety or
deformation.
i.e. the range of stress which is safe for that material

Elastic limit

The maximum stress before the material undergoes permanent deformation.

i.e. the maximum stress it will bounce back to its original shape

Yield stress

The stress where there is an increase in strain without a corresponding increase in stress. i.e. where
the slip planes in the material give way

Proof stress

A measure of yield on materials without yield stress, usually found with 0.2% strain.

Resilience

The ability to absorb energy before deformation, or before the elastic limit

Toughness

The ability to absorb energy until breaking.

i.e. the total energy absorbed before failure. Found by finding the area under stress/strain curve

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The maximum stress a material can withstand. Found by the highest point on the stress/strain curve

Hookes Law

Stress is proportional to strain up to the elastic limit

Youngs Modulus

Used to express a materials stiffness


= =

Factor of Safety

The ratio of Safe Working Stress to Yield Stress or UTS.

Used in design to produce structures able to withstand loads larger than needed to increase safety.

Stress/Strain Graph
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Shear force diagrams are made by plotting forces according to where they are applied. i.e. a 7N force
is applied at point A, therefore the diagram is brought up 7 units. At point B, a 12N downward force
is applied, thus the diagram goes down 12 units.

Bending moment diagrams are made by plotting the area of each rectangle on the shear force
diagram. i.e. the rectangle between A and B is 7Nm, therefore the bending moment diagram is 7 at
point B. the rectangle between B and C is -15Nm, therefore the bending force diagram is brought
down 15Nm to -8Nm.

Both diagrams start from the neutral axis and returns to the neutral axis.

The Neutral Axis and Outer Fibre Stress

When a beam is bent, the fibres on the outmost sides of the beam undergo stress. The fibres in the
middle undergo no stress. This is called the neutral axis. The larger the distance a beam has between
its sides and the neutral axis, the more energy it will need to bend.

Positive bending makes a u shape (because its a smile and its positive/happy).

Negative bending makes a ^ shape (because its a frown and its negative/sad).
Bending Stress

() ()
=
(4 ) ()
()
=
()

= =

Second moment of area is the resistance a beams cross section has to bending.

Shear Stress

If something is being punched out, then the area is the perimeter.

If something is being pulled apart, then the area is the cross section. Double shear is when the item
is being pulled apart on two planes, and so on so forth for triple shear and etc.
Materials

Testing

X- Ray

- Non destructive
- X-rays are passed through a substance and into a film. If there are cavities in the substance
then a darker patch will appear in the film.

Dye Penetrant

- Non destructive
- The subject area is cleaned, heated and dye is applied. Excess dye is wiped off and a
developer is sprinkled on. As the material cools, any penetrated dye will be squeezed out of
any possible crack.

Ultrasonic testing

- Non destructive
- Similar to x-ray except radio waves are used and instead of passing though the substance, it
is reflected back. If the sound is reflected back early, then there is a cavity. If it is reflected
late, it is abnormally thick.

Transverse test

- Destructive
- A material is fixed on two ends and load is applied in the middle. The bending load and total
deflection at rupture is measured. This is then converted to produce a stress/strain graph.

Testing of concrete

Slump test

- A conical mould is made an open top and bottom. The mould is placed on a board and
concrete is poured in. The board is then removed.
- The wet concrete should slump a little according to set specifications. If it falls out, it is too
wet. If it crumbles, it is too dry.

Compressive test

- Samples of the same batch undergo compression tests after specified intervals of time eg 30
days.
- If any of the samples fail, the entire batch is recalled and recast.
Crack theory

Strain energy

- The amount of energy stored in a material which has undergone strain.

- When a crack begins to grow, the material is releasing strain energy.
- Calculated by:

1
=
2
1
= ( )
2
2
=
2

Where:
SE is strain energy in J/m3
is stress in Pa
is strain
- As stress increases, strain energy increases.
- As Youngs Modulus increases, strain energy decreases.
- As Youngs Modulus decreases, strain energy increases.

Crack formation and growth

- When a crack forms, strain energy is released in the area adjacent to the crack. This is
concentrated at the bottom of the crack. The strain energy will cause the crack to grow and
as it grows the concentration of strain energy at the bottom of increases. This causes the
crack to grow even faster until failure.

Critical Crack Length

- Since cracks grow at an exponential rate, there comes a point where the crack will progress
straight through the material. This is the critical crack length. Once the crack exceeds this
length, the material or structure will fail.
- Critical crack length is proportional to Youngs Modulus. The higher the Youngs Modulus,
the longer the critical crack length.

Failure due to cracking

- Cracking failure is a brittle fracture mechanism. Cracks appear in a material as it undergoes

strain which grow and eventually progress through the material causing failure.

Repair and/or elimination of failure due to cracking

- Replace sharp corners with rounds to prevent stress concentrations

- Join or repair cracks as they appear
- Place interfaces, an area weaker than the surrounding area, perpendicular to expected crack
growth. The interface blocks the crack from penetrating through it as it is weaker, making it
possible to prevent cracks from exceeding the critical crack length.
Ceramics

Stone

- High compressive strength

- Low tensile strength

Glass

- Low toughness
- Brittle
- Weak in tension

Toughened glass

- Made by heat treating glass

- The pane is heated then cooled quickly by air blasts. The inside is then left to cool slowly,
placing the surface in compression as it contracts.
- This overcomes glass weakness in tension as in order to break the pane, you must overcome
the compressive forces

Cement

- Made from alumina, lime, and soda

- Two types of cement:
o Hydraulic
o Non-hydraulic
- Hydraulic sets in water
- Non-hydraulic will not set in water
- Has similar properties to stone, but can be cast into shapes
- It is commonplace to hose down cement as it sets to slow the setting process, allowing more
silicates to form giving it strength.
- Cement and concrete, although sets in a few days, will not gain full bond strength until years
after.

Bricks

- Similar properties to stone except has regular dimensions

- Can be mass produced
- Made from clay
- Can be extruded or pressed
- Modern construction use besser blocks
Composites

Timber

- Plant fibre and lignin

- High tensile strength
- Naturally rots if not treated
- Attacked by pests i.e. termites
- Warps in moisture

Mortar

- Used between bricks in construction

- Slaked lime, sand and water

Concrete

- Cement, aggregate and sand

- Forms a structure of suspended aggregate with sand in between, held together by a cured
cement matrix
- Higher strength than cement
- Less cost as less cement is used
- High compressive strength
- Low tensile strength
- Brittle
- Fireproof
- Corrosion resistant

Reinforced concrete

- Two types
o Prestressed
o Post stressed
- Steel mesh or rods are placed in the bottom half of the cement cast
- This supplements concretes low tensile strength with steels high tensile strength
- Prestressed concrete is made by placing the steel reinforcing bars in tension as the concrete
sets. Once set, it is then released, placing the entire slab in compression.
- Post stressed concrete is where the concrete is poured and set around tubes with steel rods
in them. Once set the steel rods are put in tension and cement slurry is poured around the
rods to prevent corrosion

Spalling (concrete cancer)

- Since concrete is porous, water can seep in and corrode the steel. As steel corrodes, it
expands, cracking the concrete.
- A way to prevent this is to vibrate the concrete into position to reduce porosity.
Asphalt

- Bitumen and hard aggregate

- High toughness
- High surface hardness because of exposed aggregate
- Crack resistant because of bitumen

Laminates

Plywood

- Layers of timber laid perpendicular to each other

- Held together with resin

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

- Layers of timber laid in the same direction

- Stronger than equivalent timber
- Less susceptible to warping and shrinking

Laminated glass

- Two panes of glass with a polymer sheet in between

- Shatter proof

Bimetallic strips

- Two metals back to back with different thermal expansion rates

- As it heats, one expands and deflect away from the other

Geotextiles

- Polymer fibres woven into fabric

- Used in many applications from drainage to road base stabilisation

Corrosion

Dry corrosion

- When metal corrodes with the gas in the atmosphere at high temperatures.

Uniform attack

- When a piece of metal is placed in water or another electrolyte, certain parts become
cathodic and others anodic. This will cause the metal to corrode. However the cathodic and
anodic parts continually change, resulting in uniform corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion

- When two dissimilar metals are submerged in a body of electrolyte, the metal which is more
reactive will corrode while the other does not.
Concentration cells

- When a body of water remains trapped, the concentration of dissolved oxygen differs.
Oxygen is more concentrated near the surface, and less concentrated near the bottom. This
causes the area of low concentration to become anodic and corrode.
- This can cause crevice corrosion as water is constantly trapped in crevices. As the bottom of
the crevice continually corrodes, the crevice enlarges, eventually resulting in failure.

Stress cells

- If a surface is under constant stress, it will corrode more readily than areas which arent.

Passive oxides

- Some oxides form a protective layer over the metal which prevents further corrosion
e.g. aluminium, copper

Corrosion protection

Sacrificial anodes

- A metal of higher reactivity is bolted to the metal to be protected. The sacrificial anode will
corrode, protecting the metal.
- Zinc is normally used.

Impressed Current Protection Systems (ICCP)

- An electric current is used to reverse the flow of electrons, preventing corrosion.

- Used where lengthy pieces of metal need to be protected and sacrificial anodes are
ineffective. i.e. pipelines

Galvanising

- Steel is dipped and coated in zinc which will slowly corrode away and protect the steel
underneath.

Painting

- Sand blasted
- Etch primer
- Undercoat
- Overcoat
Communication

Nuts, Bolts and Washer Standards

M10 x 1.5

- M means metric
- 10 means diameter in mms
- 1.5 means pitch in mms

Bolt dimensions

- Distance across flats: 1.6D

- Distance across points: 1.8D
- Width of head: 0.7D
- Thread depth: pitch/2

Nut dimensions

- Distance across flats: 1.6D

- Distance across points: 1.8D
- Width of nut: 0.8D

Nylock Nut dimensions

- Distance across flats: 1.6D

- Distance across points: 1.8D
- Width of nut: 0.5D

Washer dimensions

- Diameter: 2D
- Width of washer: D/4
Personal and Public Transport
Cycles

1791 le Comte de Sivrac put wheels on a toy horse

1816 Baron Karl von Drais added a steerable front wheel
1839 Kirkpatrick Macmillan developed a pedal drive
1867 Pierre Michaux developed a velocipede (front wheel drive)
1870 Penny Farthing developed
Highly unstable and unsafe
1874 James Starley developed a side saddle for women
1885 Safety Bicycle developed by James Starley
Improves gear ratios
Shorter and easier to mount
Rear wheel drive
1888 John Boyd Dunlop developed pneumatic tyres
1914 Bicycles were being mass produced from 300 different components
Modern bicycles

Mountain Bikes Standard diamond frame

Smaller wheels
Tyres with higher rolling resistance
Dual suspension designed for rough terrain
Road Bicycles High diameter narrow wheels
Frame can flex minor amounts to release road vibrations
Moulton Bicycles Small wheels with high pressure
Has fitted suspension
Folding Bicycles Small wheels with high pressure
Can be folded relatively quickly into a small package
Recumbent bicycles

Contains a reclined seat to reduce stress on users bottom. As they are lower, should the user fall it
would be at a lower height. However it is heavier, more expensive, and harder to master and
balance.

Recumbent Tricycles

The tricycle solves the problem of balance. Has a low centre of gravity to reduce chance of rolling.
However they are even heavier and even more costly.
Trains

Steam Trains

1803 First steam locomotive constructed by Richard Trevithick

It was too heavy and broke the rail lines
1812 John Blenkinsop developed the first locomotives reliable enough to do regular work
His trains had interlocking teeth in his wheels and tracks
1814 George Stephenson invented a locomotive
Opened in 1825, his locomotion was the first to haul on a public line
1829 George and Robert Stephenson developed the Rocket
Had a boiler and 25 pipes carrying water to produce steam
1869 Air brakes developed by George Westinghouse
Air pressure from the boiler held the brakes off the wheels
Brakes are applied when pressure is released
This increases safety as the brakes will be applied should air pressure fail
1876 Anatole Mallet developed a compound steam engine
Steam was directed to a small cylinder before going into a larger cylinder
Thus the steam was used to turn the turbines twice
1898 Superheating of water in the boiler was achieved to reduce moisture content
increasing efficiency
Trains normally cant traverse gradients exceeding 1/25 as it will lose traction and slip. Similarly,
trains cannot navigate sharp turns as they will flip. Thus large gentle curves and gradual slopes in
tunnels and channels are made to compensate.

The Garratt locomotive had bogies on tenders which were driven, reducing the chance of wheel
spin. Although it was large, it could navigate tight curves. However the pipes that drove the bogies
on the tenders would wear.

The Shay locomotive had an offset boiler to fit 3 vertical pistons. These pistons drove a universal
crankshaft which ran down to the tenders. This allowed all the wheels to be drive wheels. This
reduced wheel slipping, but the universal parts would wear easy and the design was too slow.

Gauge distance between tracks

Wider gauges allow for stability as the wheels are further apart. However it makes turning even
wider. This makes it impractical. The NSW standard is 1.44m gauge.

Electric trains

Quieter, and produces less pollution. However require infrastructure in order to supply constant
power. Some have a pantograph which connects to overhead wiring. Some connect to a third rail
which provides electricity. They do not stop pollution, as the power still needs to be generated
which still produces pollution.

Diesel Trains

Diesel trains can be used in outlying areas where infrastructure cannot supply electricity. Some use
diesel to power a generator which turns the wheels. Some use diesel to power hydraulic pumps
which turn wheels. They are used extensively in moving freights.
Effects of Engineering Innovation in Transport on Peoples Lives

Cycles

- Allows people to have a form of private transport

- Cheaper than a vehicle, with little to no maintenance and fuel costs
- Form of exercise and leisure

Trains

- Improvement of air quality as most trains are electric

- Reduced congestion
- Allows people to easily travel large distances without driving

Construction and Processing Materials over Time

Cycles

Timber Used due to lack of other suitable materials

Iron Used initially in tyres and frames
Replaced by steels
Steel Could be mass produced
Cold drawn steel tubing offered good strength and low weight
Usually joined by brazing
Now used in chains and gear clusters due to ease of fabrication,
and cost effectiveness
Alloy Steels Steel alloys have different properties
Air hardening alloys can be used to overcome softening of metal
around weld joints
Stainless Steel Corrosion resistant
Used for cables, and gears
Aluminium Alloy Corrosion resistant
More workability than other heat treated alloy
Lightweight
Frames are generally oval not circle to increase resistance to
bending
Titanium Alloy Expensive and offer little over steel
Used only in professional top quality bikes
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Lay-up moulding
High strength to weight ratio
However fails suddenly with no prior distortion or signs of
fatigue
Rubber Used for tyres and suspension
Lightweight
Self-damping
Polymers Flexible
Corrosion resistant
Can be made into almost any shape
Lightweight
Environmental Effects of Transport Systems

Cycles

- Non polluting
- Reduces pressure on limit fossil fuels
- One of the most efficient modes of transport

Trains

- Power is needed to run them which produces greenhouse gases and uses fossil fuels
- The creation of railways, tunnels, and channels have an immense effect on environment
- Reduces congestion
- Produces less pollution than if every passenger were to drive

Environmental Impacts from the Use of Materials in Transport

Forests Timber is a natural resource. However, we use it at such a rate that it cannot replenish
fast enough to cope. This results in large clearing of land and deforestation.
Steel Steel is based off iron, which needs to be mined. This leaves scars on the land where
mines have been based. Also sulphide ores release sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
Cast Iron Similar to steels, but also requires large amounts of coal and coke.
Aluminium Aluminium ore is open bore mined, leaving scars on the landscape. Also it requires
immense amount of electricity to refine, increasing pollution from fossil fuels.
Polymer Increases pressure on limited fossil fuel reserves.
Contributes to landfill and takes millennia to break down.
Mechanics

Simple Machines

Mechanical Advantage

=


=

- The measure of how a system helps a user. The higher the ratio, the lower the effort needed
to shift the same load.

Velocity Ratio

- The ratio the user must mover to how far the load moves.

Efficiency

= 100

= 100

- Measure of how much force exerted is actually used.

Static Friction

Coefficient of Friction

=


=

- The ratio of friction force to normal reaction

Frictional Force

- The force opposing motion

Limiting Friction

- The maximum amount of frictional resistance before kinetic motion. After this point a body
exhibits kinetic friction or dynamic friction

Angle of Static Friction

tan =

tan =

- The angle created when friction and the normal is resulted into one force.

Angle of Repose

- The angle of inclination a plane can be before the load or body begins to slide down the
plane

tan = tan

tan = tan

- If a plane is inclined higher than the angle of static friction, then the body will slide down the
plane.

Work, Energy, and Power

Work

() = () ()

- The energy used to move or displace an object

Potential Energy

() = () ( 2 ) ()

Or

Kinetic Energy

1
() = () [ ( 1 )]2
2
1
= 2
2
Work Energy Principle

1
= 2
2

Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

1
= 2
2

Power

()
() = = ( 1 )
()

= =

Torque

() =

=
Materials

Testing

Hardness Tests

Brinell A hardened steel ball is pressed into a surface. The depth, load, and surface
area of indentation are then used to calculate the hardness number.
Vickers A small steel pyramid is pressed into a surface. The load and surface area of
indentation is then used to calculate hardness number. Better than Brinell for
thin materials.
Rockwell A diamond cone is pressed into a surface and hardness number is read off the
dial depending on type of material and load applied.
Schore Scleroscope A tube is placed on a surface and a striker is dropped down the tube. The
higher the striker rebounds, the harder the surface.
Impact Tests determines the notch toughness of a material

Izod A test piece with a notch is placed vertically at the bottom of the swing, with the notch
facing the pendulum. The pendulum is raised to a specific height and dropped. The
initial PE and final PE are found by how high the pendulum swung. The more energy
absorbed the higher the notch toughness.
Charpy A test piece with a notch is placed horizontally at the bottom of the swing, with the
notch facing away from the pendulum. The pendulum is raised to a specific height and
dropped. The initial PE and final PE are found by how high the pendulum swung. The
more energy absorbed the higher the notch toughness.
Hounsfield Two pendulums are used, one with the test material, one without. The two pendulums
are swung into each other and the notch toughness is read off the scale.
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Materials

Process Annealing <0.3%C Creates unstressed ferrite and stressed pearlite

600oC Softens material
Furnace cooled
Full Annealing Austenite region All grains are unstressed
Soaked Softens material more than process annealing
Furnace cooled
Normalising Austenite region Finer grain structure as there is less time for grains to
Soaked reform
Air cooled Higher strength
Hardening >0.003%C Forms martensite
Austenite region Hardest martensite formed in carbon range of 0.4%-0.8%
Soaked Hardens material
Quenched Increases brittleness
Air Hardening Ni and Cr <5% Forms martensite
Austenite region The nickel and chromium allow the steel to form
Soaked martensite without questioning
Air cooled Molybdenum may be added to reduce brittleness
Tempering 600oC Forms tempered martensite
Soaked Increases toughness
Quenched Reduces brittleness
Microstructural Changes

Bainite is composed of very fine cementite in a ferrite matrix. This is formed when steel is heated to
austenite region, soaked and quenched. However it differs from hardening as the quench rate is so
fast that martensite cannot form. In its place bainite is formed.

Surface Hardening

Surface hardening is the hardening of the surface of a material while leaving the core soft.

Case Hardening Steel is heated and soaked on a carbon rich atmosphere. Carbon diffuses in
increasing the carbon content in the surface. This increases the surfaces
hardness and tensile strength.
Heat treatment is now challenging due to carrying carbon content.
Nitriding Special Nitralloy steel is heated to 500oC and soaked in a nitrogen rich
atmosphere. The nitrogen reacts with the alloying elements. This produces a
high hardness in the core, and a corrosion resistant surface.
Material loses hardness if heated above 500oC.
Flame Hardening A localised spot is heated to austenite region and then quenched. This
hardens the material in the localised area.
Induction Hardening Similar to flame hardening, but an induction coil is used to heat the steel.
Changes in Properties

As iron has an allotropic nature, thus by heating it to different temperatures and cooling it at
different rates, we can produce different properties in the metal.

By adding different amounts of carbon, we can alter steels properties. i.e. tensile strength,
hardness, and ductility.

We can also alloy steel with other metals to bring about improved properties without the
detrimental effects of high carbon content.

Manufacturing processes for Ferrous Materials

Forging Shaping a metal through use of force. Grain-flow

Directional strength properties
Hot Rolling Metal is heated to austenite region and passed Produces refined equiaxed
through a series of rollers to form a shape. grains
Less stress on machinery
Unstressed product
Not dimensionally accurate
Black oxide layer on product
Cold Rolling Metal is passed through a series of rollers to form Produces coarse elongated
a shape. grains
Harder final product
Dimensionally accurate
No oxide layer
Higher cost due to heavier
machinery
Ingot Casting Molten metal is poured into an ingot mould. Produces a standard shape
used for easy shipment
Continuous A mould with a sliding base has molten metal Produces long sections of
Casting poured into it. The base is lowered at a rate where uniform cross section
the metal above it solidifies enough to catch and Fast
hold more molten metal. Cost effective on large runs.
Sand Casting A drag is placed on a board. A pattern in placed Used for easy casts
inside. Sand is packed around the pattern and Cheap to produce as low
inverted. A cope is placed on top. Sand is packed energy and labour costs
in around a runner pin and riser pin. The Good final grain structure
pattern and pins are then removed and molten Surface finish is poor and
metal is poured in. The sand is removed the riser inaccurate and machining is
and runner parts are removed. often required
Shell A half pattern is made, heated, and placed over s Better surface finish than sand
Moulding dump box filled with sand and thermosetting casting
resin. The heat sets the resin forming a half mould Metal pattern plates are
out of sand and resin. Two half moulds are made, expensive to mate
and heated to cure the resin. They are fixed Closer tolerances than die
together and molten metal is poured in. casting
Centrifugal Molten metal is poured into a cylindrical mould Produces cylindrical castings
Casting which is spun. i.e. cylinders, pipes
Gravity Molten metal is poured into a permanent metal Cost effective for mass
Die-Casting mould. Gravity is used to force the metal producing items
throughout the mould. The mould is made of two Better surface finish than sand
halves which are then separated and the casting is casting
ejected. Permanent metal moulds are
expensive
Pressure Molten metal is poured into a permanent metal Produces a denser casting
Die-Casting mould. Pressure is used to force the metal into the Good surface finish
mould. The mould is made of two halves which are Cost effective on long runs and
then separated and the casting is ejected. mass production
Permanent metal moulds are
expensive
Investment A wax pattern is made and coated with a ceramic Good surface finish
Casting mixture. The wax is then melted and poured out Dimensionally accurate
leaving a ceramic shell. Molten metal is then New mould needs to be made
poured into the shell, set, and the shell is broken. every cast which can be
expensive on long runs
Full-Mould A polystyrene mould complete with runner is Used on one time castings
Process surrounded by sand and small amounts of i.e. prototypes
thermosetting resin. The molten metal is poured
in, dissolving the polystyrene.
Direct Metal is heated to austenite region. A ram pushes Used with more ductile
Extrusion metal through a die. materials
Produces a uniform shape
Indirect Metal is heated to austenite region. A ram pushes Used with alloys of lower
Extrusion a die into the metal. ductility
More expensive material
Impact A material blank is placed in a die. A punch is then Cold forming process
Extrusion forced into the die and the material is forced into Used to produce cans and short
the die and around the punch. tubes
Powder Forming

1. Metal is pulverised into powder form.

2. Powders are blended with stearate based dry lubricants.
3. This is pressed into a mould with pressure. This causes the powders to cold weld together
due to friction.
4. This is then removed from the mould and sintered in a non-oxidising atmosphere. This
causes atoms to diffuse across grains producing a homogenous grain structure.

Powder forming is used to produce

- Porous metals
Some materials need to be porous for filtration. Powders of larger grains are used to
produce these.
- Complex articles
Some shapes are too difficult or costly to machine or cast. Thus powder forming is used.
- Products difficult to machine
Some materials, i.e. tungsten cemented carbide, cannot be machined, thus must be powder
formed.
- Composites
Some metals cannot be alloyed together. Powder forming allows them to be mixed together
and still show their individual properties.

Powder forming allows us to make complex shapes, difficult or impossible to be made any other
way. However it is an expensive process and shapes are still limited. The finished product isnt as
strong as other conventionally made products.

Welding

Spot Welding Two pieces of metal are pressed together and an

electric current is passed through, joining them
in that spot.
Butt Welding Two pieces of metal are butted together, and
an electric current is passed through joining
them together along that butt.
Seam Welding A piece of metal is rolled into a tube with a
seam. The seam is closed and an electric current
is passed through joining the seam.
Oxy-acetylene Welding An oxy-acetylene torch melts the two pieces of
metal and a filler material is added, joining the
metal.
Bronze Welding A bronze filler metal is melted by a torch and
used to fill in the gap joining two metals.
Brazing A torch is used to melt the joint area of two
parent metals and the filler material which is
used to join the two metals.
Electric Arc Welding An electric arc is made between the metal and
the electrode. The electrode melts into the joint,
joining the two parent metals. The electrode is

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
covered in a flux which protects the filler metal
from oxidation by burning to produce an inert
gas shield.
An electric arc is made between the metal and a
continuous feed wire. The arc melts the feed
wire which joins the two metals. An inert gas is
emitted around the feed wire to protect the filler
material from oxidation.
Similar to MIG welding but uses a tungsten
electrode and a filler rod.
Inert gas is passed through an electric arc which
melts the parent metals and joins them.

Heat Affected Zone

The heat from welding will cause recrystallization of grains around the weld. This causes a weakened
area as large grains become fine grains, and elongated grains become equiaxed eliminating
directional strength properties.

Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium is an abundant metal with relatively weak properties. Thus it is normally used in form of
alloy. It is also used as an electrical conductor when weight is critical, as it is a better conductor than
copper of equal weight.

Although aluminium alloys provide a better strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance, they
are harder to weld and more costly. Thus mild steel is more widely used.

Key - First number relates to family of alloy, the last three relate to use.

Wrought Alloys used for mechanical working

1XXX Small amounts of Fe and Si Used for sheet metal work
3XXX Mg as primary alloying metal Provides solid solution
Not Heat strengthening
Treatable Used for pressure vessels
5XXX Mg as primary alloying metal Used for marine applications
Cr may be added
2XXX Cu as primary alloying metal Provides solid solution
Includes duralumin strengthening, precipitation
hardening, and high tensile
strength
Used for aircraft structures
6XXX Mg and Si as primary alloying metals Provides precipitation hardening,
Heat
good corrosion resistance and
Treatable
tensile strength
Used in bike frames and marine
structures
7XXX Zi as primary alloying metal Provides precipitation hardening
Can have small amounts of Mg and Cu Used in aircraft structures and
good quality bike frames
Casting alloys

Casting alloys need to have a lower melting point and higher fluidity than wrought alloys. They are
used in sand casting, gravity or pressure die-casting. Silicon is added to aluminium in range of 5%-
12%. This strengthens and increases the fluidity of the molten metal. Mg and Cu can also be added
to improve strength and hardening qualities.

Major Alloying Element plus Additions Number

Al >99% 1XX.X
Cu 2XX.X
Si with Cu and/or Mg 3XX.X
Si 4XX.X
Mg 5XX.X
Zn 7XX.X
Sn 8XX.X
Other Elements 9XX.X

Aluminium Lithium Alloy

Aluminium is alloyed with lithium to produce an alloy with 100% better fatigue life, and 50-100%
better strength than 6061 aluminium alloy. It is used in competitive cycling and aircraft structures.
However its use is limited as it is expensive to produce.

Copper Alloys

Copper Pure High electrical conductivity

Extremely ductile
Cartridge Brass 70% Cu Higher ductility than Cu
30% Zn
Standard Brass 75% Cu Good quality cold working alloy
25% Zn Lower ductility
Muntz Metal 60% Cu Can be cast
40% Zn Hot worked into shape
Can be heat treated
Naval Brass 62% Cu Tin provides corrosion
38% Zn resistance in sea water
1% Sn
High Tensile Brass 58% Cu Superior tensile strength over
36% Zn other brass
<1.5% Mg Reduced ductility
Small amounts of Al, Pb, Fe, Sn
Low Tin Bronze 96.25% Cu Good elasticity
3.75% Sn Good corrosion resistance
Used for springs
High Tin Bronze 82% Cu Used in heavy load applications
18% Sn i.e. slewing turntables on
cranes
Admiralty Gunmetal 88% CU Zn makes alloy more fluid
10% Sn Used in casting
2% Zn and some Ni
Leaded Gunmetal 85% Cu Zn and Pb reduces ductility
5% Sn Can be cast
5% Zn Used for pressure valves
5% Pb
Phosphor Bronzes Small amounts of P added Higher tensile strength
Better corrosion resistance
Lower coefficient of friction
Used for bearings
Aluminium Bronze 89% Cu Good corrosion resistance
11% Al Good tensile strength
Casting is difficult as Al oxidises
Used in marine applications
Can be quenched to form a
microstructure similar to
martensite called martensite
which can be tempered

Structure/Property Relationships

Some alloys have two phases. Muntz metal is one of these alloys. During these phases, it has two
different microstructures which affect the materials properties. i.e. Muntz metal has a white phase
which is ductile, while the dark phase is brittle.

Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Alloys

Annealing

- Relieves internal stress.

- Material is heated to a specific temperature, soaked and furnace cooled.

Precipitation hardening

Some aluminium alloys have two phases; a -phase and a -phase. These alloys can undergo
precipitation hardening. An example of this is duralumin. The microstructure generally consists of
large grains with smaller precipitates on grain borders.

1. Solution treatment
The material is heated to 530oC and the precipitate dissolves out of the material. This is then
quenched leaving only grains.
2. Aging
The remaining precipitates is evenly distributed throughout the microstructure of the
material. These particles are microscopic.
Naturally the precipitate will diffuse out, leaving only grains. This takes 7 days.
The material can be artificially aged by being heated to 150oC which accelerates the aging
process.
Ceramics

Ceramics, despite their general brittleness, have other properties that are ideal for transport
applications.

- Good heat insulation

- Can withstand higher temperatures
- Vibration absorption

Some modern ceramics do not possess brittleness, and have relatively high impact strength.

Glass

High Silica Glass Almost pure Si2O Almost perfectly clear

Used in elevated temperatures
Soda Lime Glass Contains large amounts of Na2O Easy to shape when hot
and CaO Will not recrystallise
Water resistant
Cost effective as it is easy to
shape
Borosilicate Glass 20% Br Good chemical resistance
80% Si2O Low thermal expansion
High resistance to fracture at
high temperatures
Lead Glass Up to 40% Pb Low softening temperature
High refractive index

Polymers

Rubber

- Naturally soft and flexible

- 5% sulfur is added to increase rigidity
- Forms vulcanised rubber
- Used in tyres

Engineering Textiles

Polyester High tensile strength

High resilience
Hydrophobic
Nylon Used as a dry lubricant
Resistant to acids, bases, and oils
Aramid Excellent strength qualities
Low melting point
Olefins Water proof
Used in collapsible shelters
Teflon Fire resistant
Will stop water vapour but not water
Manufacturing Processes for Polymers

Blow moulding

- Polymer tube is lowered into a mould. Air forces the polymer to adopt the shape of the
mould.

Extrusion

- Polymer granules are melted and forced through a die. Used for thermosoftening polymers.

Thermoforming

- Thermosoftening sheet is placed over a die. The sheet is heated and a vacuum forces it into
the die, adopting its shape.

Calendaring

- Thermosoftening plastic is forced between two rollers. The rollers may have shapes cut into
them which will be imprinted onto the polymer sheet.

Rotational Moulding

- Molten polymer is poured into a mould. The mould then spins, forcing the polymer to the
sides forming a hollow cast.

Injection moulding

- Molten polymer is injected into a die. Once solidified, the die splits in two, ejecting the cast.
This is then reset and repeated.
- Used to mass produce items.
Power Generation and Distribution

Generation

Coal Power Burns coal to produce steam
which turns turbines
Hydroelectric Power Uses dams to convert kinetic
energy of flowing water into
electrical power
Wind Power Converts wind into electrical
power through wind turbines
Nuclear Power Uses heat from nuclear fission
to generate steam to turn
turbines
Produces large amounts of CO2
and SO2
Places pressure on limited and
depleting fossil fuel reserves
No atmospheric pollution
Damming has large impacts on
surrounding environment
Only possible in mountainous
regions
No atmospheric pollution
Many turbines are required to
produce sufficient power
Wind is never constant
Turbine locations are limited
No atmospheric pollution
Produces highly radioactive
waste
Can have malfunctions with
devastating radiation leaks

Distribution

Power distribution occurs across steel-cored aluminium cables. The steel provides strength, while
the aluminium provides electrical conductivity. Aluminium is used over Cu as it has better
conductivity than Cu in terms of weight. Although Cu is a better conductor, it is heavy and would
require more poles to hold up the cable.

To reduce resistive loss, voltage is increased up to 500kV. This reduces the current required,
reducing the resistance. This prevents electricity being lost as heat.

AC/DC Circuits

DC circuits have a constant potential of 1.

AC circuits have a varying potential depicted by a sine curve.

Australian AC power goes from +240V to -240V in 0.02 of a second.

DC appliances can run off AC, but the current needs to be converted. This is the same for AC
appliances.
Motors

Shunt wound DC Constant speed

Coils are connected in parallel Low starting torque
Not suitable for starting and
stopping
Series wound DC Speed dependant on load
Coils are connected in series High starting torque
Compound DC Combines properties of both
Combines shunt and series wound High starting torque
Constant speed
Induction AC No commutator or brushes so
Uses a squirrel cage rotor which is turned by no wear and less maintenance
the magnetic field generated by the alternating Speed is controlled by Pulse
current Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation

The power is turned on and off rapidly relative to the total output of power needed. If 50% power is
needed, then the power is on and off for equal amounts of time. If 75% power is needed, it is on for
3x longer than it is off. The power is turned on and off so quickly that the change is not detectable.

E.g. a light bulb is powered by a source. If 100% power or brightness is needed, it is on 100% of the
time. If it is only 50% bright, then it is rapidly turned on and off for equal amounts of time at a rate
faster than the human eye can detect. The result, the bulb glows at 50% brightness.

Control Systems

Sensor, control unit, actuator

ABS Antilock Braking System

- Senses rotation on each wheel

- Control unit calculates which wheels are turning too fast or too slow
- Changes brake pressure to increase or decrease speed of wheel to maintain a uniform wheel
speed
- This increases safety for driver as it prevents wheel locking, maintaining control of the
vehicle

Cruise Control

- Sensor detects speed of vehicle

- Control unit calculates how much fuel is required to maintain or return to desired speed
- Actuator increases or decreases fuel input to return to desired speed
- Elevates pressure on driver on long trips as the driver does not have to constantly hold down
pedal, which can cause ankle pain and swelling.