Differntial Mathematics PDF

PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION
THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS

AND ITS APPLICATIONS
F. Van Cauwelaert
Editor: Marc Stet
Federation of the Belgian Cement Industry

B-1170 Brussels, Rue Volta 9.
i
ii
INTRODUCTION
Pavement Design and Evaluation: The Required Mathematics and Its Applications
Keywords: textbook for pavement engineers, high order mathematical solutions for, rigid and flexible
pavement, mechanistic methods, practical applications in the field of pavement engineering
Preface
This book is intended for Civil Engineers and more specific for Pavement Engineers, who are interested
in the more advanced field of pavement engineering made available through the theory of high
mathematics. In my extensive carrier as a Civil Engineer by profession, I noticed that some of my
colleagues feel uneasy when it comes to high-level theoretical and computational work. Perhaps this is
because of the fact that as soon as they graduated, they are confronted with many and important practical
problems where derivatives and integrals do not appear very useful at fist sight. However, at many
occasions, conferences, seminars and other meetings, I realised that Civil Engineers remain excited about
the mathematical fundamentals of their art. Slow but sure grew the idea of writing a textbook on High
Mathematics conceivable for practising Pavement Engineers. The primary objective of this book is to
serve two purposes: first, to introduce the basic principles which must be known by people dealing with
pavements; and secondly to present the theories and methods in pavement design and evaluation that may
be used by students, designers engineering consultants, highway and airport agencies, and researchers at
universities. In addition, some of the new concepts developed in recent years to improve the methods of
pavement systems are explained. This book is written in a relatively simple way so that it may be
followed by people familiar with basic engineering courses in mathematics and pavement design.
This book consists of 26 chapters and is divided into two parts. The first part, which include chapters 1-9,
covers the mathematics required by most of the problems related to pavement engineering. The assumed
mathematical knowledge is that of high school level plus some basic elements of trigonometry and
analysis. The second part, which includes chapters 10-26, is concerned with practical solutions as faced
by Pavement Engineers in the assessment of rigid and flexible pavements. The rigorous mathematical
solutions are presented in the Appendix, explaining on complex variables.
Grateful acknowledgement is offered to the Fdration de lIndustrie Cimentire, Belgium (the Federation
of the Belgian Cement Industry) for their intellectual and financial support in the process of the
realisation of this book.
Thanks is due to my dear friend, Marc Stet, for proof-reading and editing the manuscript. His helpful
comments to the mathematical and editorial content are highly appreciated.
Frans Van Cauwelaert
Brussels, December 2003.
iii
Part 1: The Required Mathematics

Chapter 1 covers the Laplace differential equation; the solution of for a great series of applications: it
presents the Bessel function of zero order, solution of the Laplace equation in axisymmetric co-ordinates
that as used in great parts of this book. The Laplacian with coefficients different from 1 will be applied in
problems of anisotropic elasticity, the double Laplacian in most of the problems of multi-layer theory and
the extended Laplacian in the problems of rigid pavement on Winkler or Pasternak foundations. Chapter 2
presents the gamma function, the factorial function for non-integers, required for the definition of Bessel
functions of non-integer order. Chapter 3 gives the general solutions of the different Bessel equations, the
Ber and Bei functions, and the modified form of the Bessel equation. Bessel functions are solutions of the
Laplacian in polar or cylinder co-ordinates, used for applications with axial symmetry, e.g. in multi-
layered structures. Trigonometric functions are solutions of the Laplacian in Cartesian co-ordinates,
applied in cases of beams and rectangular slabs. Chapter 4 deals with the most important properties of
Bessel functions:
- derivatives, functions of half order,
- asymptotic values required to express boundary conditions that must remain valid at infinite
distances,
- indefinite integrals, equations between Bessel functions of different kind (required for integrations in
the complex plane).
Chapter 5 presents the beta function required for the resolution of definite integrals of Bessel functions.
Chapter 6 gives the solutions for a series of important definite integrals of Bessel functions; among others
the Poisson integral giving an integral representation of any Bessel function of the first kind. Chapter 7
presents the hypergeometric function of Gauss required for the resolution of the infinite integrals of
Bessel functions. Chapter 8 presents the most important infinite integrals of Bessel functions of direct
application in pavement analysis, especially in multi-layer theory. Chapter 9 presents the most important
infinite integrals of Bessel functions resolved in the complex plane. They are essentially of application in
slab theory.
Part 2: The Applications

The second part focuses on the applications in the field of pavement engineering: rigid en flexible
pavements. Chapter 10 gives the basic solutions (equilibrium equations) for rigid pavements (theory of
strength of materials) and flexible pavements (theory of elasticity) .This chapter gives the basic equations
on continuum mechanics in different co-ordinate systems. Chapter 11 presents the integral transforms,
Fouriers expansion, Fouriers integral, Hankels integral, required for the expression of discontinuous
functions: the loads in pavement applications.
Chapters 12 to 19 concern mostly rigid pavements. Chapter 12 gives 3 simple applications on an elastic
subgrade: a beam subjected to a single load, a beam subjected to a distributed load, a slab subjected to a
single load. Chapter 13 gives the complete analytical solution for a beam on a Pasternak foundation (both
of infinite and finite extent). Chapter 14 gives the analytical solution for a circular slab on a Pasternak
foundation subjected to an axi-symmetric load (both of infinite and finite extent). Chapter 15 gives the
complete analytical solution for a rectangular slab on a Pasternak foundation (both of infinite and finite
extent). Chapter 16 gives the analytical solution for a superposition of several slabs included the analysis
of the adhesion between the slabs. Chapter 17 gives a back-calculation method for rigid pavement based
on Pasternaks theory. Chapter 18 presents a solution for the computation of thermal stresses in rigid
slabs on a Pasternak foundation. Chapter 19 presents two practical tests of interest with rigid slabs: the
diametral test and a test for the determination of k and G in situ.
Chapters 20 to 26 concern mostly flexible pavements. Chapters 20 and 21 present the complete theory for
semi-infinite bodies subjected to all sorts of loads. Chapter 20 presents the Boussinesq problem: stresses
iv
INTRODUCTION
and displacements in a semi-infinite body under a circular flexible plate uniformly loaded. It generalises
the solution to different vertical loads (isolated, rigid, rectangular) and to orthotropic bodies. Chapter 21
presents the solution a semi-infinite body subjected to shear stresses: radial and one-directional. Chapter
22 gives the analytical solution for a multi-layered structure, included the problem of the adhesion
between the layers, that of an eventual fixed bottom and that of an anisotropic subgrade. Chapter 23
presents the numerical procedure required for the solution of a multi-layered structure. Chapter 24
presents the theory at the base of the back-calculation methods for flexible pavements. Chapter 25
presents the numerical procedure required for the back-calculation method for flexible pavements.
Chapter 26 presents a practical test of interest with both types of road structures (rigid or flexible) multi-
layered structures: the ovalisation test.
The Appendices gives the basic theory of complex numbers, especially the integration in the complex
plane.
v
vi
CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Page
Preface............................................................................................................................................. iii
PART 1: THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1 The Laplace Equation.................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introductory note................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Derivation of the Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates from the Laplace equation in Cartesian
co-ordinates........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Equations related to the Laplace equation.............................................................................. 3
1.3.1 The Laplacian with coefficients different from 1. ............................................................... 3
1.3.2 The double Laplacian....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 The extended Laplacian ................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Resolution of the Laplace equation ....................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Resolution by separation of the variables........................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Resolution by means of the characteristic equation (Spiegel, 1971) ..................................... 5
1.4.3 Resolution by means of indicial equations ......................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 The Gamma Function.................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Introductory note................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Helpful relations.................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Definition of the Gamma Function ......................................................................................10
2.4 Values of (1/2) and (-1/2)...............................................................................................11
Chapter 3 The General Solution of the Bessel Equation. .............................................................. 15

3.1 Introductory note................................................................................................................15
3.2 Helpful relations.................................................................................................................16
3.3 Resolution of the Bessel equation (Bessel functions of the first kind) .....................................17
3.4 Resolutio n of the Bessel equation for p an integer (Bessel functions of the second and third
kind)..................................................................................................................................19
3.4.1 For n integer, Jn = (-)n J-n .................................................................................................19
3.4.2 Bessel functions of the second kind..................................................................................19
3.4.3 Bessel functions of the third kind .....................................................................................21
3.5 The modified Bessel equation. ............................................................................................21
3.6 The ber and bei functions....................................................................................................23
3.7 The ker and kei functions....................................................................................................24
3.8 Resolution of the equation 2 2 w + w =0............................................................................25
3.9 The modified form of the Bessel equation ............................................................................25
Chapter 4 Properties of the Bessel Functions. .............................................................................. 27

4.3 Derivatives of Bessel functions ...........................................................................................29
4.3.1 Derivative of (rt)p Jp (rt)....................................................................................................29
4.3.2 Derivative of (rt)-pJp(rt)..................................................................................................29
vii
4.3.3 Derivative of Jp (rt)..........................................................................................................29

4.4 Bessel functions of half order..............................................................................................30
4.4.1 Values of J1/2(rt), J-1/2(rt), J3/2 (rt), J-3/2 (rt)...........................................................................30
4.5 Asymptotic values..............................................................................................................31
4.5.1 Asymptotic values for Jp and J-p.....................................................................................31
4.5.2 Asymptotic values for Yp and Y -p ....................................................................................33
4.5.3 Asymptotic values for Hp (1) and Hp (2)................................................................................33
4.5.4 Asymptotic values for Ip and I-p .......................................................................................33
4.5.5 Asymptotic value for Kn ..................................................................................................35
4.5.6 Asymptotic values for ber and bei....................................................................................36
4.5.7 Asymptotic values for ker and kei....................................................................................36
4.6 Indefinite integrals of Bessel functions ................................................................................37
4.6.1 Fundamental relations .....................................................................................................37
4.6.2 The integral rn J0 (rt)dr .....................................................................................................37
4.7 Relations between Bessel functions of different kind ............................................................38
4.7.1 Bessel functions with argument rt ..................................................................................38
4.7.2 Relations between the three kinds of Bessel functions .......................................................38
4.7.3 Bessel functions of purely imaginary argument.................................................................39
Chapter 5 The Beta Function ....................................................................................................... 41

5.3 Definition of the beta function.............................................................................................41
5.4 Relation between beta and gamma functions ........................................................................42
5.5 The duplication formula for gamma functions ......................................................................42
Chapter 6 Definite integrals of Bessel functions ........................................................................... 45

6.2 Gegenbauers integral.........................................................................................................45
6.3 Sonines first finite integral.................................................................................................46
6.4 Sonines second finite integral.............................................................................................47
6.5 Poissons integral...............................................................................................................48
Chapter 7 The hypergeometric type of series ............................................................................... 49

7.3 Definition ..........................................................................................................................50
7.4 Properties of the multiple product ()m ................................................................................51
7.4.1 A relation for (1 - b - m) m-n ..............................................................................................51
7.4.2 A relation for (a+b+1+m) m/22 m.........................................................................................51
7.4.3 A relation for (a-n) .......................................................................................................52
7.4.4 The theorem of Vandermonde .........................................................................................52
7.4.5 The product of two Bessel functions with the same argument ............................................53
7.5 The hypergeometric series of Gauss 2 F1 [a,b;c;z]...................................................................54
7.5.1 Elementary properties .....................................................................................................54
7.5.2 Integral representation of the hypergeometric function ......................................................54
7.5.3 Value of F[a,b;c;z] for z = 1 ............................................................................................55
7.5.4 Convergence of the series F[a,b;c;z].................................................................................55
7.5.5 The product of two Bessel functions with different arguments ...........................................56
viii
CONTENTS
Chapter 8 Infinite Integrals of Bessel Functions........................................................................... 57

8.2 Useful relations ..................................................................................................................57
8.3 The integral e-atJ(bt)t-1dt ..................................................................................................60
8.3.1 Resolution of the integral................................................................................................60
8.3.2 Particular value...............................................................................................................61
8.3.3 The integral e-atcos(bt)dt................................................................................................63
8.3.4 The integral e-atsin(bt)dt.................................................................................................63
8.3.5 The integral e-atcos(bt)sin(bt) dt ......................................................................................63
8.3.6 The integral e-at sin(bt)/tdt...............................................................................................63
8.3.7 The integral e-at sin(bt)tdt................................................................................................64
8.4 The integral e-atJ(bt)J(ct)t-1dt ..........................................................................................64
8.4.1 Transformation of the integral..........................................................................................64
8.4.2 The integral e-atsin(bt)sin(ct)t-1dt .....................................................................................64
8.4.3 The integral e-atsin(bt)sin(ct)dt ........................................................................................65
8.4.4 The integral e-amsin(bt)sin(cs)/(ts)dsdt ............................................................................65
8.4.5 The integral me-amsin(bt)sin(cs)/(ts)dsdt .........................................................................67
8.5 The integral e-atJ (bt)J(ct)t-1dt ..........................................................................................68
8.6 The discontinuous integral J (at)J(bt)t-dt...........................................................................68
8.6.1 Resolution of the integral................................................................................................68
8.6.2 The integral J (at)J(at)t-dt.............................................................................................71
8.6.3 The integral J (at)J-2k-1(bt)dt..........................................................................................72
8.6.4 Particular solutions of the integral J (at)J(bt)t-dt ...........................................................72
8.6.5 Particular solution of the integral J(at)J(bt)/tdt..............................................................73
Chapter 9 Bessel functions in the complex plane .......................................................................... 77

9.3 Proof of (z)(1-z) = /sin(z) ...........................................................................................78
9.4 The Hankels contour integral for 1/(z)..............................................................................80
9.5 The integral representation of J(z) ......................................................................................81
9.6 The integral representation of I(z) ......................................................................................83
9.7 The integral representation of K(z). ....................................................................................83
9.8 The integral representation of Kv(xz)....................................................................................84
9.9 Resolution of x+1 J(ax)/(x2 +k2 )dx .....................................................................................85
9.10 Resolution of x -1 J (bx)J(ax)/(x2 +k2 )dx.............................................................................89
9.11 Resolution of sin(bx)cos(ax)/x/(x4 + k4 )dx ..........................................................................90
PART 2: THE APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 10 Laplace Equation in Pavement Engineering ............................................................ 93

10.1 Equilibrium equation for beams in pure bending...................................................................93
10.1.1 Sign conventions.........................................................................................................93
10.1.2 Assumptions ...............................................................................................................95
10.1.3 Bending moment and bending stress ............................................................................95
10.1.4 The radius of curvature ...............................................................................................96
10.1.5 Equilibrium ................................................................................................................96
ix
10.2 Equilibrium equation for bent plates....................................................................................97

10.2.1 Bending moment and shear forces................................................................................97
10.2.2 Equilibrium ................................................................................................................99
10.3 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, isotropic body submitted to forces applied
on its surface ...................................................................................................................100
10.3.1 Principle of equilibr ium.............................................................................................101
10.3.2 The principle of continuity.........................................................................................101
10.3.3 The principle of elasticity ..........................................................................................102
10.3.4 Stress potential..........................................................................................................102
10.4 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, anisotropic body submitted to forces applied
on its surface ...................................................................................................................103
10.5 Basic equations of continuum mechanics in different co-ordinate systems ...........................104
10.5.1 Plane polar co-ordinates ............................................................................................104
10.5.2 Axi-symmetric Cylindrical Co-ordinates ....................................................................105
10.5.3 Non symmetric cylindrical co-ordinates .....................................................................106
10.5.4 Cartesian volume co-ordinates ...................................................................................107
10.5.5 Axi-symmetric Cylindrical Co-ordinates for an orthotropic body..................................109
Chapter 11 The Integral Transforms........................................................................................ 111

11.1 Introductory note..............................................................................................................111
11.2 Helpful relations...............................................................................................................112
11.3 The Fourier expansion (Spiegel, 1971)...............................................................................112
11.3.1 Definitions................................................................................................................112
11.3.2 Proof of the Fourier expansion. ..................................................................................113
11.3.3 Example ...................................................................................................................114
11.4 The Fourier integral..........................................................................................................115
11.4.1 Definition .................................................................................................................115
11.4.2 Proof of Fouriers integral theorem ............................................................................115
11.4.3 Example ...................................................................................................................116
11.5 The Hankels transform....................................................................................................117
11.5.1 Definition .................................................................................................................117
11.5.2 Example ...................................................................................................................117
11.5.3 Application of the discontinuous integral of Weber and Schafheitlin ............................118
Chapter 12 Simple Applications of Beams and Slabs on an Elastic Subgrade ........................... 121
12.1 The elastic subgrade .........................................................................................................121
12.2 The beam on an elastic subgrade subjected to an isolated load: 4 w/x4 +Cw=0 ....................123
12.3 The beam on an elastic subgrade subjected to a distributed load: 4 w/x4 +Cw=0..................125
12.4 The infinite slab subjected to an isolated load: 2 2 w +Cw = 0 ..........................................125
Chapter 13 The Beam Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on a Pasternak Foundation
............................................................................................................................... 129
13.1 The basic differential equations .........................................................................................129
13.2 Case of a beam of infinite length .......................................................................................130
13.2.1 Solution of the differential equation............................................................................130
13.2.2 Application...............................................................................................................133
13.3 Case of a beam of finite length with a free edge 133
13.3.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................133
13.3.2 Application...............................................................................................................135
13.3.3 Solution #2...............................................................................................................137
13.3.4 Application...............................................................................................................137
x
CONTENTS
13.4 Case of a finite beam with a joint.......................................................................................138

13.4.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................138
13.4.2 Application...............................................................................................................140
13.4.3 Solution# 2...............................................................................................................141
13.4.4 Application...............................................................................................................142
13.4.5 Proof that, in de case of a Winkler foundation, at a joint Q = T..................................143
Chapter 14 The Circular Slab Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on a Pasternak
Foundation............................................................................................................. 145
14.2 Case of a slab of infinite extent .........................................................................................146
14.2.1 Solution of the differential equation............................................................................146
14.2.2 Application 1............................................................................................................147
14.2.3 Application 2............................................................................................................148
14.3 Case of a slab of finite extent with a free edge ...................................................................148
14.3.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................148
14.3.2 Solution #2...............................................................................................................151
14.3.3 Application of solution #2 .........................................................................................151
14.4 Case of a slab of finite extent with a joint...........................................................................152
14.4.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................152
14.4.2 Solution #2. ..............................................................................................................152
14.4.3 Application of solution #2 .........................................................................................153
Chapter 15 The Rectangular Slab Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on a Pasternak
Foundation............................................................................................................. 155
15.2 Resolution of the deflection equation.................................................................................155
15.3 Boundary conditions.........................................................................................................158
15.4 Case of a slab of finite extent with free edge ......................................................................158
15.4.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................158
15.4.2 Solution #2...............................................................................................................159
15.5 Case of a slab of finite extent with a joint...........................................................................159
15.5.1 Solution #1...............................................................................................................159
15.5.2 Solution # 2..............................................................................................................160
15.5.3 Application...............................................................................................................161
Chapter 16 The Multislab......................................................................................................... 163

16.1 Theoretical justification....................................................................................................163
16.2 General model..................................................................................................................163
16.3 Full slip at each of the interfaces.......................................................................................163
16.4 Full friction at the first interface, full slip at the second interface .........................................164
16.5 Full friction at both interfaces ...........................................................................................165
16.6 Partial friction ..................................................................................................................166
16.6.1 Application...............................................................................................................168
Chapter 17 Back-calculation of Concrete Slabs ........................................................................ 171

17.1 Back-calculation of moduli ...............................................................................................171
17.2 Case where the load can be considered as a point load ........................................................171
17.3 Computations...................................................................................................................172
17.4 Case when the load is considered as distributed..................................................................173
17.5 Comparison of the two methods ........................................................................................175
xi
17.6 Influence of the reference deflection..................................................................................175

17.7 Analysis of field data........................................................................................................176
17.8 Example of back-calculation.............................................................................................177
Chapter 18 Thermal Stresses in Concrete Slabs ....................................................................... 179

18.1 Thermal stresses ..............................................................................................................179
18.2 Slab of great length...........................................................................................................179
18.2.1 Differential equilibrium equation ...............................................................................179
18.2.2 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g < 1.............................................................180
18.2.3 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g = 1.............................................................180
18.2.4 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g > 1.............................................................180
18.2.5 Boundary conditions .................................................................................................180
18.2.6 Expression of the moment for g < 1............................................................................180
18.2.7 Expression of the moment for g = 1............................................................................182
18.2.8 Expression of the moment for g > 1............................................................................182
18.2.9 Verification of the expression of the maximum moment for g = 1.................................183
18.2.10 Equation of the thermal stress....................................................................................183
18.2.11 Example ...................................................................................................................184
18.3 Rectangular slab...............................................................................................................184
18.3.1 Differential equation of equilibrium ...........................................................................184
18.3.3 Examples .................................................................................................................185
18.4 Circular slab ....................................................................................................................187
18.4.1 Equilibrium equation.................................................................................................187
18.4.2 Solution of the equilibrium equation...........................................................................188
18.4.4 Resulting moment .....................................................................................................188
18.4.5 Comparison between the models for rectangular and circular slabs ...............................189
18.5 Extension to a multi-slab system .......................................................................................189
Chapter 19 Determination of the Parameters of a Rigid Structure ........................................... 193

19.1 Determination of the Youngs modulus of a concrete slab...................................................193
19.1.1 Resolution of the compatibility equation.....................................................................193
19.1.2 Equations for the stresses ..........................................................................................193
19.1.4 Stresses and displacements ........................................................................................194
19.1.5 Tangential normal stress along the vertical diameter....................................................195
19.2 Determination of the characteristics k and G of the subgrade ..............................................195
19.2.1 Equilibrium equation for a Pasternak subgrade ...........................................................195
19.2.2 Eccentrically loaded plate-bearing test........................................................................196
19.2.3 Vertical load.............................................................................................................198
19.2.4 Moment....................................................................................................................199
19.2.5 Determination of k and G ..........................................................................................201
Chapter 20 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to a Vertical Load ............................................ 203

20.1 Introductory note..............................................................................................................203
20.2 The semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical uniform circular pressure ..............................203
20.3 The semi-infinite body subjected to an isolated vertical load ...............................................206
20.4 The semi-infinite body subjected to a circular vertical rigid load..........................................207
20.5 The semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical uniform rectangular pressure.........................209
20.6 Comparison between the vertical stresses. Principle of de Saint-Venant ..............................211
xii
CONTENTS
20.7 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform circular pressure.................................211

20.8 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform rectangular pressure ...........................215
Chapter 21 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to Shear Loads ................................................. 217

21.1 The semi-infinite body subjected to radial shear stresses.....................................................217
21.2 The semi-infinite body subjected to a one-directional asymmetric shear load .......................218
21.3 The semi-infinite body subjected to a shear load symmetric to one of its axiss ....................221
Chapter 22 The Multilayered Structure ................................................................................... 225

22.1 The multilayered structure ................................................................................................225
22.2 Solutions of the continuity equations .................................................................................226
22.3 Boundary conditions.........................................................................................................227
22.4 Determination of the boundary constants ...........................................................................228
22.5 The fixed bottom condition ...............................................................................................231
22.6 The orthotropic subgrade ..................................................................................................232
Chapter 23 The Resolution of a Multilayered Structure ........................................................... 233

23.1 Choice of the integration formula ......................................................................................233
23.2 Values at the origin...........................................................................................................234
23.3 The geometrical scale of the structure................................................................................234
23.4 Width of the integration steps............................................................................................235
23.4.1 Influence of the moduli on the integration step............................................................235
23.4.2 Influence of the radii of the loads on the integration step .............................................235
23.4.3 Influence of the offset distance on the integration step.................................................236
23.4.4 Modification of the step width ...................................................................................236
23.5 Stresses and displacements at the surface...........................................................................236
23.6 Stresses and displacements in the first la yer .......................................................................237
Chapter 24 The Theory of the Back-Calculation of a Multilayered Structure .......................... 241

24.1 The surface modulus.........................................................................................................241
24.2 Equivalent layers..............................................................................................................242
24.3 Equivalent semi-infinite body............................................................................................242
24.4 Analysis of a deflection basin ............................................................................................243
24.4.1 Analysis of a three-layer on a linear elastic subgrade ...................................................243
24.4.2 Analysis of a three-layer with a very stiff base course .................................................244
24.4.3 Analysis of a three layer with a very weak base course ................................................245
24.4.4 Analysis of a two-layer on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth ...................246
24.5 Algorithm of Al Bush III (1980) ........................................................................................247
Chapter 25 The Numerical Procedure of the Back-calculation of a Multilayered Structure ..... 249
25.1 The analysis of a back-calculation program for a three-layered structure..............................249
25.2 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a three layer structure .........................251
25.2.1 The sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections ..........................251
25.2.2 The sensitivity to the presence of a soft intermediate layer...........................................251
25.2.3 The influence of fixing beforehand the value of one modulus.......................................252
25.3 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a four layer structure ..........................253
25.3.1 Value of the information given by the surface modulus................................................254
25.3.2 The influence of fixing beforehand the value of one modulus.......................................256
25.4 The influence of degree of anisotropy and Poissons ratio on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a semi-infinite subgrade ................................................................257
25.4.1 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the back-calculated moduli.............................257
xiii
25.4.2 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections (n = 1) ..........................258

25.5 The influence of Poissons ratio and degree of anisotropy on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a subgrade of finite thickness ........................................................258
25.5.1 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the back-calculated moduli.............................258
25.5.2 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections (n = 1) ..........................259
Chapter 26 The Ovalisation Test .............................................................................................. 261

26.1 Description of the ovalisation test......................................................................................261
26.2 Interpretation of the results of the ovalisation test...............................................................261
26.3 Slab with a cavity on an elastic subgrade subjected to a symmetrical load............................262
26.3.1 Resolution in the case of a plain slab..........................................................................262
26.3.2 Resolution in the case of a slab with a cavity...............................................................263
26.4 Strains in the case of a non-symmetrical load.....................................................................265
26.4.1 Stresses in a hollow cylinder subjected to a uniform external pressure..........................265
26.4.2 Stresses in a hollow plate...........................................................................................266
26.4.3 Application of the ovalisation test. .............................................................................271
References ............................................................................................................................... 273
Appendix Complex Functions ..................................................................................................... 275
xiv
THE LAPLACE EQUATION
PART 1: THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS
Chapter 1 The Laplace Equation
1.1 Introductory note.

In mechanical engineering and thus also in the mechanics of civil engineering, one always starts with the
fundamental requirement of equilibrium: equilibrium of the normal forces and equilibrium of the
moments acting on the analysed body. Forces are resultants of stresses. In order to locate exactly those
forces and determine, at least analytically, their amplitude, it is convenient to start from an infinitesimal
section of the body. On such an infinitesimal section, the stresses are necessarily infinitely small and,
hence, can be considered as constant and uniformly distributed over the area of the infinitely small
section. Hence the resulting force is simply the product of the constant stress by the area of the section
and its point of application is the centre of gravity of the section, i.e. the midpoint of the section. All the
resulting equations will then necessarily be differential equations and, nearly in almost all applications,
the differential equation expressing equilibrium is a Laplace or an assimilated equation. The development
of these equations are presented in chapter 10, the first chapter of Part 2 Applications. As in many
fields of engineering, also in Pavement engineering the differential equation of Laplace is the solution of
a great series of applications. Symbolically, Laplace equation is written as follows:
2 = 0 (1.1)
It is a homogeneous differential equation with second order partial derivatives.
Function of the co-ordinate system, the equation is developed:
in plane Cartesian co-ordinates

2 2
+ =0 (1.2)
x 2 y 2
in volume Cartesian co-ordinates
2 2 2
+ + =0 (1.3)
x 2 y 2 z 2
in polar co-ordinates
2 1 1 2
+ + =0 (1.4)
r 2 r r r 2 2
in cylindrical co-ordinates
2 1 1 2 2
+ + + =0 (1.5)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2
In case of axial symmetry, / = 0 and equations (1.4) and (1.5) simplify in:
2 1
+ =0 (1.6)
r 2 r r
2 1 2
+ + =0 (1.7)
r 2 r r z 2
Equation (1.2) is applied in chapter 10.3.4.
Equation (1.4) will be utilised in chapters 10.5.1 and 19.1.
Equation (1.7) will be utilised in chapters 10.5.2, 10.6, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4.
1
1.2 Derivation of the Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates from the Laplace equation in
Cartesian co-ordinates.
Consider the relations between Cartesian and polar co-ordinates:
x = r cos
y = r sin
Hence
r 2 = x2 + y2
= tan 1 ( y / x )
Express the partial derivatives
r x x
= = = cos
x
(x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2 r
r y
= = sin
y r
1 y sin
= =
x y 2 x2 r
1+
x2
1 1 cos
= =
y y2 x r
1+ 2
x
Then
r
= +
x r x x
sin
= cos
x r r
2 r
= +
x 2 r x x x x
2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
= cos 2 + sin + sin 2 sin cos + sin cos
x 2 r 2 r r r 2 2 r r r 2
In the same way, obtain:
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
2
2 2
= sin + cos + cos + sin cos sin cos
y 2
r 2 r r r 2
2 r r r 2
Make the sum:
2 2 2
1 1 2
+ = + + (1.8)
x 2 y 2 r 2 r r r 2 2
2
1.3 Equations related to the Laplace equation.
Besides the properly so called Laplace differential equation, there exists a series of useful differential
equations closely related to the Laplace equation.
1.3.1 The Laplacian with coefficients different from 1.
For example in plane Cartesian co-ordinates

2 1 2
+ =0 (1.9)
x 2 C y 2
Equation (1.9) is utilised in chapters 10.3.5 and 20.6.
1.3.2 The double Laplacian
The double Laplacian, or the Laplace operator applied to a Laplace equation, is also a solution of an
important series of applications.
It writes
2 2 = 0 (1.10)
Developed, for example in volume co-ordinates, the double Laplacian is
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + =0 (1.11)
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 2
2
y z
Equation (1.10) is applied in chapters 10.3, 10.5.1,10.5.2, 10.5.3, 10.5.4, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4.
1.3.3 The extended Laplacian
Often the Laplacian equation is completed by derivatives of an order lower than the second. Here in polar
co-ordinates:
2 1 1 2
+ + + k = 0 (1.12)
r 2 r r r 2 2
or more generally
2 2 + A 2 + B = C (1.13)
The extended Laplacian is used in chapters 10.1.5, 10.2.2 and in chapters 12 to 19.
3
1.4 Resolution of the Laplace equation

Three very general methods are applied in this book.
1.4.1 Resolution by separation of the variables

Solution in volume Cartesian co-ordinates:
Consider equation (1.3) and assume a solution such as = f 1 (x)f 2 (y)f3 (z).
Applying (1.3) yields
2 f 1( x ) 2 f2 ( y ) 2 f3 ( z )
f 2 ( y ) f 3 ( z ) + f1 ( x ) f3 ( z ) + f1 ( x ) f 2 ( y ) =0
x 2 y 2 z 2
and dividing by f 1 (x)f 2(y)f 3(z)
2
2 f1 ( x ) f 2 ( y ) 2 f 3 ( z )
x 2 y 2
+ z
2
+ =0
f1 ( x ) f2( y ) f3( z )
Each of the 3 terms of the sum is a function of one single variable; this results in
2 f1 ( x ) 2 f 2( y ) 2 f3( z )
= C1 f 1 ( x ) = C2 f2( y ) = C3 f 3 ( z )
x 2 y 2 z 2
C1 + C 2 + C3 = 0
a system with a large series of solutions of the differential equation.
For example: f 1 (x) = cos(x), f 2 (y) = cos(y), f 3 (z) = e z2.
Solution in axi-symmetric cylinder co-ordinates ( Bowman,1958):
Consider equation (1.7) and apply a solution such as = f(r)g(z).

Applying (1.7) yields
2 f (r ) 1 f ( r ) 2 g( z )
g( z ) + g( z ) + f ( r ) =0
r 2 r r z 2
and dividing by f(r)g(z)
2 f(r ) 2
1 f ( r ) g ( z )
r 2 + r r + z 2 = 0
f(r ) f (r) g( z )
Thus
2 f (r ) 1 f 2 g( z )
+ = Cf ( r ) = Cg( z )
r 2 r r z 2
Choose Cg(z) = e z.
Hence f(r) must be a solution of
2 f (r ) 1 f ( r )
+ + f(r ) =0 (1.14)
r 2 r r
Equation (1.14) is called the Bessel equation of zero order.
4
The function known as Bessels function of the first kind and of n- th order and denoted Jn (r) is defined as
follows (Bowman, 1958):
( r / 2 )n ( r / 2 )2 + n ( r / 2 )4 + n ( r / 2 )6 + n
J n( r ) = + + ... (1.15)
0! n! 1! ( n + 1 )! 2! ( n + 2 )! 3! ( n + 3 )!
Hence
( r / 2 )2 ( r / 2 )4 ( r / 2 )6
J 0( r ) = 1 + + ... (1.16)
1!1! 2! 2! 3!3!
and
r ( r / 2 ) 3 ( r / 2 ) 5 ( r / 2 )7
J1 ( r ) = + + ... (1.17)
2 1!2! 2!3! 3! 4!
Differentiating the series for J0 (r) and comparing the result with the series for J1 (r) results in:
dJ 0 ( r )
= J1 ( r ) (1.18)
dr
Also, after multiplying the series for J1 (r) by r and differentiating:
d
(rJ 1( r ) ) = rJ 0 ( r ) (1.19)
dr
Using (1.18), (1.19) can be rewritten in the form:
d dJ 0 ( r )
r = rJ 0 ( r )
dr dr
d 2J 0( r ) 1 dJ 0 ( r )
+ + J0 ( r ) = 0 (1.20)
dr 2 r dr
Hence J0 (r) is a solution of (1.14) and = J0(r)ez is a solution of (1.7).
This particular solution was developed to introduce, from the first chapter on, the Bessel functions. Bessel
functions are frequently used and discussed throughout this book.
1.4.2 Resolution by means of the characteristic equation (Spiegel, 1971)

This solution applies to homogeneous linear differential equations with constant coefficients defined as
d n d n 1 d
a0 + a1 + ... + a n 1 + an = 0 (1.21)
dx n dx n 1 dx
It is convenient to adopt the notations D , D2, ..., Dn to denote d/dx, d2/dx2 , ...d n/dxn, where D,
D2 , ..., Dn are called differential operators.
Using this notation, (1.21) transforms
n n 1
a0 D + a1 D + ... + a n 1D + an = 0 (1.22)

Let = e mx, m = constant, in (1.22) to obtain
a 0 m n + a1m n 1 + ... + a n = 0 (1.23)
that is called the characteristic equation. It can be factored into
a0 ( m m1 )( m m2 )...( m mn ) = 0 (1.24)
which roots are m1 , m2 , ...mn .
5
One must consider three cases:
Case 1. Roots all real and distinct.
Then em1x, em2x, ... emnx are n linearly independent solutions so that the required solution is:
= C1e m1 x + C2 e m 2 x + ... + Cn e m n x (1.25)
Case 2. Some roots are complex.
If a0 , a 1, ..., an are real, then when a+bi is a root of (1.23) so also is a-bi (where a and b are real and i =
(-1) ) . Then a solution corresponding to the roots a+bi and a-bi is:
= e ax (C1 cos bx + C2 sin bx ) (1.26)
iu
where use is made of Eulers formula e = cos u +i sin u (see Appendix).
Case 3. Some roots are repeated.
If m1 is a root of multiplicity k, then a solution is given by:

(
= C1 + C 2 x + C3 x 2 + ... + Ck x k 1 e m1 x ) (1.27)
Example
Consider the double Laplacian in plane Cartesian co-ordinates:

4 4 4
+2 + =0 (1.28)
x 4 x 2 y 2 y 4
Choose as solution = f(x) ey . Hence (1.28) reduces in
4 f ( x) 2 f( x)
+2 + f ( x)= 0 (1.29)
x 4 x 2
Equation (1.29) is a homogeneous linear differential equation of order 4. The characteristic equation
writes:
m 4 + 2m 2 + 1 = 0 (1.30)
and can be factored in:
( m + i )2 ( m i )2 = 0 (1.31)
Based on (1.26) and (1.27), the solution of (1.29) becomes:
f ( x ) = A cos x + B sin x + x (C cos x + D sin x )
and the solution of (1.28):
( x , y ) = e y [A cos x + B sin x + x(C cos x + D sin x )] (1.32)
1.4.3 Resolution by means of indicial equations

Consider the differential equation:
d 2w
+ k 2w = 0 (1.33)
2
dx
Assume a solution in the form of a indicial series
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 L
Apply (1.33)
6
2.1.a 2 + 3.2.a 3 x + 4.3.a4 x 2 L + k 2 a0 + k 2 a1 x + k 2 a 2 x 2 L = 0

This equation must be equal zero for all values of x. Hence the sum of the coefficients of each exponent
of x must be individually zero.
2.1.a 2 + k 2 a0 = 0
3.2.a 3 + k 2 a1 = 0
4.3.a 4 + k 2 a2 = 0

First let a 0 = 1 and a 1 = 0
Hence
k2 k4 k2p
a2 = a4 = a2 p = ( ) p (1.34)
2! 4! ( 2 p )!
a1 = a3 = L = a 2 p + 1 = L0 (1.35)
The successive terms of (1.34) are the terms of the cosine series. Hence, the first solution of (1.33) is
f(x) = cos(kx). The second solution is obtained by setting a 0 = 0 and a 1 = k. Obviously, the second
solution of (1.33) is f(x) = sin(kx).
7
8
THE GAMMA FUNCTION
Chapter 2 The Gamma Function
2.1 Introductory note
In chapter 1, we have defined the Bessel function of the first kind and of order zero as:
J 0 ( r ) = ( )k
(r / 2 )2k
k! k!
This equation can be generalised, for n an integer, in:
J n ( r ) = ( )k
(r / 2) 2k + n
k ! ( k + n )!
When p is not an integer, the Bessel function of order p writes:
J p ( r ) = ( ) k (r / 2 )2 k + p
k! ( k + p + 1 )
where (k+p+1) is called the gamma function of k+p+1.
For our purpose, the gamma function is essentially required to express Bessel functions of non-integer
order: it is the factorial function for non-integers. Observe that with these definitions (n+1) = n!
2.2 Helpful relations

p1 x
( p)= x e dx
o
( p + 1 ) = p ( p )
(1) = 1
( n + 1 ) = n!
(1 / 2 ) =
( n ) =
d ( n ) 1 1 1
= ' ( n ) = ( n ) + 1 + + + ... +
dn 2 3 n 1
= 0.5772157 (Eulers constant)
9
2.3 Definition of the Gamma Function

The gamma function is defined by:

p1 x
( p)= x e dx (2.1)
o
which is convergent for p > 0.
Applying the definition

( p + 1 ) = x e dx =
p x
x p e x ( e x
)( px p 1
)dx = p x p 1e x dx = p ( p )
o
o
o o
one obtains the recurrence formula:
( p + 1 ) = p ( p ) (2.2)
By taking (2.1) as the definition of (p) for p > 0, we can generalise the gamma function to p < 0 by use
of (2.2) in the form
( p + 1)
( p)= (2.3)
p
This process is called analytic continuation.
Applying (2.1) we determine the value of (1)

( 1 ) = e x dx = e x =1 (2.4)
o
o
Hence, applying (2.2)
( 2 ) = 1 ( 1 ) = 1
( 3 ) = 2 ( 2 ) = 2 1 = 2!
( 4 ) = 3 ( 3 ) = 3 2 ( 2 ) = 3 2 1 = 3!
( n + 1 ) = n!
For n being a positive integer.
2.3. Values of gamma functions.
The values of (p) for non-integer values of p must be computed numerically. One obtains for 1 p 2
p 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
(p) 1.00 .951 .918 .898 .887 .886 .894 .909 .931 .962 1.00
Table 1 Values of (p) for non-integer values of p
The value of (p) can be computed for any value of p using (2.2)
(4.3) = 3.3 (3.3) = 3.3 * 2.3 * (2.3) =
3.3 * 2.3 * 1.3 * (1.3) = 3.3 * 2.3 * 1.3 * 0.898 = 8.861
10
THE GAMMA FUNCTION
2.4 Values of (1/2) and (-1/2).

Two particular values of the gamma function, (1/2) and (-1/2), appear in many applications. By
definition:

( 1 / 2 ) = x 1 / 2 e x dx
o
Write x =u 2 and dx = 2udu

( 1 / 2 ) = 2 e u du
2
o
Then

[ ( 1 / 2]2 = 2 e u v 2
e ( u + v ) dudv
2 2
du 2 e
2
dv = 4
o o oo
Write u = r cos , v = r sin , du dv = r dr d
/ 2 /2
[ ( 1 / 2 )]2 = 4 e r d =
2
rdrd = 2
o o o
Hence
(1 / 2 ) = (2.5)
and by (2.3)
(1 / 2 )
( 1 / 2 ) = = 2 (2.6)
1/ 2
2.5. Values of (n) for n = 0, -1, -2, ...
By definition
x
e
(0 ) = x
dx
o
that we write

1 1 1 1 1
( 0 ) = e x + ... dx + e x + ...dx
o x 2! x 2 3! x 3 o 2! x 2 3! x 3
Derive
d x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
e 2
3
= e x 2
3
e x 2
+ 3

dx 2! x 3! x 2! x 3! x x 2! x 3! x
Hence

x 1 1 1 1
( 0 ) = e + ... e x + ... dx
2! x 2 3! x 3 o 2! x 2 3! x 3
11

1 1
+ e x + ... dx
o 2! x 2
3! x 3

x 1 1
(0 ) = e + ...
2! x 2 3! x 3 o

x 1 1 1 1
(0 ) = e 1 + + ... 1 +
1! x 2! x 2 3! x 3 1! x o

x 1 / x 1
(0 ) = e e 1 + = (2.7)
1! x o
(0 )
( 1 ) = = (2.8)
1
( n ) = (2.9)
The gamma function is undefined when the value of the argument is zero or a negative integer.
2.6. Derivative of (n).

We call (n) the derivative of (n) with respect to n. For simplicity we consider only the case of n being
an integer, which besides is the only case required for our purpose.
By definition
( )

d d n1 x
'(n)= x n 1e x dx = dn x e dx = x
n 1
log x e x dx
dn
o o o
We first compute (1)

' ( 1 ) = log xe x dx
o
Integrating by parts
x
log xdx = x log x x dx = x log x x
x2 1 x2 x2 x2
x log xdx =
2 2 x
dx =
2
log x
2

n
n 1 x 1 n 1 xn xn
x log x dx =
n
log x x
n
dx =
n
log x
n2
Further
log xe
x
dx = ( x log x x )e x + x log xe x dx xe x dx
x
x2 x 2 x 1 1
x log xe dx = log x e + x 2 log xe x dx x 2 e x dx
2! 2.2! 2! 2.2!

12
THE GAMMA FUNCTION
1 x3 3
x log x x e x + 1 x 3 log xe x dx 1 x 3 e x dx
2! 3! 3.3!
x 2
log xe dx =
3! 3.3!

...
1 n 1 x
xn x n x 1 1
x log xe dx = log x e + x n log xe x dx n x
x e dx
( n 1 )! n! n .n ! n! n .n!

Assembling:
x
x x2 x3 x n x x
x2 x3 x n x
+
log xe dx =
1! 2! 3!
+ + ... +
n!
log x e +
1.1! 2.2! 3.3!
+ + ... +
n.n!
e

1 1 1 1
xe x dx x 2 e x dx x 3e x dx ... x n e x dx
n.n!

1.1! 2 .2 ! 3.3!
log x e x
dx = e x
1 (
) log x e)x x

+
x2
1.1! 2.2! 3.3!
+
x3
+ ... +
n
x n x
.n !
e

1 1 1 1
xe x dx x 2 e x dx x 3e x dx ... x n e x dx
1.1! 2 .2 ! 3.3! n.n!
Integrating between 0 and yields

x x
log xe dx = log x o log xe o
o

x x2 x3 ( 2 ) ( 3) ( 4 )
+ + + ...e x ...
1.1! 2.2! 3.3! 1.1! 2.2! 3.3!
o
( ) ( )

x 1 1
log xe dx = lim log x lim log x lim log xe x + lim log xe x 0 + 0 1 ...
x x 0 x x 0 2 3
o
( )

x 1 1
log xe dx = lim log x + lim log x e x 1 1
x x 0 2 3
0

1 1 1
' ( 1 ) = log x e x dx = lim log M 1 ... = (2.10)
M 2 3 M
o
where = 0.5772157 is called Eulers constant.
By extent:

log xe
x
dx = ( x log x x )e x + x log xe x
dx xe x dx
o
o o o

x x x
x log x e dx = log xe dx + xe dx
o o o
13

x
'(2)= x log xe dx = + ( 2 )
o
1
' ( 3 ) = 2! + ( 3 ) 1 +
2
...
1 1 1
' ( n ) = ( n 1 )! + ( n )1 + + + ... +
2 3 n 1
'( n ) 1 1 1
= + 1 + + + ... + (2.11)
(n) 2 3 n 1
14
THE GENERAL SOLUTION OF THE BESSEL EQUATION
Chapter 3 The General Solution of the Bessel Equation.

In the way trigonometric functions are solutions of Laplace equation in Cartesian co-ordinates, Bessel
functions are solutions of Laplace equation in polar or cylindrical co-ordinates. One could say that Bessel
functions is a three dimensional function whereas trigonometric functions are two dimensional functions.
The fundamental characteristics of both functions are identical:
d2 f( x)
- if f(x) = cos(x) = f( x)
dx 2
d2 f(r ) 1 df ( r )
- if f(r) = J0 (r) + = f (r)
dr 2 r dr
Bessel functions are essentially utilised in problems presenting an axial symmetry: in pavement
engineering, the common case of a circular load on a layered structure, i.e. nearly all applications of
chapters 12 to 26.
Jp and J-p are the two solutions of the first kind of Bessels equation
d 2 1 d
+ p + t 2 = 0
2 2
dr r dr r
However, when p = n, Jn = (-)n J-n.
In that case, Bessels equation requires another second solution, a solution of the second kind, Yp , which
will not be utilised in this book.
Ip and I-p are the two modified solutions of the first kind of Bessels modified equation:
d 2 1 d
+ p t 2 = 0
2 2
dr r dr r
These also, arent used in this book. However, they allow introducing the Ker and Kei functions,
solutions of:
d 2 1 d
+ + it 2 = 0
2
dr r dr
which is applied in the problem of a slab subjected to an isolated load (chapter 12.4) and in the
ovalisation test (chapter 26.4).
The modified form of Bessels equation:

d 2F 1 dF 2 p2 2
+ ( 1 2 ) + F + 2 2 r 2( 1 ) F = 0
2 2
dr r dr r
permits us to illustrate the existence of relations between Bessel functions of order and trigonometric
functions (chapter 4.3) Those relations allow us to establish asymptotic approximations for Bessel
functions (chapter 4.5), required for the numerical computations of functions of high arguments.
15

(rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( rt ) = ( )
k
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )

(rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( rt ) = ( )
k
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )
J n ( rt ) = ( ) n J n ( rt ) for n integer
n 1 2k n
Yn ( rt ) =
2
[ J n ( rt )(log( rt / 2 ) + )] 1 ( n k 1 )! ( rt / 2 )
0 k!
1 k 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( rt / 2 ) 2k + n

0
( ) + +
1 2 3

+ ... + + + +
k 1 2 3
+ ... +
n + k k! ( n + k )!
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt )

p ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
I p ( rt ) = i J p ( irt ) =
0
k! ( k + p + 1 )
1 n 1 k ( n k 1 )!
K n ( rt ) = ( )
2 0 k! ( rt / 2 ) n 2k

n +1 ( rt / 2 ) n + 2k
1 1
+ () k! ( n + k )!

log( rt / 2 )
2
( k + 1 )
2
( n + k + 1 )

0
1 1 1 1
( 1 ) = ( k + 1 ) = + + + + ... +
1 2 3 k
J 0 ( rti i ) = I 0 ( rt i ) = ber( rt ) ibei ( rt )

( rt / 2 ) 4k ( rt / 2 )4 k + 2
ber( rt ) = ( ) bei( rt ) = ( )
k k
0
( 2 k )! ( 2k )! 0
( 2k + 1 )! ( 2k + 1 )!
K 0 ( rt i ) = ker( rt ) kei( rt )
ker( rt ) = ber( rt )[log( rt / 2 + ] +

bei( rt )
(rt / 2 )4 1 + 1 ...

4 2!2! 2
kei( rt ) = bei ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ]

bei( rt ) +
(rt / 2) 2 (rt / 2 )6 1 1
1 + + ...
4 1!1! 3! 3! 2 3
16
3.3 Resolution of the Bessel equation (Bessel functions of the first kind)
Recall the definition of the Laplacian in cylinder co-ordinates given by 1.5:

2 1 1 2 2
+ + + =0 (3.1)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2
Consider next solution obtained by the method of separation of the variables
= F ( r ) cos( p )e tz
and apply it to (3.1) that transforms into:
2F 1 F p 2
+ F +t2F = 0 (3.2)
r 2 r r r 2
The general solution of equation (3.2) can be found by the method of the indicial equations (Wayland,
1970). Therefore assume that the solution can be written as a series such as:

n + + 2
F = an r (3.3)
0
Hence
F n + +1
= ( n + )a n r (3.4)
r 0

F
2
n +
= ( n + )( n + 1 )r (3.5)
r 2
0
Replace the terms in (3.2) by (3,3), (3.4) and (3.5):
{ [( n + )( n + 1 ) + ( n + ) p 2 ] an r n + + t 2 an r n + + 2 }= 0

0
Take out the first two terms of the first summation:
2 2
r ( p )a0 + ( p + 1 )( + p + 1 )a1r

+ ( n + p )( n + + p )a n r n + t 2 a n r n+ 2 = 0
2 0
If the terms in r0 and r1 are equal zero, the relation becomes homogeneous regarding the exponents of r.
Therefore choose a 0 = arbitrary, a1 = 0 and = p.
Rearrange the indices

[ ]
r ( n + 2 )( n + 2 2 p )an + 2 + a nt 2 r n + 2 = 0
0
(3.6)
If (3.6) has to be identical zero whatever the value of m, each term of the summation has to be equal zero.
Hence the recurrence formula
( n + 2 )( n + 2 2 p )a n + 2 = a nt 2 (3.7)
and because a 1 = 0, all the terms with an odd index are also equal zero.
Finally resulting in:
17
2
a0 t 2 a0 t 2 a0 t
a2 = = =
2( 2 2 p ) 2 2( 1 p ) 1 ( 1 p ) 2
4
a 2t 2 a0 t
a4 = =
4( 4 2 p ) 1 2( 1 p )( 2 p ) 2
6
a4 t 2 a0 t
a6 = =
6( 6 2 p ) 1 2 3( 1 p )( 2 p )( 3 p ) 2
..............
2s
( ) s a0 t
a2 s =
s! ( 1 p )( 2 p )...( s p ) 2
If p is different from zero or not an integer, one obtains two linearly independent solutions

( rt / 2 ) p + 2 k
( rt ) p + 2 k
F = A ( ) + B( )
k k
(3.8)
0
k! ( p + k + 1) 0
k! ( p + k + 1 )
The corresponding series are called Bessel functions of the first kind and noted

( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( rt ) = ( )
k
(3.9)
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )

( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( rt ) = ( )
k
(3.10)
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )
The Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1 are represented in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1
18
3.4 Resolution of the Bessel equation for p an integer (Bessel functions of the second and third
kind)
3.4.1 For n integer, Jn = (-)n J-n

When p is an integer, let say n, solutions (3.9) and (3.10) are not linearly independent any more. Indeed
when p = -n

( rt / 2 ) n+ 2k n1 k ( rt / 2 )
n+ 2k
k ( rt / 2 )
n+ 2k
J n ( rt ) = ( ) = ( ) + ( )
k
0
k! ( n + k )! 0
k ! ( n + k )! n
k! ( n + k )!
When 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., k = n-1, (-n+k)! = and
( rt / 2 ) n+ 2k
=0
k! ( n + k )!
Write k = n + j

( rt / 2 ) n + 2k
n+ j ( rt / 2 )
n+ 2 j
J n ( rt ) = ( ) = ( )
k
n
k ! ( n + k )! 0
( n + j )! j !

( rt / 2 ) n+ 2 j
J n ( rt ) = ( ) ( )
n j n
= ( ) J n ( rt )
0
j! ( n + j )!
Hence the two solutions are not linearly independent.
3.4.2 Bessel functions of the second kind

In order to find a second linearly independent solution, we define the function
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
Y p ( rt ) = (3.11)
sin( p )
which is valid for p not an integer.
Then we define for p = n
Yn ( rt ) = lim
p n sin( p )
We search the solution for n = 0.
Y0 ( rt ) = lim
p0 sin( p )
Apply de LHospitals rule
J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )
cos( p ) J p ( rt ) sin( p )
p p
Y0 ( rt ) =
cos( p )
1 J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )
Y0 ( rt ) =
p p
Compute the derivatives of Jp (rt) and J-p(rt):

J p ( rt ) ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k ' ( p + k + 1 )
= ( )
k
log( rt / 2 )
p 0
k! ( p + k + 1 ) ( p + k + 1)
19

J p ( rt ) ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k ' ( p + k + 1)
= ( )
k
log( rt / 2 ) +
p 0
k! ( p + k + 1 ) ( p + k +1)
and for p 0
2 k ( rt / 2 )
2k
' ( k + 1 )
Y0 ( rt ) = ( ) log( rt / 2 )
0 k! k! ( k +1)
By (2.11)
'( k + 1) 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ... +
( k + 1) 1 2 3 k
Hence
( rt / 2 )2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 1 ( rt / 2 )6 1 1
Y0 ( rt ) =
2
0J ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] + 1 + 2 + 3!3! 1 + 2 + 3 ...
1!1! 2!2!
(3.12)
For n 0, (3.12) is extended to
n 1 2k n
Yn ( rt ) =
2
{J n ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ]} 1 ( n k 1 )! ( rt / 2 )
0 k!
(3.13)
2k + n
1 k 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( rt / 2 )

0
( ) + + + ... + + + + + ... +
1 2 3 k 1 2 3 n + k k! ( n + k )!
The functions Yp (rt) are called functions of the second kind.
The Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1 are represented in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1
20
3.4.3 Bessel functions of the third kind
Hankel introduced next pair of conjugate complex functions, with i = (-1):

H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt ) (3.14)
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt ) (3.15)
These functions are called Hankel functions or Bessel functions of the third kind.
3.5 The modified Bessel equation.

If in 3.3 we chose:
= F ( r ) cos( p ) cos( tz )
as solution of the Laplace equation, equation (3.2) would modify into:
2F 1 F p 2
+ F t2 F = 0 (3.16)
r 2 r r r 2
Equation (3.16) is called the modified Bessel equation.
Its solution can immediately be deduced from the original solution (3.8)
F ( rt ) = AJ p ( irt ) + BJ p ( irt ) (3.17)
where

i 2k + p ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( irt ) = ( )
k
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )

( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( irt ) = i
p
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
Hence we define the function Ip , modified Bessel function of the first kind, as a real function, solution of
the modified Bessel equation.

p ( rt / 2 ) p+ 2k
Ip =i J p ( irt ) = (3.18)
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )
F ( rt ) = AI p + BI p (3.19)
It is easy to deduce from (3.18) that when p is an integer, let say p = n, In = I-n. In that case, the second
solution is usually defined by
( ) n I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
K n ( rt ) = lim (3.20)
pn 2 p n
which is called the modified Bessel function of the second kind.
The function Kp (rt) is defined for unrestricted values of p by the equation

I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
K p ( rt ) = (3.21)
2 sin p
Applying de LHospitals rule on (3.20) and (3.21), one verifies that
K n ( rt ) = lim K p ( rt )
pn
In a similar way as given in 3.4.2 one obtains:
21
1 n 1 k ( n k 1 )!
K n ( rt ) = ( )
2 0 k ! ( rt / 2 )n 2k
(3.22)
n + 2k
n +1 ( rt / 2 ) 1 1
+ () ln(
k! ( n + k )!

tr / 2 )
2
( k + 1 )
2
( n + k + 1 )

0
1 1 1 1
( 1 ) = ( k + 1 ) = + + + + ... +
1 2 3 k
The modified Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1 are represented in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Modified Bessel functions of the first kind of order 0 and 1
The modified Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1 are given in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Modified Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1
22
3.6 The ber and bei functions.

Consider next modified Bessel equation:
2F 1 F
+ ( i )t 2 F = 0 (3.23)
r 2 r r
which solutions of the first kind are
i( rt / 2 )2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 i( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )8
I 0 ( rt i ) = 1 + + ...
1!1! 2! 2! 3!3! 4!4!
i( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 i( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )8
I 0 ( rt i ) = 1 + + ...
1!1! 2! 2! 3!3! 4!4!
We define:
I 0 ( rt i ) = ber( rt ) ibei ( rt ) (3.24)
where
( rt / 2 ) 4 ( rt / 2 ) 8 ( rt / 2 )12
ber( rt ) = 1 + + ... (3.25)
2!2! 4! 4! 6!6 !
( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )10
bei( rt ) = + + ... (3.26)
1!1! 3!3! 5! 5!
Notice that:
( ) (
I rt i + I 0 rt i
ber( rt ) = 0
) (
J rti i + J 0 rti i
= 0
) ( )
J rt i + J 0 rt i
= 0
( ) ( ) (3.27)
2 2 2
( ) (
I rt i I 0 rt i
bei( rt ) = 0
) (
J rti i J 0 rti i
= 0
) ( )
J rt i J 0 rt i
= 0
( ) ( ) (3.28)
2i 2i 2i
The ber and bei functions can be depicted in Figure 3.5
Figure 3.5 The ber and bei functions
23
3.7 The ker and kei functions.

Again consider equation (3.23), which solutions of the second kind are:
2 4 6
rt i rt i rt i

1 2
( ) ( )

K0 rt i = I 0 rt i log
rt i 2
+ + + 2
2! 2!
1 + +
2 3! 3!
1 1
1 + + ...
2 3
2 1!1!
Recall that:
rt i rt rt 1 rt 1 rt
log = log + log i = log + log i = log + ei / 2 = log + i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
and applying (3.24)
2 4 6
rt rt rt

( )
K 0 rt i = [ber( rt ) + ibei( rt )]log + + i + i
rt 2 2
1 +
1 2
i
1 1
1 + + ...
2 4 1!1! 2!2 ! 2 3!3! 2 3
2 4 6
rt rt rt

( ) 2
K0 rt i = [ber( rt ) ibei( rt )]log + i i
rt
2 1 2
1 + + i
1 1
1 + + ...
2 4 1!1! 2! 2! 2 3! 3! 2 3
We define:
ker( rt ) =
( )
K0 rt i + K0 rt i ( ) (3.29)
2
( )
K rt i K 0 rt i
kei( rt ) = 0
( ) (3.30)
2i

ker( rt ) = ber( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] + bei ( rt )
(rt / 2 )4 1
1 + ... (3.31)
4 2! 2! 2
kei( rt ) = bei ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ]

ber( rt ) +
(rt / 2 )2 (rt / 2 )6 1 1
1 + + ... (3.32)
4 1!1! 3!3! 2 3
The ker and kei functions are given in figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 The ker and kei functions
24
3.8 Resolution of the equation 22 w + w =0

Consider the next equation:
d 2 1 d d 2 w 1 dw
+ + + w= 0 (3.33)
dr 2 r dr dr 2 r dr

The solution can be obtained by splitting (3.33) into two simultaneous differential equations
d 2w 1 dw
+ =z (3.34)
2 r dr
dr
d 2z 1 dz
+ = w (3.35)
dr 2 r dr
Both equations are verified together if z = miw . Indeed, if, for example, z = iw
d 2w 1 dw
(3.34) becomes + iw = 0 , and
dr 2 r dr
d 2w 1 dw d 2 w 1 dw
(3.35) becomes i +i + w = 0 or + iw = 0
dr 2 r dr dr 2 r dr
Hence the solution of (3.33) is given by the solution of

d 2w 1 dw
+ ( i ) w = 0 (3.36)
2 r dr
dr
The equations (3.25), (3.26), (3.31) and (3.32) give the solution of (3.36), for its two signs
w = Aber ( r ) + Bbei ( r ) + C ker( r ) + Dkei( r ) (3.37)
3.9 The modified form of the Bessel equation

Consider the next differential equation:
2F 1 F 2 p 2 2
+ ( 1 2 ) + F + 2 2 r 2( 1 ) F = 0 (3.38)
r 2 r r r 2
which has for solutions, as can be verified by substitution,
F ( r ) = Ar J p ( r ) + Br J p ( r ) (3.39)
or, if p is an integer,
F ( r ) = Ar J p ( r ) + Br Y p ( r ) (3.40)
An interesting application of (3.38) is the resolution of the Laplace equation in two- dimensional
Cartesian co-ordinates
2 2 2
= + =0
x 2 y 2
Consider a solution such as = F(x)e ty
25
Hence
2 F ( x ) 2
=
2
+ t F ( x ) e ty = 0 (3.41)
x
2

Comparing (3.41) with (3.38) yields:
= 1/ 2 =1 =t
2 p 2 2 = 0 p =1/ 2
Hence
F ( x ) = Ax 1 / 2 J 1 / 2 ( tx ) + Bx 1 / 2 J 1 / 2 ( tx ) (3.42)
However
F ( x ) = A cos( tx ) + B sin( tx ) (3.43)
is also a solution of (3.41). Therefore, one must conclude that there exists a relation between Bessel
functions of order 1/2 and trigonometric functions.
26
PROPERTIES OF THE BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Chapter 4 Properties of the Bessel Functions.

This chapter deals with the most important properties of Bessel functions: derivatives, functions of half
order, asymptotic values, indefinite integrals and relations between functions of different kind.

d
dr
[( rt ) p
]
J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p1 ( rt )
d
dr
[( rt ) p
]
J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p+ 1( rt )
d p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p1 ( rt ) J p ( rt )
dr r
d p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p +1 ( rt ) + J p ( rt )
dr r
2p
J p1 ( rt ) + J p +1( rt ) = J p ( rt )
rt
rJ 1 ( rt )
rJ 0 ( rt )dr = t
J 0 ( rt )
J 1( rt )dr = t
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = sin( rt )
rt
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = cos( rt )
rt
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt e rt ]
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt + e rt ]
rt
K 1 / 2 = K 1 / 2 = e
2 rt
2 p
J p ( rt ) cos rt for high values of rt
rt 4 2
2 p
J p ( rt ) sin rt + + for high values of rt
rt 4 2
2 p
Y p ( rt ) sin rt for high values of rt
rt 4 2
27
2 p
Y p ( rt ) cos rt + + for high values of rt
rt 4 2
2 i( rt p / 2 / 4 )
H (p1 ) e for high values of rt
rt
2 i( rt p / 2 / 4 )
H (p2 ) e for high values of rt
rt
I p ( rt )
1
2rt
( )
e rt + e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i for high values of rt
e rt / 2 rt
ber( rt ) cos for high values of rt
2rt 2 8
e rt / 2 rt
bei( rt ) sin for high values of rt
2rt 2 8
rt / 2 rt
ker( rt ) e cos + for high values of rt
2rt 2 8
rt / 2 rt
kei( rt ) e sin + for high values of rt
2 rt 2 8
( )
J p ( z ) = J p e i z = e ip J p ( z )
( )
J p e mi z = e mi p J p ( z )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) + H (p2 ) ( rt )
J p ( rt ) =
2
Y p ( rt ) Y p( rt ) cos( p )
J p ( rt ) =
sin( p )
J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip
H (p1 ) ( rt ) =
i sin( p )
J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip
H (p2 ) ( rt )=
i sin( p )
sin( mp )
H (p1 ) ( rtem i ) = e mpi H (p1 ) ( rt ) 2e pi J p ( rt )
sin( p )
sin( mp )
H (p2 ) ( rtemi ) = e mp i H (p2 ) ( rt ) + 2 e p i J p ( rt )
sin( p )
I p ( rt ) = i pi / 2 J p ( rtei / 2) )

K p ( rt ) = i e pi / 2 H (p1 ) ( rti )
2

K p ( rt ) = i e pi / 2 H (p2 ) ( rti )
2
28
4.3 Derivatives of Bessel functions
4.3.1 Derivative of (rt)pJp (rt)

By definition of the Bessel function
d
dr
[
( rt ) J p ( rt ) =
p
]d
( )
dr 0
k ( rt ) 2 p + 2k

2 p + 2k k! ( p + k + 1 )
2 p + 2k 1
k 2( p + k )( rt ) t
= ( )
p + 2k
0 2 k! ( p + k + 1 )

( rt ) 2 p + 2k 1 t
= ( )
k
0 2 p +2 k 1 k! ( p + k )

( rt )( p 1 ) + 2k
= t ( rt )
p
( ) k
0 2( p 1 ) + 2k k ! [( p 1 ) + k + 1]
d
dr
[ ]
( rt ) p J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p 1 ( rt ) (4.1)
4.3.2 Derivative of (rt)-pJp(rt)

One finds similarly
d
dr
[ ]
( rt ) p J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p + 1( rt ) (4.2)
4.3.3 Derivative of J p (rt)

Deriving the left member of (4.1) by parts yields
d
dr
[ ] p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p 1 ( rt ) J p ( rt )
r
(4.3)
deriving the left member of (4.2) by parts yields
d
dr
[ ] p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p + 1 ( rt ) + J p ( rt )
r
(4.4)
Particularly
d
[J 0 ( rt )] = tJ 1( rt ) = tJ 1( rt ) (4.5)
dr
Adding (4.3) and (4.4) yields
d
dr
[ t
] [
J p ( rt ) = J p 1 ( rt ) J p + 1 ( rt )
2
] (4.6)
and subtracting yields the recurrence formula for Bessel functions
2p
J p 1( rt ) + J p + 1( rt ) = J p ( rt ) (4.7)
rt
29
4.4 Bessel functions of half order
4.4.1 Values of J 1/2(rt), J-1/2(rt), J3/2(rt), J -3/2 (rt)

Expanding the Bessel functions in their series and recalling that (1/2) = yields:
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = sin( rt ) (4.8)
rt
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = cos( rt ) (4.9)
rt
2 sin( rt )
J 3 / 2 ( rt ) = cos( rt ) (4.10)
rt rt
2 cos( rt )
J 3 / 2 ( rt ) = + sin( rt ) (4.11)
rt rt
4.3.2. Values of I1/2 (rt), I-1/2(rt)
Expanding the Bessel functions in their series yields
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt e rt ] (4.12)
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt + e rt ] (4.13)
4.3.3. Values of K1/2(rt), K-1/2 (rt)
By definition (3.21)
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) I 1 / 2 ( rt ) rt
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) = = e (4.14)
2 sin( / 2 ) 2rt
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) I 1 / 2 ( rt ) rt
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) = = e (4.15)
2 sin( / 2 ) 2 rt
Hence
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) = K 1 / 2 ( rt ) (4.16)
4.4. Values of K0 (rt) and Kn(rt)
By definition (3.21)
I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
K0 ( rt ) = lim
p 0 2 sin p
Applying de lHospitals rule yields and omitting the lim sign
dI p ( rt ) dI p ( rt )

dp dp 1 dI p ( rt ) dI p ( rt )
K0 ( rt ) = =
2 cos p 2 dp dp
30
1d ( rt / 2 ) 2k p d ( rt / 2 ) 2k + p
K 0 ( rt ) = k ! ( k + p + 1 )
2 dp k ! ( k p + 1 ) dp
( rt / 2 ) 2k ( rt / 2 ) p log( rt / 2 ) ( k p + 1 ) + ( rt / 2 ) p ' ( k p + 1 )
K0 ( rt ) =
2k! ( k p + 1 ) ( k p + 1 )
( rt / 2 ) p log( rt / 2 ) ( k + p + 1 ) ( rt / 2 ) p ' ( k + p + 1 )

( k + p + 1 ) ( k + p + 1 )
Letting p 0
( rt / 2 )2 k ' ( k + 1 )
K0 ( rt ) = log( rt / 2 ) + ( k + 1 )
k! k!
Developing (k+1) as in 3.3.2 yields
( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 1
K0 ( rt ) = I 0 ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] + + 1 +
1!1! 2! 2! 2
( rt / 2 )6 1 1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 (4.17)
3!3!
For n 0, (4.17) is relatively easily extended to
1 n ( ) k ( n k 1 )!
I n ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] +
n +1 2k n
K n ( rt ) = ( )
2 0 k!
( rt / 2 )

( rt / 2 ) 2k + n
+ ( ) [ ( k ) + ( n + k )]
1 n
(4.18)
2 0
k ! ( k + n )!
4.5 Asymptotic values
4.5.1 Asymptotic values for Jp and J-p

Transform Bessel equation (3.2):
2F 1 F p 2
+ F +t2F = 0
r 2 r r r 2
1/2
by writing F(rt) = G(rt)/(rt)
2G p2 1/ 4
+ t 2 G = 0 (4.19)
r 2 r2
When p = , the equation reduces to
2G
+ t 2G = 0 (4.20)
r 2
whose general solution is given by
G = A cos( rt ) + B sin( rt )
Hence
F = A( rt ) 1 / 2 cos( rt ) + B( rt ) 1 / 2 sin( rt ) (4.21)
31
but also:
F = CJ 1 / 2 ( rt ) + DJ 1 / 2 ( rt ) (4.22)
Equations (4.21) and (4.22) confirm, as we knew by (4.8) and (4.9), that there exists a relation between
the Bessel functions of half order and the trigonometric functions, and that this relation is valid for all
values of the argument, thus in particular for high values of the argument. Hence the equations:
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = sin( rt )
rt
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = cos( rt )
rt
can be considered as the asymptotic equations for the Bessel functions of half order.
Thus (4.19) must have, for p not being an integer, two approximate values for high values of the argument
such as
J p ( rt ) Ap ( rt ) 1 / 2 cos( rt + p ) (4.23)
J p ( rt ) B p ( rt ) 1 / 2 sin( rt + p ) (4.24)
The coefficients p and p must be determined in such a way that equations (4.23) and (4.24) are linearly
independent and compatible with the definitions of Jp and J-p.
Derive, with respect to r, Jp in (4.23)
t
J 'p ( rt ) = A p ( rt ) 3 / 2 cos( rt + p ) A p ( rt ) 1 / 2 t sin( rt + p )
2
For high values of the argument the first term can be neglected against the second
J 'p ( rt ) A p ( rt ) 1 / 2 t sin( rt + p )
Further (4.3) and (4.4) simplify for high values of the argument
J 'p ( rt ) tJ p 1( rt )
J 'p ( rt ) tJ p + 1( rt )
Hence
Ap ( rt )1 / 2 t sin( rt + p ) tAp 1( rt )1 / 2 cos( rt + p 1 ) (4.25)
Ap ( rt )1 / 2 t sin( rt + p ) tAp +1( rt ) 1 / 2 cos( rt + p +1 ) (4.26)

If we choose Ap = Ap-1 = Ap+1 = A and p = k - p/2 in such a way that A and k are independent from p ,
we notice that equations (4.25) and (4.26) are satisfied. Indeed
p ( p 1 )
A sin rt + k = A cos rt + k
2 2
Then
1 / 2 p
J p ( rt ) A( rt ) cos rt + k
2
This equation must be satisfied for all values of p, thus also for p=1/2 for which
2 2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) = sin( rt ) = cos rt
rt rt 4 4
Hence A = (2)1/2 and k = - /4
32
Finally
2 p
J p ( rt ) cos rt (4.27)
rt 4 2
Replacing p by p in (4.27) yields
2 p
J p ( rt ) sin rt + + (4.28)
rt 4 2
4.5.2 Asymptotic values for Yp and Y-p

Since Yp and Y-p are the paired second solutions with Jp and J-p we shall admit implicitly the following
asymptotic equations
2 p
Y p ( rt ) sin rt (4.29)
rt 4 2
2 p
Y p ( rt ) cos rt + + (4.30)
rt 4 2
4.5.3 Asymptotic values for H p(1) and Hp(2)

By application of the definitions (3.14) and (3.15), one immediately finds:
2 i( rt / 4 p / 2 )
H (p1 ) = e (4.31)
rt
2 i( rt / 4 p / 2 )
H (p2 ) = e (4.32)
rt
4.5.4 Asymptotic values for Ip and I-p

Transform Bessel equation (3.16)
2F 1 F p 2
+ F t2 F = 0
r 2 r r r 2
by writing F(rt) = G(rt)/(rt)1/2
2G 2 p2 1/ 4
t + G = 0 (4.33)
r 2 r2
When p = , the equation reduces to
2G
t2G = 0 (4.34)
r 2
whose general solution is given by
G = Ae rt + Be rt
Hence
F = A( rt ) 1 / 2 e rt + B( rt ) 1 / 2 e rt (4.35)
but also
33
F = CI 1 / 2 ( rt ) + DI 1 / 2 ( rt ) (4.36)
Equation (4.35) is valid for all values of the argument, thus in particular for high values of the argument.
Hence the equations:
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt e rt ]
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt + e rt ]
can be considered as the asymptotic equations for the modified Bessel functions of half order.
Hence (4.33) must have, for p not an integer, two approximate values for high values of the argument
such as
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
I p ( rt ) = A p ( rt ) e +e (4.37)

1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
I p ( rt ) = B p ( rt ) e +e (4.38)

The coefficients and must be determined in such a way that equations (4.37) and (4.38) are linearly
independent and compatible with the definitions of Ip and I-p.
Derive, with respect to r, Ip in (4.37)
I 'p ( rt ) =
t
2
[
A p ( rt ) 3 / 2 e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) + e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) ]
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
+ A p ( rt ) t e e

For high values of the argument the first term can be neglected against the second
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
I ' p ( rt ) A p ( rt ) t e e

Further simplify the derivatives of Ip (rt) for high values of the argument
I 'p ( rt ) tJ p 1 ( rt )
I 'p ( rt ) tJ p + 1 ( rt )
Hence
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
A p ( rt ) t e e

1 / 2 rt + ( p 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p 1 / 2 )
= A p 1( rt ) t e +e (4.39)

1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
A p ( rt ) t e e

1 / 2 rt + ( p + 3 / 2 ) rt + ( p + 3 / 2 )
= A p + 1( rt ) t e +e (4.40)

If we choose Ap = Ap-1 = Ap+1 = A and = 0, = i in such a way that A and are independent from p ,
we notice that equations (4.39) and (4.40) are satisfied.
34
1 / 2 rt rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i
A( rt ) e e

1 / 2 rt rt + ( p 1 / 2 ) i
= A( rt ) e + e

Hence
1 / 2 rt rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
I p ( rt ) A( rt ) e +e

This equation must be satisfied for all values of p, thus also for p=1/2 for which
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
1
2rt
[
e rt e rt ]
Hence A = (2)1/2
Finally
1 rt rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i
I p ( rt ) e +e (4.41)
2rt
Replacing p by p in (4.41) yields
1 rt rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
I p ( rt ) e +e (4.42)
2rt
4.5.5 Asymptotic value for Kn

Consider definition (3.20):
( ) n I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
K n ( rt ) = lim (4.43)
p n 2 pn
For large values of the argument
( )n 1 e rt + e rt ( p 1 / 2 ) i e rt e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
K n ( rt )
2 2rt pn

e rt i e pi e pi
() n
1
K n ( rt )
2 2rt p n
Applying de lHospitals rule yields

( )n 2
K n ( rt ) cos( n )e rt
2 2rt
rt
K n ( rt ) e (4.44)
2 rt
In this form Kn (rt) may be generalised into
rt
K p ( rt ) e (4.45)
2 rt
where p not an integer and also
35
rt
K 0 ( rt ) e (4.46)
2rt
4.5.6 Asymptotic values for ber and bei

For high values of the argument (4.27) yields
1/ 2
( ) 2
J 0 rt i

cos rt i
rt i 4
With (i)-1/4 = e-i/8 and i = (1 + i)/2
e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2 + e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2

cos rt i =
4 2
e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2
cos rt i
4 2
( )
J 0 rt i
e rt / 2 i( rt 2 / 8 )
2rt
e
( )
J 0 rt i
e rt / 2 rt
cos
rt
i sin (4.47)
2rt 2 8 2 8
Similarly
(
J 0 rt i ) e rt / 2 rt
cos
rt
+ i sin (4.48)
2rt 2 8 2 8
Hence
ber( rt ) 0
( )
J rt i + J 0 rt i
=
(
e rt / 2 )
rt
cos (4.49)
2 2rt 2 8
bei( rt )
( )
J 0 rt i J 0 rt i
=
( )
e rt / 2 rt
sin (4.50)
2i 2rt 2 8
4.5.7 Asymptotic values for ker and kei
Recall equations (3.29) and (3.30)
ker( rt ) =
( )
K0 rt i + K0 rt i ( ) (4.51)
2
( )
K rt i K 0 rt i
kei( rt ) = 0
( ) (4.52)
2i
Apply (4.46)

K 0 ( rt i ) = e rt i
2 rt i
36
i / 8 rt( 1 + i ) / 2
= e e
2rt
rt / 2 i( rt / 2 + / 8 )
= e e
2rt
rt / 2 rt rt
K0 ( rt i ) = e cos + i sin + (4.53)
2 rt 2 8 2 8
Similarly obtain
rt / 2 rt rt
K0 ( rt i ) = e cos + + i sin + (4.54)
2 rt 2 8 2 8
Adding and subtracting (4.53) and (4.54) yields
rt / 2 rt
ker( rt ) = e cos + (4.55)
2rt 2 8
rt / 2 rt
kei( rt ) = e sin + (4.56)
2 rt 2 8
4.6 Indefinite integrals of Bessel functions
4.6.1 Fundamental relations

In 4.2.we have derived the following derivatives of Bessel functions:
d
[rtJ1 ( rt )] = t( rt ) J 0 ( rt )
dr
d
[J 0 ( rt )] = tJ 1( rt )
dr
From those equations we easily deduce next fundamental integrals
rJ 1 ( rt )
rJ 0 ( rt )dr = t
(4.57)
J 0 ( rt )
J 1( rt )dr = t (4.58)
4.6.2 The integral rn J0 (rt)dr

Integrating by parts solves the integral:
J ( rt ) ( n 1 ) n1
r J 0 ( rt )dr = r n 1
t
n
r J 1( rt )dr
t
n 1 r n1 ( n 1 ) n 2
r J 1 ( rt )dr = t J 0 ( rt ) + t r J 0 ( rt )dr
Hence
n J 1 ( rt ) ( n 1 ) n1 ( n 1 ) 2 n 2
r J 0 ( rt )dr = r + J 0 ( rt ) r J 0 ( rt )dr
n
r (4.59)
t t2 t2
If n is odd, formula (4.59) leads to (4.57). If n is even, formula (4.59) leads to J0 (rt)dr, which is
tabulated.
37
4.7 Relations between Bessel functions of different kind
4.7.1 Bessel functions with argument rt

Since Bessels equation is unaltered if rt is replaced by rt, we must expect the functions Jp (-rt) to be
solutions of the equations satisfied by Jp (rt). Considering the relation ei = -1, we may write
J p ( rt ) = J p ( ei rt )
We can even consider the more general function Jp (emirt) where m is an integer.
J p( e mi
rt ) = ( ) k (rtemi / 2)p + 2k
k! ( k + p + 1 )
Restricting the complex exponent to its principal value we get
(emi )p + 2 k = ei( mp + 2mk ) = eimp

Hence
( )
J p e m i rt = e imp ( ) k
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( k + p + 1 )
= eimp J p ( rt ) (4.60)
4.7.2 Relations between the three kinds of Bessel functions

Consider (3.14) and (3.15)
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt )
Hence by multiplying Yp(rt) by cos(p) and subtracting from Y-p(rt)
H (p1 ) ( rt ) + H (p2 ) ( rt )
J p ( rt ) = (4.61)
2
Consider (3.11)
Y p ( rt ) =
sin( p )
Replace p by p
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) + J p ( rt )
Y p ( rt ) =
sin( p )
Hence by subtracting and dividing by 2
Y p ( rt ) Y p ( rt ) cos( p )
J p ( rt ) = (4.62)
sin( p )
Consider (3.14) together with (3.11)
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + i
sin( p )
38
J p ( rt )[cos( p ) i sin( p )] + J p ( rt )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) =
i sin( p )
J p ( rt ) J p( rt )e ip
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = (4.63)
i sin( p )
and similarly
J p ( rt ) J p( rt )e ip
H (p2 ) ( rt )= (4.64)
i sin( p )
Add equations (4.63) and (4.64) together
H (p1 ) + H (p2 )
J p ( rt ) = (4.65)
2
Multiply equation (4.63) by eip and (4.64) by e-ip and add together
H (p1 ) ( rt )e ip + H (p2 ) ( rt )e ip
J p ( rt ) = (4.66)
2
In equation (4.63) replace rt by rt emI
J p ( rtemi ) J p ( rtemi )e ip
H (p1 ) ( rtemi ) =
i sin( p )
together with equation (4.60)
m i )
e mpi J p ( rt ) e mpi J p ( rt ) e ip
(1 )
H ( rte )=
i sin( p )
p
H (p1 ) ( rtem i )=
(
e mp i J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip ) + J p ( rt )eip (e mpi e mpi )
i sin( p ) i sin( p )
applying equation (4.63)
sin( mp )
H (p1 ) ( rtem i ) = e mpi H (p1 ) ( rt ) 2e pi J p ( rt ) (4.67)
sin( p )
and similarly
sin( mp )
H (p2 ) ( rtemi ) = e mp i H (p2 ) ( rt ) + 2 e p i J p ( rt ) (4.68)
sin( p )
4.7.3 Bessel functions of purely imaginary argument

Consider (3.18)

p ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
I p ( rt ) = i J p ( irt ) =
0
k! ( p + k + 1 )
Recall that ei/2 = i, e 3i/2= -i.
Hence
I p ( rt ) = e p i / 2 J p ( irt ) (4.69)
Apply (3.21)
39
I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
K p ( rt ) =
2 sin p
pi / 2
e J p ( irt ) e pi / 2 J p ( irt )
K p ( rt ) =
2 sin p
pi
pi / 2 J p ( irt ) e J p ( irt )
K p ( rt ) = i e
2 i sin p
Hence by (4.63)
pi / 2 ( 1 )
K p ( rt ) = i e H p ( irt ) (4.70)
2
and similarly
pi / 2 ( 2 )
K p ( rt ) = i e H p ( irt ) (4.71)
2
40
THE BETA FUNCTION
Chapter 5 The Beta Function

The gamma function, (n), is a function with one variable. The beta function, B(m,n), is a function with
two variables. The function can be defined as a product of - functions. It is useful in the expression of
solutions of definite integrals of Bessel functions, which, for particular values of their parameters, can be
written in simple closed-forms.

1
B( m , n ) = x m 1( 1 x ) n 1 dx
0
/2
2m1
B( m , n ) = 2 cos sin 2n1 d
0
B( m , n ) = B( n , m )
( m ) ( n )
B( m , n ) =
(m + n)
2 p1 1 1
2 p+ ( p ) = ( 2 p )
2 2
5.3 Definition of the beta function

The beta function is defined by Eulers integral of the first kind
1
B( m ,n ) = x m 1( 1 x ) n 1 dx (5.1)
0
which is convergent for m > 0 and n > 0.
Writing x = cos2 and 1- x = sin 2 , (5.1) transforms into

/2
2m 1
B( m ,n ) = 2 cos sin 2 n 1 d (5.2)
0
Replacing x by 1 - y in (5.1) yields
B( m , n ) = B( n , m ) (5.3)
41
5.4 Relation between beta and gamma functions

By definition:

( m ) = e x x m 1dx
0
Hence, one may write

x m1
(m)(n)= e x dx e y y n1dy
0 0
Write x = 2, y = 2

2 2m 1
( m ) ( n ) = 4 e d e 2 n1 d
2

0 0

( m ) ( n ) = 4 e ( + ) 2m1 2n 1dd
2 2
00
Write = r cos, = r sin

( m ) ( n ) = 4 e r r 2m+ 2 n 2 cos 2 m1 sin 2n1 rdrd
2
0
/2
( m ) ( n ) = 4 e r r 2m+ 2 n1dr cos
2 m1
sin 2n1 d
2
0 0

( m ) ( n ) = 2 B( m, n ) e r r 2 m+ 2n1 dr
2
0
Write r2 =

( m ) ( n ) = B( m, n ) e m+ n1d = B( m, n ) ( m + n )
0
Hence
( m ) ( n )
B( m ,n ) = (5.4)
(m + n)
5.5 The duplication formula for gamma functions

Consider the function
/2
sin (2 )d
2p
J=
0
Write u = 2
42
DEFINITE INTEGRALS OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS
/2 /2
1 ( 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
J = sin 2 p udu = sin
2p
udu = sin
2p
u cos 0 udu =
2 2 ( p + 1 )
0 0 0
However, one also has
/2 /2
J= sin 2p
(2 )d = ( 2 sin cos ) 2 p d
0 0
/2
( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
J = 2 2 p1 2 cos 2 p sin 2 p d = 2 2 p1
( 2 p +1)
0
( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
J = 2 2 p1
2 p ( 2 p )
Hence
2 2 p1 ( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p ) = ( 1 / 2 ) ( 2 p ) (5.5)
Equation (5.5), called the duplication formula for gamma functions, will often be used in further
developments.
43
44
Chapter 6 Definite integrals of Bessel functions

J ( t ) 2 1 1 J ( at ) J ( bt )
(t ) sin d = 2 + 2 2 ( at ) ( bt )

0
2 = a2 + b2 2 ab cos
/2
z +1
J + +1( z ) = J ( z sin ) sin +1 cos 2 +1 d
2 ( + 1 ) 0
/2
+1 +1 x y J + +1( x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2
J ( x sin ) J ( y cos ) sin cos d =
( x 2 + y 2 )( + + 1 ) / 2
0
/2
2( x / 2 ) 2
J( x ) =
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) cos( x sin )cos d
0
6.2 Gegenbauers integral

The important integral:

J ( ) 2 1 1 J ( at ) J ( bt )

sin d = 2 + (6.1)
0 2 2 ( at ) ( bt )
2 = a2 + b2 2 ab cos
which is valid for > -1/2, has been first proved by Gegenbauer (Watson, 1966), hence its name.
Develop the Bessel function in its series

J ( t ) 2 (t / 2 ) + 2 k
( t ) sin d = ( )
k
sin 2 d
0 0 (t )
k! ( k + + 1 )
2k
t k ( )2k
= 2 ( ) sin 2 d
2 k! ( k + + 1 )
0
Integrate the series term by term.
( ) j! ( k j )! (a 2 + b 2 ) ( 2ab cos )k j
k
2 k k! j
( ) 2k
= =
j =0
Consider the integral

cos
m
sin 2 d
0
45
If m = 2n
/2
cos
2n
sin 2
d = 2 cos
2n
sin 2 d = B(n + 1 / 2 , + 1 / 2 )
0 0
If m = 2n + 1
(1 sin )n

2n +1 2
cos sin d = 2
sin 2 d sin = 0
0 0
Hence
( )
2
J ( t ) 2 ( 1 /
2 ) ( + 1 / 2 ) t 2 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )

sin d = 2 a + b2
( + 1 ) ( + 1 ) 2 1! ( + 1 ) ( + 2 )
0 ( t )
( )
4
t 2 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 ) ( 3 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
+ a2 + b2 + 4 a 2 b2
2 2! ( + 1 ) ( + 2 ) 2! ( + 2 ) ( + 3 )
( ) ( )
6
t 3 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 ) ( 3 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
a 2 + b2 + 6 a 2 + b 2 a 2b 2 +
3! ( + 2 ) ( + 4 )
....
2 3! ( + 1 ) ( + 4 )
rearranging somewhat the terms, results in:

J ( t ) 2 1 ( at / 2 ) 2 ( at / 2 ) 4
( t ) sin d = 2 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
( + 1 )

1! ( + 2 )
+
2! ( + 3 )
...

0
1 ( bt / 2 )2 ( bt / 2 )4
+ + ...
( + 1 ) 1! ( + 2 ) 2! ( + 3 )
Hence

J ( t ) 2 J ( at ) J ( bt )
( t ) sin d = 2 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
( at ) ( bt )
0
6.3 Sonines first finite integral

The integral:
/2
z + 1 +1
J ( z sin ) sin cos 2 + 1 d = J + + 1( z ) (6.2)
2 ( + 1 ) 0
which is valid when both and exceed -1, expresses any Bessel function in terms of an integral
involving a Bessel function of lower order. It was proved by Sonine (Watson, 1966) by expanding the
integrand in powers of z, and by simply applying the definition of the beta function (chapter 5).
/2
z + 1 +1
J ( z sin ) sin cos 2 + 1 d =
2 ( + 1 ) 0
46
/2
+ + 2 k + 1 2 + 2 k + 1
z sin cos 2 + 1 d
= ( )k 0
+ + 2k
2 k ! ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 )
z + + 2 k + 1 ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 )
= ( ) k
2 + + 2k + 1k ! ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 ) ( + + k + 2 )
= J + +1( z )
6.4 Sonines second finite integral

The integral:
/2
+1 +1 x y J + +1( x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2
J ( x sin ) J ( y cos ) sin cos d =
( x 2 + y 2 )( + + 1 ) / 2
0
(6.3)
which is valid when both and exceed -1, is also due to Sonine (Watson, 1966).
It is also proved by expanding the integrand in powers of x and y.

/2
+1
J ( x sin )J ( y cos ) sin cos + 1 d
0
/2
( x sin / 2 )2k + ( y cos / 2)2 j + sin + 1 cos + 1
= ( )k + j k ! j ! ( + k + 1 ) ( + j + 1 )
d
0 k =0 j =0
2k +
1 k+ j ( x / 2) ( y / 2 )2 j + B( + k + 1, + j + 1 )
=
2
( )
k ! j! ( + k + 1 ) ( + j + 1 )
2k +
1 k+ j ( x / 2) ( y / 2 )2 j+
=
2
( )
k ! j! ( + + k + j + 2 )
1
= ( x / 2 ) ( y / 2 ) ( )k+ j ( [
x / 2 )2 (( y / 2 )2 ][
k
]j
2 k ! j! ( + + k + j + 2 )
Applying the binomial theorem yields
[(x / 2) ] [ ][ ]
k+j
2 k+ j ( k + j )!
+ (y / 2) ( x / 2 )2 ( y / 2 )2
k j
2
= k! j!
0
Hence, with m = k + j
/2
+1
J ( x sin )J ( y cos ) sin cos + 1 d
0
= (x / 2 ) ( y / 2 ) ( )m
1 [
( x / 2 )2 + ( y / 2)2 ]
m
2 m! ( + + m + 2 )
47
( )
2m + + + 1
x2 + y2 / 4
( x ) ( y ) m
= ()
( )
+ + 1 m! ( + + m + 1 )
+ + 1
2 x + y /4
2 2

1
( )

x y 2 2
= J x +y
2
+ + 1 + + 1
2
(
x +y
2 2)
6.5 Poissons integral

Often one wants to verify from which value of the argument the asymptotic expansions, developed in
chapter 4, can be considered as sufficiently accurate. Poissons integral (Watson, 1966) brings a fully
trustworthy answer to this question. Indeed, any Bessel function of the first kind can be expressed as
/2
2( x / 2 ) 2
J( x ) =
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) cos( x sin )cos d (6.4)
0
provided that > - 1/2. The bounds being finite, this integral can safely be numerically integrated.
Equation (6.4) can also be written as

/2
2( x / 2 ) 2
J( x ) =
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) cos( x cos ) sin d (6.5)
0
To prove (6.5), expand cos(xcos) as a cos series
/2
2( x / 2) x 2k cos 2k sin 2
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) ( )k ( 2 k )!
d
0
Apply the beta function
(x / 2 ) k x
2k
( k + 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
=
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
( ) ( 2k )! ( k + + 1 )
Apply the duplication formula (5.5) for gamma functions
2k 1
( x / 2 ) x 2k ( 2k 1 )! ( 1 / 2 ) 1
=
(1/ 2)
( ) k

( k 1 )! ( 2k )! ( k + + 1 ) 2
( x / 2)2k +
= ( )k k! ( k + + 1 )
which is the definition of J(x).
One realises that when (6.5) is proved, (6.4) is automatically proved too, because of the properties of the
beta integral.
48
THE HYPERGEOMETRIC TYPE OF SERIES
Chapter 7 The hypergeometric type of series

The hypergeometric function of Gauss is a solution of a differential equation similar to the Bessel
equation. It can be expressed as a product of multiple products, sort of truncated functions. The
function is useful in the expression of solutions of infinite integrals of Bessel functions, which for
particular values of the parameters can then be written in simple closed-forms.

( ) n = ( + 1 )( + 2 )...( + n 1 )
( )0 = 1
( ) ( ) ...( )
[
p Fq 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,...q ; z =] n! (1 n) (2 n) ...(p n) zn
n =0 1 n 2 n q n
[
2 F1 a ,b; c ; z =] ( a )n ( b )n z n
n! ( c ) n
( 1 b n )n m = ( 1 )n( b + m )n m
a + b + 1 a + b + 2

( a + b + 1 + m )m 2 m 2 m
=
2 2m ( a + b + 1 )m
(a)
( a + n ) = ( 1 )n
( a + 1 )n
n
n Cm( a )m( b )n m = ( a + b )n
m =0
( c ) ( c b a )
[
2 F1 a ,b; c ;1 =]
( c b ) ( c a )
2 F1 [a ,b; b; z ] = ( 1 z ) a
[ ] [ ]
2 F1 0 ,b; c ; z =2 F1 b ,0 ; c , z = 1
49
xb 1( 1 x )c b 1
1
(c )
2 F1 [a ,b; c ; z ] =
( b ) ( c b )
dx
(1 zx )a
0
z
2 F1 [a ,b; c ; z ] = 1
F a ,c b; c ;
a 2 1
(1 z ) 1 z
7.3 Definition
The series of hypergeometric type are solutions of differential equations that will not be handled here.
However they allow to express a great number of relations in a convenient compact notation, invented by
Pochhammer (Watson, 1966). Further, their properties, especially those of the series 2 F1 , also called the
hypergeometric series of Gauss, are very helpful in the resolution of infinite integrals of Bessel functions.
We write:
( )n = ( + 1 )( + 2 )...( + n 1 ) ( )0 = 1 (7.1)
and define the generalised hypergeometric function
p Fq [ 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,... q ; z] = 1 + 12 ...... p 1z!

1 2 q
1( 1 + 1 ) 2 ( 2 + 1 )... p ( p + 1 ) z 2
+ + ...
1 ( 1 + 1 ) 2 ( 1 + 2 )... q ( 1 + q ) 2!
( ) ( 2 ) n ...( p )n
[ 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,... q ; z]= n! (1 n) zn
1 n ( 2 )n ...( q )n
p Fq (7.2)
n=0
As an example, it is evident that
( z / 2 ) z 2
J ( z ) = F + 1;
( + 1) 0 1 2

If I or I are neither zero neither negative integers, the series can be written as
n1
( 1 + k )...( p + k ) z n
p Fq [ 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,... q ; z]= 1 + k =0
n1
( 1 + k )...( q + k )
n=1
n!
k =0
n1 n1
( ) ( 1 )( 1 + k )... p p + k z n
( 1 )... q k =0
( )( )
=1+ ( )
( 1 )... p n=1 n1
k =0
n1
( ) ( )
n!
( 1 )( 1 + k )... q q + k
k =0 k =0
[ ] ( ) (
( 1 )... q ( 1 + n )... p + n z n )
p Fq 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,... q ; z =
( ) [
( 1 )... p n=0 ( 1 + n )... q + n n! ] (7.3)
50
If one of the parameters I is either zero either an integer, the series reduces in a finite polynomial.
The most common series is the so called hypergeometric function of Gauss, 2 F1 (a,b;c;z).
7.4 Properties of the multiple product ()m
7.4.1 A relation for (1 - b - m) m-n

We show that:
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m ( b + n )m n
Indeed
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 b m )( 1 b m + 1 )...( 1 b m + m n 2 )( 1 b m + m n 1 )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 b m )( 2 b m )...( b n 1 )( b n )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m n ( b + n )( b + n + 1 )...( b + m 2 )( b + m 1 )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m n ( b + n )m n (7.4)
When n = 0, (7.4) simplifies in
( 1 b m )m = ( 1 )m ( b )m (7.5)
7.4.2 A relation for (a+b+1+m) m /22m

We show that:
a + b + 1 a + b + 2

( a + b + 1 + m )m 2 m 2 m
=
22 m ( a + b + 1 )m
Develop the series
( a + b + 1 + m )m ( a + b + 2 )1 ( a + b + 3 )2 ( a + b + 4 )3
= 1+ + + + ...
2m 2 4
2 2 2 26
(a+b+2) ( a + b + 3 )( a + b + 4 ) ( a + b + 4 )( a + b + 5 )( a + b + 6 )
= 1+ + +
22 24 26
a + b + 1 a + b + 2 a + b + 1 a + b + 1 a + b + 2 a + b + 2
+ 1 + 1
= 1+ + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
( a + b + 1) ( a + b + 1 )( a + b + 2 )
a + b + 1 a + b + 1 a + b + 1 a + b + 2 a + b + 2 a + b + 2
+ 1 + 2 + 1 + 2
+
2 2 2 2 2 2
( a + b + 1 )( a + b + 2 )( a + b + 3 )
Hence
a + b + 1 a + b + 2

( a + b + 1 + m )m 2 m 2 m
= (7.6)
2 2m ( a + b + 1 )m
51
7.4.3 A relation for (a-n)

By definition of the gamma function, we have:
( a ) = ( a 1 )( a 2 )...( a n ) ( a n )
= ( 1 ) n ( a + 1 )( a + 2 )...( a + n ) ( a n )
= ( 1 ) n ( a + 1 )n ( a n )
Hence
(a)
( a n ) = ( 1 ) n (7.7)
( a + 1 )n
7.4.4 The theorem of Vandermonde

The theorem of Vandermonde (Watson, 1966) states that:
m
m C n ( a )n ( b )m n = ( a + b )m
n =0
where m Cn is the symbol for the combination of m elements in groups of n elements. We shall prove the
relation for m = 3; however, the proof can easily be extended to any value of m.
3
3 C n ( a )n ( b )3n =
n =0
( b )( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + 3( a )( b )( b + 1 )
+ 3( a )( a + 1 )( b ) + ( a )( a + 1 )( a + 2 ) =
( b )( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + ( a )( b )( b + 1 )
+ 2( a )( b )( b + 1 ) + 2( a )( a + 1 )( b )
+ ( a )( a + 1 )( b ) + ( a )( a + 1 )( a + 2 ) =
( a + b + 2 )[b( b + 1 ) + 2ab + a( a + 1 )] =
a [ ( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + 2( b + 2 )( b a ) ( b a )( b a + 1 )] =
( a + b + 2 )( a + b + 1 )( a + b ) = ( a + b )3
and
3
3 Cn ( a )n ( b )3 n = ( a + b )3
n =0
Hence, using the same procedure, we prove that

m
m C n ( a )n ( b )m n = ( a + b )m (7.8)
n =0
52
7.4.5 The product of two Bessel functions with the same argument
Consider the product of two Bessel functions with the same argument (at)

( at / 2 ) + 2m
n ( at / 2 )
+ 2n
J ( at ) J ( at ) = ( 1 ) m
( 1 )
m! ( + m + 1 ) n=0 n! ( + n + 1 )
m =0
The coefficient of (-)m (at/2)++2m , obtained from the sum of next products,
m
m n ( at / 2 ) + 2m 2n ( at ) +2 n
( 1 ) ( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )
( 1 )
n
n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
is
m
1
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m
1 m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
= m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 ) ( m n )! n! ( + m n + 1 ) ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m
m Cn
=
m

! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )

n =0

[( + m )...( + m n + 1 )] ( + m n + 1 )[( + m )....( + n + 1 )] ( + n + 1 )
( + m n + 1 ) ( + n + 1 )
m
= mCn [( + m ))...( + m n + 1 )][( + m )...( + m m + n + 1 )]
n =0
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
m
( ) n [( m )...( m + n 1 )]( ) m n [( m )...( m + m n 1 )]
= mCn
n=0
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
m ( ) m ( m )n ( m )m n
= m Cn
n=0
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
by (7.8)
( ) m ( 2m )m
=
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
by (7.5)
( + + m + 1 )m
=
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
Hence
( at / 2 ) + + 2m ( + + m + 1 )m
J ( at ) J ( at ) = ( ) m
(7.9)
0
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
53
7.5 The hypergeometric series of Gauss 2 F1[a,b;c;z]

The series 2 F1 [a,b;c;z], usually noted F[a,b;c;z], is a solution of the differential equation (Wayland, 1970)
d2y
+ [c ( a + b + 1 ) z ]
dy
z( 1 z ) aby = 0
2 dz
dz
as can be verified by substitution.
7.5.1 Elementary properties

If a, b or c are neither zero neither negative integers, the series can be written as (7.3)

(c ) ( a + n ) ( b + n ) z n
F [a , b; c ; z ] = ( c + n) (7.10)
( a ) ( b ) 0 n!
When a or b are equal zero or a negative integer, the series reduces to a polynomial.
When a = 0
F [0 ,b; c; z ] = 1 (7.11)
When a = -1
F [ 1, b; c ; z ] = 1
b
z (7.12)
c
Next equation is always true
F [a , b; c ; z ] = F [b, a ; c ; z ] (7.13)
Consider the expansion as a Taylor series around z = 0 of the function (1 - z)-a
z z2 z3
( 1 z )a = 1 + a + a( a + 1 ) + a( a + 1 )( a + 2 ) + ...
1! 2! 3!
a c a( a + 1 )c( c + 1 ) 2 a( a + 1 )( a + 2 )c( c + 1 )( c + 2 ) 3
= 1+ z+ z + z + ...
1! c 2! c( c + 1 ) 3! c( c + 1 )( c + 2 )
= F [a , c; c; z ]
Hence, whatever c
F [a ,c ; c ; z ] = ( 1 z ) a (7.14)
7.5.2 Integral representation of the hypergeometric function

We show here how the hypergeometric series can be represented as a definite integral. In several cases,
the solution of this integral allows to express the infinite series as a closed form analytical expression. We
start with equation (7.10):

(c ) ( a + n ) ( b + n ) z n
F [a , b; c ; z ] = ( c + n)
( a ) ( b ) 0 n!

(c) ( a + n ) ( b + n ) ( c b ) z n
= ( c + n ) ( c b )
( a ) ( b ) n =0 n!
1
(c ) b + n1 c b1 zn
= x
( a ) ( b ) ( c b ) n=0
(1 x ) ( a + n ) dx
n!
0
54
1
(c) b1 c b1 ( zx ) n
=
( a ) ( b ) ( c b )
x (1 x ) ( a + n ) n! dx
0 n=0
Expand the sum

( zx ) n zx ( zx ) 2
( a + n) n!
= ( a ) + ( a + 1) + ( a + 2 )
1! 2!
+ ...
n =0
zx ( zx ) 2
= ( a )1 + a + a( a + 1 ) + ...
1! 2!
= ( a )F [a ,c ; c ; zx ] = ( a )( 1 zx ) a
Hence
1 b1
(c) x ( 1 x ) cb 1
F [a ,b; c ; z ] =
( b ) ( c b )
dx (7.15)
0 ( 1 zx ) a
7.5.3 Value of F[a,b;c;z] for z = 1
x b 1 ( 1 x )c b 1
1
(c )
F [a ,b; c;1] =
( b ) ( c b )
dx
0 ( 1 x )a
1
(c)
= xb1( 1 x )c b a 1dx
( b ) ( c b )
0
( c)
= ( b ,c b a )
( b ) ( c b )
( c ) ( c b a )
F [a , b; c ;1] = (7.16)
( c b ) ( c a )
7.5.4 Convergence of the series F[a,b;c;z]

When z is positive, the series F[a,b;c;z] converges only when z is smaller than 1. When z is negative, the
series may converge for z> 1, but the result remains indefinite when strictly applying the definition:
ab a( a + 1 )b( b + 1 ) 2 a( a + 1 )( a + 2 )b( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) 3
F [a , b; c ; z ] = 1 z+ z z + ...
1! 2! c( c + 1 ) 3! c( c + 1 )( c + 2 )
The problem can be solved by a transformation of the integral form.
1 b1
(c) x ( 1 x ) cb 1
F [a ,b; c ; z ] =
( b ) ( c b )
dx
0 ( 1 zx ) a
Write y = 1 -x, dy = - dx
a
a
( 1 zx ) = [1 z( 1 y )] = [1 z + zy ]
z
a a a
= ( 1 z ) 1 + y
1 z
55
( 1 y ) b1 y c b1
1
(c)
F [a , b; c; z ] =
1
( b ) ( c b ) ( 1 z ) a
dy
a
z
1 + 1 z y
0

y c b1 ( 1 y ) b1
1
(c) 1
=
( b ) ( c b ) ( 1 z ) a a
dy
z
1 + 1 z y
0

z
F [a , b; c ; z ] =
1
F a ,c b; c; (7.17)
a 1 z
(1 z )
When z < - 1, 0 < -z/(1-z) < 1, and the series converges.
7.5.5 The product of two Bessel functions with different arguments

Consider the product of two Bessel functions with different arguments

( at / 2 ) +2 m
n ( bt / 2 )
+ 2n
J ( at ) J ( bt ) = m
( 1 ) ( 1 )
m! ( + m + 1 ) n= 0 n! ( + n + 1 )
m= 0
The coefficient of (-)m ab (t/2)++2m , obtained from the sum of next products,
m
m n ( at / 2 ) + 2m 2n ( bt ) + 2 n
( 1 ) ( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )
( 1 )
n
n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
is
m
a 2m 2nb 2n
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m
[( + m )( + m 1 )...( + m n + 1 )] ( + m n + 1 ) b
2n
=a 2m
( m n )! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m n + 1 )[( + n )( + n 1 )...( + 1 )] ( + 1 ) a
n=0
( 1 ) n [( m )( m + 1 )...( m + n 1 )] b
m 2n
= a2 m ( m n )! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )( + 1 )n

a
n=0
m ( 1 ) n ( m )n [m( m 1 )...( m n )] b 2n
= a2 m
n=0
m! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )( + 1 )n a
n
m ( m )n ( m )n b2
=a 2m
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )n!( + 1 ) 2
n=0 n a
= a 2m
[
F m, m; + 1; b / a
2 2
]
m!( + m + 1)( + 1)
Hence
( at ) (bt )
m ( at / 2)
2m
[
F m, m; + 1; b 2 / a 2 ]
J (at ) J (bt ) =
2 + ( + 1) m =0
( )
m!( + m + 1)
(7.18)
56
INFINITE INTEGRALS OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Chapter 8 Infinite Integrals of Bessel Functions.

This chapter presents the most important infinite integrals of Bessel functions of direct application in
pavement analysis, especially in multilayer theory.
8.2 Useful relations
at 1 ( b / 2 ) ( + ) + + + 1 b 2
e J ( bt )t dt = F
a + ( + 1 ) 2
,
2
; + 1;
a 2
0
at 1 ( b / 2 ) ( + ) + 1 +
b2

e J ( bt )t dt =
+
F
2
, ; + 1;

(a ) a 2 + b2
2
0 2 2
+b 2 ( + 1 )
1
J 0 ( bt )dt = b
0
J 1 ( bt )
t
dt = 1
0
1
J 1( bt )dt = b
0
at 1
e J 0 ( bt )dt =
0 (a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
at a
e J 0 ( bt )tdt =
0 (a 2 + b 2 )3 / 2
at 2a 2 b 2
e J 0 ( bt )t dt =
2
0 (a 2 + b 2 )5 / 2

at 1 a
e J 1 ( bt )dt = 1
0
b
(
a2 + b 2
1 / 2
)
57
at b
e J 1 ( bt )tdt =
0 (a 2 + b 2 )3 / 2
at 3 ab
e J 1 ( bt )t 2 dt =
0 (a 2 + b 2 )5 / 2
at a
e cos( bt )dt =
a2 + b2
0
at b
e sin( bt )dt =
a2 + b2
0
at b
e cos( bt ) sin( bt )dt =
a 2 + 4b 2
0
at sin( bt ) b
e dt = tan 1
0
t a
at 2 ab
e sin( bt )tdt =
0 (a 2 + b 2 )2
at 1 ( bc ) ( + 2 )
e J ( bt )J ( ct )t dt = a + 2 ( 2 + 1 )
0
+ 2 + 2 + 1 b 2 + c 2 2bc cos 2
2
F ,
2
; + 1;
2
sin d

0 a
a 2 + ( b c )2
at sin( bt ) sin( ct ) 1
e dt = log 2 2

0
t 4 a + ( b + c )
at a 1 1
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = 2
2 a + ( b c ) 2 a 2 + ( b + c ) 2
0
58
sin tb sin tc ma bc
ts
e dsdt = arctan
2 a( a + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
2
00
sin tb sin tc ma bc( 2a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )

m ts e dsdt = 2 (a 2 + b 2 )(a 2 + c 2 )(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1/ 2
00
at 1 b c
e J ( bt ) J ( ct )t dt =
2 + ( + 1 )a + +
0
( + + + 2m ) c 2 b 2
m! ( + m + 1 ) F m , m; + 1;
2 2
0 b 4 a
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b 2
t
dt = +1
a 2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
2
+ + 1 + 1 b2
F , ; + 1; if b < a
2 2 a 2
+ +1
J ( at )J ( at ) ( )
a 1 2
t
dt =
2 + + 1 + + + 1 + + 1
0
2 2 2
J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
dt =
0
2 + 1
( ab )
2 2 + 1 2 + 3 4 a 2b 2
; + 1;
( )
F
2 +1
,
2 2
( )
+ 4 4
+
2
2
1 2
( + 1 ) a + b
2 2 a b
2
59
8.3 The integral e-atJ (bt)t -1dt
8.3.1 Resolution of the integral

Expanding the Bessel function in its series solves the integral

at 1 ( b / 2 ) + 2k
e J ( bt )t dt = ( ) k
t + + 2k 1e at dt
0
k ! ( + k + 1 )
0 0
Apply equation (2.1) of the gamma function

at 1 ( b / 2 ) + 2 k ( + + 2 k )
e J ( bt )t dt = ( )
k
0 0 k ! ( + k + 1 )a + + 2k
Expand the series so as to obtain
+ + + 1

at 1 ( b / 2 ) ( + ) b2
e J ( bt )t dt = ( + 1 )a + 1 1! ( + 1 )
2 2
2
0 a

+ + + + 1 + + 1
+ 1 + 1 4
2 2 2 2 b
+ ...
2! ( + 1 )( + 2 ) a 4

and by (7.11)

at 1 ( b / 2 ) ( + ) + + + 1 b2
e J ( bt )t dt = ( + 1 )a +
F
2
,
2
; + 1;
a 2
(8.1)
0
Strictly spoken, the series converges for b < a only. Therefore transform the series by application of the
integral transform of the hypergeometric function (7.17):

at 1 ( b / 2 ) ( + ) + 1 + b2
e J ( bt )t dt = +
F , ; + 1; (8.2)
( ) 2 a 2 + b 2
2
0 2 2 2
a +b ( + 1 )
Convergence at the origin (t = 0) requires + > 0. Indeed, expand the integrand in series
( bt / 2 )
at 1 a 2t 2
e J ( bt )t dt = 1 at + ... ... t 1dt
0 0
2! ( + 1 )
Integration of the first term of the series leads to

( b / 2 ) + 1 ( b / 2 )
t dt = t +
( + 1 ) ( + ) ( + 1 )
0 0
Convergence is secured for t = 0 if + > 0.
60
8.3.2 Particular value.

We have seen in 7.5.1 that for particular values of its parameters, the hypergeometric function reduces
to simple expressions.
The case where = + 1.

+ b2
F ,0; + 1; 2 =1
2 a + b2
Hence

at ( b / 2 ) ( 2 + 1 )
e J ( bt )t dt = 2 + 1
(8.3)
0
( a +b
2 2 2
)
( + 1 )

at 1
e J 0 ( bt )dt = (8.4)
0 a 2 + b2

at b
e J 1 ( bt )tdt =
(a )
(8.5)
2 3/ 2
0 2
+b

1
J 0 ( bt )dt = b (8.6)
0

1
J 1( bt )tdt = b 2 (8.7)
0
The case where ( + )/2 = + 1.

1 b2 1 b2 a
F + 1, ; + 1; 2 = + + =
a + b 2 2 a 2 + b 2
F , 1; 1;
2 a + b2
2
Hence

at +1 a( b / 2 ) ( 2 + 2 )
e J ( bt )t dt = 2 + 3
(8.8)
0
(
a +b
2 2 2
)
( + 1 )

at a
e J 0 ( bt )tdt =
(a )
(8.9)
2 3/ 2
0 2
+b

at 3 ab
e J 1 ( bt )t 2 dt =
(a )
(8.10)
2 5/ 2
0 2
+b
61
The case where = 3 and = 0.

3 b2 3b2
(1 - + )/2 = -1, and F ,1;1; =
2 a 2 + b 2
1
2 a2 + b2 (
.
)
Hence

at 2a 2 b 2
e J 0 ( bt )t dt =
2
(a )
(8.11)
2 5/ 2
0 2
+b
The case where the integral representation reduces to a simple integral.
= 1 and = 1
1 1
F 1, ;2; z = F ,1;2; z =
( 2 ) 1 x 0 ( 1 x )2

2
dx = 1 1 z [ ]
2 2 ( 1 ) ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 zx )
1/ 2
z
Hence
1
at b/ 2 b2
e J 1 ( bt )dt = 2 F 1, ;2; 2
a + b 2 2

a + b 2
0

e
at
J 1 ( bt )dt =
b/2 (
2 a 2 + b 2
1 1
b2 )

1/ 2

= 1 1 a
(8.12)
a2 + b2 b2 a 2 + b2 b 2
a +b
2
0
1
J 1 ( bt )dt = b (8.13)
0
= 0 and = 1
[ ]
1
1 ( 2) x 0 ( 1 x )2 2
F ,1;2; z =
2

( 1 ) ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 zx )1 / 2
dx =
z
1 1 z
1
at J 1 ( bt ) ( b / 2 ) ( 2 ) b2 1 2
e dt = = a + b a
2
F ,1;2;
( )
(8.14)
0
t 2
a +b
2 1 / 2
( 2 )
2 a + b b
2 2

J 1 ( bt )
t
dt = 1 (8.15)
0
= = 1/2
Apply (7.16)
1 3 b2 1 3 b2 x 1 / 2
1
(3/ 2) a b
F ,1; ; = F 1, ; ; = dx = tan 1
2 2 a ( 1 / 2 ) ( 1 ) 0 b x a
2 2
2 2 a
2 b
1+
a 2

62

at 1 / 2 ( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 1 ) 1 3 b 2 2 b
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t dt = F ,1; ; = tan 1 (8.16)
a ( 3 / 2 ) 2 2 a
2 b a
0
8.3.3 The integral e-at cos(bt)dt

This integral, together with the sin integral, occurs very often in physical problems. The solution is an
application of (8.8). By (4.9), transform the cos function in the corresponding Bessel function

at b at
e cos( bt )dt =
2 e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
0 0
Hence by (8.8) with = 1/2

at b a( b / 2 ) 1 / 2 ( 1 ) a
e cos( bt )dt = ( ) =
2 a2 + b 2 ( 1 / 2 ) a 2 + b2
(8.17)
0
8.3.4 The integral e-at sin(bt)dt

By (4.8) transform the sin function in the corresponding Bessel function

at b at
e sin( bt )dt =
2 e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
0 0
Hence by (8.3)

at b ( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 2 ) b
e sin( bt )dt =
( ) =
2 a 2 + b2 ( 3 / 2 ) a 2 + b 2
(8.18)
0
8.3.5 The integral e-atcos(bt)sin(bt) dt

This integral can immediately be linked with (8.18)

at 1 b
e cos( bt ) sin( bt )dt = e at sin( 2bt )dt = (8.19)
0
2
0 a + 4b 2
2
8.3.6 The integral e sin(bt)/tdt

-at
By (4.8)

at sin( bt ) b at
e dt = e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
t 2
0 0
By (8.16)

at sin( bt ) b 2 b b
e dt = tan 1 = tan 1 (8.20)
t 2 b a a
0
63
8.3.7 The integral e-at sin(bt)tdt
By equation (4.8)

at b at
e sin( bt )tdt =
2 e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 3 / 2 dt
0 0
By equation (8.2)
3 1 3
at ( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 3 ) b2
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t dt = F , ; ;
3/2

0 (
a +b
2 2 3/2
)
( 3 / 2) 2 2 2 a 2
+ b 2

By equation (7.15)
1 3 3 b2 a
F , ; ; =
2 2 2 a + b a 2 + b 2
2 2 1/ 2
( )
Hence

at 2 ab
e sin( bt )tdt =
(a )
(8.21)
2 2
0
2
+b
8.4 The integral e-atJ (bt)J (ct)t -1dt
8.4.1 Transformation of the integral

The integral can be transformed using Gegenbauers integral (6.1).

at 1 ( bc / 2 ) J ( t )
e J ( bt ) J ( ct )t dt = e at t + 1 sin 2 ddt
0
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) 0 0

( bc ) ( + 2 ) + 2 + 2 + 1 2 2
=
F
a +2 ( 2 + 1 ) 0 2
,
2
; + 1; sin d
a 2
(8.22)
where 2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos .

The hypergeometric function reduces to an elementary function if = 1 or 2.
8.4.2 The integral e-atsin(bt)sin(ct)t-1dt

Transform the integral by equation (5.8)

at sin( bt ) sin( ct )
e dt = bc e at J 1 / 2 ( bt )J 1 / 2 ( ct )dt
0
t 20
Apply equation (8.22) with = 1 and = 1/2

at sin( bt ) sin( ct ) bc 3 3 2
e t
dt = 2 F 1, 2 ; 2 ; a 2 sin d
0 2a 0
Apply equation (7.14)
64
1
at sin( bt ) sin( ct ) bc sin d 1 dx
e t
dt =
2 a 2 + b 2 + c 2 2bc cos
d =
4 a 2 + b2 + c 2
1
0 0
x
2bc

at sin( bt ) sin( ct ) 1 a 2 + ( b + c )2
e dt = log 2 2
(8.23)
0
t 4 a + ( b c )
8.4.3 The integral e-atsin(bt)sin(ct)dt

at
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = bc e at J 1 / 2 ( bt ) J 1 / 2 ( ct )tdt
2
0 0
Apply equation (8.22) with = 2 and = 1/2

at bc 3 3 2
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = ,2 ; ; sin d
F
a 3 0 2 2 a 2
0

at sin d
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = abc d
0 ( a + b + c 2bc cos )
2 2 2 2
0
1
at dx
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = abc
0 1 (a 2
+ b 2 + c 2 2bcx )
2

at a 1 1
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = 2
2 a + ( b c ) 2 a 2 + ( b + c ) 2
(8.24)
0
8.4.4 The integral e-amsin(bt)sin(cs)/(ts)dsdt
Consider the double integral

sin tb sin tc ma
I= ts
e dsdt
00
where m = t + s Let t = cos and s = sin .
2 2 2
/ 2
sin tb sin tc ma sin( b cos ) sin( c sin ) a
ts e dsdt = cos sin
e dd
00 0 0
By (8.23)
/2
1 1 a 2 + b 2 cos 2 + c 2 sin 2 + 2bc cos sin
I=
4 cos sin
log 2 d
a + b 2 cos 2 + c 2 sin 2 2bc cos sin
0
which we rewrite
65
2bc cos sin

/2 1 + 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 ( a + b ) cos + ( a + c ) sin
I= log d
4 cos sin 2bc cos sin
0 1 2 2
( a + b ) cos + ( a + c ) sin
2 2 2 2
Expand the log function as a Taylor series, with z < 1

1+ z z3 z5
log = 2z + +
1z 3 5
/2 2bc cos sin
I=
1

2
2 +
1
( )3 + 1 ( )5 + d
4 0
cos sin ( a + b 2 ) cos 2 + ( a 2 + c 2 ) sin 2 3 5
The integral
/2
(cos sin ) n 1
I= d
0 [( a 2
+ b 2 ) cos 2 + ( a 2 + c 2 ) sin 2 ] n
can be solved by letting u = tan.

1 1 ( 2bc ) 2 k +1 u 2 k
I =
[ ] 2k + 1
du
2 0 k =0 2k + 1 ( a 2 + b 2 ) + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
Using

2 k 1
u 2k
u 1 ( 2 k 1 )u 2k 2
du = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2 k +1 2k 2 2k
du
0
2
+ 2u 2 4 k 2 2 + 2 u 2 4k 0
2
+ 2u 2
0

u2k 1 ( 2k 1 )u 2 k 2
du = du
0 ( 2
+ u )
2 2 2 k +1 4 k 2 0 ( 2
+ u 2 2 2k
)

u 1 u 1
( 2 + 2 u 2 ) = arctan =
2
0 0
bc 1 b3c 3
I= + +
[ ] [
2 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 1 / 2 2.3 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 3 / 2
]
1.3 b5c 5
+ +
[
2.4.5 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 5 / 2
]
Hence
bc
I= arcsin (8.25)
2 ( a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2 ( a 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
or
66
bc
I= arctan (8.26)
2 a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
8.4.5 The integral me-am sin(bt)sin(cs)/(ts)dsdt

Consider the double integral

sin tb sin sc ma
I= m ts
e dsdt
00
where m2 = t2 + s 2
Let t = cos and s = sin
/ 2
sin tb sin sc ma sin( b cos ) sin( c sin ) a
m ts e dsdt = cos sin
e dd
00 0 0
By (8.24)
/2
1 1 1 1
I=
2
a 2 d
cos sin a + ( b cos c sin )2 a 2 + ( b cos + c sin ) 2
0
Let u = tan

a 1+ u2
2 0 u ( a 2 + b 2 ) 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
[ ]
I= du

a 1+ u2

[
2 0 u ( a 2 + b 2 ) + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
du
]

a a 2 + b 2 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
I= log
4( a 2 + c 2 ) a 2 + b 2 + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2 0

a a 2 + b 2 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
+ log
4( a 2 + b 2 ) a 2 + b 2 + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2 0
a 1 1 bc
+ +

(
2 a 2 + b2 a 2 + c 2 a a 2 + b2 + c2 )1/ 2

( a 2 + c 2 )u bc ( a 2 + c 2 )u + bc
arctan + arctan
a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2 a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2 0
bc( 2 a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )
I= (8.27)
2 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 )( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 1 / 2
67
8.5 The integral e-atJ (bt)J (ct)t-1dt

The integral is solved using equation (7.18) established for the product of two Bessel functions with
different arguments.

at
e J ( bt )J ( ct )t 1 dt =
0

b c

[
( ) ( b / 2 ) 2m t + + + 2m 1 F m, m; + 1; c 2 / b 2 at
m
e dt
]
2 + ( + 1 ) 0 0 m! ( + m + 1 )
Apply the definition (2.1) of the gamma function

at 1 b c
e J ( bt ) J ( ct )t dt =
2 +
( + 1 )a + +

0
m

( + + + 2m ) c 2 b 2
F m , m ; + 1; (8.28)
0 m! ( + m + 1 ) b 2 4 a 2
8.6 The discontinuous integral J (at)J (bt)t -dt

This integral is of great importance in the resolution of physical problems because it allows expressing
discontinuous boundary conditions. Many applications in pavement design will be based on the properties
of this integral, the so-called discontinuous integral of Weber and Schafheitlin (Watson, 1966).
8.6.1 Resolution of the integral

The solution of the integral depends on the relative values of a and b, hence, the term discontinuous to
qualify the integral. We assume that b < a, and solve the integral as the limiting function of an
exponential function
J
( at ) J ( bt ) ct J ( at )J ( bt )
t
dt = lim
c0
e t
dt
0 0
Expand the Bessel function with the smallest argument (here bt)

J ( at )J ( bt ) ct ( b / 2 ) + 2k t + 2k
e J ( at ) ( )
k
dt = lim dt
0 t c0
0
k ! ( + k + 1 )

( ) k ( b / 2 ) + 2k ct
= lim k ! ( + k + 1 ) e J ( at )t + 2k dt
c0
0
Apply equation (8.2) on the infinite integral
( ) k ( b / 2 ) + 2k ( a / 2 ) ( + + 2k + 1 )
= lim + + 2 k + 1

k ! ( + k + 1 )
c 0
a +c
2 2
( 2 ) ( + 1)
68
+ + 2 k + 1 2k + a2
F , ; + 1;
2 2 a 2 + c 2
We now go over to limit by setting c = 0. For a proof that the limit of the hypergeometric series, when c
tends to 0, is the same as the value of the series when c = 0, (see Watson, 1966). Hence

J ( at ) J ( bt ) ( )k ( b / 2 ) +2 k ( a / 2 ) ( + + 2k + 1 )

dt = + + 2 k + 1
k ! ( + k + 1 )
0 t
a2 2( )
1 + + 2 k + 1 2 k +
F , ; + 1;1
( +1) 2 2
Apply equation (7.16) on the term between accolades
J ( at ) J ( bt ) b
t
dt =
a +1 2 +
0
2k 2k
1 b ( + + 1 + 2k ) (1/ 2 )
( )k 2
a k ! ( + k + 1 ) + + 2 + 2 k + + 1 2k

2 2
Let ( + + 1 + 2k ) / 2 = p
2k
b k
()
J ( at ) J ( bt ) b
dt = +1 a
t
a 2 + + 1

0 k ! ( + k + 1 ) k
2
( 2 p ) ( 1 / 2 )
2 p 1
2 ( p + 1 / 2 )
Apply equation (5.5) on the term between accolades
2k
+ + 1
b
( )k
+k
J ( at ) J ( bt ) b
dt = +1 2 a
t
a 2 + + 1
0 k! ( + k + 1 ) k
2
+ + 1
Apply equation (7.7) on k
2
2k
b + + 1 + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt ) + k
a 2 2 k
dt = +1
b
t
a 2 + + 1
0 k! ( + k + 1 )
2
+ + 1
Apply equation (7.3) on +k
2
69
+ + 1

J ( at ) J ( bt ) b 2
t
dt = +1
a 2 ( + 1 ) + + 1

0
2
+ + 1 + 1
2k
2 k 2 k b
k! ( + 1 )k

a
Hence
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b 2
t
dt = +1
a 2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
2
+ + 1 + 1 b2
F , ; + 1; (8.29)
2 2 a 2
When a < b, one obviously obtains
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
a 2
t
dt = +1
b 2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
2
+ + 1 + 1 a 2
F , ; + 1; (8.30)
2 2 b 2
In order to establish the convergence conditions at the origin develop the Bessel functions in series and
integrate
J
( at )J ( bt ) a b t + + 1
t
dt =
2 ( ) 2 ( ) + + 1
+ .....
0 0
For t = 0, convergence requires + + 1 >
For high values of the arguments apply equation (4.27)
J
( at ) J ( bt ) 2 1
t
dt =
ab
t cos at
4 2
cos bt
4 2
dt
0 0
For t = , convergence requires +1 > 0.
Hence the convergence conditions become:
+ + 1 > > -1
70
8.6.2 The integral J (at)J (at)t-dt.

The solution of the integral is given by equations (8.29) with a = b. Apply equation (7.16)
( c ) ( c b a )
F ( a ,b; c;1 ) =
( c b ) ( c a )
J (at ) J ( at )
0
t
dt =
+ + 1
1
( )
a 2
(8.31)
2 + + 1 + + + 1 + + 1
( + 1)
2 2 2
When = 0, equation (8.31) is undefined. Hence, when a = b, the requirements for convergence are
++1>>0
However, when - = 2k + 1 the convergence conditions remain
+ + 1 > > -1
Indeed, by equation (8.31)
J
( at )J ( at ) 1 ( )
lim
0
t
dt = lim
0 a
0 ( k + 1 ) k
2
By equation (7.7)
( )n ( a )
(an) =
( a + 1 )n
k
( )( ) + 1
1 ( ) 1 2 k
lim = lim
0 a 0 a
( k + 1 ) k k!
2 2
By equation (5.5)
+ 1 1
J ( )k 2 + 1
( at )J ( at ) 1 2 2 k
lim
0
t
dt = lim
0 a k ! (1 / 2 )
0
Hence, when - = 2k +1
1
1
J ( at ) J ( at )dt = ( ) 2
2a
(8.32)
0
71
8.6.3 The integral J (at)J -2k-1(bt)dt

Applying (8.29), (8.30) and (8.32), one obtains
when b < a

b 2k 1 ( k ) b2
J ( at )J 2 k 1( bt )dt = F k ,k ; 2 k ;
a 2k ( 2 k ) ( k + 1 ) a 2
(8.33)
0
when b = a

1
J ( at )J 2k 1 ( bt )dt = ( )
k
(8.34)
2a
0
when b > a

a( k ) a2
J ( at )J 2 k 1( bt )dt = b +1 ( + 1 ) ( k ) F k , k + 1; + 1; b 2 = 0 (8.35)
0
8.6.4 Particular solutions of the integral J (at)J(bt)t-dt
Value of the integral for

Integral
b<a b=a b>a
J
( at ) J ( bt ) b 1 1 a

1
dt
t 2 a 2 2 b
0

b 1 1
J ( at )J 1( bt )dt 2a
0
0 a

1 1
J 1 ( at )J 0 ( bt )dt a 2a
0
0

sin( at ) cos( bt )
t
dt
2 4
0
0

1
J 0 ( at ) sin( bt )dt 0
2
b a
2
0

1
J 0( at ) cos( bt )dt 2
a b
2
0
0
72
8.6.5 Particular solution of the integral J(at)J(bt)/tdt.

In the special case in which the Bessel functions are of the same order, the discontinuous integral can be
evaluated in a simple form.

J ( at ) J ( bt ) ab t 2 J ( t ) 2
t
=
2 ( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) 0 ( t )
sin d
where 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos

ab

J ( at ) J ( bt ) 2 J ( t )t
dt = sin 2 ddt
0 t ( + 1 / 2 ) (1 / 2 ) 00

J ( t ) 1 ( 2 + 1 ) 2 + 1

t dt = 2 +1
2
F
( + 1 ) 2
, ; + 1;1
2
0
2 + 1 ( + 1 ) ( 1 / 2 )
F , ; + 1;1 =
2 2 2 + 2 1 +

2 2

J ( t ) 1 ( 2 + 1 ) (1/ 2 )

t dt =
2 2 +1 2 + 2 1 +
0
2 2

ab

J ( at ) J ( bt ) 2 1 ( 2 + 1 ) sin 2
t
dt =
2 + 1 2 2 + 2 1 + 0 2 +1
d
0
2 2 2
2 + 2 2 + 1
2 2
( 2 + 1 ) = 2 2
(1/ 2 )
2 + 1

J ( at ) J ( bt ) (ab )
2 sin 2
t
dt =
2 + 1 1 + 0 2 +1
d
0 2 ( 1 / 2 )
2 2
Expand the integral in powers of cos, with = 2ab/(a2 +b2 )
[1 cos ]2 +1 = 1 + 2 + 1 cos + 2 2 + 1 2 + 1 + 1 cos

2

2 1! 2 2 2!
73

sin 2
2 +1
d
0 2
(2
a + b 2 ab cos 2 )
2 + 1 k

1 2 k
cos k sin 2 d
2 +1
=
(a 2 + b 2 )
k!
0
2
Apply the definition (5.2) of the beta function, noticing that
when k = 2j + 1

2 j +1
cos sin 2 d = 0
0
when k =2j
/2
2
cos
2j
sin d = 2 cos
2j
sin 2 d = B( j + 1 / 2 , + 1 / 2 )
0 0
Hence

sin 2
2 +1
d
0 2
(2
a + b 2 ab cos 2 )
2 + 1 2 j 2 j + 1 2 + 1

1 2 2 j 2 2
=
2 +1 ( 2 j )! ( j + + 1 )
(
a +b
2 2 2 )
By (5.5)
( 1 / 2 ) ( 2 j )
( j + 1/ 2) =
2 2 j 1 ( j )
2 + 1 2 j 1 2 + 1

1 2 2 j 2 2
=
2 +1
(
a +b
2 2 2 ) j! 2 2 j ( j + + 1 )
Take into account that

2 + 1

2 2 j 2 + 1 2 + 3
2j
=
4

j 4

j
2
74

sin 2
2 +1
d
0 2
( 2
a + b 2 ab cos 2 )
2 + 1 2 + 3 2 j

( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 ) 2 j 2 j
=
2 +1 j ! ( + 1 ) j
(a 2
+b 2
) 2 ( + 1)
Hence

J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
dt =
0
2 + 1
( ab ) 2 2
2 2 + 1 , 2 + 3 ; + 1; 4 a b (8.36)
( )
F
2 +1 2
( )
4 4
+ 1 a +b
2 2

2 2
( + 1 ) a + b
2 2
2
Equation (8.36) is valid for a > b or a < b. In this form of the result, the discontinuity is masked.
75
76
BESSEL FUNCTIONS IN THE COMPLEX PLANE
Chapter 9 Bessel functions in the complex plane

This chapter presents the most important infinite integrals of Bessel functions resolved in the complex
plane. They are essential for application in slab theory.

( z ) ( 1 z ) =
sin z
1 1
=
( z ) 2i C
e t t z dt

1 sin t z sinh t
J ( z ) = cos( z sin )d

e e dt

0 0

1 sin t z cosh t
I ( z ) =
cos( z cos )d

e e dt
0 0

K ( z ) = e z cosh t cosh tdt
0
1
+ ( 2 z )
K ( xz ) =
2 cos xu
du
1
( )
1
x 0 2 +
2 u + x2 2
+1
x J ( ax )
2 2
dx = k K ( ak )
0 x +k

xJ ( ax )
x 20+ k 2 dx = K0 ( ak )
0
x 1 J ( bx )J ( ax )

dx = ( )( + ) / 2 k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak ) when a > b
2 2
0 x +k
( )

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2 2
dx = 2
e k ( a b ) e k ( a + b ) when a > b
0 x( x + k ) 4 k
( )

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2 2
dx = 2
2 e k ( b + a ) e k ( b a ) when a < b
0 x( x + k ) 4k
77
a b a+b
sin( bx ) cos( ax ) 2k a b k
a +b
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 e cos
2
ke 2 cos
2
k when a < b
0
ba b+a

sin( bx ) cos( ax ) k
b a k
b+a
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 2 e 2 cos
2
k e 2 cos
2
k when a > b
0
9.3 Proof of (z)(1-z) = /sin(z)

Consider the infinite integral

x p 1
1 + x dx (9.1)
0
which we solve in two ways.
To begin with, assume 0 < p < 1.
Let x/(1+x) = y.

x p 1
1
p 1
1 + x dx = y ( 1 y ) dy
p
(9.2)
0 0
By (5.1) and (5.4)
1
p 1
y ( 1 y ) p dy = B( p ,1 p ) = ( p ) ( 1 p ) (9.3)
0
Consider now
z p 1
C 1 + z dz (9.4)
contour integral in the complex plane.
Since z =0 is a branch point (Appendix), choose the contour of Figure 9.1, where AB and GH are actually
coincident with the x axis but are shown separately for visual purposes. The integrand has the pole
z = -1, lying within C.
D
A B
E -1
H G
Figure 9.1 Contour integral in the complex plane.
78
The residue at z = -1 = ei is
z p 1
lim ( z + 1 ) = ( e i ) p 1 = e ( p 1 ) i (9.5)
z 1 1+ z
Then
z p 1 ( p 1 ) i
C 1 + z dz = 2ie
or, omitting the integrands,
+ + + = 2ie ( p 1 ) i
AB BDEFG GH HJA
p 1 2 i p 1 i
( xe2i )
R r
x (Re ) i Re
1 + x dx + 1 + Re i
d + 1 + xe2i dx
r 0 R
( re i ) p 1 ire i
0
+ i
d = 2ie ( p 1 )i
2 1 + re
2i
where we have to use z = xe for the integral along GH since the argument of z is increased by 2 in
going around the circle BDEFG.
Take the limit as r 0 and R
2 2
(Re i ) p 1 i Re i 1 ( ei ) p i
lim
R
1 + Re i
d = lim
R R 1 p
1 i d = 0
0 0 +e
R
( re i ) p 1 ire i ( ei ) p i
0 0

p
lim d = lim r d = 0
r 0
2 1 + re i r 0
2 1 + re
i
with 0 < p < 1.

Hence

x p 1 ( xe 2i ) p 1
0
( p 1 )i
1+ x dx + 1 + xe2i dx = 2ie
0
[1 e ] x1 + x dx = 2ie
p 1
2i( p 1 ) ( p 1 ) i
0

x p 1 2ie ( p 1 )i 2i
1+ x dx = = =
1 e 2i( p 1 ) e p i e pi sin
(9.6)
0
Equalizing (9.3) and (9.6) proves

( z ) ( 1 z ) = (9.7)
sin z
We have proven that (9.7) is valid for 0 < p <1.
This can be extended along the real axis for non-integer z. If we make the substitution
z = x + 1 for 0 < x < 1, we find
79
x ( x ) ( x + 1 )
( z ) ( 1 z ) = ( x + 1 ) [1 ( x + 1 )] = ( x + 1 ) ( x ) = =
( x )

= ( x ) ( 1 x ) = = =
sin x sin( x + 1 ) sin z
9.4 The Hankels contour integral for 1/(z).

t z
Consider the integral C e t dt around the path of Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 Hankels contour integral
Omitting the argument

+
e t dt = R + +
R
t z
C
Replace t by rei. For the first integral = -, for the second r = and for the third = . Hence
(re )
z
e t dt = R e
i
t z i
re
e i dr
C
+
+ e i

e
z
e i ie i d( )

R

i
+ e re re i
z i
e dr ( )
Assume that z < 1 and take the limit for 0 and R . The second integral tends to zero and

e t dt = e r r z e iz dr 0 e r r z e iz dr
0
t z
=
r z
0 e r [e iz
e iz dr ]

= 2i sin z e r r z dr
0
= 2i sin z ( 1 z )
80
and by equation (9.7)

1 1
=
( z ) 2i C
ett zdt (9.8)
We have defined equation (9.8) for values of z < 1. However in this equation the integral defines an
analytic function for all z, hence, as for equation (9.7) defined in 9.2, by the principle of analytic
continuation equation (9.8) can be used for the reciprocal of the gamma function throughout the z plane,
i.e. throughout the complex plane.
9.5 The integral representation of J (z)

We start with Hankels contour integral (9.8) wherein we replace z by ( + m + 1) the argument of the
gamma function in the successive denominators of the series expressing J(z):
1 1
=
( + m + 1) 2i C
ett m 1dt
Hence

( ) m ( z / 2 ) + 2 m
J ( z ) =
0
m! ( + m + 1 )
( z / 2 ) ( )m ( z 2 / 4t ) 1 t
J ( z ) =
2i C 0
m!
t e dt
( z / 2 ) ( z 2 / 4t ) t 1
2i C
J ( z ) = e e t dt
Let t =ze w/2 and dt = tdw
J ( z ) =
1

2i C
( ) (
ew exp ze w / 2 exp ze w / 2 dw )
1
2i C
J ( z ) = ewe z sinhw dw (9.9)
Perform the integration around the path of Figure 9.3, consisting of three sides of a rectangle with vertices
at -i, -i, i and + i.
-i
Figure 9.3 Integration around the contour
We write w = t i on the sides parallel to the real axis and w = 0 i on the lines joining 0 to i.
Neglecting the integrands
81
i i
1
0
2i
J ( z ) = + + +
i 0 i

i
1 w z sinh w
Int 1 =
2i e e dw

0
1 ( t i ) z sinh( t i )
Int 1 =
2i e e dt

0
1 t i z sinh t
Int 1 =
2i e e e dt

1 t i z sinh t
Int 1 =
2i e e e dt
0
Similarly

1 t i z sinh t
Int 4 =
2 i e e e dt
0
With
2i
[
1 i
e ei =
1
2i
]
[cos i sin cos i sin ] = sin

sin
Int 1 + Int 4 = e t e z sinh t dt

0
Next
0
1 w z sinh w
Int 2 =
2i e e dw
i
0
1 i z sinh( i )
2
Int 2 = e e d

1
Int 2 = ei e iz sin d
2
0

1 i( z sin )
Int 2 =
2 e d
0
Similarly

1
Int 3 = e i( z sin ) d
2
0
i( z sin ) i( z sin )
e +e = 2(cos z sin )
Finally
82

1 sin t z sinh t
J ( z ) = (cos( z sin )d

e e dt (9.10)

0 0
9.6 The integral representation of I (z)

In analogy to the previous paragraph, one obtains

1 sin t z cosh t
I ( z ) = (cos( z sin )d

e e dt (9.11)

0 0
9.7 The integral representation of K (z).

Consider (9.11)

1 sin
I ( z ) = cos( z cos )d e t e z cosh t dt

0 0
Form

1 sin
I ( z ) = cos( z cos )d + e +t e z cosh t dt

0 0

sin z cosh t
I ( z ) I ( z ) = 2
e cosh tdt
0
I ( z ) I ( z )
K ( z ) =
2 sin
Hence

K ( z ) = e z cosh t cosh tdt (9.12)
0
Equation (9.12) can be written as follows
[ ]

1 z cosh t t 1 1
K ( z ) = e e + e t dt = e z cosh t et dt + e z cosh t e t dt
2 2 2
0 0 0
t
Transform the integral with the positive exponent e by setting t = -t and dt = -dt.
Hence

1 z cosh t t 1
K ( z ) = e e dt + e z cosh t e t dt
2 2
0 0
0
1 z cosh t t 1 z cosh t t
K ( z ) =
2 e e dt +
2
e e dt
0

1 z cosh t t
K ( z ) =
2 e dt (9.13)

83
Under this form the finite value of the integrand at infinite is evident.
9.8 The integral representation of Kv(xz)

A second integral representation, more appropriate for numerical integration, is gained from equation

2
(9.13). However we have to evaluate before the value of the integral e cos d (Spiegel, 1974).
0
Let

I = I ( , ) = e cos d
2
0
Then

I
= e sin d
2

0

e
2

e cos d =
2
=
2
sin
0

2 2
I
0
Thus
1 I
=
I 2
or

log I =
2
Integration with respect to yields
2
log I = + C1
4
I = I ( , ) = Ce / 4
2
C is a constant for all values of , hence

C = I ( ,0 ) = e d
2
0
Let x = 2

1 1 / 2 x (1/ 2) 1
C=
2 0
x e dx =
2
=
2

2 1 2 / 4
e cos d =
2
e (9.14)
0
We now prove that (Watson, 1966)
84

( + 1 / 2 )( 2 z ) cos( xu )
K ( xz ) =
( 2 + z 2 ) +1 / 2
du (9.15)

x (1/ 2) 0 u
Therefore we shall show that equations (9.13) and (9.15) are identical

1 1 x xz cosh t t 1 cos( xu )
e dt = +
( )
du (9.16)
2 2 ( 2 z ) 2 2 +1 / 2
0 u +z
2

If we write t = s(u 2 +z2 ), the expression on the right is equal to
[ ( )]
1 / 2 t
t e cos xu 1 / 2
dtdu = s exp s u 2 + z 2 cos xudsdu
00 u ( 2
+z )
2 +1 / 2
00
and if we change the order of the integration
exp[ su ]cos xudu s [ ]

1 / 2 t
t e cos xu 1 / 2
dtdu = exp sz 2 ds
2
00 u ( 2
+z )
2 +1 / 2
00
We apply equation (9.14)
exp[ su ]cos xudu = 2 2 s

x2
2 1 1 1 / 2
exp
0 4 s
and obtain

1 cos( xu )du 1 1 1 x2
+ = s exp sz 2 ds
2
0 u +z
2 2 +1 / 2
(2 2
0 )
4 s
Set s = xe-t so that equation (9.15) is proven

1 cos( xu ) 1 1 x
+ du = e xz cosh t t dt
( )
(9.17)
2 + 1 / 2 2 2 ( 2z )
0 u +z
2 2

9.9 Resolution of x +1 J(ax)/(x 2+k 2 )dx

This sort of integrals is usually solved by integrating in the complex plane the function where the Bessel
function of the first kind J is replaced by the Hankel function of the first kind H(1) , for reasons which
will appear obvious at the end of the paragraph,
z + 1H ( 1 ) ( az )
z2 + k 2
dz
C
around a contour containing one or more poles of the integrand.
The conditions of convergence are
a 0
< 3/2
Consider the contour represented at figure 9.4 which includes the pole z = ik and avoids the branch point
z = 0. It is required that (k) > 0.
The residue at z = ik is
85
( z ik ) z + 1 H( 1 ) ( az )
= 2i lim
z = ik ( z ik )( z + ik )
C
( ik ) + 1 H( 1 )( aik )
= 2i
2ik
C
= ik i H( 1 ) ( aik ) = ik ei / 2 H( 1 ) ( aik )

ik
-r r
-R R
Figure 9.4 Integrating in the complex plane
and by equation (4.69)
= 2 k K ( ak )
C
Now we compute the integral around the contour, where neglecting the integrands
R r 0
= + + +
C r 0 R
The first and the third integral are solved on the axis of the real values of the variables, thus the variable z
may be replaced by x.
R +1 (1 )
x H ( ax )
Int 1 = x2 + k 2
dx
r
r +1 (1)
x H ( ax )
Int 3 = x2 + k2
dx
R
To solve this integral, replace x by y.
R +1 (1)
( y ) H ( ay )
Int 3 = y2 + k 2
dy
r
R +1 i ( 1) i
y (e ) H ( e ay )
Int 3 = dy
r y2 + k 2
Replace now y by x
86
R +1 i (1) i
x (e ) H ( e ax )
Int 3 = dx
r x2 + k 2
Add Int1 and Int3
R +1
x [H ( 1) i ( 1 ) i
( ax ) e H ( axe ) dx ]
Int 13 = 2
x +k
2
r
Hence by equation (4.66)
R +1
x J ( ax )
Int 3 = 2 dx
r x + k2
2
The solution of Int2 is difficult and requires a good knowledge of the properties of complex numbers
(Appendix). Taking into account that we solve the integral for large values of R, we use the asymptotic
notation for H(1)
+ 1 ( + 1 )i 2 i( a Re i v / 2 / 4 )
R e e
a Re i
Int 2 = 2 2i 2
Re i d
0 R e +k
+ 1 ( + 1 )i 2 iaR(cos + i sin ) v / 2 / 4
R e
i
e e
a Re i
Int 2 2 2i
R e +k 2
Re d
0
+ 2 1 / 2 ( + 1 )i i / 2 2 iaR cos aR sin i / 4( 2 + 1 )

R e e e e e
a
Int 2 R 2 e 2i + k 2
d
0
2 aR sin
R + 3 / 2 e
a
Int 2 R2 + k 2
d
0
/2
2 1 / 2 aR sin
Int 2 2
a
R e d
0
87
sin
2 /

0 /2
Figure 9.5 Sin 2 /.
It can be deduced from Figure 9.5 that sin 2 /. Hence

/2
2 1 / 2 aR / 2
Int 2 2
a
R e d
0
Int 2
4 2
a a
(
1 e aR / 4 R 3 / 2 )
Hence lim Int2 = 0 for R if < 3/2.
We finally show that lim Int4 = 0 for r 0.
( re i ) + 1 H( 1 ) ( are i )
0
Int 4 = 2 i 2 2
ire i d
r e +k
(1)
We replace H by its expression for small values of the argument
0
f ( a )
Int 4 = r + 2 r 2e i 2 d

It follows immediately that lim Int4 = 0 for r 0.
And so we have proven that
+1
x J ( ax )
2 2
dx = k K ( ak ) (9.18)
0 x +k
if 0 < 3/2.
In particular

xJ ( ax )
x 20+ k 2 dx = K0 ( ak ) (9.19)
0
88
9.10 Resolution of x -1 J (bx)J(ax)/(x 2+k 2 )dx

The solution of the integral
x 1 J
( bx )J ( ax )
2
x +k 2
dx
0
is obtained in a very similar way as the previous integral.
The conditions of convergence are
a b
- <<4
+ - = 2n
Consider the contour of figure 9.4.

z 1 J ( bz ) H1 ( az )
z2 + k2
dz
The value of the contour integral is
( ik ) 1 J ( bik )H( 1 ) ( aik )
= 2i
2ik
Applying equations (4.68) and (4.69) yields
2i 1k 2 e i / 2 I ( bk )e i / 2 K ( ak )
= 2i
2ii
= 2i + k 2 I ( bk )I ( ak )
The value of the residue can only be real if + - is an even integer. Hence the condition
+ - = 2n
Hence
= 2( 1 ) n k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak )
Now we compute the integral around the contour, where neglecting the integrands
R r 0
= + + +
r 0 R
Applying the same method as in the previous case, one obtains
R x 1 J
( bx )J ( ax )
Int 13 = 2 dx
r x +k
2 2
Similarly it is shown that lim Int2 = 0 for R if < 4 and that lim Int4 = 0 for r 0 if
- < .
So we have proved that

x 1 J
( bx )J ( ax )
dx = ( )( + ) / 2 k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak ) (9.20)
2 2
0 x +k
For high values of the argument lim I (bk) = C1 ebk and lim K (ak) = C2 e-ak.
89
Hence convergence of the result requires a > b.

One obtains in particular applying equations (4.8), (4.9), (4.12) and (4.15), with a > b
( )

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2 2
dx = 2
e k ( a b ) e k ( a + b ) (9.21)
0 x( x + k ) 4k
( )

x sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2 2
dx = e k ( a + b ) e k ( a b ) (9.22)
0 (x +k ) 4
Also for a < b
( )

x sin( bx ) cos( ax ) k( b+ a )
2 2
dx = e + e k ( b a ) for b > a (9.23)
0 (x +k ) 4
However, integral (9.21) has no immediate solution for a < b. Indeed in that case - < is not verified:
= -1/2, = 1/2, = 1.
We then transform the integral considering that
1 1 1 x
=
x( x 2 + k 2 ) k 2 x x2 + k 2
The integral becomes

sin( b ) cos( ax ) 1 sin( bx ) cos( ax ) 1 x sin( bx ) cos( ax )
x( x 2 + k 2
dx = 2
k 0 x
dx 2
k 0 x2 + k2
dx
0
The solution of the first integral of the second member is given in 8.5.4. Hence for a < b
(2 e k ( b + a ) e k ( b a ) )

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2
x( x + k ) 2
dx =
4k 2
(9.24)
0
Note:
When the condition + - = 2n is not met, it can be shown (Watson, 1966) that the general equation
takes the form:
x 1 J
( bx ) + +
cos J ( ax ) + sin Y ( ax ) = I ( bk ) K v ( ak )k 2
0
2
x +k 2 2 2
9.11 Resolution of sin(bx)cos(ax)/x/(x 4 + k 4)dx

The solution of

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
x ( x 4
+ k 4
)
dx
0
can easily be reduced to the previous case by transforming the denominator
90
1 1 1 1
=
x4 + k 4 2ik 2 x 2 + z 12 x 2 + z 22
where z1 2 = -ik 2 and z2 2 = ik 2 (Pronk, 1991)
Considering the same conditions for convergence
a b
- <<4
+ - = 2n
one obtains applying (9.21)

1 sin( bx ) cos( ax ) sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx dx
2ik 2 0 x( x 2 + z12 ) 0 x( x 2
+ z 2
2 )
=
1

2ik 4 z1
2 2
(
e z1 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b ) ) (

2
e z2 ( a b ) e z 2 ( a + b ) )
4z 2
=
8k
1
4
[( )(
e z1 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b ) e z 2 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b ) )]
with z1 =k (-i) =(1 i)k/2 and z2 =k (i) =(1+i)k/2
a b a b a b a +b a +b a +b
2 k i 2 k i k k i k i k
= e e + e 2
e 2
e 2 +e 2

8k 4

with eia + e -ia = cosa + i sina +cos a i sina =2 cosa
a b a+b
sin( bx ) cos( ax ) 2k a b k
a +b
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 e cos
2
ke 2 cos
2
k (9.25)
0

When a < b, the boundary conditions are not met: - = . The solution is obtained by splitting the
integral

sin( bx ) cos( ax ) sin( bx ) cos( ax ) 1 x 2 sin( bx ) cos( ax )
0 x( x 2 + k 2 ) dx = 0 x
dx 2
k 0 x( x 2 + k 2 ) dx
Hence the result is:

sin( bx ) cos( ax )
b a
k b a
b+ a
k b+a
0 x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 2 e k e 2 cos k (9.26)
2
cos
2 2
91
92
LAPLACE EQUATION IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
PART 2: THE APPLICATIONS
Chapter 10 Laplace Equation in Pavement Engineering
10.1 Equilibrium equation for beams in pure bending.

Consider the beam AB transversally loaded as shown in figure 10.1 (Timoshenko, 1953)
P P
a
A B
x
C D
P P
Figure 10.1 Transversally loaded beam
The middle portion CD of the beam is free from shear force; the bending moment. Mx = Pa is uniform
between C and D. This condition is called pure bending. This problem will be solved under the
strength of materials approach and not, such as in 10.3 and 10.4, under the Theory of Elasticity
Approach. The assumptions will be more restrictive than those of the theory of elasticity, however the
solutions will be simpler and, in most cases, even correct.
10.1.1 Sign conventions
x dx
y
xy
A C
y
yx
dy x x
xy
B D
xy
y
Figure 10.2 Sign conventions
93
Consider the stresses acting on the different faces of ABCD: x and y are called normal stresses in the
indicated directions and xy and yx are called shear stresses acting in a plane normal to the direction of the
first index and in a direction given by the second index [Conventions of Timoshenko (1953)]. The normal
stresses are taken positive when they produce tension and negative when they produce compression. The
shear stress on any face of an element will be considered positive when it has a clockwise moment with
respect to a centre inside the element (Figure 10.3a). If the moment is counter-clockwise with respect to a
centre inside the element, the shear stress is negative (Figure 10.3b).
Figure 10.3 a and b Positive and negative shear stresses
The equality of complementary shear stresses, such as xy and yx on the faces of a rectangular element
can be established from the equilibrium conditions of the element (Figure 10.4).
yx
xy
y dx
dy
xy
yx
Figure 10.4 Equality of complementary stresses
We write the equilibrium of the moments due to the shear stresses
yx dx dy + xy dy dx = 0
Hence we write
xy = yx (10.1)
94
10.1.2 Assumptions
Consider a prismatic beam with an axial plane of symmetry, which is taken as the xy-plane. When the
applied loads also act in such a plane of symmetry, bending will take place only in that plane. Assume
that the material is homogeneous and obeys Hookes law:
x =
1
E
(
x y ) (10.2)
1
(
y = y x
E
) (10.3)
Furthermore assume that as the bending moment is uniform, the bending deformation will also be
uniform. This implies that each cross-section, originally plane, is assumed to remain plane and normal to
the longitudinal fibres of the beam. Hence there is no deformation in the vertical direction and Hookes
law can be simplified:
x
x = (10.4)
E
As a result of the loading shown in figure 10.1, fibres on the lower side of the beam are elongated slightly
while those on the upper side are slightly shortened. Somewhere in between the top and the bottom of the
beam, there is a layer of fibres that remain unchanged in length. This is called the neutral surface. The
intersection of the neutral surface with the axial plane xy is called the neutral axis of the beam.
10.1.3 Bending moment and bending stress

Consider a section of the beam parallel to the xy plane, with a segment ab orthogonal to the neutral axis
(Figure 10.5). Call w, the deflection in the y direction.
a a
x
x x
- dw/dx
b
y y
Figure 10.5 Bending moment and bending stress
Considering the assumptions of 10.1.2., one can accept that the segment a-b remains orthogonal to the
neutral axis after bending. In the plane xy, segment ab will rotate over an angle equal to dw/dx. If u is
the displacement in the x direction, one may write
dw
u = y
dx
The strain is defined as the relative displacement
95
du d 2w
x = = y (10.5)
dx dx 2
The stress is given by Hookes law
d 2w
x = E x = yE (10.6)
dx 2
The bending moment is obtained by integration of (10.2)
h/ 2 h/ 2
d 2w y3 d 2w
M = x ydy = E = EI (10.7)
2 3
h / 2 dx h / 2 dx 2
The bending stress is obtained by (10.6) and (10.7)
My
x = (10.8)
I
10.1.4 The radius of curvature
It is known that the radius of curvature of an analytical function is given by the second derivative of the
function, here d2w/dx2. We have defined the bending stress as positive when in tension. Thus when the
tensile stress is located at the positive side of the vertical y-axis, the radius of curvature is oriented in the
opposite direction. Hence:
1 d 2w
= (10.9)
R dx 2
EI
M = (10.10)
R
10.1.5 Equilibrium
Write now the equilibrium of the moments in a cross-section (Figure 10.6)
dx dM
2T = dx
2 dx
T 1 dM d 3w
= = (10.11)
EI EI dx dx 3
and write the equilibrium of the vertical forces

dT
pdx qdx = dx
dx
pq 1 dT d 4 w
= = (10.12)
EI EI dx dx 4
p( x ) q( x )
2 2 w = (10.13)
EI
where p is the intensity of a load distributed over the beam. The double Laplacian of the deflection varies
with the value of the distributed load.
96
M M + (dM/dx)dx
T + (dT/dx)dx)
dx
Figure 10.6 Equilibrium of moments
10.2 Equilibrium equation for bent plates

Consider a transversally loaded slab as given in figure 10.7.
x
P
Q
y
Figure 10.7 Equilibrium for bent plates
Postulate the hypothesis that the thickness of the slab can be considered to be thin against it's other
dimensions and that the deflections are small in comparison with the thickness. These basic assumptions
of the Theory of the Strength of Materials, allow to consider the mid plane as a neutral plane wherein the
horizontal displacements are admitted to be zero.
10.2.1 Bending moment and shear forces

Consider a section of the slab parallel to the xz plane, with a segment ab orthogonal to the neutral mid
plane (Figure 10.8). Name w, the deflection in the z-direction.
97
a
a
y y
x x
-w/x
b
b
z z
Figure 10.8 Bending moments and shear forces
Again, one may accept that the segment ab remains orthogonal to the neutral plane after bending. In the
plane xz, segment ab will rotate over an angle equal to -w/x and in the plane yz, a similar segment will
rotate over an angle -w/y. If u is the displacement in the x-direction, one can write:
w
u = z
x
and if v is the displacement in the y-direction,
w
v = z
y
The strains can be deduced from the displacements
u 2w
x = = z
x x 2
v 2w
y = = z
y y 2
u v 2w
xy = + = 2 z
y x xy
and the stresses by Hookes law
Ez 2w 2 w
x = +
1 2 x 2 y 2
Ez 2 w 2 w
y = + (10.14)
1 2 y 2 x 2
Ez 2 w
xy =
1 + xy
The bending and torsion moments are obtained by integration of (10.14).

h/2
Eh 3 2w 2 w

Mx = z x dz =
( )
12 1 2 x 2
+
y 2
h / 2
98
and with D, the stiffness of the plate,

h/ 2 2w 2 w

Mx = x z dz = D
x 2
+
y 2
(10.15)
h / 2
h/ 2 2w 2 w

My = y z dz = D
y 2
+
x 2
(10.16)
h / 2
h/ 2
2w
M xy = z xy dz = D( 1 )
xy
(10.17)
h / 2
h/ 2
2w
M yx = z yx dz = M xy = D( 1 )
xy
(10.18)
h / 2
The moments can also be expressed in function of the radii of curvature
1 1 1 1
M x = D + M y = D + (10.19)
R R y R R y
x x
10.2.2 Equilibrium
Consider an elementary parallelepiped of dimension dx.dy.h (Figure 10.9).
dx
dy
Mx
Mxy
Myx
My
Tx
Ty
Figure 10.9 An elementary parallelepiped
Equilibrium of the moments with regard to the x-axis.

M xy M y
+ Ty = 0 (10.20)
x y
Equilibrium of the moments with regard to the y-axis.
M yx M x
+ Tx = 0 (10.21)
y x
99
Equilibrium of the vertical forces with regard to the z-axis

T x T y
+ + pq =0 (10.22)
x y
Replacing in (10.20) and (10.21) the moments by their values of (10.15) to (10.18), one obtains the
equations for the shear forces
2 w 2 w
Tx = D + (10.23)
x x 2 y 2
2 w 2 w
Ty = D + (10.24)
y x 2 y 2
Replacing in (10.22) the shear forces by their values of (10.23) and (10.24), one obtains the equilibrium
or continuity equation for a thin slab submitted to pure bending
4w 4w 4w pq
+2 + = (10.25)
x 4 x 2 y 2 y 4 D
10.3 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, isotropic body submitted to forces applied
on its surface
The problem is solved in two dimensions. Consider the elementary rectangle ABCD, with unit thickness
as represented in Figure 10.10.
x dy
xy
y A C
yx
dy x x + (x/x)dx
yx + (yx/x)dx
B D
xy + (xy/y)dy
y + (y/y)dy
Figure 10.10 Elementary rectangle
Consider the stresses acting on the different faces of ABCD: x and y are called normal stresses in the
indicated directions and xy and yx are called shear stresses acting in a plane normal to the direction of the
first index and in a direction given by the second index [conventions of Timoshenko (1970)]. The
stresses, such as represented in Figure , are considered to be positive. The normal stresses are taken
positive when they produce tension and negative when they produce compression. The positive directions
of the components of shearing stress on any side are taken as the positive directions of the co-ordinate
axes if a tensile stress on the same side would have the positive direction of the corresponding axis. If the
100
tensile stress has a direction opposite to the positive axis, the positive directions of the shear stresses
should be reversed.
Assume that the rectangle ABCD is small enough to admit that the stresses are uniformly distributed
along its sides and therefore that the stress resultants pass through the centre of gravity of the rectangle.
For simplicity, consider that the body forces (for example: weight) can be neglected.
The resolution is based on three principles: equilibrium, continuity and elasticity.
10.3.1 Principle of equilibrium

The body must remain in equilibrium under the applied forces. Therefore the sums of the horizontal
forces, the vertical forces and the moments around the centre of gravity must be zero. From Figure we
can deduce that:
x xy
+ =0
x y
yx y
+ =0
x y
xy = yx
The system of three equations reduces in a system of two equations:

x xy
+ =0 (10.26)
x y
xy y
+ =0 (10.27)
x y
System (10.26) and (10.27) of two equations contains three unknowns. In order to solve the problem,
more information is required.
10.3.2 The principle of continuity

Continuity means that the material of the body remains continuous, that the body remains uncracked after
loading. An equation between linear and angular strains can express this.If u is the displacement of a
given point in the x direction and v the displacement in the y direction, then define (Figure 10.11):
u v u v
x = y = xy = + (10.28)
x y y x
where x and y are the linear strains in the indicated direction, and xy is the angular strain in the indicated
plane.
If one assumes continuity of the material, one must assume continuity of the mathematical relationships,
thus derivability of equation (10.28). Derive twice each of the three equations of (10.28) and add the
results so as to obtain the continuity equation
2 x 2 y 2 xy
+ = (10.29)
y 2 x 2 xy
The system now consists in three equations with six unknowns: more information is required to solve the
problem.
101
u u + du
x = u/x
y = v/y
x x+u x + dx x + dx + u + du
dx
x,y x + dx, y
1 = tg(v/x) v/x
1
2 = tg(u/y) u/y
2 = 1 + 2
x + dx, y + dv
= u/y + v/x
x, y + dy x + du, y + dy
Figure 10.11 Principle of continuity
10.3.3 The principle of elasticity

Let us assume that the body behaves elastically, that there is a linear relationship between strains and
stresses. This was first observed by Hooke (1678) and therefore is referred to as Hookes law.
x y
x =
E
y x
y = (10.30)
E
1 2( 1 + ) xy
xy = xy =
G E
where E is called Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and G the shear modulus of the material. Equation
(10.30) applies for the state of plane stress.
10.3.4 Stress potential

In order to solve the system of the six equations (10.26) to (10.30), assume that there exists a potential
function from which the stresses can be deduced (Airy, 1862).
Seek for such an equation that the equilibrium equations (10.26) and (10.27) are satisfied.
2 2 2
x = y = xy = (10.31)
y 2 x 2 xy
Replace the stresses in (10.30) using equations (10.31) and replace the strains in the continuity equation
(10.29) in order to obtain:
2 2 2 2
+ + = 2 2 = 0 (10.32)
x 2 y 2 x 2 2
y

102
Equation (10.32) is the so-called continuity or compatibility equation: the double Laplacian of the stress
potential is zero.
10.4 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, anisotropic body submitted to forces
applied on its surface
Consider the same elementary rectangle as that represented in Figure 10.10, but assume that the Youngs
moduli in horizontal and vertical directions differ from each other (Figure 10.12):
x dy
xy
y A C
dy x Ex x + (x/x)dx
yx + (yx/x)dx
B Ey D
xy + (xy/y)dy
y + (y/y)dy
Figure 10.12 Elementary rectangle with horizontal and vertical Young;s moduli
Write Ex = E/n and Ey = E. The equilibrium equations are similar to those presented in 10.3.1
x xy
+ =0 (10.33)
x y
xy y
+ =0 (10.34)
x y
Furthermore the continuity equation remains unchanged
2 x 2 y 2 xy
+ = (10.35)
y 2 x2 xy
However the elasticity conditions are modified due to the anisotropy. In matrix format, Hookes law is
written as:
1
0
x E / n E/n x

y = 0 y
1
(10.36)
E E
xy 0 1 xy
0
G
Due to energetic principles, the matrix must be symmetrical (Lekhnitskii, 1963). Hence

= and = /n.
E E/n
103
It can further be shown (Barden, 1963, and, more generally, Van Cauwelaert, 1983) that if, as in isotropic
elasticity, there is a relation between Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and shear modulus, it is
necessary, though not sufficient, that this equation should be
1 1 + n + 2
= (10.37)
G E
With n = 1, one gets the corresponding isotropic equation.
Hookes law then becomes

n x y
x =
E
y x
y = (10.38)
E
1 ( 1 + n + 2 ) xy
xy = xy =
G E
The stress potentials, satisfying equilibrium, remain unaltered
2 2 2
x = y = xy = (10.39)
y 2 x 2 xy
Replacing the stresses in (10.38) and the strains in (10.35), one obtains the compatibility equation for an
anisotropic body in plane stress co-ordinates:
2 2 2 2
+ +n =0 (10.40)
x 2 y 2 x 2 2
y
10.5 Basic equations of continuum mechanics in different co-ordinate systems
10.5.1 Plane polar co-ordinates

Using the same methodology as in 10.3, one establishes next equations
Equilibrium:
r 1 r r
+ + =0
r r r
(10.41)
1 r 2 r
+ + =0
r r r
Strains and displacements:
u u v u v v
r = = + r = + (10.42)
r r r r r r
Elasticity:
r
r =
E
104
r
= (10.43)
E
2( 1 + )
r = r
E
Stress Potential:
1 1 2 2 1
r = + = r = (10.44)
r r r 2 2 r 2 r r
Compatibility equation:
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
+ + + + =0 (10.45)
r 2 r r r 2 2 r 2 r r r 2 2

10.5.2 Axi-symmetric Cylindrical Co-ordinates

Equilibrium:
r rz r
+ + =0
r z r
(10.46)
rz z rz
+ + =0
r z r
u u w u w
r = = z = rz = + (10.47)
r r z z r
Elasticity:
r ( + z )
r =
E
( r + z )
= (10.48)
E
( r + )
z = z
E
2( 1 + )
rz = rz
E
Stress potential (Love, 1927):
2 2
r =
z r 2
2 1
=
z r r
2
z = ( 2 ) 2 (10.49)
z z 2
2
rz = ( 1 ) 2
r z 2
105
1+ 2 2
w= 2( 1 )
E z 2
1 + 2
u=
E rz
2 1 2 2 1 2
+ + + + =0 (10.50)
r 2 r r z 2 r 2 r r z 2

10.5.3 Non symmetric cylindrical co-ordinates

Equilibrium:
r 1 r rz r
+ + + =0
r r z r
rz 1 z z rz
+ + + =0 (10.51)
r r z r
r 1 z 2 r
+ + + =0
r r z r
u u v w u w
r = =+ z = rz = + (10.52)
r r r z z r
u v v v w
r = + z = +
r r r z r
Elasticity:
( + z )
r = r
E
( r + z )
= (10.53)
E
z ( r + )
z =
E
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + )
r = r rz = rz z = z
E E E
Stress potentials (Muki, 1960):
2 2 1 2 1
r = 2 +
z r r r r 2
2 1 1 2 1 2 1
= +
z r r r r r r 2
2 2
2 2
z = ( 2 ) 2 (10.54)
z z
106
1 2 2 1 2
z = ( 1 )
r z 2 2 rz
2 1 2
rz = ( 1 ) 2 +
r z 2 2 r z
1 2 2 1 2
r = +
r z r r r 2 2 z 2
1+ 2 2
w= 2( 1 ) 2
E z
1+ 2 1
u=
E rz r
1 + 1 2
v= +
E r z r
Compatibility equations:
2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
+ + + + + + =0 (10.55)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2 r 2 r r r 2 2 2
z
2 1 1 2 2
+ + + =0
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2
10.5.4 Cartesian volume co-ordinates

Equilibrium:
x xy xz
+ + =0
x y z
yx y zy
+ + =0 (10.56)
x y z
zx zy z
+ + =0
x y z
u v w
x = y = z = (10.57)
x y z
u v v w w u
xy = + yz = + zx = +
y x z y x z
Elasticity:
x ( y + z )
x =
E
107
y ( z + x )
y =
E
z ( x + y )
z = (10.58)
E
2( 1 + )
yz = yz
E
2( 1 + )
zx = zx
E
2( 1 + )
xy = xy
E
Stress potentials (Van Cauwelaert, 1985):
2 2 2
x = +
z x 2 xy
2 2 2
y = 2
z y xy
2 2
z = ( 2 ) (10.59)
z z 2
2 2 1 2
yz = ( 1 ) 2
y z 2 xz
2 2 1 2
zx = ( 1 ) +
x z 2 2 yz
3 1 2 2
xy =
xyz 2 x 2 y 2
1+ 2 2
w= 2( 1 )
E z 2
1 + 2
u=
E xz y
1+ 2
v=
E yz x
Compatibility equations:
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + =0 (10.60)
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 2
z

2 2 2
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2
108
10.5.5 Axi-symmetric Cylindrical Co-ordinates for an orthotropic body

An orthotropic body has a Youngs modulus in the horizontal plane Eh that is different of the modulus in
the vertical direction Ev. We call n = Ev/Eh the degree of anisotropy. As proposed in paragraph 10.4, for a
two-dimensional body, we accept equation (10.37)
1 1 + n + 2
=
G E
Further we shall also accept the same equation between the Poissons ratios as between the moduli, as
proposed by Eftimie (1973) and Van Cauwelaert (1983)

= (10.61)
n
where is Poissons ratio in the horizontal plane.
Equilibrium:
r rz r
+ + =0
r z r
(10.62)
rz z rz
+ + =0
r z r
u u w u w
r = = z = rz = + (10.63)
r r z z r
Elasticity:
n r ( + z )
r =
E
n ( r + z )
= (10.64)
E
z ( r + )
z =
E
1 + n + 2
rz = rz
E
Stress potential (Lekhnitskii, 1963,Van Cauwelaert, 1983):

2 2
r = ( n + ) n( 1 + )
z r 2
1
= ( n + ) 2 n( 1 + )
z r r
2 2 2 2
z = ( n + n + n ) n( 1 + ) (10.65)
z z 2
2 2 2
rz = ( n ) n( 1 + ) 2
r z
109
1 2 2
2
2
w= ( n )( 1 + n + 2 ) n( 1 + )
E z 2
n( 1 + )( n + ) 2
u=
E rz
2 1 2 2 1 n 2 2 2
+ + + + =0 (10.66)
r 2 r r z 2 r 2 r r n 2 2
z

110
SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF BEAMS AND SLABS ON AN ELASTIC SUBGRADE
Chapter 11 The Integral Transforms.

We demonstrated in Chapter 10 that the functions expressing equilibrium or continuity must be solutions
of Laplace or assimilated equations. Consider Laplace equation in two-dimensional co-ordinates
2 2
+ =0
x 2 y 2
Look for a solution obtained by separation of the variables. Indeed, such types of solutions are much
easier in expressing boundary conditions. Assume solution:
= cos xe y
Suppose now that, utilising this solution, we want to express that a vertical stress, y, acting on a
horizontal boundary, located at y = 0, has next form (boundary condition)
- for a < x < a: y = f(x) = - p
- for | x | > a: y = f(x) = 0
Applying (10.31), we obtain the following expression for the vertical stress
y = cos xe y
and, for y = 0,
y = f ( x ) = cos x
At first sight, the boundary condition cannot be satisfied with the chosen solution because of the
oscillating character of the cos function. With help of an integral transformation a cos- function can
become discontinuous, but uniform. We first introduce in the original solution a dummy variable (a
variable independent of the differential equation)
= cos( mx )e my
in such a way that is still solution of the Laplace equation. If we multiply now by a function F(m) of
the dummy variable and integrate from 0 to , we still have a solution satisfying the Laplace equation.

= cos( mx )e my F ( m )dm
0
The vertical stress writes now, for y = 0,

y = f ( x ) = m 2 cos( mx )F ( m )dm
0
We have performed an integral transform on f(x), where F(m) is called the kernel of the transform.
The purpose of this chapter is to determinate expressions for F(m) satisfying a series of boundary
conditions. In this particular case, we will find
2 p sin( ma )
F( m ) =
m3
The transform is called a Fourier transform or a Fourier integral.
Generally, when the solutions of the Laplace equations are expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates, using cos
and sin functions, the transforms will be Fourier transforms; when the solutions are expressed in polar
or cylinder co-ordinates, using Bessel functions, the transforms will be Hankel transforms.
111

a n x n x
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos + bn sin
2 n = 1 L L
L L
1 n x 1 n x
an =
L f ( x ) cos
L
dx bn =
L f ( x ) sin
L
dx
L L

f(x)= [A( ) cos x + B( ) sin x]d
0

1 1
A( ) =
f ( x ) cos xdx B( ) =
f ( x ) sin xdx

F ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm
0

F ( m ) = rJ 0 ( mr )F ( r )dr
0
11.3 The Fourier expansion (Spiegel, 1971)
11.3.1 Definitions
A function f(x) is meant to have a period T if for all x, f(x + T) = f(x), where T is a positive constant. The
least value of T > 0 is called the least period or simply the period of f(x). Let f(x) be defined in the
interval (-L, L) and outside the interval by f(x + 2L) = f(x), i.e. assume that f(x) has a period 2L. The
Fourier series or Fourier expansion corresponding to f(x) is given by

a n x n x
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos + bn sin (11.1)
2 n = 1 L L
where the Fourier coefficients an and bn are
L
1 n x
an =
L f ( x ) cos
L
dx (11.2)
L
L
1 n x
bn =
L f ( x ) sin
L
dx (11.3)
L
A function f(x) is called odd if f(-x) = - f(x). A function f(x) is called even if f(-x) = f(x).
A half range Fourier sine or cosine series is a series in which only sine terms or only cosine terms are
present respectively. When a half range series corresponding to a given function is desired, the function
is generally defined in the interval (0, L) and then the function is specified as odd or even, so that it is
clearly defined in the other half of the interval (-L, 0). In such a case we have for half range sine series
L
2 nx
an = 0 bn = f ( x ) sin dx (11.4)
L L
0
112
and for half range cosine series

L
2 nx
bn = 0 a n = f ( x ) cos dx (11.5)
L L
0
11.3.2 Proof of the Fourier expansion.
Assume that:
- f(x) is defined and single-valued except possibly at a finite number of points in (- L, L)
- f(x) is periodic outside (- L, L) with period 2L
- f(x) and f(x) are piecewise continuous in (- L, L).
then the series (11.1) with coefficients (11.2) and (11.3) converges to
- f(x) is x is a point of continuity
- [f(x + 0) + f(x 0)]/2 if x is a point of discontinuity.
Consider the series

n x n x
f(x)= A+ an cos L
+ bn sin
L

n =1
mx
assuming that it converges uniformly to f(x) in (- L, L). Multiply by cos and integrate from L to L
L
L L
mx mx mx n x
f ( x ) cos dx = A cos dx + a n cos cos dx
L L n =1
L L
L L

mx n x
+ bn cos L
sin
L
dx
n =1
Applying the trigonometric functions product equations, one proves easily that
L L
mx n x mx n x
cos
L
cos
L
dx = sin
L
sin
L
dx = 0 when m n
L L
L L
mx n x mx nx
cos L
cos
L
dx = sin
L
sin
L
dx = L when m = n
L L
L
mx n x
sin
L
cos
L
dx = 0
L
L L
kx kx
cos
L
dx = sin
L
dx =0 if k = 1,2, 3,
L L
We obtain by integration
L
mx
f ( x ) cos
L
dx = a m L if m 0
L
Thus
L
1 mx
am =
L f ( x ) cos
L
dx if m = 1,2,3, (11.6)
L
113
mx
Similarly multiplying by sin and integrating from L to L proves
L
L
1 mx
bm =
L f ( x ) sin
L
dx if m = 1,2,3, (11.7)
L
Integrating f(x) from L to L yields
L
f ( x )dx = 2 AL
L
L
1
A=
2L f ( x )dx
L
Put m = 0 in (11.6)
L
1
a0 =
L f ( x )dx
L
Hence
a
A= 0 (11.8)
2
Which proves the Fourier expansion formula.
11.3.3 Example
Express the function f(x) represented in Figure 11.1 as a Fourier series.
2a 2a
p

Figure 11.1 Example of Fourier series
The function is an even function with period . Hence

a0
f(x)= + a n cos( 2 nx )
2 n =1
a a /2
2 2 2
an =
0 cos( 2nx )dx + p cos( 2nx )dx + p cos( 2nx )dx
/ 2 a a
2p
an = sin( 2 na )
n
4 ap
a0 =

2 p cos( 2 nx ) sin( 2 na )
f(x)= a+ (11.9)
n =1
n

114
11.4 The Fourier integral
11.4.1 Definition
Assume that
- f(x) is defined and single-valued except possibly at a finite number of points in (- L, L)
- f(x) is periodic outside (- L, L) with period 2L
- f(x) and f(x) are piecewise continuous in (- L, L).
- Also assume that f(x)dx converges, i.e. is absolutely integrable in (- , ).
The Fouriers integral theorem states that

f(x)= [A( ) cos x + B( ) sin x]d
0 (11.10)
where

1
A( ) =
f ( u ) cos udu
(11.11)

1
B( ) =
f ( u ) sin udu (11.12)

Fouriers integral theorem can also be written in the form

1
f(x)=
f ( u ) cos ( x u )dud (11.13)
= 0 u =
When f(x) is either an even or an odd function, Fouriers integral theorem simplifies into

f(x)= [A( ) cos x]dx (11.14)
0

f(x)= [B( ) sin x]dx (11.15)
0
where

2
A( ) =
f ( u ) cos udu (11.16)
0

2
B( ) =
f ( u ) sin udu (11.17)
0
11.4.2 Proof of Fouriers integral theorem

We demonstrate Fouriers integral theorem by use of the Fourier expansion defined by (11.1).

a nx nx
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos + bn sin
2 n = 1 L L
where
115
L
1 n u
an =
L f ( u ) cos
L
du
L
L
1 n u
bn =
L f ( u ) sin
L
du
L
By substitution

1
L
1 n
f(x)=
2L f ( u )du +
L n =1 f ( u ) cos
L
( u x )du (11.18)
L
If we assume that f(u)du converges, the first term of the second member of (11.18) approaches zero
when L . Hence

1 n
f ( x ) = lim
L L n =1
f ( u ) cos
L
( u x )du

Calling = /L, we can now write that
1
f(x)= lim f ( u ) cos ( u x )du
0

+ f ( u ) cos 2 ( u x )du + f ( u ) cos 3 ( u x )du

1
f ( x ) = lim
0
cos n ( u x ) f ( u )du
n =1
We recognise the definition of the integral:

lim cos n = cos da
0 n = 1
0
Hence we may write

1 1
f ( x ) = lim
0
cos n ( u x ) f ( u )du = d f ( u ) cos ( x u )du (11.19)
n =1 0
which is Fouriers integral formula (11.13).
11.4.3 Example
Express the function f(x) represented Figure 11.2. as a Fourier series
2a
p
Figure 11.2 Example of Fourier integral
The function f(x) is an even function, hence
116

f ( x ) = A( ) cos( x )d
0
a
1 2 p sin( a )
A( ) =
p cos( u )du =
a

2 p cos( x ) sin( a )

f(x)= d (11.20)

0
11.5 The Hankels transform
11.5.1 Definition
The Hankels transform, sometimes called the Fourier-Bessel Integral, is represented by next pair of
integrals

f ( r ) = mJ ( mr )F ( m )dm (11.21)
0

F ( m ) = rJ ( mr ) f ( r )dr (11.22)
0
as far as . Generally, the transform is applied on the Bessel function J0, often solution of differential
equations in polar or cylinder co-ordinates:

f ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm (11.23)
0

F ( m ) = rJ 0 ( mr ) f ( r )dr (11.24)
0
The proof of equations (11.21) and (11.22) is given in the specialised literature by the so-called method of
dual integrals. However this method is beyond the scope of this book.
11.5.2 Example
We start with a simple application of the transform, merely given as an example. As we will see in the
applications, the Bessel function of the first kind and of zero order, J0(mr), is solution of many differential
equations expressed in polar or in cylinder co-ordinates. Assume that we want to express a discontinuous
condition on the function f(r) such as:
- for r < a, f(r) = p
- for r > a, f(r) = 0
We apply Hankels transform

f ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm
0
117
a
F ( m ) = p rJ 0 ( mr )dr + 0 rJ 0 ( mr )dr
0 a
J ( ma )
F ( m ) = pa 1
m

f ( r ) = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm (11.25)
0
11.5.3 Application of the discontinuous integral of Weber and Schafheitlin

The properties of the discontinuous integral of Weber and Schafheitlin, developed in 8.6, will allow us
to verify that equation (11.25) corresponds with the assumed conditions about f(r)

pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm = p for r < a
0

pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm = 0 for r >a
0
Hence, without having formally proven Hankels transform integral, we can nevertheless use the
properties of the transform applying the Weber Schafheitlin integral. We now demonstrate how to apply
it with the example of 11.5.2. Assume that we want to express a discontinuous condition on the function
f(r) such as
- for r < a, f(r) = p
- for r > a, f(r) = 0
using the properties of the Weber Schafheitlin integral.
Assume that the solution can be expressed as follows

J ( ma ) J ( ma )
f ( r ) = C mJ 0 ( mr ) dm = C J ( mr ) dm (11.26)
m m 1
0
0 0
Determine the values of C, and in order to meet the assumed conditions.
For r < a, the solution of equation (11.26) is

+ 1

F + 1 , + 1 ;1; r = p
0 2
f(r )= C
r 2
(11.27)
a 1 2 (1) + + 1 2 2 a 2
2
For r > a, the solution of equation (11.26) becomes
+ 1

a 2 + 1 + 1 a2
f(r )= C F , ; + 1; = 0 (11.28)
r + 1 2 ( + 1) + + 1 2 2 r 2
2
Equation (11.27) must be equal to p. Hence C = pa and the hypergeometric series must be equal to 1, thus
limited to its first term. This requires the second term between brackets to be zero: - - + 1 = 0.
118
Equation (11.28) must be equal to zero. Hence the gamma function in the denominator left of the
hypergeometric series must be infinite, or the argument of the gamma function must be zero: - + +1 =
0. Hence, we become 2 equations for the determination of and , resulting in: = 0, = 1.
The integral transform of f(r) becomes

f ( r ) = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm (11.29)
0
which is exactly the same equation as (11.25) obtained by application of Hankels transform.
The reader will realise that many different boundary conditions can be expressed using the presented
method.
119
120
Chapter 12 Simple Applications of Beams and Slabs on an Elastic Subgrade
12.1 The elastic subgrade

Consider a section of a beam represented in Figure 12.1.
E
q k, G
dx
Figure 12.1 Beam on an elastic subgrade
The beam is subjected to a distributed load p at its surface, a vertical soil reaction q and a shear at its
bottom. The equilibrium equation of the vertical forces is given by
d 4w pq
= (12.1)
4 EI
dx
However equation (12.1) contains two unknowns, w and q, hence, in order to be able to solve the
differential equation, we must have more information on the behaviour of the soil. Winkler (1867)
suggested that the subgrade reacts elastically as a layer of vertical springs. He proposed a linear relation
between the vertical reaction q and the deflection w of the beam
q = kw (12.2)
where the constant k, expressed in N/mm3, is called the modulus of subgrade reaction.
Equation (12.1) transforms into
d 4w kw p
+ = (12.3)
4 EI EI
dx
Almost a century later, as recalled by Pronk (1993), Pasternak (1954) suggested that the subgrade could
also react in the horizontal direction. He presented his subgrade model as a two-layer consisting of a shear
layer supported by the classical Winkler layer. The shear layer is characterised by its shear modulus G (in
N/mm) and the Winkler layer by its modulus of reaction k (Figure 12.2). The contact pressure between
beam and shear layer is p1 and between the shear layer and the Winklers subgrade q.
121
G p1
k q
Figure 12.2 Plate-Pasternak model
By Winklers assumption q = kw
Vertical equilibrium in the beam is expressed by

EI 4 w = p p1
The vertical equilibrium in the shear layer can be deduced from Figure 12.3.
p1
dx
T
T + dT/dx
Figure 12.3 Vertical equilibrium in Pasternaks shear layer
dT
p1dx qdx + dx = 0
dx
dT
p1 q =
dx
T is the shear force per unit of width in the shear layer. Pasternak (1954) assumed that the shear force is
proportional with the variation of the deflection (figure 12.4).
dw
T =G
dx
122
T dw
T + dT/dx
dx
Figure 12.4 Shear force is proportional to deflection
Hence
dT d 2w
=G
dx dx 2
and
d 2w
p1 = kw G
dx 2
Finally, the equilibrium equation for a beam on a Pasternak foundation writes
G 2 k p
4 w w+ w= (12.4)
EI EI EI
12.2 The beam on an elastic subgrade subjected to an isolated load: 4w/x4+Cw=0

Consider the beam of infinite length as given in Figure 12.5.
h E
q
k
Figure 12.5 Beam of infinite length on an elastic subgrade
The beam is submitted to a single load P at its surface and a soil reaction q.
For this simple application we adopt Winklers assumption. Note that p = 0, because the load is reduced
to a single load. Hence equation (12.3) transforms into:
123
4w kw
+ =0 (12.5)
x 4 EI
We notice that the factor EI/k has the dimensions of a length to the fourth power, hence we set
1
EI 4
l=
k
and call l the elastic length of the structure. Finally, equation (12.5) transforms into
4w w
+ =0 (12.6)
x 4 l4
We solve this differential equation by resolution of the characteristic equation ( 1.4.2).
The characteristic equation, written m4 + 1/l4 can be factorised in:
i i i i
m + m m + m =0 (12.7)

l l l l
where i = (-1).
Squaring both sides of next equations allows verifying that

1+i 1i
i= i =
2 2
and equation (12.7) can be transformed in
1 + i 1 + i 1 i 1i
m + m m + m (12.8)
l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2
The solution of equation (12.8) is then
x x
x x l 2 x x
w = e l 2 A cos + B sin +e C cos + D sin (12.9)
l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2
In order to determine the integration constants A, B, C and D we write down the boundary conditions:
- (1) for x = , w = 0
- (2) for x = 0, w is maximum, hence dw/dx = 0
- (3) for x = 0, T = -P/2.
Condition (1) requires splitting equation (12.9) into two parts. The first part (equation 12.10) is valid on
the left side of the beam, for negative values of x
x
x x
wL = e l 2 A cos + B sin (12.10)
l 2 L 2
The second part (equation 12.11) is valid on the right side of the beam, for positive values of x
x

x x
wR = e l 2 C cos + D sin (12.11)
l 2 l 2
124
This requires a fourth boundary condition
- (4) for x = 0, wL = wR
The solution of the system is satisfied by

Pl 3 2 P 2
A = B = C = D = =
4 EI 4 kl
The equation valid on the right side of the load is
P 2 x/l 2 x x
wL = e cos sin (12.12)
4 kl l 2 l 2
The equation valid on the left side of the load is
P 2 x / l 2 x x
wR = e cos + sin (12.13)
4 kl l 2 l 2
The deflection in the middle of the beam (x = 0) is

P 2
wx = 0 = (12.14)
4 kl
12.3 The beam on an elastic subgrade subjected to a distributed load: 4w/x4+Cw=0

Consider the beam of Figure subjected to a distributed load p over a width 2a. The deflection in the axis
of the load is obtained by integrating (12.12) over the width 0 a and (12.13) over the width a 0.
The solution is
2 pa a / l 2 a
wx = 0 = e sin (12.15)
kl 2 l 2
12.4 The infinite slab subjected to an isolated load: 22w +Cw = 0

Westergaard solved this problem in 1926, mainly following the same method. Consider a slab of infinite
extend subjected to an isolated load P and a soil reaction q. Apply the solution developed in 10.2.
4 w 4w 4w q
+2 + = (12.16)
4 2 2 4
x x x y D
Here also, equation (12.16) contains only the negative term -q because there is no distributed load applied
on top of the beam. Because of the axial symmetry, transform (12.16) in polar co-ordinates
d 2 1 d d 2 w 1 dw kw
+ + + =0 (12.17)
dr 2 r dr dr 2 r dr D

Because of the axial symmetry the terms in / vanish. The solution is obtained by splitting (12.17) into
two simultaneous differential equations
d 2w 1 dw
+ =z
dr 2 r dr
125
d 2z 1 dz
+ = w
dr 2 r dr
Both equations are together verified if z = iw. Hence the solution of (12.17) is given by the solution of
(12.18)
d 2w 1 dw
+ ( i )w = 0 (12.18)
dr 2 r dr
and the solution of (12.18) is given in 3.6.

w = aber( r / l ) + bbei( r / l ) + c ker( r / l ) + dkei( r / l ) (12.19)
The boundary conditions are the same as in previous paragraph.

- (1) for r = , w = 0
- (2) for r = 0, w must be finite
- (3) for r = 0, w is maximum hence dw/dr = 0
- (4) for r = 0, T = -P/(2).
where is the radius of a small circle around the load.
Boundary condition (1) requires a and b to be zero because the asymptotic values of ber and bei are
infinite (equations (4.49) and (4.50). Boundary condition (2) requires c to be zero because ker(0) is
undefined. Hence the solution reduces in
w = dkei( r / l ) (12.20)
Boundary condition (3) writes
2( r / 2l ) ( r / 2l )2 1
[log( r / 2l ) + ]
dkei( r / l )
lim =
r 0 dr 1!1!2l 1!1! 2 rl
4( r / 2l )3 2( r / 2l )
+ = 0 (12.21)
4 1!1!2l 1!1!2l
Hence, boundary condition (3) is satisfied. The constant d is determined by the fourth boundary condition
d d 2 w 1 dw P
T = D + =
dr dr 2 r dr 2
Limited to the first terms, we derived

kei( r / l ) = bei( r / l )[log( r / 2l ) + ] ber( r / l )
4
( r / 2l )4
ber( r / l ) = 1
2!2!
( r / 2l )2
bei( r / l ) =
1!1!
Hence
d d 2 w 1 dw 1
+ =
dr dr 2 r dr rl 2
126
P D
For r = T = =d
2 l 2
P l2
d =
2 D
2
P l
w = bei( r / l )[log( r / 2l ) + ] ber( r / l ) (12.22)
4 2 D
In the axis of the load (r = 0)

Pl 2
w= (12.23)
8D
The deflection in the axis of the load a slab subjected to a distributed load could be obtained by
integrating equation (12.21). However this is hard work. As will be shown in chapter 14, the solution can
be obtained in a simpler and more general way using Fouriers transform developed in chapter 11.
Observe that only three boundary conditions were required to determine the boundary constants:
conditions (1), (2), and (4). However the equilibrium equation (12.17) is a differential equation of the
fourth order and thus requires 4 boundary conditions to be met. Interesting is that the fourth boundary
condition, condition (3), although not necessary for the determination of the unknown boundary
constants, is essential for identifying that solution (12.19) is the appropriate solution of the problem.
127
128
THE BEAM ON A PASTERNAK FOUNDATION
Chapter 13 The Beam Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on a Pasternak

Foundation
13.1 The basic differential equations

Consider the beam presented in Figure 13.1.
d c
2a
p
h E x
k q y
Figure 13.1 Beam on a Pasternak foundation
The equilibrium equation is given by (12.4)

d 4w G d 2 w kw p
+ = (13.1)
dx 4 EI dx 2 EI EI
A particular solution of equation (13.1) allows to express the load as a pressure p uniformly distributed
over a width 2a. From this point on we shall express the loads by means of the appropriate integral
transform. In the case of a beam, we will use Fouriers integral (11.10) and more specific the integral
(11.20). By using this method, differential equation (13.1) is the unique equation to solve in the case of a
beam of infinite length. Indeed the distances c and d from the axis of the load to the edges of the beam are
large enough so that the end effects can be neglected. For shorter beams, supplementary differential
equations are necessary in order to express the boundary conditions of each specific case. The differential
equation necessary to express the boundary conditions of the beam itself is the homogeneous equation
corresponding to (13.1)
d 4w G d 2 w kw
+ =0 (13.2)
dx 4 EI dx 2 EI
Making use of complementary solutions of the homogeneous equation does not affect the state of loading
and do not alter the physics of the problem. The differential equations that are required to express the
boundary conditions outside the beam are of two kinds. Either the beam has free edges at the end. The
differential equation then reflects a soil subjected to horizontal shear forces. Formula (13.1) can be
rewritten as follows
d 4w d 2w
EI G + kw = p (13.3)
dx 4 dx 2
There is no vertical load, hence p = 0; there is no slab, hence EI = 0.
129
d 2w
G + kw = 0 (13.4)
dx 2
In the second case, the beam has a joint separating it from the adjacent beam. The required differential
equation can again be deduced from equation (13.1). There is no load, hence p = 0, and the equation
d 4w G d 2 w kw
+ =0 (13.5)
dx 4 EI dx 2 EI
is again the homogeneous equation: this time applicable to the unloaded neighbouring beams. We recall
that moments and shear forces can be deduced from the equations for the deflections by next equations:
- moment in the beam
d 2w
M = EI (13.6)
dx 2
- shear force in the beam
d 3w
T = EI (13.7)
dx 3
- shear force in the subgrade
dw
T =G (13.8)
dx
13.2 Case of a beam of infinite length
13.2.1 Solution of the differential equation

Let 1/l4 = k/EI and 2g/l2 = G/EI. Equation (13.1) now becomes
d 4w 2g d 2 w 1 p
+ w= (13.9)
4 2 2 4 EI
dx l dx l
We express the load by equation (11.20) developed in the example.

2 p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )

p= dt = p for x < a (13.10)
t
0


p= dt = 0 for x > a (13.11)
t
0
In order to satisfy the equilibrium equation the deflection w must be express similarly

2p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
w=
A( t )
t
dt (13.12)
0
where A(t) is a function of the integration variable. Introducing equation s(13.10) and (13.12) into (13.9)
yields
130

k t t 4 + 2 gt 2 + 1
( )
w= dt (13.13)
0
The explicit solution of equation (13.13) depends on the value of g. It is obtained by a reduction of the
degree of the denominator from 4 to 2 followed by an application of the integrals in the complex plane
equations (9.15) and (9.16).
- For g < 1
Integral (13.13) is split in the 2 integrals:

p i cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
2 t t 2 + ( + i ) 2
( ) t t 2 + ( a i )2 dt
( )
w= dt (13.14)
k 1 g 0 0
1+ g 1 g 2 2 g
where = = = =
2 2 2 1 g2
Applying equations (9.15) and (9.16) one obtains
- For x < -a
( x + a )
p ( x + a ) ( x + a )
w= e l cos sin
2k l l

( x a )
( x a ) ( x a )
e l cos
sin (13.15)
l l
- For a < x < a
( a x )
p ( a x ) ( a x )
w= 2 e l
cos + sin
2k l l

( a + x )
( a + x ) ( a + x )
e l
cos + sin (13.16)
l l

- For x > a
( x a )
p ( x a ) ( x a )
w= e l
cos + sin
2k l l

( a + x )
( a + x ) ( a + x )
e l
cos + sin (13.17)
l l

131
- For g > 1
p 1 cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
w=
4k

g 2 1 0
(
t t +
2 2
) dt
0 t (
t 2
+ a 2
) dt

(13.18)
where = g + g2 1 = g g2 1
Applying (915) and (9.16) one obtains
- For x < -a
( x+a ) ( xa ) ( x + a ) ( x a )
p e l e l e l e l
w= (13.19)
4k g 2 1 2 2

- For a < x < a
( a x ) ( a+ x ) ( a x ) ( a + x )

p 2e l e l 2e l e l
w= (13.20)
2
4k g 1 2
2

- For x > a
( xa )
( x+a )

( x a )

( x + a )
p e l e l e l e l
w= (13.21)
4k g 2 1 2 2

- For g = 1
Applying the Rule of de lHospital for g 1, one gives
- For x < -a
x+a xa
p l x+a x a
w= e 2 e l 2 (13.22)
4k l l

- For a < x < a
a x a+ x
p a x l a + x
w= 4e l 2 + e 2 + (13.23)
4k l l

- For x > a
xa a+x
p l xa l a + x
w= e 2 + e 2 + (13.24)
4k l l

132
13.2.2 Application
Consider the infinite beam given in Figure 13.2.
2a = 200
h = 200 E= 20000 x
k = 0,1
y
Figure 13.2 Infinite beam on a Pasternak foundation
For different values of G, deflections, moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are
listed in Table 13.1. One will note the positive influence of an increasing shear resistance of the soil.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.17 0.90 0.48
M 37923 6848 -6959
0
T-beam 0 -47 -12
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.09 0.85 0.47
M 35303 5781 -6271
10000
T-beam 0 -42 -10
T-subgrade 0 -8 -7
w 0.90 0.71 0.44
M 28621 3230 -4425
50000
T-beam 0 -30 -5
T-subgrade 0 -28 -25
Table 13.1 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of infinite length.
13.3 Case of a beam of finite length with a free edge
13.3.1 Solution #1
Consider the beam with one edge as presented in Figure 13.3. In order to reduce the amount of
mathematics, we will consider a beam with only one free edge and of infinite length in the other direction
which solution requires only 2 or 3 boundary equations. The mathematics for a beam with two edges are
exactly the same but the number of boundary equations is double.
With the first boundary condition we will demonstrate that the moment in the beam and at the edge must
be zero; all authors even in the presence of dowels or other transfer devices accept this condition. Hence,
M(x=c) = 0. If the edge is free, the shear force in the beam and at the edge should also be zero, which is
true in the case of a Winkler foundation. In the case of a Pasternak foundation the shear force in the beam
should be zero but all together the shear force in the shear layer should be continuous from the inside to
133
the outside of the beam. However, the differential equation of equilibrium (13.2) is of the fourth order:
hence we can only express a total of 4 boundary conditions with two edges, and thus only a total of 2
boundary conditions with only one edge. Hence we have only 1 equation left to express the shear
conditions at the edge of the beam.
c
2a
h, E x
G
k q
y
Figure 13.3 Half-infinite beam with free edge on a Pasternak foundation
The first manner is to express that the sum of the shear force in the beam plus the shear force in the shear
layer at the beam side of the edge is equal to the shear force in the shear layer at the outer side of the
edge. Hence we write: (Tbeam + Tsoilin) (x=c) = Tsoilout (x=c) . This does not assure us that the shear force in
the beam will be zero at the edge, but practical applications show that this type of solution is close to
reality. Mathematically we need 2 complementary solutions, wA and wB, of the homogeneous equilibrium
equation
d 4w 2g d 2w 1
+ w=0 (13.25)
dx 4 l 2 dx 2 l4
and one complementary solution, wc given in equation (13.4)
d 2w
G + kw = 0 (13.26)
dx 2
Again the explicit equations for the complementary solutions depend on the value of g. The parameters
and are the same as in 13.2.
- For g < 1
x
x
w A = e l cos
l
To standardise to the general solution, we write the solution as follows
x
p l x
wA = e cos (13.27)
2k l
Indeed, multiplying the solution of a differential equation by a constant does not affect the result.
x
p l x
wB = e sin (13.28)
2k l
- For g= 1
134
x
p l
wA = e (13.29)
2k
x
p
wB = xe l (13.30)
2k
- For g > 1
x
p l
wA = e (13.31)
2k
x
p l
wB = e (13.32)
2k
The reader will have noted that we now have a solution comprising of two terms with a positive exponent.
The reason is that we have located the edge on the positive side of the x-axis. Hence the values of the
functions wA and wB will be smaller for all the values of x < c so that in the numerical computation
overflow problems are automatically avoided. The solution of (13.26) is
k x 1
x
l 2g
wc = e G =e (13.33)
For the complementary solution outside of the beam, we have chosen the negative exponent, because the
function must vanish for x . The moment cancels by writing for x = c
d2
2
[
w + Aw A + BwB = 0 ] (13.34)
dx
The boundary condition for the shear force becomes for x = c

d 3 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = C [wc ]
d
3 2 (13.35)
dx l dx dx
The system consists of two equations with 3 unknowns. To solve we need one more equation. Usually
one chooses an equation expressing the deflections outside are a fraction of the deflections on the slab
side
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC (13.36)
where 0 1. The solution of the problem consists now of a system of 3 equations, (13.34), (13.35)
and (13.36), and 3 unknowns.
13.3.2 Application
Consider the finite beam as presented in Figure 13.4.
Table 13.2 gives the response of the deflections, moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear
layer are given for different values of G and a deflection ratio of 0 %. Table 13.3 for a deflection ratio of
50 % and Table 13.4 for a deflection ratio of 100 %.
135
1000
200
p
h = 200 E = 20000 x
k = 0.1
y
Figure 13.4 Example of a half-infinite beam with free edge on a Pasternak foundation
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.17 1.01 0.69
M 33848 6159 0
10000
T-beam 1 -35 7
T-subgrade 1 -7 -7
w 1.00 0.91 0.76
M 26304 2115 0
50000
T-beam -1 -29 8
T-subgrade 8 -15 -8
Table 13.2 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moment in beam is zero
at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer inside are equal with the shear forces in shear layer
outside. Deflection ratio is 0 %.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.17 0.99 0.65
M 34162 6501 0
10000
T-beam 1 -36 6
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
w 0.95 0.80 0.56
M 27728 3722 0
50000
T-beam 0 -28 4
136
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.16 0.97 0.62
M 34446 6811 0
10000
T-beam 2 -35 5
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
w 0.92 0.74 0.44
M 28562 4663 0
50000
T-beam 1 -28 2
Note that the variation in the results due to the variation of the G-values is significantly more dominant
than the variation due to the deflection ratios. Also see that, however different from zero, the shear forces
in the beam at the edges of the beam are very low.
13.3.3 Solution #2
Several authors are convinced that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to measure the deflection of the
subgrade outside the beam, and thus a fortiori the ratio between the subgrade deflection outside the beam
and the deflection on top of the beam at the edge. We have further shown that a variation of the deflection
ratio had no great influence on the results. Hence a solution has been searched for in order to avoid the
use equation of (13.36). An option is to assume that the sum of the shear force at the edge of the beam
and the shear force in the shear layer is equal to the shear force in the shear layer under an infinite beam.
In that case equation (13.35) writes
d 3 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 2 [w]
2g d
3 2 (13.37)
dx l dx l dx
Hence the system is reduced to the 2 equations (13.34) and (13.37) with 2 unknowns. In fact the system
ignores what happens outside of the beam and refers to what it can support under the influence of an
infinite beam
13.3.4 Application
Again, we consider Figure 13.2, but this time we apply the solutions (13.34) and (13.37). Deflections,
moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are given for different values of G are listed
in Table 13.5.
137
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.15 0.93 0.52
M 35403 7853 0
10000
T-beam 2 -36 1
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
w 0.90 0.71 0.39
M 28940 5090 0
50000
T-beam 1 -28 1
for a beam of infinite length.
Note that the results do not differ very much with those of the previous tables. Hence we advocate the use
of the method presented in this paragraph, simply because it is more easier. The results are strictly the
same in the four tables for G = 0. This is in fact the Winkler case where no shear transfer is possible
through the subgrade and where the deflection is by hypothesis zero. It is evident that the results must be
the same
13.4 Case of a finite beam with a joint
13.4.1 Solution #1
Consider Figure 13.5 where we have represented a semi-infinite beam with a joint at a distance c from the
axis of the load.
c
2a
h E x
k q
y
Figure 13.5 Half-infinite beam on a Pasternak foundation
We prefer this configuration in order to simplify the mathematical expressions. The solution for the
loaded beam is given by of equation (13.13), which expresses the load and the two solutions wA and wB
with positive exponents in x of the homogeneous differential equation (13.2).
138
The solution for the unloaded beam is given by solutions wC and wD with negative exponents in x of the
homogeneous differential equation (13.2). Those solutions depend again on the value of g.
- For g < 1
x
p l x
wC = e cos (13.38)
2k l
x
p l x
wD = e sin (13.39)
2k l
- For g = 1
x
p l
wC = e (13.40)
2k
x
p l
wD = xe (13.41)
2k
- For g > 1
x
p l
wC = e (13.42)
2k
x
p l
wD = e (13.43)
2k
The boundary conditions are for x = c.

- the moment at the edge of the loaded beam is zero;
- the moment at the edge of the unloaded beam is zero;
- the shear force beam + soil) at the loaded side of the edge is equal with the shear force (beam +
soil) at the unloaded side of the edge.
We need one additional boundary condition. As for the case of the beam with an edge, we propose as
fourth condition a relation between the deflections at both sides of the joint: the deflection at the unloaded
side is a fraction of the deflection at the loaded side
wunloaded = wloaded (13.44)
where 0 1. The equations for the boundary conditions are
d2
[
w + Aw A + BwB = 0 ] (13.45)
dx 2
d2
2
[
CwC + DwD = 0 ] (13.46)
dx
d 3 2g d d 3 2g d
3 [w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 3 2 [CwC + DwD ] (13.47)
dx l 2 dx dx l dx
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC + DwD (13.48)
The solution now consists of a solvable system of four equations (13.45), (13.46), (13.47) and (13.48) and
four unknowns.
139
13.4.2 Application
Consider the same application as in Figure , but this time with a joint instead of an edge. Deflections,
moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are given for different values of G in Table
13.6, Table 13.7 and Table 13.8 respectively for deflection ratios of 0, 50 % and 100 %.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

W 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
W 1.17 1.01 0.69
M 33848 6159 0
10000
T-beam 1 -35 7
T-subgrade 1 -7 -7
W 1.00 0.91 0.76
M 26304 2115 0
50000
T-beam -1 -29 8
T-subgrade 8 -15 -8
Table 13.6 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is 0%.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

W 1.21 0.92 0.38
M 39758 11149 0
0
T-beam 4 -41 -8
T-subgrade 0 0 0
W 1.13 0.88 0.43
M 36277 8807 0
10000
T-beam 3 .37 .3
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
W 0.93 0.77 0.50
M 28181 4233 0
50000
T-beam 0 -28 3
T-subgrade 3 .24 -21
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is
50%.
140
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

W 1.20 0.87 0.29
M 40754 12221 0
0
T-beam 5 -42 -12
T-subgrade 0 0 0
W 1.11 0.82 0.31
M 37384 10013 0
10000
T-beam 4 -38 -7
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
W 0.90 0.70 0.37
M 29095 5266 0
50000
T-beam 1 -28 1
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is
100%.
It is evident that for the beam with a joint, the deflection ratio is meaning full especially near the joint.
Also, the ratio between the deflections on top on two beams can easily be measured with a good accuracy.
However, as in the previous case, a simpler method is also given.
13.4.3 Solution# 2
Similar to the case of a beam with a free edge, an easier method can be derived. It is clear that the ratio
between the deflections depends on the amount of shear force transferred through the joint (for example
by means of the dowels or aggregate interlock). In 13.4.5 we demonstrate for a slab on a Winkler
foundation there is an equation between the amount of transferred shear Q and the ratio between the
deflections:
2
Q= T = T (13.49)
1+
where T is the shear force in the infinite beam.
Thus if we knew the amount of transferred shear, two boundary conditions would be sufficient:
- the moment at the edge of the loaded beam is zero;
- the shear force at the edge of the loaded beam is Q as determined by equation (13.49)
However, a similar equation cannot been established for a beam on a Pasternak foundation but practice
shows that it can be utilised without great difficulties. We therefore think that a method similar to the one
proposed for the free edge can also been applied in the case of the jointed edge. We utilise equation
(13.34) and slightly transform equation (13.37) as follows
- for x = c
d2
2
[
w + Aw A + BwB = 0 ] (13.50)
dx
141
d 3 2g d d 3 w 2 g dw
3 [w + Aw A + Bw B ] = . (13.51)
dx l 2 dx dx 3 l 2 dx
When = 0, we have a free edge behaviour, with only shear transfer in the shear layer. When = 1, we
have the case of f full shear transfer.
13.4.4 Application
Consider Figure13.4, but this time with a joint instead of an edge. Deflections, moments and shear forces
in the beam and in the shear layer are listed for different values of G in Table 13.9 to Table 13.11. The
shear transfer is varied between 0, 67 and 100%. The shear transfer of 67 % corresponds with a deflection
ratio of 50 %.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.23 1.01 0.57
M 37767 9005 0
0
T-beam 3 -40 0
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.17 1.01 0.69
M 33848 6159 0
10000
T-beam 1 -35 7
T-subgrade 1 -7 -7
w 1.00 0.91 0.76
M 26304 2115 0
50000
T-beam -1 -29 8
T-subgrade 8 -15 -8
zero at the joint; Shear transfer at the joint is 0%.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.21 0.92 0.38
M 39768 11160 0
0
T-beam 4 -41 -8
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.12 0.85 0.37
M 36882 9466 0
10000
T-beam 3 .37 -5
T-subgrade 1 -7 -8
w 0.89 0.68 0.34
M 29283 5478 0
50000
T-beam 1 -27 3
zero at the joint; Shear transfer at the joint is 67%.
142
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

w 1.20 0.87 0.29
M 40754 12221 0
0
T-beam 5 -42 -12
T-subgrade 0 0 0
w 1.11 0.81 0.29
M 37611 10261 0
10000
T-beam 4 -38 -8
T-subgrade 1 -7 -9
w 0.88 0.67 0.32
M 29453 5699 0
50000
T-beam 2 -27 0
13.11 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are zero at
the joint; Shear transfer is 100%
13.4.5 Proof that, in de case of a Winkler foundation, at a joint Q = T

For x = c, let d - a =(c - a) /(l2). Consider equation (13.16) and its successive derivatives.
w = e ( d a ) cos( d a ) e ( d + a ) cos( d + a )
M = e ( d a ) sin( d a ) e ( d + a ) sin( d + a )
T = e ( d a ) [cos( d a ) sin( d a )] e ( d + a ) [cos( d + a ) sin( d + a )]
Ignore the stiffness EI and the powers of l2 in the denominators of M and T, which, anyhow, simplify in
the expressions of the boundary conditions. Hence, we may write T = w M. Let
A = Ae d B = Be d C = e d D = De d
The boundary equations write
( w + A cos d +B sin d ) = C cos d + D sin d
M A sin d + B cos d = 0
C sin d D cos d = 0
T A(cos d + sin d ) + B(cos d sin d ) = C(cos d sin d ) + D(cos d + sin d )
The solution of the system is
T M w
A = M sin d + cos d
1+
T M w
B = M cos d + sin d
1+
Hence
Q = T A(cos d + sin d ) + B(cos d sin d )
T M w
Q =T M
1+
2
Q= T = T
1+
and the relationship has been proven (Van Cauwelaert and Stet, 1998).
143
144
THE CIRCULAR SLAB ON A PASTERNAK FOUNDATION
Chapter 14 The Circular Slab Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on a

Pasternak Foundation
2a
p
r
h E
G
k
q
Figure 14.1 Circular slab on a Pasternak foundation
Naturally circular slabs are rare in pavements. In fact only the case of a slab of infinite extent is of
interest to us because it can be solved in polar co-ordinates, thus with only one variable; the radial
distance r. To conserve this advantage in the case of limited slabs, we will only consider in this chapter
the case of slabs with axial symmetry: the load is applied in the centre of the slab. The equilibrium's
equation for an axial-symmetrical load case on a Pasternak foundation is given by
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw p
2+ 2 + 2 + + = (14.1)
r r r r r r D r r r D D
where p is the pressure uniformly distributed over a circular area with radius a, r is the distance to the origin
of the cylindrical co-ordinates, D = Eh3/12(1-2) is the stiffness of the slab, E is Young's modulus, is
Poisson's ratio, G is Pasternaks shear modulus, k is the subgrade reaction modulus and h is the thickness of
the slab. In the case of a circular slab, we will use Hankels integral and in particular the integral (11.23)
developed in 11.5. For finite slabs, supplementary differential equations will be necessary in order to
express the boundary conditions of each specific case. The differential equation necessary to express the
boundary conditions of the slab itself is the homogeneous equation corresponding to (14.1)
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw
2+ + + + =0 (14.2)
r r r r 2 r r D r 2 r r D
The differential equations that are required to express the boundary conditions outside the slab are of two
types. The first type considers a slab terminated by a free edge. The differential equation then reflects a
soil subjected to horizontal shear forces. It can be deduced from (14.1)
2 w 1 w
G + kw = 0
2 r r
+ (14.3)
r
145
The second type is where the slab is separated by a joint with a circumcircular slab. The required
differential equation again can be deduced from equation (14.1).
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw
2+ + + + =0 (14.4)
r r r r 2 r r D r 2 r r D
which is again the homogeneous equation this time applicable to the unloaded adjacent slab. We recall
that moments and shear forces can be deduced from the equations for the deflections by next equations
- radial moment in the slab
d 2w 1 dw
M r = D + (14.5)
2
dr r dr
- tangential moment in the slab
d 2 w 1 dw
M t = D + (14.6)
2
dr r dr
- radial shear force in the slab
d d 2 w 1 dw
Tr = D + (14.7)
dr dr 2 r dr
- tangential shear force in the slab
1 d d 2 w 1 dw
Tt = D 2 + =0 (14.8)
r d dr r dr
- radial shear force in the subgrade
dw
T =G (14.9)
dr
- tangential shear force in the subgrade
1 dw
T =G =0 (14.10)
r d
14.2 Case of a slab of infinite extent
14.2.1 Solution of the differential equation

Let 1/l = k/EI and 2g/l2 = G/EI. Equation (14.1) becomes
4
2 1 2 w 1 w 2 g 2 w 1 w w p
2+ + 2+ + = (14.11)
r r r r 2 r r l 2 r r r l 4 D
We express the load by (11.23) developed in the example.

pa
l 0
p= J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )dt = p for r < a (14.12)

pa
l
p= J 0 ( tr / l )J 1( ta / l )dt = 0 for r > a (14.13)
0
In order to satisfy the equilibrium equation the deflection w must be expressed in a similar manner.
146

2p

w= A( t )J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )dt (14.14)
0
where A(t) is a function of the integration variable. Introducing (14.12) and (14.14) into (14.11) derives

pa J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )
w=
lk (t 4 + 2 gt 2 + 1) dt (14.15)
0
The explicit solution of equation (14.15) could be obtained through the methods developed in Chapter 9.
However for values of g < 1, the solution contains complex variables which are extremely difficult to
express as real expressions. Hence we will compute (14.15) numerically.
14.2.2 Application 1
h E r
Figure 14.2 Infinite slab on a Winkler foundation
One application can be solved analytically. Figure 14.2 presents a single load P on an infinite slab resting
on a Winkler foundation. In order to express the load, we transform formula (14.12):
pa 1 ta P
lim J 1 ( ta / l ) = P lim = t
a 0 l a 0 al 2l 2l 2
Formula (14.15) for the deflection transforms into

P tJ 0 ( rt / l )
w=
2l 2 k
t 4
+ 1
dt
0
In the axis of the load J0(rt/l) = 1. Hence

P t
w=
2l 2 k t 4 + 1
dt
0
Let t2 = tg

P 1 P
w=
4l 2 k (tg 2 + 1)cos 2
d =
8l 2 k
(14.16)
0
Formula (14.16) is identical to equation (12.22).
147
14.2.3 Application 2
We consider the infinite slab given in Figure 14.3. The response expressed in deflections, radial moments
and stresses for different values of G are given in Table 14.1.
2a = 200
p=1
r
h = 200 E = 20000
k = 0.1
Figure 14.3 Example of a circular slab on a Pasternak foundation.
G r=0 r = 250 r = 500

w 0.0920 0.0836 0.0683
M 9335 3570 1269
0
radial 1.40 0.54 0.19
tangential 1.40 0.70 0.35
w 0.0856 0.0776 0.0631
M 9017 3313 1111
10000
radial 1.35 0.50 0.17
w 0.0679 0.0609 0.0491
M 8078 2582 691
50000
radial 1.21 0.39 0.10
Table 14.1 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of infinite extent
14.3 Case of a slab of finite extent with a free edge
14.3.1 Solution #1
Consider Figure 14.4.
By the first boundary condition we state that the radial moment in the slab and at the edge must be zero.
Hence, Mr(r=R) = 0. As in the previous case of the beam with a free edge we will first express that the
sum of the shear force in the slab plus the shear force in the shear layer at the slab side of the edge is
equal to the shear force in the shear layer at the outer side of the edge. Thus we write:
(Tslab + Tsoilin) (r=R) = Tsoilout (r=R) ,
148
2a
p
r
h E
k q
Figure 14.4 Finite circular slab on a Pasternak foundation
Mathematically we need 2 complementary solutions, wA and wB, of the homogeneous equilibrium equation
2 1 2 w 1 w 2 g 2 w 1 w w
2+ 2 + 2 2+ + 4 =0 (14.17)
r r r r r r l r r r l
and 1 complementary solution, wc of equation (14.3)
d 2w
G + kw = 0 (14.18)
dx 2
We assume that the solution of (14.17) is of the same type as the solution of equation (12.17) for a slab
subjected to an isolated load: a modified Bessel function of the first kind. Hence we consider that the
Laplacian in polar co-ordinates is an operator with next property
d2 1 d 2
2 + f ( tr ) = t f ( tr )
dr r dr
Hence we can consider equation (4.17) as a characteristic equation (1.4.2) which roots will give us the
argument of the modified Bessel functions.
2g 1
D4 D2 + =0
l2 l4
The solutions depend on the value of g.
- For g < 1
1+ g 1 g
D1 = g + i 1 g 2 = +i (14.19)
2 2
1+ g 1 g
D2 = g + i 1 g 2 = i (14.20)
2 2
The complementary solutions are then
pa r ( + i r ( i
Aw A + BwB = AI 0 + BI 0 (14.21)
lk l l
that we transform in
149
pa A r( i r ( + i pa B r( i r ( + i
I0 + I0 + I0 I0
lk 2 l l lk 2i l l
and further in
pa (r /( 2l ))2 k k 2k
A ( 1 ) n C 2 k 2 n 2 n +
lk 0 k ! k ! n = 0 2n

pa (r /( 2l ))2 k k 1 2k
B ( 1 )n C 2 k ( 2 n + 1 ) 2 n + 1 (14.22)
lk 0 k ! k ! n = 1 2n + 1

1+ g 1 g
where = =
2 2
- For g = 1
D1,2 = 1 (14.23)
pa r
Aw A + BwB = AI 0 ( r / l ) + B I 1 ( r / l ) (14.24)
lk l
- For g >1
D1 = g + g 2 1 (14.25)
D2 = g g 2 1 (14.26)
Aw A + BwB =
pa
[AI 0 ( r / l ) + BI 0 ( r / l ] (14.27)
lk
where = g + g2 1 = g g2 1
Equation (14.17) has 4 solutions. We have chosen the 2 Bessel functions of the first kind because their
values at the origin are finite: I0(0) = 1, I1(0) = 0. For the third boundary equation (14.18), which has 2
solutions, we shall take the Bessel function of the second kind because its asymptotic value tends to zero.
r
wC = K 0 (14.28)
l 2g

We write the boundary conditions. The deflection outside is a fraction of the deflection inside:
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC (14.29)
The radial moment at the slab side of the edge is zero:
d 2w 1 dw

dr 2
+u [w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0 (14.30)
r dr
The sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the slab side is equal to the
shear force in the subgrade outside:
d d 2 1 d 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
2 g dwC
+ C (14.31)
dr dr 2 r dr l dr
2
l 2 dr
150
14.3.2 Solution #2
As explained in 0, we consider in the second solution that the sum of the shear force in the slab and the
shear force in the subgrade is equal with the shear force in the subgrade in the case of a slab of infinite
extent. The boundary conditions are
d 2w 1 dw

dr 2
+u [w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0 (14.32)
r dr
d d 2 1 d 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
2 g dw
+ (14.33)
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr l 2 dr
14.3.3 Application of solution #2
R = 500
2 a = 200
p=1
r
h = 200 E = 20000
k = 0.1
Figure 14.5 Example of a slab of finite extent on a Pasternak foundation
Deflections, radial moments and stresses are given for different values of G in Table 14.2.
G r=0 r = 250 r = 500

w 0.4072 0.4022 0.3958
M 6323 990 0
0
radial 0.95 0.15 0
w 0.3830 0.3780 0.3715
M 6358 1035 0
10000
radial 0.95 0.16 0
w 0.3110 0.3060 0.2993
M 6354 1106 0
50000
radial 0.95 0.17 0
Table 14.2 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of finite extent; Moment in slab is zero at the
edge; Shear force in slab and shear force in subgrade are equal with shear force; in subgrade for a
slab of infinite extent
151
14.4 Case of a slab of finite extent with a joint
14.4.1 Solution #1
The solution for the loaded slab is given by equation (14.14), which expresses the load and the two
solutions wA and wB of the homogeneous differential equation (14.17). The solutions for the unloaded slab
are the two other solutions of (14.17), wC and wD, which are the expressions for wA and wB wherein the
Bessel functions I of the first kind are replaced by Bessel functions K of the second kind. We write the
boundary conditions:
The deflection outside is a fraction of the deflection inside

[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC + DwD (14.34)
The radial moment at the loaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w 1 dw

dr 2
+u

[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0 (14.35)
r dr
The radial moment at the unloaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w 1 dw

dr 2
+u

[CwC + Dw D ] = 0 (14.36)
r dr
The sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the loaded slab side is equal
with the sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the unloaded slab side
d d 2 1 d 2g d d d 2 1 d 2g d
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = + [CwC + DwD ]
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr
(14.37)
14.4.2 Solution #2.

To reduce the number of boundary equations to two, we suggest to express the shear force in the loaded
slab as a fraction of the shear force in the slab of infinite extent. The resulting boundary conditions are:
The radial moment at the loaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w 1 dw

dr 2
+u

[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0 (14.38)
r dr
The shear force in the loaded slab is a fraction of the shear force in the slab of infinite extent
d d 2 1 d 2g d d d 2 1 d 2g d
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = + w (14.39)

dr dr 2
r dr l dr
2
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr

where 0 1.
152
14.4.3 Application of solution #2
R = 500
2a = 200
p=1
r
h = 200 E = 20000
k = 0.1
Figure 14.6 Example of a slab of finite extent on a Pasternak foundation
Deflections, radial moments and stresses are given for different values of G and for different percentages
of shear transfer are listed in Table 14.3 to Table 14.5.
G r=0 r = 250 r = 500

w 0.4072 0.4022 0.3958
M 6323 990 0
0
radial 0.95 0.15 0
w 0.3830 0.3780 0.3715
M 6358 1035 0
10000
radial 0.95 0.16 0
w 0.3110 0.3060 0.2993
M 6354 1106 0
50000
radial 0.95 0.17 0
edge. Shear transfer at the joint is 0 %
153
G r=0 r = 250 r = 500

w 0.1940 0.1878 0.1783
M 7496 1871 0
0
s radial 1.12 0.28 0
s tangential 1.12 0.44 0.14
w 0.1821 0.1759 0.1666
M 7429 1842 0
10000
radial 1.11 0.28 0
w 0.1472 0.1413 0.1326
M 7130 1695 0
50000
radial 1.07 0.25 0
G r=0 r = 250 r = 500

w 0.0890 0.0821 0.0712
M 8073 2305 0
0
radial 1.21 0.35 0
w 0.0831 0.0763 0.0656
M 7957 2239 0
10000
radial 1.19 0.34 0
w 0.0665 0.0602 0.0505
M 7512 1986 0
50000
radial 1.13 0.30 0
154
THE RECTANGULAR SLAB ON A PASTERNAK FOUNDATION
Chapter 15 The Rectangular Slab Subjected to a Distributed Load and Resting on

a Pasternak Foundation
d c
2a
p
x
h E y
k q z
Figure 15.1 Slab on a Pasternak foundation
The equilibrium equation in cartesian co-ordinates for a slab on a Pasternak foundation is given by
2 2 w + w - G
2 2 2 w 2 w kw p
2+ 2 + + = (15.1)
x y 2 x 2 y 2 D x y 2 D D
where G/D = 2g/l2 and k/D = 1/l4.
The load is expressed as a double Fouriers integral

4p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l ) cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
p=
2
ts
dsdt (15.2)
00
where a and b are respectively the length and the width of a rectangular load with a uniformly distributed
pressure p. The centre of gravity of the load is located in x = 0 and y = 0. The elastic length is l = [Eh3/12(1-
2)k]1/4. A similar equation must express the deflection

cos(xt/l) sin(at/l) cos(ys/l) sin(bs/l)
w = C(s,t) dsdt (15.3)
ts
oo
Letting (15.2) and (15.3) in (15.1) yields
4p l4
C(s,t) = (15.4)
2 D t 4 + 2 t 2 s 2 + 2 gt 2 + 2g s 2 + s 4 + 1
15.2 Resolution of the deflection equation

In order to be able to express the boundary conditions at an edge or at a joint, we shall show that it is required
to partially integrate the deflection equation with respect to the variable orthogonal to the concerned edge or
joint. To partially integrate (15.3) with respect to x, the denominator of (15.4) must be split into two factors:
155
t 4 + 2t s + 2 gt + 2 gs + s + 1 = (t + z1 )(t + z 2 )
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
(15.5)
where
- with g > 1
2
z1= s 2 + g + g - 1
(15.6)
2+ g - 2
z2= s g -1
2p 1 1 1
C(s,t) = 2 2 - 2 2 (15.7)
2k g 2 - 1 t + z 2 t + z 1
- with g < 1
z 1 = + i
(15.8)
z 2 = - i
1 2 2
2 = ( s 2 + g ) + 1 - g + ( s 2 + g)
2
2 = ( s 2 + g )2 + 1 - g 2 - ( s 2 + g)
1
2
2p i 1 1
C(s,t) = - (15.9)
2 k 1 - g 2 t 2 + z 12 t 2 + z 22
The partial integration is based on next equations
- with x > a

cos(tx/l) sin(ta/l) (ax )1/2
t( t 2 + z 2 ) dt = 2 zl I 1/2 (az/l) K -1/2 (xz/l) (15.10)
o
- with x < a
and making use of the trigonometric identity
cos(tx/l)sin(ta/l) = sin[t(x+a)/l] - sin(tx/l)cos(ta/l)

sin(at/l) a
t( t 2 + z 2 ) dt = 2 zl I 1/2 (az/2l) K 1/2 (az/2l) (15.11)
o

sin(tx/l) cos(ta/l) (ax )1/2
t( t 2 + z 2 ) dt =
2 zl
I 1/2 (xz/l) K - 1/2 (az/l) (15.12)
o
Knowing that
I 1/2 (z) =
1
2z
[
e z - e- z ]
-z
K 1/2 (z) = K - 1/2 (z) = e
2z
the solutions are
- with g > 1
156
- with x > a
- (x - a) z 2 /l
p 1 e - - (x + a) z 2 /l
e
w=
2k z 22
g2 -1 o
(15.13)
- (x - a) z 1 /l - - (x + a) z 1 /l cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
-e e
ds
z 12 s
- with < a

p 1 2 - e -(a - x) z 2 /l - e -(a + x) z 2 /l
w=
2k z 22
g 2 - 1 o
(15.14)
2-e -(a - x) z 1 /l - - (a+ x) z 1 /l cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
e
- ds
z 12 s
- with g < 1 and making use of the complex equation e(i)z = cos(z) i sin (z)
- with x > a

p 1 cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
2 s(s 4 + 2gs 2 + 1)
w=
k 1- g o
- (x - a)/l
e 1 - g 2 cos [(x - a) /l] + (s 2 + g) sin [(x - a) /l] (15.15)

- e -(x + a)/l 1 - g 2 cos [(x + a) /l] + (s 2 + g) sin [(x + a) /l] ds

- with x < a

p cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
w=
k s(s 4 + 2s 2 g + 1)
o

e - (a - x)/l 1 - 2 cos [(a - x) /l] + (s 2 + g) sin [(a - x) /l]
2 - g (15.16)

1- g 2
- (x + a)/l
e
- 1 - g cos [(x + a) /l] + (s + g) sin [(x + a) /l] ds
2 2

1- g2

- with g = 1 and making use of de lHospitals rule for lim g = 1
- with x > a

1 + s 2 (x - a)/l e -(x - a)z/l
p
w=
2k 2 +
o (15.17)
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
- 2 + 1 + s 2 (x + a)/l e -(x + a)z/l ds
s(s 2 + 1 )2
- with x < a
157

1 + s 2 (a - x)/l e -(a - x)z/l
p
w=
2k 4 - 2 +
o (15.18)
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
- 2 + 1 + s 2 (x + a)/l e - (x + a)z/l ds
s(s 2 + 1 )2
where z = (s2 + 1)1/2.
15.3 Boundary conditions

As in the previous chapters we formulate the boundary conditions for a slab limited by a free edge or by a
joint. However in the case of a slab we must consider four boundary conditions at the edge:
- the values of the moment;
- the shear force;
- the moment of torsion in the slab
- the value of the shear force in the subgrade
The latter condition is an additional boundary condition compared to the case of a beam or a circular slab.
Fortunately, it can be shown (Timoshenko, 1951) that at an edge, a unique equation may replace the
conditions regarding the shear force and the moment of torsion
M xy 3 w 3w
V x = Tx = + ( 2 ) (15.19)
y x 3 xy 2
M yx 3 w 3w
V y = T y + = + ( 2 ) (15.20)
x y 3 x 2 y
15.4 Case of a slab of finite extent with free edge
15.4.1 Solution #1
First we consider the case where the sum of the shear forces in slab and subgrade is equal to the shear
force in the subgrade outside the slab. We also limit the problem to that of a slab with only one edge.
Mathematically we need 2 complementary solutions, wA and wB, of the homogeneous equilibrium
equation
2 2 w + w - G
2 2 2 w 2 w kw
2+ 2 + + =0 (15.21)
x y 2 x 2 y 2 D x y 2 D
- with g > 1
[A( s )e ]cos( sy / l )ssin( sb / l ) ds

p 1 z1 x / l
w A, B = + B( s )e z 2 x / l (15.22)
2k 2
g 1 0
- with g = 1

p x cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
w A, B =
2k A( s )e xz / l + B( s )e xz / l
l s
ds (15.23)
0
- with g < 1
158

[A( s ) cos( x / l ) + B( s ) sin( x / l )]e
p 1 x / l cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
w A, B = ds (15.24)
k 1 g2 0 s
We also need the solution of the equilibrium equation of the subgrade outside the slab
2 w 2 w
-G + + kw = 0 (15.25)
x 2 y 2
Considering that the edge is located on the positive side of the x axis, we take the solution with the
negative exponent

x
s 2 + 1 /( 2 g ) cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
p
2k
wC = C( s )e l ds (15.26)
s
0
The boundary conditions are:

- ratio between the deflections on both sides of the edge
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC (15.27)
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the slab
2 2
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0 (15.28)
x 2 y 2

- equality of the shear forces
3 3 2 g

x 3
+(2 )
2 x
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 22g CwC (15.29)
xy 2
l l x
15.4.2 Solution #2
We assume that the sum of the shear forces in slab and subgrade is equal to the shear force in the
subgrade under a slab of infinite extent. :The boundary conditions are
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the slab
2 2
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0 (15.30)
x 2 y 2

3 3 2 g

x 3
+(2 )
2 x
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 22g w (15.31)
xy 2
l l x
15.5 Case of a slab of finite extent with a joint
15.5.1 Solution #1
We consider that the shear forces left from the joint (loaded slab) are equal to the shear forces right from
the joint (unloaded slab). We need 2 supplementary solutions of the homogeneous equation (15.12)
applying to the unloaded slab. We assume that the joint is located at the positive side of the x axis,
hence we shall only consider the functions with a negative exponent. The solutions are
159
- with g > 1
[C( s )e ]cos( sy / l )ssin( sb / l ) ds

p 1 z1 x / l
wC , D = + D( s )e z 2 x / l (15.32)
2k 2
g 1 0
- with g = 1

p x cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
wC , D = C( s )e xz / l + D( s )e xz / l ds (15.33)
2k l s
0
- with g < 1

[C( s ) cos( x / l ) + D( s ) sin( x / l )]e
p 1 x / l cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
wC , D = ds
k 1 g2 0 s
(15.34)
The boundary conditions are:
- ratio between the deflections on both sides of the joint
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC + DwD (15.35)
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the loaded beam
2 2
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0 (15.36)
x 2 y 2

- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the unloaded beam
2 2
+ [w + CwC + DwD ] = 0 (15.37)
x 2 y 2

3 3 2 g

x 3
+(2 )
2

2 x
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
xy l
3
3
2 g

x 3
+(2 )
2

2 x
[CwC + DwD ] (15.38)
x y l
15.5.2 Solution # 2
Let us consider that the shear force at the edge of the loaded beam is partially transferred and is thus equal
to a fraction of the shear force in an infinite slab; further we consider that the shear force in the subgrade
at the joint is equal with the shear force in the subgrade under an infinite slab. This can be expressed by 2
boundary conditions applied at the edge of the loaded slab. The boundary conditions are:
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the loaded beam
2 2
+ [w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0 (15.39)
x 2 y 2

160
3 3 2 g

x 3
+(2 )
2

2 x
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
xy l
3w 3 w 2 g w
+(2 ) (15.40)
x 3 xy 2 l 2 x
Two equations are enough to express the boundary conditions. Note that if we adopt the second solution
for both cases (free edge and joint), equations (15.39) and (15.40) solves the whole problem. Indeed for
the case of a free edge, just let = 0 in order to obtain boundary condition (15.31).
15.5.3 Application
2a = 200
p = 0.7
h = 200 E = 20000 y x
k = 0.1 q z
Figure 15.2 Example of a slab on a Pasternak foundation.
Bending stresses at the bottom of the slab and deflections are given for different values of G in Table 15.1
without shear transfer at the joint and in Table 15.2 with 50 % of shear transfer.
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

x 0.90 0.06 0
0 y 0.93 0.33 0.18
w 0.098 0.078 0.053
x 0.87 0.05 0
10000 y 0.89 0.30 0.15
w 0.090 0.070 0.045
x 0.77 0.01 0
50000 y 0.78 0.21 0.09
w 0.068 0.050 0.030
Table 15.1 Bending stresses and deflections in a slab with a joint; The shear transfer is zero
161
G x=0 x = 500 x = 1000

x 0.92 0.08 0
0 y 0.93 0.31 0.14
w 0.096 0.072 0.040
x 0.88 0.06 0
10000 y 0.89 0.28 0.12
w 0.088 0.065 0.036
x 0.78 0.02 0
50000 y 0.78 0.21 0.08
w 0.067 0.048 0.026
Table 15.2 Bending stresses and deflections in a slab with a joint; The shear transfer is 50 %
162
THE MULTISLAB
Chapter 16 The Multislab
16.1 Theoretical justification

Consider a pavement consisting of several superposed concrete layers (of different quality). It can be
designed using the models developed for a single slab as far as the total thickness of the layers can still be
considered as small against the whole structure. Mathematically one must assume that the radius of
curvature ( = D/M) remains important, in other words, that the deflection at the surface of the upper
layer may be considered to be equal with the deflection at the base of the lower layer.
16.2 General model
2a
p
E1 h1
p1
g1
E2 h2
p2
q2
E3 h3
p3
G, k q3
Figure 16.1 The Multislab
The mechanical characteristics of the equivalent structure depend of the mechanical characteristics of the
different layers and the adhesion conditions at their interfaces. The three layered structure can be replaced
by an equivalent single layered structure.
16.3 Full slip at each of the interfaces

The equilibrium equations for each layer writes
p q1 p1 q 2 p2 q
4 w1 = 4 w2 = 4 w3 = (16.1)
D1 D2 D3
By hypothesis w = w1 = w2 = w3, hence q = p (D1 + D2 + D3)4w. The equilibrium equation of the

equivalent slab writes:
163
pq pq
4 w = = (16.2)
D1 + D2 + D3 D
where D = Di is the equivalent stiffness of the structure.
Consider a Pasternaks subgrade. Hence

G 2 kw p
4 w w+ = (16.3)
D D D
The moment in x is given by
d 2w d 2w
M = D 2 + 2 (16.4)
dx dy
that we may write as follows
d 2w d 2w
M = M 1 + M 2 + M 3 = (D1 + D2 + D3 ) 2 + 2
(16.5)
dx dy
The bending stresses at the base of each of the layers are
6 Di d 2 w d 2 w 6 Di M
i = + = (16.6)
hi2 dx 2 dy 2 hi2 D
16.4 Full friction at the first interface, full slip at the second interface
We replace the two upper layers by an equivalent layer which modulus is equal with the modulus of the
upper layer. The transverse section of the equivalent layer is a T section, as given in Figure 16.2. The
width of the vertical bar of the T section is equal with the ratio of the moduli: b = E2/E1. Hence the
moment of inertia of the transformed section remains equal with the moment of inertia of the initial
section.
E1 E1
c
h1
E2 b
h2 E1
E3 E3
h3
Figure 16.2 Multislab with friction at the first interface; slip at the second
164
THE MULTISLAB
The position of the neutral axis is given by:
c=
(
h12 + b 2 h1h2 + h22 ) (16.7)
2(h1 + bh2 )
The moment of inertia of the T section is
3h1c 2 3h12 c + h13 3h ( h c )2 + 3( h1 c )h22 + h23

I 12 = +b 2 1 (16.8)
3 3
The stiffness of the equivalent section is
E1 I 12
D12 = (16.9)
( 1 12 )
The equilibrium equations are
p q2 p2 q
4 w = 4 w = (16.10)
D12 D3
Therefore we can write
pq pq
4 w = = (16.11)
D12 + D3 D
G kw p
4 w 2 w + = (16.12)
D D D
The bending stresses are:
- at the base of the upper layer

h c D12
x = Mx 1 (16.13)
I 12 D
- at the base of the mid layer
h + h2 c D12 E 2
x = Mx 1 (16.14)
I 12 D E1
- at the base of the lower layer
6 M x D3
x = (16.15)
h32 D
16.5 Full friction at both interfaces

We replace the three layers with an equivalent layer which modulus is equal with the modulus of the
upper layer. The equivalent transverse is a section with decreasing widths, as presented in Figure 16.3.
The widths of the subsections are equal with the ratios of the moduli: b1 = E2/E1, b2 = E3/E1. The
position of the neutral axis is given by
c=
( ) (
h12 + b1 2 h1 h2 + h22 + b2 2 h1 h3 + 2 h2 h3 + h32 ) (16.16)
2(h1 + b1 h2 + b2 h3 )
165
The moment of inertia is given by
(
I 123 = h1 c 2 h12 c + h13 / 3 + b1 h2 (h1 c ) + (h1 c ) h2 + h23 / 3
2 2
)
(
+ b2 h3 (h2 + h1 c ) + (h2 + h1 c )h32 + h33 / 3
2
) (16.17)
E1 E1
c
h1
E2 b1
h2
E1
E3
h3 b2
E1
Figure 16.3 Multislab with friction at both interfaces
The bending stresses are:
- at the base of the upper layer

h c
x = Mx 1 (16.18)
I 123
- at the base of the mid layer
h + h2 c E 2
x = Mx 1 (16.19)
I 123 E1
- at the base of the lower layer
h + h2 + h3 c E3
x = Mx 1 (16.20)
I 123 E1
16.6 Partial friction

Consider a structure of two layers with partial friction at their interface as presented in Figure 16.4. We
assume that a fraction F of the interface is in full friction and thus a fraction (1 F) in full slip. The
equilibrium equations write:
166
THE MULTISLAB
- for the fraction in full slip

pq
4 w = (16.21)
D1 + D2
- for the fraction in full friction
pq
4 w = (16.22)
D12
E1 (1 - F) F
b
E2
Figure 16.4 Partial friction at the interface
Multiply both terms of (16.21) by (1 F) and both terms of (16.22) by F
(1 F ) 4 w(D1 + D2 ) = (1 F )( p q )
F 4 wD12 = F ( p q )
Adding both equations, we obtain the equilibrium equation for a structure in partial friction.
pq pq
4 w = = (16.23)
(1 F )(D1 + D2 ) + FD12 D
The elastic length is

(1 F )(D1 + D2 ) + FD12 D
l4 = = (16.24)
k k
The general differential equation writes

G 2 kw p q
4 w w+ = (16.25)
D D D
Moments and stresses are obtained as in the previous paragraphs.
The question rises if the soil reaction q is the same under the interface with slip as under the interface
with friction. Since slip and friction can be considered as randomly distributed, the deflection at the
surface will not discriminate the different situations. Hence w being continuous, by Winklers hypothesis
q will also be continuous. Its value will be a weighted average between the subgrade reactions in both
cases.
167
16.6.1 Application
2a = 200
p = 0.7
E1 = 30000
h1 = 200
E2 = 10000
h2 = 300
k = 0.1 G = 200000
Figure 16.5 Example of a two-layered multislab
The bending stresses are given in Table 16.1 at different depths and for different friction conditions. The
computations refer to the middle of the slab. The stresses can also be depicted from Figure 16.6.
Adhesion x1(z = 0) x1 (z = 200) x2 (z = 200) x2 (z = 500)

Full slip - 0.47 0.47 - 0.23 0.23
50 % slip - 0.38 0.27 - 0.13 0.20
Table 16.1 Stresses and deflections function of the interface condition
168
THE MULTISLAB
- 0.25 - 0.38 -0.47
0.47 0.27 0.02 - 0.13 - 0.23
0.01
0.23
0.20 0.15
Full friction
50 % friction
Full slip
Figure 16.6 Stresses in a two-layered concrete structure function of the friction conditions at the
interface condition
169
170
BACK-CALCULATION OF CONCRETE SLABS
Chapter 17 Back-Calculation of Concrete Slabs
17.1 Backcalculation of moduli

By the word back-calculation we mean a procedure consisting in estimating the moduli of the different
layers of a pavement based on the values of a series of deflections measured on the pavement. The
procedure is intended to estimate a residual life of the pavement in order to, if required, design an
strengthening overlay over the existing pavement. The mathematical models are all based on theoretical
relations existing between the deflections and the moduli of the layers. In the case of a concrete pavement
we mean by moduli the mechanical characteristics related to the pavement: the Young modulus E of the
concrete, the subgrade modulus k of Westergaard and the shear modulus G of Pasternak. The
backcalculation procedure is based on Pasternaks model.
17.2 Case where the load can be considered as a point load

The deflection under an isolated load P is given by

P mJ 0 ( mr / l )
w( r ) =
2kl 2 m
0
4
+ 2 gm 2 + 1
dm (17.1)
When r = 0, the integral can be solved analytically
- for g < 1
P g 1 P
w( 0 ) = arctg = wo (17.2)
4kl 2 2 1 g2 1 g 2 4kl 2
- for g = 1
P P
w( 0 ) = = wo (17.3)
4kl 2
4kl 2
- for g > 1
P 1 g + g2 1 P
w( 0 ) = ln = wo (17.4)
8kl 2 g 1
2
g g 1
2 4kl 2
The value of k can be deduced from those results
2
P wo
k= (17.5)
4 D w( 0 )
where
Eh 3 D
D= l4 =
12( 1 2 ) k
Using equation (17.5) for the computation of k, we have an iterative backcalculation method in order to
estimate the values of E and G giving computed deflections as close as possible to measured deflections.
171
17.3 Computations
The backcalculation procedure is presented in Figure 17.1.
Seed modulus E = 1000
g=0
computation of k and the deflections
Edif2 = wcomp wmeas
Edif1 = Edif2
E = E + E
g=0
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 = gdif2
g = g + g
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 < gdif2 No
Yes
Edif1 = gdif1
Edif1 < Edif2 No
Yes
Results
Figure 17.1 Model of backcalculation based on E
172
The flow chart of Figure 17.1 can easily be understood. The computation starts with the input of a seed
value for the modulus E of the concrete. This value must differ from zero, to avoid divisions by zero. The
initial value of g is set equal to zero. The corresponding value of k is computed by equation (17.5). The
corresponding values of the deflections are computed for the same load and at the same distances as the
measured values of the deflections. The sum of the absolute differences between computed and measured
deflections, called Edif2, is the begin value of the E loop, i.e. the loop for the estimation of the E value
giving the best fit. For each E value, a second loop, the g - loop with begin value gdif2, estimates the g
value giving the best fit for the given E value. When both loops have allowed to determine the E and
g values, and by equation (17.5) the k values, giving the best fit of all calculation, the best results have
been derived.
17.4 Case when the load is considered as distributed

The deflection under a uniformly distributed circular load of pressure p and radius a is given by
pa mJ 0 ( mr / l )J 1( ma / l )
kl 0
w( r ) = dm (17.6)
m4 + 2 gm 2 + 1
This integral can be solved analytically. So for g > 1
pa 1 I 0 ( r / l )K 1 ( a / l ) I 0 ( r / l )K 1 ( a / l )
w( r ) =
kl 2 g 2 1 (17.7)

where
= g g2 1 = g + g2 1
However, even when r = 0, the value of k cannot be deduced from previous equation. Hence the method
illustrated in Figure 17.1 cannot be used. However, if we consider the elastic length l instead of the
modulus E, the problem can be solved (Stet and Van Cauwelaert, 2004) Indeed, when knowing l and g,
the value of k can be obtained from equation (17.6) The backcalculation procedure is identical to that of
the previous paragraph.
Further, in this case the value of k, corresponding with a given value of g, can be deduced from all the
deflection values and not only from the centre deflection. It seems more realistic to choose a mean value
of k obtained from all the deflection values.
Finally, in using the elastic length, the model can be used for backcalculation of a multilayered slab. Of
course the determination of each individual modulus will require some information, for example, the
ratios between the moduli or the knowledge of the value of one of the moduli.
The computations are presented in Figure 17.2.
173
Seed elastic length l = 1000
g=0
ldif2 = wcomp wmeas
ldif1 = ldif2
l = l + l
g=0
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 = gdif2
g = g + g
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 < gdif2 No
Yes
ldif1 = gdif1
ldif1 < ldif2 No
Yes
Results
Figure 17.2 Model of backcalculation based on elastic length
174
17.5 Comparison of the two methods

The second method, which considers the load as uniformly distributed, requires more computer time than
the first, which considers the load as isolated. The question then rises if the assumption of an isolated
load, which does not exist in reality, has an influence on the results.
Consider a slab with a thickness of 200 mm, a modulus of 30000 N/mm, resting on a subgrade with a
subgrade modulus of 0.1 N/mm and a shear modulus of 20000 N/mm. The slab is subjected to a classical
falling weight load of 100000 N uniformly spread over a circular loading plate with a radius of 150 mm.
In Table 17.1 the deflections in m computed by Pasternaks model are given for the usual distances for a
load distributed over a circle with a radius of 150 mm and for an isolated load of same magnitude.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Distributed 233 206 160 115 78 50 30 17 8
Isolated 241 210 162 116 79 51 30 17 8
Table 17.1 Deflections under a distributed and an isolated load
The differences between the deflections are small. In order to verify if those differences can be neglected,
we list in Table 17.2 the values of the mechanical characteristics backcalculated with the deflections of
Table in the assumption of the classical falling weight load.
Characteristics E k G
w (r = 0) = 233 30340 0.101 18443
w (r = 0) = 241 26505 0.097 25353
Table 17.2 Backcalculated slab characteristics
The results differ more than 10 %. Hence we conclude that the method with the assumption of an isolated
load should not be applied.
17.6 Influence of the reference deflection

In the method developed for an isolated load, we took the centre deflection as reference deflection for the
computation of k by (17.5). In the method developed for the distributed load, we are free to choose the
reference deflection. In table 17.3 we compare the values of the mechanical characteristics backcalculated
with centre deflection, the second deflection and the mean value of the 9 deflections as reference
deflection for the computation of k by (17.6). The fit is equal to the sum of the absolute differences
between the computed deflections and the measured deflections, sum divided by the number of
deflections.
Reference deflection E k G Fit

w (r = 0) 30340 0.101 18443 0.199
W (r = 300) 30414 0.101 18487 0.205
w- mean 30587 0.101 18483 0.264
Table 17.3 Backcalculated values of the mechanical characteristics in function of the reference
deflection
175
The differences are not significant. However, this is perhaps due to the fact that the analysed deflection
basin is a theoretical one.
17.7 Analysis of field data

We analyse the deflection basin, presented in Table 17.4, obtained on a concrete slab of 265.3 mm
thickness built on a granular sub-layer (CROW, 1999). The load was the classical falling weight load of
100000 N. The deflections are expressed in m.
Distances 0 300 600 1000 1500 2000 2500

Deflections 142 135 120 98 75 55 43
Table 17.4 Deflections measured on a concrete pavement
In Table 17.5 we present the values of the mechanical characteristics obtained by a backcalculation based
on the three different reference deflections.
Reference deflection E k G Fit

w (r = 0) 45112 0.028 153175 0.570
w (r = 300) 42709 0.027 156730 0.544
w- mean 46994 0.030 142354 0.581
Table 17.5 Backcalculated values of the mechanical characteristics of a concrete pavement
Again the differences do not seem to be very significant, although more important than those of Table
17.3. The modulus of the concrete of the slab was dynamically determined on a core taken out of the slab
and found to be equal to 46100 N/mm, hence the backcalculated values seem realistic. It seems that in
this case the method based on the mean value of all the deflections is the most reliable method.
The values of the subgrade modulus k seem very low. Indeed a value of 307 N/mm was obtained for the
subgrade by a backcalculation performed with the methods developed for flexible pavements (Chapter
24). This value corresponds roughly with a CBR- value of 30 % and thus, based on the published
correlations between CBR and k, on a value for the subgrade modulus of about 0.1 N/mm. For the
moment this remains an open question. However, we know that the correlations between CBR and k
have been established without taking into account the shear resistance of the soil. Therefore we present in
Table 17.6 different pairs of k and G values resulting in a center deflection of 142 m on a slab with a
modulus of 45112 N/mm2 and a thickness of 265.3 mm.
E k G w (r = 0) Fit
45112 0.103 0 142 13.857
45112 0.070 50000 142 9.286
45112 0.046 100000 142 5.000
45112 0.028 153175 142 0.571
45112 0.017 200000 142 5.714
Table 17.6 Pairs of k and G values for identical deflections
176
Table 17.6 is not intended to proof anything, more data need to be analysed, but it clearly shows the
influence of the value of G on the value of k. In this way, when G = 0, the backcalculated value of k
corresponds fairly well with a modulus of 300 N/mm.
The last column of Table 17.6 presents the values of the fit when comparing the deflection basin
calculated with the assumed characteristics with the observed deflection basin (Table 17.4). It seems
evident that the best fit was obtained when taking in account the real characteristics of the subgrade. It
illustrates the fact that Pasternaks model is certainly closer to reality than Winklers model.
17.8 Example of backcalculation

Table 17.7 gives a series of deflection basins obtained on an airfield with a concrete pavement. The
deflections are expressed in m, the distances and thickness in mm.
Slab 0 300 600 1000 1500 2000 2500 Thick-

ness
1 142 135 120 98 75 55 43 265.3
2 139 131 113 92 74 54 42 280.2
3 104 98 82 67 59 44 36 275.0
4 122 112 94 73 59 45 37 263.2
5 120 109 97 75 59 42 33 277.4
6 165 152 128 106 78 55 41 276.2
7 143 133 113 93 74 55 41 272.9
8 181 168 145 120 88 60 42 272.3
9 150 136 115 96 76 58 45 289.7
10 158 144 123 104 82 60 46 271.5
Table 17.7 Deflection basins obtained in the field
Table 17.8 presents the results of the mechanical characteristics back-calculated with a full automatic
program based on the flow sheet of Figure 17.2.
Slab E k G Fit
1 46994 0.030 142354 0.581
2 31190 0.025 191129 0.798
3 34344 0.020 350504 0.974
4 21525 0.021 319031 0.743
5 27541 0.031 246377 1.092
6 25004 0.030 141047 1.269
7 26655 0.023 210052 1.071
8 34800 0.036 75353 1.316
9 18612 0.020 221911 1.461
10 30487 0.023 168312 1.714
Table 17.8 Back calculated characteristics based on the deflections of Table 17.7
177
178
THERMAL STRESSES IN CONCRETE SLABS
Chapter 18 Thermal Stresses in Concrete Slabs
18.1 Thermal stresses

Under the influence of a thermal gradient an elastic beam or a slab of uniform thickness and great length
takes the shape of a cylindrical surface. A circular elastic slab takes the shape of a spherical cap. A
rectangular elastic slab takes the shape of a clastic surface (uplifted at the four corners). Let the thickness
of a beam being h, the difference of temperature between both sides of the beam being t and the
coefficient of thermal dilatation being 0 . The thermal strain is th = 0t/2. Hence by (10.5) and (10.7)
0t/2 =h/(2R) or 0 =1 /R, where R is the radius of curvature. This curvature can be suppressed by
applying on the ends of the beam such moments that Mc = EI/R =E0 and at the boundaries of a slab of
great length such moments that Mc = D/R = D0. Considering that the thermal dilatation is the same on
the boundaries of a rectangular slab, the required moments Mx and My will be equal. Hence by (10.19)
M = D(1 + )/R = D0 (1 + ) where D is the stiffness of the slab and its Poissons ratio. The thermal
deformation of a slab subjected to a thermal gradient is partially refrained by the stiffness of the subgrade.
If the subgrade had an infinite stiffness, the thermal stress soliciting a slab with thickness h along its
boundaries would be equal to 0 = D0h/2I in the case of a slab of great length and equal to
0 = D(1 + )0h/2I in the case of circular or rectangular slabs. The subgrade being deformable, the
value of 0 must be multiplied by a factor which value depends on the dimensions and the elastic lengths
of the slabs.
18.2 Slab of great length
18.2.1 Differential equilibrium equation

For convenience we take the x axis parallel with traffic; the y axis is perpendicular to traffic. We
admit that the curvature of the slab takes the shape of a cylindrical surface deformed perpendicularly to
traffic. It is the case of continuously reinforced concrete and probably also that of a lean concrete base
course. Hence the problem is reduced to the case of a slab of great length in the x direction and of small
width in the y direction, with a stiffness D and subjected to a thermal gradient in the direction of the
width. Due to the great length of the slab, all derivatives in x are zero : dnw/dxn = 0.
The equilibrium equation of an unloaded slab on a Pasternak foundation is

d 4w G d 2 w kw
+ =0 (18.1)
dy 4 D dy 2 D
where w is the deflection for all y,
G is Pasternaks shear modulus
k is Westergaards subgrade modulus.
Let G/D = 2g/l2, k/D = 1/l4.

Hence
d 4w 2g d 2w w
+ =0 (18.2)
dy 4 l 2 dy 2 l4
The solution of (18.2) differs for g < 1, g = 1 or g > 1.
179
18.2.2 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g < 1

The solution of equation (18.2) is
w = ey / l [A cos( y / l ) + B sin( y / l ] + e y / l [C cos( y / l ) + D sin( y / l ] (18.3)
where
1+ g 1 g
= =
2 2
18.2.3 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g = 1

w = Ae y / l + Be y / l + Cye y / l + Dye y / l (18.4)
18.2.4 Solution of the equilibrium equation for g > 1

w = Aey / l + Be y / l + C y / l + De y / l (18.5)
where
= g + g2 1 = g g2 1
18.2.5 Boundary conditions

The values of the constants A, B, C and D are determined by the boundary conditions. The width of the
slab is L. The slab is subjected to a moment Mc on each of its boundaries which compensates the moment
resulting from the curvature due to the thermal gradient. The case is symmetric. The boundary conditions
are:
- for all y, w(y) = w(-y)
- for y = 0, the deflection presents a maximum: dw/dy = 0
- for y = L/2, the moment is equal to Mc: -D d2w/dy2 = Mc
- for y = L/2, the shear force in the slab is zero: -D dw/dy + G dw/dy = G dw/dy.
18.2.6 Expression of the moment for g < 1

Let z = L/(2l). The boundary conditions write:
The deflections are symmetrical:
ey / l [ A cos( y / l ) + B sin( y / l )] + e y / l [C cos( y / l ) + D sin( y / l ] =
(18.6)
e y / l [A cos( y / l ) B sin( y / l )] + ey / l [C cos( y / l ) D sin( y / l ]
For y = 0, dw/dy = 0
A + B C + D = 0 (18.7)
Hence
A=C B = D and
{
w = 2 ey / l [ A cos( y / l ) + B sin( y / l )] + e y / l [ A cos( y / l ) B sin( y / l ]}
180
For y = L/2, dw/dy = -Mc/D

Aez g cos( z ) 1 g 2 sin( z ) + Bez g sin( z ) + 1 g 2 cos( z ) +

(18.8)
2
Ae z g cos( z ) + 1 g 2 sin( z ) Be z g sin( z ) 1 g 2 cos( z ) = c
M l
2D
For y = L/2, dw/dy = 0
Aez [ (1 2 g ) cos( z ) (1 + 2 g ) sin( z )] +
Bez [ (1 2 g ) sin( z ) + (1 + 2 g ) cos( z )] +
(18.9)
Ae [ (1 2 g ) cos( z ) (1 + 2 g ) sin( z )]
z
Be z [ (1 2 g ) sin( z ) + (1 + 2 g ) cos( z )] = 0
The solutions of the system of equations (18.8) and (18.9) are

2M c l 2
A= [ (1 2 g ) sin( z ) cosh( z ) + (1 + 2 g ) cos( z ) sinh( z )] (18.10)
D
2M c l 2
B= [ (1 2 g )cos( z ) sinh( z ) (1 + 2 g ) sin( z ) cosh( z )] (18.11)
D
= sin( 2 z ) + sinh( 2z )
The resulting moment is MR = Mt Mc = Mt - Dd2w /dy2

Introduce the values of A and B in the expression of the moment Mc; the resulting moment becomes
DA
M R , y = D 0 + g cos( y / l ) cosh( y / l ) 1 g 2 sin( y / l ) sinh( y / l )
2
l
DB
+ g sin( y / l ) sinh( y / l ) + 1 g 2 cos( y / l ) cosh( y / l ) (18.12)
2
l
that we write
M R , y = D 0C y (18.13)
For y = 0, the moment is maximum and equation (18.12) transforms into
sin( z ) cosh( z ) + cos( z ) sinh( z )

M R , y = D 0 1 2 (18.14)
sin( 2 z ) + sinh( 2z )
For g = 0, one finds the equation established by Westergaard (1927)
sin( z / 2 ) cosh( z / 2 ) + cos( z / 2 ) sinh( z / 2 )

M R = D 0 1 2 (18.15)
sin( 2 z / 2 ) + sinh( 2 z / 2 )
181
18.2.7 Expression of the moment for g = 1


Ae y / l + Be y / l + Cye y / l + Dye y / l = Ae y / l + Be y / l Cye y / l Dye y / l (18.16)
A B
+C +D =0 ( 18.17)
l l
Hence
A= B C = D
For y = L/2, dw/dy = - Mc/D
( ) ( ) ( )
A e z + e z + 2Cl e z + e z + Clz e z e z =
M cl 2
D
(18.18)
( ) ( ) ( )
A e z e z + 3Cl e z e z + Clz e z + e z = 0 (18.19)

M cl 2
A= [3 sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )] (18.20)
D
M cl 2
Cl = sinh( z ) (18.21)
D
= sinh( 2 z ) + 2 z
The resulting moment is MR = Mt Mc. Introduce the values of A and B in the expression of the moment
Mc; the resulting moment becomes
M R , y = D 0 +
2D
[A cosh( y / l ) + 2Cl cosh( y / l ) + Cly sinh( y / l )] (18.22)
l2
that we write
M R , y = D 0C y (18.23)
For y = 0, the moment is maximum and equation (18.22) writes

sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )
M R ,y = D 0 1 2
sinh( 2 z ) + 2 z
(18.24)

18.2.8 Expression of the moment for g > 1


Aey / l + Be y / l + Ce y / l + De y / l = Ae y / l + Be y / l + Cey / l + De y / l
(18.25)
A + B C D = 0 (18.26)
182
Hence
A=C B=D
For y = L/2, dw/dy = - Mc/D
[ ] [ ]
2
M l
A 2 ez + e z + B 2 e z + e z = c (18.27)
D
[ ] [
A 3 ez e z + B 3 e z e z = 0 ] (18.28)

M cl 2 3
A= sinh( z ) (18.29)
D
M cl 2 3
B= sinh( z ) (18.30)
D
= 2[ cosh( z ) sinh( z ) cosh( z ) sinh( z )]
The resulting moment is

2D
M R , y = D 0 + A 2 cosh( y / l ) + B 2 cosh( y / l ) (18.31)
l2
that we write
M R , y = D 0C y (18.32)
The maximum moment in y = 0 is
sinh( z ) sinh( z )
M R , y = D 0 1 (18.33)
cosh( z ) sinh( z ) cosh( z ) sinh( z )
The moment in y = L/2 is
2D
M R , y = D 0 + A 2 cosh( z ) + B 2 cosh( z )
l2
Replacing A and B by their values, one verifies that MRy = 0.
18.2.9 Verification of the expression of the maximum moment for g = 1

Passing to the limit for g 1 one obtains by equations (18.15) or by (18.33) the value for the resulting
moment for g = 1
sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )
M R , y = D 0 1 2
2 z + sinh( 2 z )
(18.34)

This equation is identical to equation (18.24) which therefore is verified together with the basic equations
(18.15) and (18.33).
18.2.10 Equation of the thermal stress

The thermal stress is given by the classical equation = MRh /(2I).
183
18.2.11 Example
Consider a slab of great length, a width of 5000 mm and a thickness of 200 mm. Let E = 30000 N/mm,
= 0.20 and k = 0.1 N/mm. The thermal gradient is 0.08 C/mm and the coefficient of dilatation
0.00001. The thermal stresses in function of the distance to the middle of the slab and the value of
Pasternaks modulus are given in Table 18.1.
G 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

0 2.63 2.49 2.06 1.34 0.49 0
20000 2.43 2.31 1.92 1.27 0.47 0
50000 2.18 2.08 1.74 1.69 0.45 0
Table 18.1 Thermal stresses in a slab of great length
18.3 Rectangular slab
18.3.1 Differential equation of equilibrium

We admit that the curvature of the slab takes the shape of two perpendicular cylindrical surfaces which
leads to a clastic surface (uplifted at the four corners). It is the case of a pavement built of concrete slabs.
The problem has been considered by Bradbury (1938) as that of a slab with stiffness D built up of two
perpendicular beams subjected to a thermal gradient.
The equilibrium equation of an unloaded slab on a Pasternak foundation is

G 2 kw
4 w w+ =0 (18.35)
D D
where w is the deflection for any x,y
G is Pasternaks shear modulus
k is Westergaards subgrade modulus.
The thermal stress along the boundaries of the slab is uniform. Thus the slab is not subjected to torsion.
As a result of this the moments of torsion are zero.
2w
M xy = M yx = D( 1 ) =0 (18.36)
xy
Hence Bradbury suggests approaching the solution of equation (18.35) by next equation
w( x , y ) = w( x ) + w( y ) (18.37)
where the variables are separated.
The equilibrium equation simplifies in two equations
d 4w G d 2 w kw
+ =0 (18.38)
dx 4 EI dx 2 EI
d 4w G d 2 w kw
+ =0 (18.39)
dy 4 EI dy 2 EI
The solutions of equations (18.38) and (18.39) are given in 18.2.
184

Conditions related to the values of the moments along the boundaries of the slab
2w 2w
M x = D + = D( 1 + ) 0 = ( 1 + )M c
x 2 y 2
(18.40)
2w 2w
M y = D + = D( 1 + ) 0 = ( 1 + )M c
x 2 y 2
Mc in this equation has the same signification and value as in equation (18.8). Given equation (18.37), the
condition given in equation (18.40) can be split in two separated conditions
2w 2w
D = D = D 0 = M c (18.41)
x 2
2
y
2w 2w
D = D 2 = D 0 = M c (18.42)
2
x y
In analogy the conditions related to the shear forces are simplified by

3w
D 3 = 0 (18.43)
x
3w
D 3 = 0 (18.44)
y
The conditions in equations (18.41) to (18.44) lead to same results as the conditions of the previous
paragraph.
The moments in the slab are

M R ,x = D 0 C x + C y (18.45)

M R , y = D 0 C x + C y (18.46)

When the slab is square the value of the moment along the boundaries of the slab appears in the equation
for the resulting moment along the diagonals.
M R = D 0 ( 1 + )C x = y (18.47)

18.3.3 Examples
Consider a square slab with a side of 5000 mm and a thickness of 200 mm. Let E = 30000 N/mm,
= 0.20 and k = 0.1 N/mm. The thermal conditions remain the same. The thermal stresses along a
diagonal are given in function of the distance to the centre and the value of Pasternaks modulus in
Table 18.2.
185
x 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

G
y 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
x 3.16 2.99 2.47 1.61 0.59 0
0
y 3.16 2.99 2.47 1.61 0.59 0
x 2.92 2.77 2.30 1.52 0.56 0
20000
y 2.92 2.77 2.30 1.52 0.56 0
x 2.62 2.49 2.09 1.40 0.54 0
50000
y 2.62 2.49 2.09 1.40 0.54 0
Table 18.2 Thermal stresses in a slab of great length
The thermal stresses along a side of the slab are given in function of the distance to the centre and the
value of Pasternaks modulus on Table 18.3.
x 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

G
y 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
x 2.63 2.49 2.06 1.34 0.49 0
0
y 0.53 0.50 0.41 0.27 0.10 0
x 2.43 2.31 1.92 1.27 0.47 0
20000
y 0.49 0.46 0.38 0.25 0.09 0
x 2.18 2.08 1.74 1.17 0.45 0
50000
y 0.44 0.42 0.35 0.23 0.09 0
Table 18.3 Thermal stresses along a side of a square slab
The results concerning the x stresses are exactly the same as those obtained along the boundary of a slab
of great length (Table 18.1). The results concerning the y stresses do not respect the boundary conditions
which stated that those stresses should be zero. The results are imputable to the application of the
equation for a moment in a slab
2w 2w
M R ,y = D 2 + 2 (18.48)
x y
According to Bradbury, the derivative 2w/y2 cancels in y = 2500 but not the derivative 2w/x2. As a
result the stress y cannot be zero in y = 2500. In order to avoid this Bradbury suggests to consider that at
the border the slab behaves as a beam. He applies a moment Mt = EI/R = EI0.. In that case the
resulting moment is given by
M R ,x = EI 0C x (18.49)
Equation (18.49) can be compared with equation (18.13) .The results become those of Table 18.4.
186
x 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

G
y 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
x 2.52 2.39 1.98 1.29 0.47 0
0
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
x 2.33 2.22 1.84 1.22 0.45 0
20000
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
x 2.09 2.00 1.67 1.12 0.43 0
50000
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 18.4 Thermal stresses along the side of a square slab acotding to Bradbury
When he represents the boundary of a slab by a thin beam, Bradbury resolves the problem in a state of
plane stress. Nevertheless it seems evident that the considered case is one of plain strain (Timoshenko,
1951, 1). In that case the model of a slab of great length has to be adopted. The results are given in
Table 18.5.
x 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

G
y 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
x 2.63 2.49 2.06 1.34 0.49 0
0
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
x 2.43 2.31 1.92 1.27 0.47 0
20000
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
x 2.18 2.08 1.74 1.17 0.45 0
50000
y 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 18.5 Thermal stresses along the side of a square slab following Timoshenko
The question rises: how far from the boarder have we to apply a model of a slab of great length (y = 0)
and from which distance on have we to apply the model of a rectangular slab (y 0). Since de values of
x given in Table 18.1 and in Table 18.5 are the same, we suggest to systematically adopt the model of a
rectangular slab and to accept that along the boundaries the stresses perpendicular to the boarders are
zero. However the solution is only an approximate one. In the next section we will compare the solution
for a rectangular slab with that for a circular slab, which can rigorously been established. Circular slabs
are not built in reality but the comparison of the results will enable us to appreciate the effectiveness of
the solution adopted for rectangular slabs.
18.4 Circular slab

For simplicity we shall limit us to the model of a circular slab on a Winkler foundation. Consider a
circular slab with radius R.
18.4.1 Equilibrium equation

The equilibrium equation writes in polar co-ordinates
2 1 2 w 1 w kw
2 + + + =0
r r r 2 r r D
(18.50)
r
187
18.4.2 Solution of the equilibrium equation

w = Aber( r / l ) + Bbei( r / l ) (18.51)
where
( r / 2l )4 ( r / 2l )8 ( r / 2l )12
ber( r / l ) = 1 + .... (18.52)
2!2! 4!4! 6 !6
( r / 2l )2 ( r / 2l )6 ( r / 2l )10
bei( r / l ) = + .... (18.53)
1!1! 3!3! 5!5!

Let
1 ber 2 ber 2 ber 1 ber
ber1 = ber 2 = ber 3 = +
r r r 2 r r 2 r r
1 bei 2 bei 2 bei 1 bei
bei1 = bei 2 = bei 3 = +
r r r 2 r r 2 r r
The boundary conditions are with z = R/l
M cl 2
A[ber 2( z ) + ber1( z )] + B[bei 2( z ) + bei1( z )] = (18.54)
D
A[ber 3( z )] + B[bei 3( z )] = 0 (18.55)
where Mc = D0(1 + ) (Timoshenko, 1951, 14).

M cl 2
A= bei 3( z ) (18.56)
D
M cl 2
B= ber 3( z ) (18.57)
D
= [ber 2( z ) + ber 1( z )] bei 3( z ) [bei 2( z ) + bei1( z )] ber 3( z )
18.4.4 Resulting moment

The resulting moment is
M R = D 0 ( 1 + ) +
DA
2
(ber 2( r / l ) + ber1( r / l )) + DB
2
(bei 2( r / l ) + bei1( r / l )) (18.58)
l l
that we write
M R = D 0 ( 1 + )C r (18.59)
18.4.5 Comparison between the models for rectangular and circular slabs
Although very similar, equations (18.45) and (18.46) for a rectangular slab and (18.59) for a circular slab
differ fundamentally. Equation (18.59) is directly based on a slab model. Equations (18.45) and (18.46)
188
are based on a somewhat artificial addition of two models of slabs of a great length (rather beam models).
It is therefore necessary to compare the results of both models in order to verify their reliability.
Consider a slab with a modulus of 30000 N/mm, a thickness of 200 mm, a Poisson ratio equal to 0.20.
The subgrade modulus is equal to 0.05 N/mm. The thermal conditions remain the same. In Table 18.6 we
compare the stresses in the centre of a circular slab with the stresses in the centre of inner and outer
square slabs for different radius values.
Inner square slab Circular slab Outer square slab

Side stress Radius stress Side stress
14142 2.99 10000 3.00 20000 3.00
7071 3.26 5000 3.21 10000 3.09
4255 2.35 3000 2.97 6000 3.17
2828 0.92 2000 1.45 4000 2.13
1414 0.074 1000 0.13 2000 0.28
707 0.005 500 0.009 1000 0.019
Table 18.6 Thermal stresses in circular and square slabs
In Table 18.7 we compare the stresses along the radius of a circular slab with the stresses along the
diagonals of inner and outer square slabs.
Distances
Slab Dimensions
0 100 200 500 1000 1414 2000
Square 4000 2.125 2.115 2.086 1.887 1.242 0.441 0
Circular 2000 1.441 1.441 1.419 1.267 0.788 0.228 0
Square 2828 0.915 0.906 0.879 0.704 0.233 0
Table 18.7 Thermal stresses in circular and square slabs
The results seem to be satisfactorily. Hence we conclude that the developed model for the computation of
thermal stresses in concrete slabs and base courses can be used.
18.5 Extension to a multi-slab system

The extension of the method to a multi-slab system can be done in two different ways.
If one may admit that the radii of curvature due to the thermal gradient are the same for the different
slabs, thus that the slabs remain in contact as well in the vertical direction as in the horizontal plane, one
shall consider the system as a multi-layered structure with friction at the interfaces.
In that case, the moment Mc required to suppress the curvature is Mc = D0 at the border of a long slab
and Mc = D0 (1 + 1) at the border of a circular or rectangular slab. In those expressions
D = E1/(1 - 12).Ieq where Ieq is the moment of inertia of the equivalent section with constant modulus. The
equivalent section is represented at Figure 18.1 for a bi-slab structure. The width of the lower slab is
equal to E2/E1.(1 - 1)2/(1 - 2)2.
189
E1 E1
E2 E1
Figure 18.1 Equivalent bi-slab structure
However this hypothesis seems rarely expressing the reality. If the radii of curvature are different
(variable gradient with depth, different thermal dilatations) we admit that due to the weight of the applied
loads the slabs will remain in contact in the vertical direction (this hypothesis was admitted by
Westergaard and Bradbury regarding the contact between slab and subgrade). In that case one shall
consider the system as a multi-layered structure with slip at the interfaces.
In the case of a tri-slab structure, the total moment acting on the border of the slab is given by next
equation
M ctotal = M c1 + M c 2 + M c 3
M ctotal = D1 01 1 + D2 02 2 + D3 03 3
The equation of equilibrium is deduced from Figure 18.2.
p1
q1
p2
q2
p3
q3
Figure 18.2 Equilibrium equation
The equilibrium equation of the upper slab is

q
4 w1 = 1
D1
That of the intermediate slab
p q2
4 w2 = 1
D2
190
That of the lower slab

p2 q
4 w3 =
D3
The slabs remain vertically in contact. Hence
w1 = w2 = w3 = w
Adding the three equilibrium equations yields

(D1 + D2 + D3 ) 4 w = q1 + p1 q 2 + p 2 q = q
which is the equilibrium equation of the structure.
Let D = D1 + D2 + D3 and q = kw - G2w.
Then
G 2 k
4 w w+ =0
D D
with k/D = 1/l4.
Comment
It seems that the pavements in continuously reinforced concrete and their eventual base-courses in lean
concrete should be treated by the model of the slab of great length. Also the base-courses in lean concrete
of asphalt pavements. However the pavements built with concrete slabs and their eventual base-courses in
lean concrete should both be treated by the model of the rectangular slab. It is indeed not possible to
apply two different models on the same structure which, of course, would be the ideal solution.
191
192
DETERMINATION OF THE PARAMETERS OF A RIGID STRUCTURE
Chapter 19 Determination of the Parameters of a Rigid Structure
19.1 Determination of the Youngs modulus of a concrete slab

The purpose of the developed method is to determine the Youngs modulus of a concrete layer through a
diametral test performed on a core taken out of the layer. The theory developed, in this regard, by
Mitchell (Timoshenko, 1948) is not really appropriate. Therefore we will briefly present a more general
model developed by Van Cauwelaert (1993).
19.1.1 Resolution of the compatibility equation

The problem is solved in polar co-ordinates. Consider a disc with diameter D (2R) subjected to
diametrically opposite radial pressures p uniformly distributed over arcs 2R. The compatibility equation
is ( 10.5.1)
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
2 + + 2 2 +
2
+ 2 =0
2
(19.1)
r r r r r r r r
The solution of (19.1) is obtained by separation of the variables
[
= cos( m ) Ar m + Br m + Cr ( 2+m ) + Dr ( 2m ) ]
The stresses must be finite at the origin; hence the constants B and D vanish.
[
= cos( m ) Ar m + Cr ( 2+m ) ] (19.2)
19.1.2 Equations for the stresses

Applying equation (10.44) one obtains
[ ]
r = cos( m ) m( 1 m ) Ar m2 + ( 1 + m )( 2 m )Cr m (19.3)
= cos( m )[m( 1 m ) Ar + ( 1 + m )( 2 m )Cr ]
m2 m
(19.4)
= m sin( m )[( 1 m ) Ar ( 1 + m )Cr ]
r
m2 m
r (19.5)

For r = R, the boundary conditions are
r = - p for - < < , - < < + (19.6)
r = 0, elsewhere (19.7)
r = 0, everywhere. (19.8)
We shall develop equation (19.3) as a Fourier series in order to express the discontinuous loading
conditions. Hence the boundary equations become
m( 1 m ) AR m2 + ( 1 + m )( 2 m )CR m = 1
( 1 m ) AR m2 ( 1 + m )CR m = 0
The solutions of the system are
R m2
( 1 m )A =
2
Rm
( 1 + m )C =
2
193
and
cos( m ) r r
m 2 m
r = m + ( 2 m ) (19.9)
2 R R
cos( m ) r
m 2 m
r
= m ( 2 + m ) (19.10)
2 R R
sin( m ) r r
m2 m
r = m m (19.11)
2 R R
In order to express conditions (19.6) and (19.7) expand (19.9) as a Fourier series ( 11.3).
a0
n n
f ( ) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1 L L
With 2L = , the Fourier coefficients become
2p
an = sin( 2 n )
n
4 p
a0 =

bn = 0
Hence
2 p 2 p
f ( ) = cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n ) (19.12)
n =1 n
19.1.4 Stresses and displacements

The normal stresses are obtained by transforming (19.9) and (19.10) by (19.12)
2 p 2 p r 2( n1 ) r
2n
r = cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n )n + ( 1 n ) (19.13)

n =1 n R R
2 p 2 p r 2( n1 ) r
2n
= + cos( 2 n ) sin( 2n )n ( 1 + n ) (19.14)

n =1 n R R
The radial strain is given by
r
r =
E
and the radial displacement by u = r dr .
This results in
pD r
u= ( 1 ) cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n )
E R n=1
1 + r 2 n1 1 n ( 1 + n ) r 2 n+1
+ (19.15)
2n 1 R n( 2n + 1 ) R
Assuming the value of , the value of E can be deduced from (19.15) by a direct determination of the
displacement u, along, for example, the horizontal diameter (Dac Chi Nguyen, 1991).
194
19.1.5 Tangential normal stress along the vertical diameter

Assume that the disc is subjected to two opposite point loads, P = 2pR, located at both ends of its
vertical diameter. The kernel of the Fourier series is then
2 p sin( 2 n ) 4 P
lim =
0 n D
Along the vertical diameter ( = 0) the tangential stress is given by
2P 4 P r
2 4 6 2 4 6
r r r r r
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 2 3 4
D D R R R R R R
2P
= (19.16)
D
Equation (19.16) is the well-known formula for the tensile stress of rupture along the vertical diameter of
a loaded disc in the so-called indirect split-tensile or Brazilian tensile test.
19.2 Determination of the characteristics k and G of the subgrade

Pasternak (1954) himself proposed the method of the determination of the parameters k and G through an
eccentrically loaded plate.
19.2.1 Equilibrium equation for a Pasternak subgrade

Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to a uniform pressure p. Isolate an elementary prism dxdy.
dx
Ty + (dTy/dy)dy
p
dy
Tx
Tx + (dTx/dx)dx
Ty
Figure 19.1 Stress distribution in a Pasternak subgrade

The vertical stress q expresses the soil reaction and Tx and Ty the lateral shear forces (Figure 19.1).
Vertical equilibrium yields
dT dT y
pdxdy = qdxdy + Tx dy + T y dx Tx + x dx dy T y + dy dx
dx dy
dT dT y
p=q x
dx dy
Assume
195
q = kw (Winkler)
dw dw
Tx = G Ty = G (Pasternak)
dx dy
Hence
d 2w d 2w
p = kw G + (19.17)
dx 2 2
dy
and with G/k = l2
p 2
2 d w d w
2
= wl + (19.18)
k dx 2 dy 2

or in polar co-ordinates
p d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
= w l2 + + (19.19)
k dr 2 r dr r 2 d 2
19.2.2 Eccentrically loaded plate-bearing test

Consider the eccentrically loaded circular plate presented in Figure 19.2.
e N
WL
WC
WR
2a
Figure 19.2 Eccentrically loaded plate
196
Split the load in a normal centre load N and a moment M = eN (Figure 19.3).
N M
a0
WL
W0
Figure 19.3 Vertical resultant and moment
and, as can be depicted from Figure 19.4:
N
x
e
2a
r r
d

M N
+
N
M
Figure 19.4 Eccentrically loaded plate
One has:
- w0 = (wL + wR)/2
- w1 = (wR wL)/2 = atan0 aO
197
19.2.3 Vertical load

Split N = NP + NL.:
- NP is the resultant of the subgrade reaction underneath the plate (Figure 19.5).
- NL is the resultant of the subgrade reaction outside the plate (Figure 19.6).
NP
W0
2a
Figure 19.5 Deflection underneath the plate
The deflection under the rigid plate is constant. Hence the stress under the plate is also a constant.
y = kw0
and
N p = kw0 a 2
Consider now the subgrade reaction outside the plate (Figure 19.6). Therefore assume that the distribution
of the deflection outside the plate is the same as the deflection under an isolated load, with the boundary
condition that for r = a, w = w0
NL
W0
2a
Figure 19.6 Deflection outside the plate
Recall equation (19.19)

p d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
= w l2 + +
2
k dr r dr r 2 d 2
198
Due to axial symmetry d/d = 0, hence

p d 2 w 1 dw
= w l2 +
2
k dr r dr
The equilibrium equation for an isolated load is given by the homogeneous equation
d 2 w 1 dw
w l2 + =0
2
dr r dr
which appropriate solution is ( 3.5)
w = AK 0 ( r / l )
where K0 is the modified Bessel function of second kind and of order zero. For r = a, w = w0. Hence
K0 ( r / l )
w = w0
K0 ( a / l )
and
2 2
1 2
NL = z rdrd = kw0
K0 ( a / l ) K 0 ( r / l )rdrd =kw0 K 0 ( a / l ) laK 1 ( a / l )
a 0 a 0
The total load is then
l K1( a / l )
N = N P + N L = kw0 a 2 1 + 2 (19.20)
a K0 ( a / l )
19.2.4 Moment
M=eN
w1
2a
Figure 19.7 Deflection due to the moment
Consider Figure 19.7. Split the moment in M = MP + ML. The moment of the stresses underneath the
plate is
I a 4 1 k 4
M P = = ka 0 = a 0
v 4 a 4
The moment of the stresses outside the plate is again obtained considering that the distribution of the
deflection is that of the deflection under an isolated load.
199
The equilibrium equation becomes in this case

d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
2
wl + + =0 (19.20)
2 r dr r 2 d 2
dr
The stresses along the circumference of the plate vary from 0 for = 0 to a maximum value for = /2.
Separating the variables of (19.20), we therefore use a sine function.
w = v sin
Hence (19.20) transforms in
d 2v 1 dv v v
+ =0
dr 2 r dr l2 r2
which appropriate solution is
v = AK 1 ( r / l )
and
w = AK 1 ( r / l ) sin
For r = a and = /2, w = a0. Hence
a 0 K1( r / l )
A= w = a 0 sin
K1( a / l ) K1( a / l )
r
rsin
Figure 19.8 Stress distribution due to the moment
The moment of the stresses outside the plate is deduced from Figure 19.8:

M L = 2 z r sin rdrd
0a

1
K1( a / l )
M L = 2ka 0 K1( r / l )r 2 sin 2 drd
0a
l
M L = ka 0 a2 K2( a / l )
K 1( a / l )
The total moment becomes
200
1 l K 2 ( a / l )
M = ka 4 0 + (19.21)
4 a K1( a / l )
19.2.5 Determination of k and G

Let w0 = (wR + wL)/2 and w1 =a0 = (wR - wL)/2. Hence
wR + wL 2 l K1( a / l )
N =k a 1 + 2 (19.22)
2 a K0 ( a / l )
w wL 3 1 l K 2 ( a / l )
Ne = k R a + (19.23)
2 4 a K1( a / l )
Divide (19.23) by (19.22):
1 K2( a / l )
+
e(wR + wL ) 4 a / lK 1 ( a / l )
= (19.24)
a (w R w L ) K 1( a / l )
1+ 2
a / lK 0 ( a / l )
Knowing e, a, wR and wL, determine a/l in an iterative manner from (19.24) and k from (19.22).
201
202
THE SEMI-INFINITE BODY SUBJECTED TO A VERTICAL LOAD
Chapter 20 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to a Vertical Load

Boussinesq solved the problem of a semi-infinite body subjected to an isolated load in 1885, which is
commonly referred to as the Boussinesq solution. At that time the stress potentials expressed in cylinder
co-ordinates (Love, 1927) were not yet discovered and the use of integral transforms in civil engineering
mechanics, in particular the Hankel transform, were not very common. Nevertheless, Boussinesq solved
the problem in a memoir of about 80 pages. All civil engineers know about this memoir but seldom are
those who have studied or at least read it.
Fortunately, the mathematical methods available today offer simple solutions for a great series of loading
cases. To begin with we will look into the problem of a semi-infinite body subjected to a uniformly
distributed load, followed by the methodology first proposed by Burmister in 1943, and then derive the
Boussinesq solution for an isolated load.
20.2 The semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical uniform circular pressure

In this application, we assume axial symmetry. Thus the problem will be solved in axi-symmetric
cylindrical co-ordinates ( 10.5.2). Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical pressure p
uniformly distributed over a circular area with radius a, given in Figure 20.2.
2a
Figure 20.1 Semi-infinite body subjected to a distributed vertical pressure
The stress potential is a solution of the compatibility equation (10.50).

2 1 2 2 1 2
2 + + 2 2 + + 2 = 0 (20.1)
r r r z r r r z
The Bessel function J0(mr) is a solution of equation
203
2 1
+ + m 2 = 0 (20.2)
2
r r r
Hence, if we assume a solution by separation of the variables = J 0 ( mr ) f ( z ) , equation (20.1) can be
transformed into
4 f ( z ) 2
2 f(z)

2m + m 4 f ( z ) J 0 ( mr ) = 0 (20.3)
z 4 z 2

Using the resolution method by means of the characteristic equation ( 1.4.2), we obtain the solution of
(20.1)
= J 0 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + zCe mz zDe mz (20.4)

Applying equation (10.49), we obtain the expressions for the stresses and the displacements

z = mJ 0 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz Cm( 1 2 mz )e mz +

+ Dm( 1 2 + mz )e mz (20.5)

r = mJ 0 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + 2 + mz )e mz

Dm( 1 + 2 mz )e mz

mJ 1 ( mr )
Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
mr
Dm( 1 mz )e mz (20.6)

= mJ 0 ( mr )Cme mz Dme mz 2

mJ 1 ( mr )
+ Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
mr
Dm( 1 mz )e mz (20.7)

rz = mJ 1 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 2 + mz )e mz +

+ Dm( 2 mz )e mz (20.8)

1+ mJ ( mr )
w= 0
Am 2 e mz Bm 2 e mz Cm( 2 4 mz )e mz
E m
Dm( 2 4 + mz )e mz (20.9)

1 + mJ 1 ( mr ) 2 mz 2 mz
u= Am e + Bm e + Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
E m
204
Dm( 1 mz )e mz (20.10)

The constants A, B, C and D are to be determined by the boundary conditions.
The stresses must vanish ad infinite depth. Hence the constants related to positive exponents must be
zero: A = C = 0. The boundary conditions at the surface (z = 0) express that
z = p for r < a
z =0 for r > a
rz = 0 whatever r
We apply a Hankels transform ( 11.5) with kernel F(m) = paJ1(ma)/m, example ( 11.4.3), in order to
express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface
[ ]

z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) dm = p (20.11)
0
This requires the first condition
Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) = 1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stress at the surface must be zero
[ ]

rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) Bm 2 + Dm2 dm = 0 (20.12)
0
This requires the second condition
Bm 2 + Dm2 = 0
The system results in Bm 2 = 2 Dm = 1
Hence the stress function becomes

J 0 (mr ) J 1 (ma)
= pa 3
(2 + mz )e mz dm (20.13)
0 m
and the equations for the stresses are

z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 + mz )e mz dm (20.14)
0

r = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 mz )e mz dm
0

J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
pa 1 (1 2 mz )e mz dm (20.15)
mr
0

= pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )2 e mz dm +
0

J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
+ pa 1 (1 2 mz )e mz dm (20.16)
mr
0
205

rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )mze mz dm (20.17)
0

1+ J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
w= pa 0 (2 2 + mz )e mz dm (20.18)
E m
0

1+
u=
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
pa 1 (1 2 mz )e mz dm (20.19)
E m
0
Equations (20.14) to (20.19) can be integrated in the axis of the load (r = 0, J0(mr) = 1). By (8.12) and
(8.5)

z3
z = p 1
( )
(20.20)
2 2 3/ 2
a +z

r + p z az 2
r = = 1 2 ( 1 2 )
( ) ( )
(20.21)
2 2 2 2 1/ 2 2 2 3/ 2
a +z a +z
rz = 0 (20.22)
By (8.14) and (8.12)
w=
( ) (
2 1 2 2
p a + z 2
1/ 2
) 1+
z

pz 1
z

( )
(20.23)
E E 1 / 2
a2 + z2
u =0 (20.24)
At the surface, we find Boussineqs well-known equation for the deflection
w=
(
2 1 2
pa
) (20.25)
E
20.3 The semi-infinite body subjected to an isolated vertical load

The solution is derived from the previous case by a simple transformation of the kernel of the Hankels
transform. The function f(z) remains unaltered. The kernel for the distributed load is
J ( ma )
K dis = pa 1 (20.26)
m
The kernel for the isolated load, P = pa2 is obtained by going over to the limit
J ( ma ) P J 1 ( ma ) P
K iso = lim pa 1 = lim = (20.27)
a 0 m a 0 a m 2
The stress functions becomes

P J 0 ( mr )
=
2
0
m 2
( 2 + mz )e mz dm (20.28)
The stresses and displacements are obtained replacing in equations (20.14) to (20.19) the kernel (20.26)
by the kernel (20.27).
In particular the vertical stress
206

mJ 0 ( mr )(1 + mz )e
P mz
z = dm (20.29)
2
0
Applying (8.9) and (8.11), (20.29) can be integrated
P 3z 3
z =
(z )
(20.30)
2 2 2 5/2
+r
In the axis of the load we obtain the well-known formula of Boussinesq
3P
z = (20.31)
2z 2
20.4 The semi-infinite body subjected to a circular vertical rigid load

Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical load transmitted through a rigid plate, such as, for
example, in the case of a plate-bearing test. This problem is solved in the specialised literature by the so-
called method of dual integral. This method, as already mentioned, is beyond the scope of this book.
However, utilising the properties of the discontinuous Weber-Schafheitlin integrals, we shall be able to
obtain the appropriate solution.
Consider the stress function (20.4) that we have developed for the semi-infinite body subjected to a
distributed load.
= J 0 ( mr ) Be mz zDe mz (20.32)

Here also the function f(z) will remain unaltered, hence Bm2 = 2 and Dm = 1. The surface boundary
conditions are
z =0 for r > a
w = cons tan t for r < a
rz = 0 whatever r
We will meet the boundary conditions by applying a Hankels transform which kernel we determine by
the properties of the discontinuous Weber-Schafheitlin integrals ( 8.6):

J ( mr )J ( ma )
z = K 0 dm (20.33)

0 m

2( 1 2 ) J 0 ( mr )J ( ma )
w=K
E m +1
dm (20.34)
0
For r > a
+ 1
a
2 + 1 + 1 a2
z = K F , ; + 1;
+ + 1 2 2 r 2
r + 1 2 ( + 1 )
2
The first condition writes: z = 0 for + + 1 = 0
For r < a
207

r0
2( 1 ) 2
2 r2
w=K F , ;1;
E +1 + 2 2 a 2
a 2 ( 1 )
2
The second condition writes: w = cons tan t for = 0 The system results in
= 1 / 2 = 1 / 2 .

z = K m 1 / 2 J 0 ( mr )J 1 / 2 ( ma )dm
0

2
a
z = K J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )dm
0
By 8.6.4:
2 1
z = K
a a2 r2
In order to determine the value of K, we integrate the value of z over the circular area with radius a.
2 a
2 rdrd
P = K
a
0 0 a2 r 2
2
P = K 2a
a
Hence
P
K= (20.35)
2 2a
Finally, for z = 0

P
2a
z = J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )dm (20.36)
0

1 P 2 J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )
w=
E a m
dm (20.37)
0
In the axis of the load (r = 0)

1 2 P sin( ma ) 1 2 P
E a
w= dm = (20.38)
m E 2a
0
Comparing equation (20.38) with the result obtained for a uniformly distributed load, equation (20.25)
2( 1 2 ) P
w=
E a
we obtain
wrigid
= (20.39)
w flexible 4
208
Hence, when trying to determine the modulus of the subgrade by a plate-bearing test, do not overestimate
it by using the formula for a flexible load.
For z 0

P
z = J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )( 1 + mz )e mz dm (20.40)
2a
0
which becomes for r = 0, by (8.19) and (8.21)

P a 2 + 3z 2
z =
( )
(20.41)
2 2 2 2
a +z
20.5 The semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical uniform rectangular pressure

Together with the problem of the semi-infinite body subjected to shear loads (breaking forces) at its
surface, which is discussed in Chapter 21, this solution will allow to treat the problems of oblique loads.
This problem is solved in cartesian co-ordinates ( 10.5.4). Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to a
vertical pressure p distributed over a rectangular area with sides 2a and 2b.
The stress potential is a solution of the compatibility equation 10.60.

2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + =0 (20.42)
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 2
z

In the case of a vertical load the equation in is useless. If we assume a solution by separation of the
variables
= cos( tx ) cos( sy ) f ( z )
equation (20.42) can be transformed into
4 f ( z )

z 4
(
2 t 2 + s2 )
2 f ( z )
z 2
( 2
)
+ t 2 + s 2 cos( tx ) cos( sy ) = 0

(20.43)

Letting m2 = t2 + s2, the solution for f(z) is identical to the solution for a semi-infinite body subjected to a
vertical pressure distributed over a circular area. Hence
f ( z ) = Ae mz Be mz + zCe mz zDe mz (20.44)
The constants A, B, C and D are to be determined by the boundary conditions.
The stresses must vanish at infinite depth. Hence the constants related to positive exponents must be zero:
A = C = 0. The boundary conditions at the surface (z = 0) express that
z = p for a < x < a and b < y < b
z =0 for x > a and y >b
xz = yz = 0 whatever x , y
In order to express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface, we apply a double
Fouriers integral ( 11.4) with kernel
4 p sin( ta ) sin( sb )
F( t ,s ) =
2 ts
209

4 p cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
z = 2
00 ts
[
Bm 3 + Dm 2 ( 1 2 ) dsdt = p ] (20.45)

Bm 3 + Dm 2 ( 1 2 ) = 1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stresses at the surface must be zero

xz =
4 p sin( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
2 ts
[
Bm 2 s + Dms 2 dsdt = 0 ] (20.46)
0 0

yz =
4 p sin( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
2
00 ts
[
Bm 2 t + Dmt 2 dsdt = 0 ] (20.47)

Bm 2 + Dm2 = 0
The system results in
Bm 3 = 2 Dm 2 = 1
which are the same values as those obtained in the case of a distributed load over a circular area. Hence
the equations for the stresses and the displacements can directly been obtained from the results of 20.2.
We are particularly interested in the equation for the vertical stress, which can be deduced from equation
(20.14)

z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 + mz )e mz dm
0

4p cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
2
z = ( 1 + mz )e mz dsdt (20.48)
00 ts
This equation cannot be integrated analytically. However, in the axis of the load (x = 0, y = 0) (20.48)
simplifies into an equation that can be integrated.

4p sin( ta ) sin( sb )
2
z = ( 1 + mz )e mz dsdt (20.49)
00 ts
Split equation (20.49) into two factors

4p sin( ta ) sin( sb ) mz
z ,1 = 2 e dsdt
00 ts

4p sin( ta ) sin( sb )
2
z ,2 = mze mz dsdt
00 ts
By equation (8.26)
2p ab
z ,1 = arctan (20.50)
z( z + a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
2
By equation (8.27)
2p zab( 2 z 2 + a 2 + b 2 )
z ,2 = (20.51)
( z 2 + a 2 )( z 2 + b 2 )( z 2 + a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
210
20.6 Comparison between the vertical stresses. Principle of de Saint-Venant

We have established the equations giving the vertical stress in the axis of vertical loads of different shapes
with different pressure distributions. The mean pressure is p = -1. In Table 20.1 we give the values of the
vertical stresses in function of the relative depth, z/a, for identical loads (loads with same resultant and
same moment regarding the vertical axis). The utilised equations are (20.20) for the circular flexible load,
(20.31) for the isolated load, (20.41) for the circular rigid load, (20.51) and (20.52) for the square flexible
load. The radius of the circular loads is a, the length of the side of the square load is a .
Depth z/a (20.20) (20.31) (20.41) (20.51,52)

0.1 -1 -150 -0.505 -1
0.5 -0.910 -6.0 -0.560 -0.906
1 -0.646 -1.50 -0.500 -0.639
2 -0.284 -0.375 -0.260 -0.282
5 -0.057 -0.060 -0.056 -0.057
10 -0.0148 -0.0150 -0.0148 -0.0148
20 -0.00374 -0.00375 -0.00373 -0.00374
Table 20.1 Vertical stresses for different loads
We conclude from Table 20.1 that from a certain depth on the stresses become identical whatever the
shape of the load or the distribution of the pressure at the surface of the semi-infinite body. Those results
are a perfect illustration of the principle of de Saint-Venant, which states that at a distance great enough
from an applied load the values of the stresses and the displacements are independent from the way the
load is applied as far as resultant and moment remain identical.
20.7 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform circular pressure

This problem is explained in axi-symmetric cylindrical co-ordinates ( 10.5.5). Consider the orthotropic
semi-infinite body subjected to a vertical pressure p uniformly distributed over a circular area with radius
a, as given in Figure 20.2. The stress potential is a solution of the compatibility equation (10.66).
2 1 2 2 1 n 2 2 2
+ + + + =0 (20.52)
r 2 r r z 2 r 2 r r n 2 2
z

The Bessel function J0(mr) is a solution of equation
2 1
+ + m 2 = 0 (20.53)
2
r r r
Hence, if we assume a solution by separation of the variables = J 0 ( mr ) f ( z ) , equation (20.1) can be
transformed into
2 4 2
( n 2 ) f ( z ) m 2 ( n 2 + n 2 2 ) f ( z ) + m 4 f ( z ) J 0 ( mr ) = 0 (20.54)
z 4 z 2

211
2a
Eh
Ev
z
Figure 20.2 Orthotropic body subjected to a distributed vertical pressure
Using the resolution method by means of the characteristic equation ( 1.4.2), we obtain the solution of
(20.1)
= J 0 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + Ce smz De smz (20.55)

where
2 n 2
s = (20.56)
n2 2
We use next notations
A = n( 1 + ) Am 2
B = n( 1 + )Bm 2
C = n( n + )Csm 2
D = n( n + )Dsm 2
Applying equation (10.65), we obtain the expressions for the stresses and the displacements

z = mJ 0 ( mr ) Ae mz + Be mz + Ce smz + De smz (20.57)

r = mJ 0 ( mr ) Ae mz + Be mz + s 2 Ce smz + s 2 De smz

mJ 1 ( mr ) mz 1+ 1+
Ae + Be mz + Ce smz + De smz (20.58)
mr n+ n+
( 1 n )
= mJ 0 ( mr )Ce smz + De smz
n2 2
mJ 1 ( mr ) mz 1+ 1+
+ Ae + Be mz + Ce smz + De smz (20.59)
mr n+ n+
212

rz = mJ 1 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + se smz sD smz (20.60)

1 + mJ 0 ( mr ) mz n+ n+
w= Ae Be mz + sCe smz sDe smz (20.61)
E m 1+ 1+
mJ 1 ( mr )
u= ( n + ) Ae mz + ( n + )Be mz + ( 1 + )Ce smz + ( 1 + )De smz (20.62)
mE
The stresses must vanish ad infinite depth. Hence the constants related to positive exponents must be
zero: A = C = 0. The boundary conditions at the surface (z = 0) express that
z = p for r < a
z = p / 2 for r = a
z =0 for r > a
rz = 0 whatever r
We apply a Hankels transform ( 11.5) with kernel F(m) = paJ1(ma)/m, example ( 11.5.2), in order to
express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface

z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )[B + D ]dm = p (20.63)
0
B+D=1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stress at the surface must be zero

rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )[B + Ds ]dm = 0 (20.64)
0
B + Ds = 0
s 1
The system results in B = D=
1 s 1 s
All the equations for the stresses can now be established. Again we are particularly interested in the
vertical stress, which equation writes

s mz 1 msz
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) e + e dm (20.65)
1 s 1 s
0
In the axis of the load, we have
[ ]

pa
J 1 ( ma ) se mz + e msz dm
1 s
z = (20.66)
0
By (8.13)
1 1
z = p 1 sz (20.67)
( a 2 + s 2 z 2 )1 / 2 ( a 2 + z 2 )1 / 2
In the case of an isolated load equation (20.56) transforms into
213
[ ]

P
z = mJ 0 ( mr ) se mz + e msz dm (20.68)
2 ( 1 s )
0
By (8.9)
P sz sz
z = 2 + (20.69)
2 ( 1 s ) ( z + r 2 )3 / 2 ( z 2 s 2 + r 2
and in the axis of the load (r = 0)
P 1 + s + s2
z = (20.70)
2z 2 s2
If we compare equation (20.70) with the corresponding stress in an isotropic body of equation (20.31)
3P
z =
2z 2
we notice that if s < 1, thus n > 1
z ( anisotropic ) > z ( isotropic )
thus stress concentration in the axis of the load for the anisotropic body; and if s > 1, thus n < 1
z ( anisotropic ) < z ( isotropic )
thus stress dispersion in the axis of the load for the anisotropic body.
Frhlich (1934) had already observed this phenomenon in the early thirties. To take into account the
differences between observed values and computed values of the vertical stress, he modified Boussinesqs
formula (20.31) as follows
P
z = (20.71)
2z 2
The parameter was called the stress concentration factor of Frhlich. Indeed for most of the soils > 3.
Only for super consolidated clays, Frhlich observed values < 3. In fact the range of values admitted by
Frhlich was 2 < < 6. Similar observations were made regarding the values of the degree of anisotropy
of orthotropic soils. In most of the cases n > 1, except again for super consolidated clays. Hence one
could imagine a relation between the stress concentration factor of Frhlich and the degree of anisotropy
of an orthotropic soil, based, for example, on the equation for the vertical stress in the axis of an isolated
load:
1 + s + s2
= (20.72)
s2
Assuming a Poissons ratio of 0.50, as usual for subgrades, equation (20.72) allows to fix a range of n
based on the range of values. One obtains
0. 6 < n < 3
This presents a particular interest. Indeed, Frhlichs relation was obtained by transforming Boussinesqs
relation afterwards i.e. without a rigorous mechanical analysis. It can be shown that Frhlichs relation
does not respect the continuity principle. However, Veverka (1973) has proved that compatibility can be
restored if the modulus of the semi-infinite body is a function of the bulk stress [p0 = (x + y + z)/3]
E = E0 p0k (20.73)
where
214
3
k= (20.74)
2
Nevertheless, Frhlichs model does not allow the computation of all the stresses and displacements in
the case of semi-infinite bodies subjected to distributed loads of all sorts. However, all this can easily be
done by anisotropic elasticity, by applying relations (20.72) and (20.74).
1 + s 2s 2
k= (20.75)
1+ s s2
Hence both theories are complementary. Anisotropic elasticity provides the mathematical tools while
Frhlich provides the values of the physical parameters. Further, equation (20.75) could create a link
between the, from a computational viewpoint, relatively simple anisotropic theory and the more
complicated non-linear models developed by Ullidtz (1998).
In this paragraph, we have merely considered the degree of anisotropy n as a mechanical concept: the
ratio between the values of two Youngs moduli. It is the usual approach in pavement engineering.
However, one can also consider anisotropy as a geotechnical concept. Next relation has been established
(Van Cauwelaert and Cerisier, 1982) based on Prandtls bearing capacitys model (Prandtl, 1921).
4c 1 1 + sin 2 ( / 2 )
s = Ka
p 1 sin 1 sin ( / 2 )
2
where
Ka is the active earth pressure coefficient
c is the cohesion of the soil
is the angle of internal friction of the soil
p is the uniform limit pressure in Prandtls model.
20.8 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform rectangular pressure

This problem is essentially of interest in geotechnical engineering. The stresses and displacements can
directly be obtained from equations (20.47) to (20.52) transformed with the appropriate kernel of 20.4.
The vertical stress, for example, becomes
[ ]

4p cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb ) 1
z = se mz + e smz dsdt
2 00 ts 1 s
This equation can be integrated in the axis of the load
2p 1 ab ab
z = s arctan + arctan +
1 s z( a 2 + b 2 + z 2 )1 / 2 sz( a 2 + b 2 + s 2 z 2 )1 / 2
The reader interested in more results (rigid plate) and the detailed mathematics will find the required
information in Van Cauwelaert (1985).
215
216
THE SEMI-INFINITE BODY SUBJECTED TO A SHEAR LOAD
Chapter 21 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to Shear Loads
21.1 The semi-infinite body subjected to radial shear stresses

The problem is solved in a similar way as the body subjected to a vertical pressure ( 20.2): the stresses
are symmetrical regarding the axis of the load. Hence the stress-function, the solution of the compatibility
equations and the basic equations for the stresses are the same in both cases. Only the surface conditions
are different. One can assimilate them with the effect of a wheel that is pushed down on the surface of the
subgrade. It seems possible that a falling weight could induce a similar effect. Taking that into account
could perhaps ameliorate the results of backcalculation of moduli based on deflections basins obtained
during falling weight tests. However, therefore much more research and observation is required. The
boundary conditions express that
z =0 whatever r
rz 0 for r < a
rz = 0 for r > a
We apply a Hankels transform ( 11.5) with kernel F(m) =KJ(ma)/m in order to express the
discontinuous character of the shear stress at the surface

rz = K m
J 1 ( mr )J ( ma )
m
[ Bm 2
]
+ Dm2 dm = f ( ) (21.1)
0
Bm 2 + Dm2 = 1
We further express that the load is strictly horizontal, thus that the vertical stress at the surface must be
zero

z = K m
J 0 ( mr )J ( ma )
m
[Bm 2
]
+ Dm( 1 2 ) dm = 0 (21.2)
0
Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) = 0
The system results in Bm 2 = 1 + 2 Dm = 1
To determine the values of K, and we need to know the distribution of the shear stress at the interface
load subgrade. It is evident that the shear stress must be zero in the axis of the load. Hence we shall
assume that at the surface the shear stress increases linearly from the center to the circumference of the
load.

mJ 1 ( mr )J ( ma ) J 1 ( mr )J ( ma )
rz = K dm = K 0 dm (21.3)
0
m m 1
For r < a
+ 1( 1) + 1

r
rz = 1( 1 )+1 1 2
a 2 1 + ( 1 ) + 1
( 2 )
2
+ 1 ( 1) + 1 1 ( 1) + 1 r
2
F , ;2; 2
2 2 a
217
In order to obtain a linear variation of the shear stress, the second term of the F function must be zero.
Hence the first condition: 3 = 0 .
For r > a
1+ ( 1)+1

rz =
a 2 F( )
r ( 1 )+1
2 1 1 +( 1)+1
( + 1 )
2
In order to satisfy the condition, the argument of the second - function of the denominator must be zero.
Hence the second condition: 1 + = 0 . The system results in = 2, =1. The shear stress at the
surface writes

r
= K J 1 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )dm = K (21.4)
0
a2
We determine K in function of the total shear load Q applied to the subgrade.
2 a
r2 K 2a
Q = K 2
drd =
0 0
a 3
Hence
3Q
K=
2a
and at the surface

3Q
2a 0
rz = J 1 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )dm (21.5)
We have written (21.5) with a positive sign. This means that, with the conventions of Timoshenko
(chapter 10.3), the shear stresses are oriented towards the axis of the load. The other stresses and
displacements are obtained in the usual manner. Hence, the equation for the vertical stress, for example,

3Q
z =
2a 0
J 0 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )mze mz dm (21.6)
21.2 The semi-infinite body subjected to a one-directional asymmetric shear load

Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to shear stresses acting in one direction, for example the x-
direction in cartesian co-ordinates. This problem cannot be considered as a symmetric load case. Muki
(1960) solved for the first time this problem in asymmetric cylinder co-ordinates. Thus he considered the
shear load as circular, but acting in one specific direction. He discovered the stress potentials in
asymmetric cylinder co-ordinates ( 10.5.3) and solved the problem by expressing the stresses and
displacements as a Fourier series of Bessel integrals. In other words he applied a Fourier-Bessel
transform. In our opinion, his contribution was as important as those of Boussinesq (1885) and Love
(1927). However, the involved mathematics are complicated.
We got the idea that the problem could be easier solved in a more appropriate system of co-ordinates,
namely the cartesian co-ordinates because the direction of the shear load could easily made parallel with
one of the co-ordinate axiss and as such determine the appropriate solutions of the compatibility
equations. Based on Mukis work, we were able (Van Cauwelaert, 1985) to establish the stress potentials
in a system of cartesian co-ordinates both for an isotropic body as well as an orthotropic body ( 10.5.4).
It is the isotropic system that we will apply here to solve the problem of a semi-infinite body subjected to
a one-directional shear load. We assume that the load is applied through a rectangular surface as in 20.5.
218
In a system of cartesian co-ordinates the solutions are of trigonometric type. Both cosine and sine have
the same properties and the choice of one of the other function has no fundamental mathematical
implications. Indeed cosine and sine functions can be assimilated with the Bessel functions J-1/2 and J1/2 so
that a Hankel transform, or here, a Fourier transform can be applied on both functions. However in a
system of cylinder co-ordinates the two available solutions, J0(mr) and Y0(mr), have different
mathematical properties. A Hankel transform can only be applied on Bessel functions of the first kind.
This explains the difficulty Muki has encountered in his solution.
The compatibility equations in Cartisian co-ordinates are

2 2 2 2 2 2
2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 2 = 0 (21.7)
x y z x y z
2 2 2
2 + 2 + 2 = 0 (21.8)
x y z
The trigonometric solution will allow us to exactly define the required function.
Assume that the shear load is applied parallel to the x-axis. We assimilate the shear load with a breaking
force exercised through the wheel on the subgrade. Thus the corresponding shear stresses will be constant
all over the surface of the load. This can be expressed by a double Fourier integral of the next form

4q cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( ty ) sin( tb )
2
xz = dsdt (21.9)
00 ts
Hence we must choose the solutions of (21.7) and (21.8) that will allow us to express the surface shear
stress in the x-direction as (21.9). The concerned stress potential is
2 1 2
xz = ( 1 ) 2
+
x z 2 2 yz
Therefore we must have solutions in the form

= sin( tx ) cos( sy ) f 1 ( z )
= cos( tx ) sin( sy ) f 2 ( z )
Remembering that the coefficients of positive exponents must be zero we finally obtain
= sin( tx ) cos( sy ) Be mz zDe mz (21.10)

= cos( tx ) sin( sy ) Fe mz (21.11)

where m 2 = t 2 + s 2 . The boundary conditions are
xz = q for a < x < a and b < y < b
xz = 0 for x >a and y >b
z = yz = 0 whatever x , y
The equations for the stresses are
[
z = sin( tx ) cos( sy ) Bm 3 e mz + ( 1 2 + mz )Dm 2 e mz ] (21.12)
219
F
xz = cos( tx ) cos( sy ) Bm 2 te mz ( 2 mz )Dmte mz + mse mz (21.13)
2
F
yz = sin( tx ) sin( sy ) Bm 2 se mz ( 2 mz )Dmse mz mte mz (21.14)
2
The boundary equations become
F
xz = q Bm 2 t 2 Dmt +
ms = 1
2
F
yz = 0 Bm 2 s + 2 Dms + mt = 0
2
z =0 Bm + ( 1 2 )Dm = 0
3

t
Bm 2 = ( 1 2 )
m2
t
Dm =
m2
2s
Fm =
m2
The stresses become
z = t sin( tx ) cos( sy )ze mz (21.15)
zt 2 mz
xz = cos( tx ) cos( sy )1 e (21.16)
m
zts mz
yz = sin( tx ) sin( sy ) e (21.17)
m
We express the double Fourier integral

4q cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
xz =
2 ts
dsdt (21.18)
00
By taking xz as positive, we express that the shear stresses are oriented in the opposite side of the x-axis.
The kernel of the Fourier transform is
4 q sin( ta ) sin t( sb )
K= (21.19)
2 ts
Applying (21.19) to the equations (21.12), (21.13) and (21.14), we obtain

4q sin( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb ) mz
z =
2 s
ze dsdt (21.20)
00

4q cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb ) t 2
xz =
2 00 ts
1 z
m
dsdt (21.21)

220

4q sin( tx ) sin( ta ) sin( sy ) sin( sb ) mz
yz =
2 m
ze dsdt (21.22)
00
The other stresses and displacements can be obtained in the same way.
Equations (21.20) and (21.21) can be numerically integrated without difficulties. Indeed for s =0,
sin(sb)/s = b and for t = 0, sin(ta)/t =a. However some problems could arise with (21.22) which,
therefore is better transformed by letting
t = cos s = sin
Hence (21.22) becomes
/2
4q
sin( x cos ) sin( a cos ) sin( y sin ) sin( b sin )ze
z
yz = dd
2 0 0
that now can also be numerically integrated without difficulties.
21.3 The semi-infinite body subjected to a shear load symmetric to one of its axiss
Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to shear stresses acting in the x direction but symmetrical to the
y direction: xz(x) = - xz(-x). Then the expression at the surface for the shear stress must take a form
such as

sin( tx )J ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
xz = K dsdt (21.23)
00 ts
Hence the solutions of the compatibility equations become
= cos( tx ) cos( sy ) f 1 ( z )
= sin( tx ) sin( sy ) f 2 ( z )
The values of and are determined in order to satisfy the boundary conditions in the x direction.
- for a < x < a xz = f(x)

- for | x | > a xz = 0
- for all x xz (x)= - xz (-x)

cos( sy ) sin( sb )
Knowing that s
ds = , we only consider the integral
2
0

sin( tx )J ( ta )
I= t
dt (21.24)
0
Transform equation (21.24)

x J 1 / 2 ( tx )J ( ta )
2 0
I= dt
t 1 / 2
Applying equations (8.25) and (8.26) one finds
1/ 2 + 3 / 2
- for | x | < a =0
2
221
1/ 2 + +1/ 2
- for | x | > a =0
2
Hence, = 3/2 and =1/2 and equation (21.23) transforms into

J 1 / 2 ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
xz = K dsdt (21.25)
00
s
For | x | < a and | y | < b

x
2 2 0
xz = K J 1 / 2 ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta )dt
x
xz = K
2a a 2
Let us admit that for x = a, xz = -q then

q = K
2 2a
2a 2
K = q

x
xz = q
a
For x = - a, xz = q
For x = 0, xz = 0
For x = a, xz = - q
The final equation for xz becomes

2q J ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
xz = xa 1 / 2 dsdt (21.26)
0 0
s
The concerned stress potential is
2 1 2
xz = 2
+
x z 2 2 yz
( 1 )
Remembering that the coefficients of positive exponents must be zero, the definite solutions of the
compatibility equations are
[
= cos( tx ) cos( sy ) Be mz mzDe mz ] (21.27)
[
= sin( tx ) sin( sy ) Fe mz ] (21.28)
where m = t + s . The relations for the stresses become
2 2 2
[
z = cos( tx ) cos( sy ) Bm 3 e mz + ( 1 2 + mz )Dm 2 e mz ] (21.29)
F
xz = sin( tx ) cos( sy ) Bm 2te mz ( 2 mz )Dmtemz mse mz (21.30)
2
F
yz = cos( tx ) sin( sy ) Bm 2 se mz ( 2 mz )Dmse mz + mte mz (21.31)
2
The boundary equations write
222
F
xz = q Bm 2 t 2 Dmt ms = 1
2
F
yz = 0 Bm 2 s 2 Dms + mt = 0
2
z =0 Bm + ( 1 2 )Dm 2 = 0
3

t
Bm 2 = ( 1 2 )
m2
t
Dm =
m2
2s
Fm =
m2
The stresses become

2q 2a cos( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) sin( sy ) sin( sb ) 1 / 2 mz
z =
00 s
zt e dsdt (21.32)

2q 2 a sin( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb ) t 2 mz

xz =
1 z e dsdt (21.33)
0 0
st 1 / 2 m

2q 2a cos( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) sin( sy ) sin( sb ) 1 / 2 mz
yz =

00 m
zt e dsdt (21.34)
Other stress distributions can be obtained by setting, for | x | < a, the more general condition
1/ 2 + 3 / 2
= n , where n is an integer.
2
We transform equation (21.26) into

2q 2a sin( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
xz =

00 st 1 / 2
dsdt (21.35)
223
224
THE MULTILAYERED STRUCTURE
Chapter 22 The Multilayered Structure
22.1 The multilayered structure

Consider the n-layered structure subjected to a load as presented in Figure 22.1.
2a
z0
h1
z1
h2
z2
h3
hn-2
zn-2
hn-1
zn-1
Figure 22.1 Multilayered structure
Each layer is characterised by a thickness, a Youngs modulus, a Poissons ratio, and for the last layer
considered as the subgrade eventually a degree of anisotropy.
The solutions for a two-layered structure and later for a three-layered structure subjected to vertical
uniformly distributed loads were first published by Burmister (1943, 1944).
We present the solution for an n-layered structure subjected to the different loads analysed in Chapters 20
and 22. The subgrade can either be isotropic or orthotropic, and can further be of infinite extent or limited
by a rigid bottom at a given depth.
The principal hypothesis will be that the different layers remain in contact. Hence, at the interfaces, the
vertical stresses, the shear stresses and the vertical deflections are to be identical. A second hypothesis is
that there will be some horizontal friction between the layers. This will require an equation between the
horizontal displacements and the shear stresses.
225
22.2 Solutions of the continuity equations

Each layer will require a solution of the continuity equation. Depending on the load, this continuity
equations and their solutions will be
- in the case of symmetrical circular loads

2 1 2 2 1 2
+ + + + =0
r 2 r r z 2 r 2 r r 2
z

- in the case of a uniformly distributed vertical pressure
- in the case of an isotropic layer
( )

J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
= pa 0 Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
m
0
- in the case of an orthotropic layer

= pa
J 0 (mr ) J 1 (ma)
m
( )
Ai e mz Bi e mz + C i e smz Di e smz dm
0
- in the case of an isolated load
J 0 ( mr )(Ai e )

P
= mz
Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
2
0
- in the case of a rigid load
( )

P J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )
= Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
2a m
0
- in the case of a radial shear load
( )

3Q J 0 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )
= Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
2a m
0
where the index i is related to the concerned layer.
- in the case of rectangular loads

2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2

2 2 2
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2

- in the case of a uniformly distributed vertical pressure
( )

p cos( xt ) sin( at ) cos( yt ) sin( bt )
= Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dsdt
4 2 00
ts
226
- in the case of a uniformly distributed shear load in the x direction

=
q
4 2
sin( xt ) sin( at ) cos( ys ) sin( bs )
ts
( )
Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dsdt
0 0

=
q
4 2 ts
(
cos( xt ) sin( at ) sin( ys ) sin( bs )
)
Ei e mz Fi e mz dsdt
0 0
- in the case of a shear load symmetric to one of its axis

=

q
2
8 a
cos( xt )J 3 / 2 sin( ys ) sin( bs )
s
(
Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dsdt )
0 0

q
= 2 8 a

cos( xt )J 3 / 2 sin( ys ) sin( bs )
s
(
Ei e mz Fi e mz dsdt )
0 0
It must be noticed that in the case of a rigid load applied on a multilayered structure, the stress function
derived from the case of a rigid load on a semi-infinite body cannot ensure a deflection profile strictly
corresponding with a rigid load (deflection constant under the load). In the case of the semi-infinite body
the f(z) functions at the surface for the vertical stress and the deflection are, excepted for a constant,
identical. Hence the same boundary condition can be used for both stress and deflection. The second
boundary condition expresses that the shear stress is zero.
In the case of the multilayer, the equations for the vertical stress and the deflection are no longer the same
because of the presence of the terms in A1 and C1. However the difference of the multilayer deflection
profile and the strictly rigid load profile remains small in such a way that the proposed stress function can
safely been used.
22.3 Boundary conditions

The values of the boundary constants (in fact they are not really constants, but functions of the
integration parameters m, t, s and of the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the multilayered
structure) Ai, Bi, Ci, Di, Ei and Fi are determined through the boundary equations. In the case of symmetric
loads, the number of constants per layer is 4, excepted for the last layer for which the constants with a
positive exponent must be zero. Hence we need 4n - 2 boundary equations. Two equations are required to
express the loading conditions; four equations will express the interface conditions: 4(n 1) + 2 = 4n 2.
If the load is a vertical load, the loading conditions will be
z = f(P)
rz = 0
If the load is a radial shear load, the loading conditions will be
z =0
rz = f ( Q )
At a depth zi, the vertical interface conditions will be
zi = zj
rzi = rzj
wi = w j
where the index i refers to the bottom of layer i and the index j to the surface of the following layer j .
The horizontal interface conditions can be of two sorts.
227
If one assumes full friction between the layers, one shall write that the horizontal displacements are equal
ui = u j
If one assumes full slip between the layers, one shall write that the shear stresses are zero
rzi = rzj = 0
This requires two sets of boundary conditions whether there is full friction or full slip between the layers
and hence two different computer programs. In order to avoid this difficulty De Jong, Peutz and
Korswagen, the authors of the BISAR program (De Jong et al, 1973) suggested next horizontal boundary
equation
( )
ui u j = ( 1 ) rzi
- when = 0, the case corresponds with full slip at the interface.
- when = 1, the case corresponds with full friction at the interface.
The parameter is required to make the dimensions of the equality homogeneous. We recommend to take
= h1/Ei , thus the thickness of the first layer divided by the modulus of the upper layer of the interface.
Notice that the characteristic has the inverse dimensions of the characteristic k of Westergaard: it is also
a spring constant.
When 0 < < 1, one could speak of partial friction at the interface. The interest of the equation is that
one can express both extreme horizontal conditions and any intermediate condition. However it seems
difficult to appreciate the exact physical meaning of the parameter . Therefore we suggested a second
equation, namely
ui = u j
- when = 1, the case corresponds to full friction at the interface.
- when 1, one can speak of partial friction.
However, this equation cannot simulate a so-called full slip interface condition. The method presents the
advantage that the factor can be determined in situ by the ovalisation test (Chapter 26). But both
methods present the disadvantage that one must assume that the friction parameters are constant all over
the horizontal interface.
In the case of asymmetric loads, the number of constants per layer is 6, excepted for the last layer for
which the constants with a positive exponent must be zero. Hence we need 6n - 3 boundary equations.
Three equations are required to express the loading conditions; six equations will express the interface
conditions: 6(n 1) + 3 = 6n 3. The conditions are the same as in the previous case except that at the
surface there will be one condition regarding the vertical stress and two conditions regarding the shear
stresses and at each interface one condion regarding the vertical stresses, one conditions regarding the
deflections, two conditions regarding the shear stresses and two conditions regarding the horizontal
displacements.
22.4 Determination of the boundary constants

It will be necessary during the numerical integration procedure, to evaluate the values of the integrands
for each value of the integration variable m or t and s. Therefore the values of the unknown parameters
Ai , which vary with m or t and s, are to be computed for all values of the integration variables. Those
computations are performed by solving the system of boundary equations. Due to the presence of
exponentials, the system has to be handled with care. Indeed for increasing values of the integration
variable, the positive exponentials tend to overflow and the negative, when in a denominator, lead to
divisions by zero. The appropriate way to avoid numerical problems with the exponentials is to express
228
the equations for the unknown parameters in such a way that their numerators contain only negative
exponents and their denominators at least one constant value and further only negative exponentials.
f 1 ( e mz )
Ai =
Cons tan t + f 2 ( e mz )
When m tends to infinity, the value of the unknown parameter necessarily will tend to zero and this
without any numerical problem. However this is not so easy to achieve when keeping in mind that the
equations for the unknown parameters can in no possible way be expressed in closed form when the
number of layers exceeds three or four. We developed a matrix method to reach this target, which is
illustrated for a symmetrical vertical load. The boundary conditions can be written in matrix form.
At the surface
M 01 ( A1 B1C1 D1 )T = (1 0 )T
At the first interface
M 11 ( A1 B1C1 D1 )T = M 12 ( A2 B2 C 2 D2 )T
At the i-th interface
(
M i1 ( Ai Bi Ci Di )T = M i 2 A j B j C j D j T )
At the last interface
M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 (Bn Dn )T
where for the simplicity of the writings j stands for i + 1 and k stands for n 1.
Invert the matrices of the left side of the equations (the matrix inversion is left over as an exercise to the
reader). Hence at the i-th interface
( Ai Bi Ci Di )T ( )
= M i11 M i 2 A j B j C j D j T
Matrix M i11 can be split into two sub matrices in such a way that the exponents can be put aside of the
matrix brackets.
M i11 = M i11e mz i + M i12 e mz i
M i11 is a (4,4) matrix (4 rows, 4 columns)
M i11 is a (2,4) matrix built with the rows 1 and 3 of matrix M i11
M i12 is a (2,4) matrix built with the rows 2 and 4 of matrix M i11
Also matrix M i 2 can be split

M i 2 = M i 21e mz i + M i 22 e mz i
M i 2 is a (4,4) matrix
M i 21 is a (4,2) matrix built with the columns 1 and 3 of matrix M i 2
M i 22 is a (4,2) matrix built with the columns 2 and 4 of matrix M i 2 .
The boundary condition can now be split as follows

( Ai Ci )T ( ) ( )
= M i11 M i 21 A j C j T + M i11 M i 22 e 2 mz i B j D j T
229
( Ai Ci )T ( ) ( )
= M Ai A j C j T + M Ci e 2 mz i B j D j T
(Bi Di )T = M i12 M i 21e 2mz (A j C j )T + M i12 M i 22 (B j D j )T

i
(Bi Di )T = M Bi e 2 mz (A j C j )T + M Di (B j D j )T
i
M Ai , M Bi , M Ci , M Di are (2,2) matrices.
We start at the last interface condition. In the last layer, the semi-infinite body, A and C are zero. Hence
applying the equations established for the i th interface, and we obtain
( Ak C k )T = M Ck e 2mz k (Bn Dn )T
(Bk Dk )T = M Dk (Bn Dn )T
Further
(A j C j )T = M Aj ( Ak C k )T + M Cj e 2mz j
(Bk Dk )T
(A j C j )T = M Aj M Ck e 2mz (Bn Dn )T + M Cj M Dk e 2mz (Bn Dn )T
k j
(A j C j )T = e 2mz M Aj M Ck e 2m( z z ) (Bn Dn )T + M Cj M Dk (Bn Dn )T

j k j
2 mz j
Hence the equation for (Aj Cj)T contains at least the negative exponent e . We then simplify again
the writings (A j C j )T = M AC , j e 2 mz j
(Bn Dn )T
(B j D j )T = M Bj e 2mz ( Ak Ck )T + M Dj (Bk Dk )T
j
(B j D j )T = M Bj M Ck e 2m( z k z j )
( An C n )T + M Dj M Dk (Bn Dn )T
Hence the equation for (Bj Dj)T contains at least no positive exponent so that we can write
(B j D j )T = M BD , j (Bn Dn )T
Continuing up to the first interface, we obtain
( A1C1 )T = M AC ,1e 2mz1 (Bn Dn )T
(B1 D1 )T = M BD ,1 (Bn Dn )T
We split the matrix of the surface equation
M 01 ( A1 B1C1 D1 )T = M AC ,0 ( A1C1 )T + M BD ,0 (B1 D1 )T = (1 0 )T
(M AC ,0 M AC ,1e 2mz 1 )
+ M BD ,0 M BD ,1 (Bn Dn )T = (1 0 )T
The solution of this matrix equation takes next form

b1 + b2 e 2 mz 1
Bn =
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
d 1 + d 2 e 2 mz 1
Dn =
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
230
We can now formulate the equations for all the parameters. In order to respect the method that we have
defined in the beginning, we shall express each parameter associated with the less favourable exponent:
mz
the parameters Ai and Ci with the highest possible positive exponent, i.e. with the exponent e i
corresponding with the depth of the bottom of the layer; the parameters Bi and Di with the lowest possible
mz i 1
negative exponent, i.e. with the exponent e corresponding with the depth of the surface of the
layer.
e mz 1 ( A1C1 )T = M AC ,1e mz 1 (Bn Dn )T
(B1 D1 )T = M BD ,1 (Bn Dn )T
e (A j C j )T = M AC , j e mz (Bn Dn )T
mz j j
e mz (B j D j )T = M BD , j e mz (Bn Dn )T
i i
e mz n 1
Bn =
(b1 + b2 e 2 mz )e mz
1 n 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
e mz n1 Dn =
(d1 + d 2 e 2mz )e mz
1 n 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
Hence all parameters, unless B1 and D1, can be numerically computed without any difficulty. The way B1
and D1 are computed is explained in Chapter 23.
22.5 The fixed bottom condition

In this case one can assume the presence of a rigid layer at a depth zn, one shall often speak of a fixed
bottom at that depth in the subgrade. There are different possibilities of expressing this supplementary
condition. We prefer expressing that at the given depth both vertical and horizontal displacements are
zero. In doing so we have two boundary conditions more that have to correspond with two unknown
parameters more, namely An and Cn.
The matrix equation at the interface n 1 now writes

M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 ( An Bn C n Dn )T
In order to modify as little as possible the solution developed in the previous paragraph, we shall express
An and Cn in function of Bn and Dn in the equation. Therefore we write the displacement equations at the
level of the fixed bottom as follows
M AC ,n e mz n ( An C n )T = M BC ,n e mz n (Bn Dn )T M AC ,n ( An C n )T = M BC ,n e 2 mz n (Bn Dn )T
Then we express in the second member of the matrix equation
M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 ( An Bn C n Dn )T
An e mz n1 and C n e mz n1 in function of Bn e m( 2 z n z n 1 ) and Dn e m( 2 z n z n1 )
and the problem is solved.
231
22.6 The orthotropic subgrade

Often the subgrade can be considered as orthotropic. The solution of this problem is fairly simple.
Replace in the second member of the matrix equation at the last interface
M k 1 ( Ak Bk Ck Dk ) = M k 2 (Bn Dn )
T T
the matrix Mk2 with the isotropic equations for stresses and displacements by a modified matrix with the
corresponding orthotropic equations. The final result will then be expressed as follows
e mzn 1 Bn =
(b + b e
1 2
2 mz1
)e mzn 1
2 mz1
a + be + ce 4 mz1
(
d + d e 2 mz1 e smz n1
e smz n1 Dn = 1 22 mz1
)
a + be + ce 4 mz1
n 2
Where the ration of anisotropy s 2 = 2 (20.7)
n 2
232
THE RESOLUTION OF A MULTILAYERED STRUCTURE
Chapter 23 The Resolution of a Multilayered Structure
The resolution of a multilayered structure is obtained by a numerical integration of the stress functions,
wherein, as shown in previous Chapter, the values of the boundary parameters are successively computed
for each value of the integration variable. This integration procedure requires a series of algorithms that
we will develop now. Most of the text that follows is taken from our research for WES (Van Cauwelaert
et al, 1986) and our contribution in the multilayer software called NOAH (Eckmann, 1998) and in the
development of the rigid & flexible pavement design and evaluation program PAVERS (Stet et al, 2001
& 2004).
23.1 Choice of the integration formula

The accuracy of numerical integration depends on the integration formula and the length of the
integration interval at whose boundaries the function to be integrated has to be computed. Numerical
integration can be performed by two main types of integration formulas: the Newton-Coates closed-type
formulas or the Gauss integration formula. The latter has been applied by De Jong, Peutz and Korswagen
in their BISAR program (1973). It provides the same accuracy with about half as many integration points
as the former method, but needs a transformation of the integral so that its limits are (-1, 1). In all this
chapter we will consider, as example, the case of a vertical uniformly distributed load. Then the
expressions to be integrated are of the following form

Int = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) f ( mz )dm
0
As can been seen, the limits integration are from zero to infinity. The integral includes a product of
oscillating Bessel functions (depending on the radii, a(i), of the loads and their distances, r(i), to the
origin of the co-ordinate system) multiplied by a function of exponentials (depending on the
characteristics of the structure and the depth at which stresses are to be computed). Because of the
oscillating character of the Bessel functions, the Gauss integration formula would be very adequate if the
integrations were performed within the limits of the successive zeros of the Bessel functions. However in
this case, radii of loads and distances have to be constant values; otherwise, a separate integration has to
be performed for each load. Consequently, as we were able to show (Van Cauwelaert et al, 1988), the
time saved in using this method will be more than lost in the successive integrations. Thus, in order to
provide for a method as general and as fast as possible, we use the Newton Coates formulas.
The Newton Coates formulas split the integration range over an even number of equally spaced abscises
and compute, by appropriate polynomials, the area between two abscises. The most widely used formulas
of this type are Simpsons rule and Weddlesrule. Simpson rule gives exact results for cubic functions
and is written as
S=
h
[ f ( 0 ) + 4 f ( 1 ) + 2 f ( 2 ) + 4 f ( 3 ) + ... + f ( 2n )]
3
Weddles rule gives exact results for polynomials of degree five and is written as
W=
3h
[( 0 ) + 5 f ( 1 ) + f ( 2 ) + 6 f ( 3 ) + f ( 4 ) + 5 f ( 5 ) + 2 f ( 6 ) + 5 f ( 7 ) + ... + f ( 6 n )]
10
Since the function to be integrated is an exponential, the most appropriate rule is not known a priori. In
order to be able to compare the two integration rules, a program was written for the simple case of a two
layer. This program was used to evaluate the number of intervals required to achieve the same accuracy
using both of the above rules. However, as a preliminary, an effort was made to determine the most
slowly converging response parameter (i.e. stress, displacement). Since there is little influence of the
Bessel functions (varying between 1 and + 1) on convergence, computations were performed on the
exponential function only.
233
The results of the analysis show that the deflection at the first interface is the most sensitive response
parameter. Mathematically the reason for this is that only the vertical deflection shows a non-zero value at
the origin of the integration. Thus the analysis could be limited to this equation for comparing the
appropriate integration rule. It revealed that Weddles rule in the particular case of a multilayered
structure needs less intervals than Simpsons rule to achieve an equal accuracy. On the basis of this
analysis we adopt Weddles rule for numerical integrations.
23.2 Values at the origin

As can be seen from the basic equations, all the integrands are zero for m = 0 (at the origin on the
integration interval) except for the vertical deflection w; indeed
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) a
lim =
m 0 m 2
Hence, the values of the deflections in the different layers must be computed for m = 0, thus also the
values of the unknown parameters Ai, Bi, Ci and Di. This cannot be done by the method developed in
Chapter 22, because of numerical redundancies. However, it can be done strictly analytically as we will
illustrate in the case of an isotropic subgrade. For m = 0, all exponentials are equal to 1 and the boundary
conditions for the vertical stresses and the shear stresses simplify into
A1 + B1 ( 1 2 1 )C1 + ( 1 2 1 )D1 = Bn + ( 1 2 n )Dn = 1

A1 B1 + 2 1C1 + 2 1 D1 = Bn + 2 n Dn = 0
Hence
Bn = 2 n
Dn = 1
Since w1 = w2 = ... = wi = ... = wn , we can write for all layers
wi =
1 + n ( 2
[Bn + D( 2 4 n )] = 2 1 n )
En En
23.3 The geometrical scale of the structure

A general rule for the width of the integration steps, which we will establish further, must be independent
of the geometry of the structure, i.e. for a two layered system, the required integration steps must be
independent of the thickness of the first layer and of the radii of the loads (initially expressed in length
units). In the case of only one load, the radius of this load is the most interesting scale factor because of
the fact that the Bessel function J1(ma), expressing the influence of the area of the load, simplifies into
J1(m). However, when dealing with different load radii, this simplification becomes useless. Further,
considering the minimum influence, besides their sign, of the Bessel functions on the accuracy of the
results, it is much more efficient to choose a scale factor independent of the loads but that scales all the
possible structures, i.e. the thickness of the first layer.
The choice of this scale factor is the more appropriate in that most of the problems related to accuracy
arise in the neighborhood of the load at the surface and to a depth equal to the thickness of the first layer.
For this reason, the thickness, h1, of the first layer is selected as the scale factor. In application, all length
dimensions will be divided by the thickness of the first layer so that this thickness becomes equal to 1.
After computations are completed, all the results related to lengths, in fact all of the displacements, will
have to be rescaled to their real values.
234
Scale is not a problem for force. Stresses are linear functions of the unit pressure (total load on the surface
divided by its area) so that stresses are obtained immediately in the same units as the input pressure.
Moduli do not need to be scaled because only modular ratios are used. However, it is necessary to express
moduli in the same units as stresses to avoid difficulties with the displacements. Pay attention to the fact
that the friction parameter (mm3/N) in the partial friction relationship suggested by De Jong et al (1973)
must be scaled.
We proposed to define by
h1
i =
Ei
Hence, scaled writes
h1 / h1 1
i = =
Ei Ei
23.4 Width of the integration steps
23.4.1 Influence of the moduli on the integration step

The two-layer analysis shows that if one considers only the exponential part of the function, the
deflections decreases smoothly from the origin of integration (m = 0) on, and that 90 % of the deflection
at the first interface is obtained near the origin of the integration. Therefore, the total width of the
integration interval will depend on the number of integration steps required to ensure accuracy near the
origin. The analysis shows that the required step for a high modular ratio can be smaller than the
integration step for a small modular ratio. A regression analysis performed on a great series of
computations leads to next formula for the optimum step value:
E2
step = 0.1
E1
As may be noted, the equation goes through the origin because if the ratio between the moduli tends to
infinity the step width should tend to zero. For an n-layered structure, previous equation can be
generalised in
En
step = 0.1
E1
When the modulus of the last layer is higher than the modulus of the first layer, or in the case of a fixed
bottom, the value of the deflection at the origin rely on the ratio of both moduli, but, depending of the
values of the intermediate moduli, values higher than the initial values can be obtained for increasing
values of the integration variable. Therefore before starting the computation of stresses and
displacements, it is necessary to search for the highest value of the deflection function, which, when
determined, can be used to establish the step width.
23.4.2 Influence of the radii of the loads on the integration step

In the previous paragraph we considered a load radius equal to 1. Essentially this represents a radius of
the loaded area equal to the thickness of the first layer after application of the scale factor. For small
values of the argument, the value of the Bessel function J1(ma) is equal to ma/2. Also the variation, as a
function of m, of the successive values of the total integrated function, will depend upon the value of the
radius, a, of the load Consequently, the width of the integration step will necessarily depend upon the
value of a. A regression analysis shows that next equation is appropriate
235
step( a h1 ) = step( a = h1 )[0.1 log( h1 / a ) + 1]

When there are multiple loads of different radii, this equation has to be applied for the load with the
largest radius of loaded area.
23.4.3 Influence of the offset distance on the integration step

Previous evaluations were made in the assumption that the Bessel function J0(mr), expressing the distance
r between the axis of the load and the vertical co-ordinate axis, has no influence on the accuracy of the
results. Indeed, when r = 0 and thus J0(mr) = 1, this function has no influence. When r is different from
zero, the absolute values of J0(mr) are smaller than one. The values of J0(mr) do not have any influence
on the accuracy of the results, but the oscillating nature of the function, between 1 and 1, must be taken
into account. The successive roots of J0(x) are 2.4, 5.5, 8.7, 10.8, 14.9. The values of m in J0(mr), at which
the above roots are met, depend on the values of r. It may be observed that for high values of r the roots
are very close to each other even for small values of m. The sign of the Bessel function changes after each
root and thus also the sign of the function to be integrated. The change of the sign has little influence on
the deflection because most of the deflection is obtained near the origin. However, the change of sign has
a great influence on the magnitude of the stresses because of the exponential function, which still has
significant values for large values of m. It is absolutely necessary to take those sign variations into
account to avoid errors in the values of the stresses.
We have observed that a good accuracy is obtained when one compute at least 6 values of the function
(let us call it a Weddles interval) between two roots. Therefore, when r is not zero, we will limit the step
width by a function of r, which insures at least 6 computations between the roots. The distance between
the roots is approximately equal to 3. Then the step limit can be expressed as follows
3
lim(m ) = r =
0.5
6 r
This limitation increases,depending on the value of r, slightly the computer time.
23.4.4 Modification of the step width

The values of the integrands, without consideration of the Bessel functions, decrease more and more
slowly when the values of the integration variable increases. To take advantage of this fact, the
integration step can be increased for higher values of m and so the computation process can be
accelerated.
We have shown that a same accuracy is achieved by multiplying the step by a factor of two when the
deflection function has decreased by one half. However, the step value cannot be increased indefinitely
because of the oscillating nature of the Bessel functions. Hence, and for the same reasons as in previous
paragraph, the step value has to be limited as follows
lim(m ) =
0.5
a
h1
23.5 Stresses and displacements at the surface

We have shown in chapter 22.4 that the parameters B1 and D1 contain a constant in their numerator when
computed at the surface. Hence the numerical integration cannot be safely performed in that case. We
illustrate the solution with the example of an isotropic multilayer subjected to a symmetrical vertical load.
The boundary conditions at the surface are

A1 m 2 + B1 m 2 C1 m( 1 2 1 ) + D1 m( 1 2 1 ) = 1
236
A1 m 2 B1 m 2 + C1 m2 1 + D1 m2 1 = 0
We know that the parameters A1 and C1 can be safely computed.
Hence we express B1 and D1 in function of A1 and C1. We obtain
B1 m 2 = 2 1 + ( 1 4 1 ) A1 m 2 + 2 1 ( 2 4 1 )C1 m
D1 m = 1 2 A1 m 2 + ( 1 4 1 )C1
Let us compute, for example, the vertical deflection
[ ]

1 + 1 J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
w=
E1 m
A1 m 2 B1 m 2 C1 m( 1 2 1 ) + D1 ( 1 2 1 ) dm
0
Replacing B1 and D1 in function of A1 and C1
[ ]

2( 1 1 )2 J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
w=
E1 m
1 2 A1 m 2 + 2C1 m( 1 2 1 ) dm
0
2
2( 1 1 ) J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
w=
E1
0
m
dm

2( 1 1 )2
E1
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
m
[ ]
1 2 A1 m 2 + 2C1 m( 1 2 1 ) dm
0
The first integral can analytically be integrated ( 8.6). The integral containing the terms A1 and C1 can
safely be numerically integrated. A similar algorithm can be applied for the other functions.
23.6 Stresses and displacements in the first layer

Original solution for integrals e-atJ(bt)J(ct)t-dt.
We know that parameters B1 and D1 contain a constant in their numerator when computed at the surface.
mz 1
In the first layer, lower thus than the surface, they contain the exponential e . In expressing B1 and
D1 in function of A1 and C1 we obtain integrals of the form

pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e mz 1 m dm
0
that can be integrated analytically. For r = 0 the solution can be found in 8.3. For r > 0 the method
developed in 8.5. could be used. However, when z1 is small, in particular after scaling, equation (8.28)
converges very slowly in the case of displacements and even never in the case of stresses. To solve this
problem, we have developed a method, based in fact on the theory of elasticity. We solve the problem for
an isolated load, which can easily be done with the equations of 8.3, and integrate then the result over
the area of the distributed load. The result is a finite integral that can numerically be solved without
difficulty. Let us illustrate this with the equation for the vertical stress in the case of a semi-infinite body
subjected to an isolated load

mJ 0 ( mr )(1 + mz )e
P mz
z = dm
2
0
We analyse more in particular the integral

P mz
z ,1 =
2 mJ 0 ( mr )e dm
0
237
By equation (8.9)
P z
z ,i =
2
(z 2 + r 2 )3 / 2
where the index i stands for isolated. We now integrate the equation for z,i over the area of the
distributed load. Therefore we replace in the equation for the isolated load the distance r by the equation
( 2 + r 2 2r cos )1 / 2 . We thus can write that
2 a
z ,d = z ,i dd
0 0
where d stands for distributed.
2 a
p z d d
pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e mz dm =
0
2
0 0 (z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )3 / 2
More generally we write the complete series of integrals
2 a
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz 1 dd
dm =
(z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )1 / 2
e
m 2a
0 0 0
2 a
mz 1 zdd
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e dm =
0 (z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )3 / 2
2a
0 0

0
mz 1
2 a
(2 z 2 2 r 2 + 2 r cos )dd
2a
=
0 0 (z + + r 2 r cos )
J ( mr ) J 1 ( ma )me dm
2 2 2 5/2
0
These integrals can partially be solved by letting x = cos, y =sin, dxdy = dd and integrating with
(
respect to y within the limits + a 2 x 2 )1 / 2 and (a 2 x 2 )1 / 2 . Hence
a
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz 1 + a2 x2 dxdy
m
e dm =
2a (x 2 + y 2 + r 2 2 xr + z 2 )
a x
2 2
0 a

J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz 1
+a
(a 2 + r 2 2 rx + z 2 )
1/ 2
+ (a 2 x 2 )
1/ 2
2a
dm =
(a + r 2rx + z ) (a x )
e log dx
m 2 2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
0 a

mz z
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e dm = a 2 2
+a
(a2 x2 )
1/ 2
dx
a (x + r 2 rx + z ) (a 2 + r 2 2rx + z 2 )1 / 2
2 3 / 2
0

0
mz 1
+a
(a2 x2 )
1/ 2
(2 z 2 a 2 r 2 + 2 rx )dx
3a 2
=
a (a + r 2 rx + z ) (x + r 2 2rx + z 2 )
J ( mr ) J 1 ( ma )me dm
2 2 3/2 2
0
238
+
2
+a
2 2
(a2 x2 )
1/ 2
(2 z 2 a 2 r 2 + 2 rx )dx
a (a + r 2 rx + z ) (x + r 2 2rx + z 2 )2
3a 2 1/ 2 2
The integrals with Bessel functions of the same order can be integrated by the equations of 8.4.
239
240
THE THEORY OF BACKCALCULATION OF A MULTILAYER
Chapter 24 The Theory of the Back-Calculation of a Multilayered Structure
The assessment of the structural condition using NDT technologies including H/FWD, radar, targeted
coring and material testing is relatively common practise today. One of the most useful applications of
NDT testing is to back-calculate the moduli of pavement components including the subgrade. The back-
calculation of a multilayered structure consists in the estimation of the mechanical characteristics of the
structure based on the deflections measured in situ under the application of a load. The structural
condition of in-service pavements is deduced from the H/FWD load response which involves the
application of a simulated load to model the pavement structure. Based on the strain level of the actual
traffic and transfer functions for material fatigue, the pavements residual life can be estimated. In this
chapter we examine in detail the theory involved and analyse the accuracy of the results.
24.1 The surface modulus

The theory of the surface modulus provides a good insight in the philosophy of back-calculation and thus
is a good introduction to this problem. The surface modulus can directly be assessed from a deflection
measured at the surface of a multilayer at a given distance of the load. It corresponds to the value of the
modulus of a semi-infinite body with the same deflection at the same distance.
2a
A
r
r1
z1
Figure 24.1 The surface modulus
The deflection in a semi-infinite body subjected to an isolated load is given by (20.18)

1+ J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
w= pa 0 (2 2 + mz )e mz dm (24.1)
E m
0
on which is applied the kernel (20.27)

1+ P
J 0 ( mr )(2 2 + mz )e
mz
w= dm (24.2)
E 2
0
241
In the axis of the load, by (8.4) and (8.9)

1+ P 1
w= ( 3 2 ) (24.3)
E 2 z
At the surface, by (8.4)
2( 1 2 ) P 1
w= (24.4)
E 2 r
As a result, the deflections at the surface are equal to the deflections in the axis of the load when
2( 1 )z 2z z
r= , or when r , depending on the value of .
( 3 2 ) 3 2
The conclusion is that the deflections at the surface of a semi-infinite body, and thus probably of a
multilayer, give information about the deflections, and thus about the Youngs moduli, in the different
layers of the structure. The surface modulus, E0(i), is then defined as the modulus corresponding with the
deflection w(i) measured at a distance r(i) of the load by next equation
E0 ( i ) =
(
2 1 2 P ) (
)
1 2 pa 2
(24.5)
r( i )w( i )2 r( i )w( i )
The surface modulus provides for no more than general information. Hence the deflection under a
distributed load can be assimilated with the deflection under an isolated load.
24.2 Equivalent layers

We assume that two layers of a multilayer can be considered as equivalent when their stiffness are equal:
Ei Di = E j D j . The concept of stiffness comes from the theory of slabs on an elastic foundation as
defined in Chapter 12. Hence for the theory of Strength of Materials this assumption is correct if there
exists a full friction interface condition. Thus we assume that the thickness hi of a layer with modulus Ei is
equivalent with the thickness hj of a layer with modulus Ej as far as next equation is satisfied.
1/ 3
E
h j = hi i (24.6)
E j
24.3 Equivalent semi-infinite body

Consider Figure 24.2 representing a two-layer with moduli E1 and E2 on a semi-infinite body with
modulus E0. We replace the three-layer by an equivalent semi-infinite body. In the semi-infinite body, the
deflection in B at a depth z is the same as the deflection in A if the distance of A to the axis of the load is
equal to 2z/3 (we assume the less favourable value = 0).
We conclude that in the case of a three layer, the values of the deflections measured at a distance from the
load greater than 2(h1eq + h2eq)/3, allow for a fairly good estimation of the modulus of the subgrade.
However the thickness h1eq and h2eq are not known. Hence, only the deflections measured at a great
distance from the load can be used for an estimation of the modulus of the subgrade.
242
r r
A A
E1h1
E0h1,eq
E2h2
E0h2,eq
z
E0
B
E0
Figure 24.2 Equivalent semi-infinite body
24.4 Analysis of a deflection basin

The evolution of the values of the surface moduli in function of the corresponding deflections gives
useful information about the respective stiffness of the successive layers of the multilayer. Most of the
information hereafter is inspired from an excellent document edited by Van Gurp (CROW, 1998).
24.4.1 Analysis of a three-layer on a linear elastic subgrade

Consider the following classical pavement structure with layers of increasing stiffness placed over the
subgrade.
Layer E (N/mm) H (mm) Adhesion

Surface 10000 0.2 100 1
Base 3000 0.3 300 1
Subgrade 500 0.5 n/a n/a
Table 24.1 Normal three-layer structure on an elastic subgrade
Distances (mm) 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Deflections (m) 69.6 38.1 26.2 19.1 14.3 11.2 9 7.5 6.5
E0 (N/mm) 2155 656 477 436 443 446 463 476 481
Deflections and surface moduli with p = 1 N/mm, a = 100 mm
Table 24.2 Deflections and Surface moduli of normal three-layer structure
243
Back-calculated moduli
E1 = 10036 E2 = 2993 E3 = 500 N/mm
Equivalent depth of the subgrade

heq = h1(E1/E3)1/3 + h2(E2/E3)1/3 = 271 + 545 = 816 mm; req = 2/3heq =544 mm.
E0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
300
600
Distances
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.3 Surface moduei plot of a normaol three layere structure
Although the back-calculation method has not yet been explained, we estimated it useful to present the
results in relation with this analysis on the evolution of the values of the surface modulus. The
computations presented no difficulties. Convergence was rapidly reached and the results are satisfactory.
The value of the subgrade modulus can be estimated from the deflection located at 600 mm of the load
(req = 544 mm); the value remains practically constant for the following deflections.
24.4.2 Analysis of a three-layer with a very stiff base course

Consider the following pavement structure comprising of three layers:
Layer E H Adhesion
Surface 10000 0.2 100 1
Base 25000 0.3 300 1
Table 24.3 Three-layer structure with stiff base on an elastic subgrade
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 38.9 25.2 21.2 17.5 14.4 11.9 9.8 8.2 7
E0 3856 992 590 476 434 420 425 436 446
Table 24.4 Deflections and Surface moduli of three-layer structure with stiff base
E1 = 10071 E2 = 24716 E3 = 501 N/mm
heq = h1*(E1/E0)1/3 + h2*(E2/E0)1/3 = 272 + 1101 = 1373; req = 914 mm.
244
E0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
0
300
600
Distances
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.4 Surface module plot of a structure with a stiff base layer
The back-calculation results are satisfactory. Convergence is reached a bit slower than in the previous
case. The presence of a rigid layer cannot be detected from the graph. The value of the subgrade modulus
can be estimated from the deflection located at 900 mm of the load (req = 914 mm); the value remains
practically constant for the following deflections.
24.4.3 Analysis of a three layer with a very weak base course

Consider a pavement system with a weak interlayer:
Layer E H Adhesion
Surface 10000 0.2 100 1
Base 50 0.3 300 1
Table 24.5 Three-layer structure with a soft interlayer on an elastic subgrade
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 323.8 190.8 76.2 25.7 11.3 7.4 7.2 6.9 6.3
E0 463 131 164 324 607 676 579 518 496
Table 24.6 Deflections and Surface moduli of three-layer structure with soft interlayer
E1 = 10005 E2 = 50 E3 = 501 N/mm

heq = h1*(E1/E0)1/3 + h2*(E2/E0)1/3 = 271 + 139 = 410; req = 274 mm.
245
E0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
300
600
Distances
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.5 Surface module plot of three-layer structure with soft interlayer
The results are satisfactory. Convergence was reached very fast. The presence of the weak layer can very
well been detected from the graph: low values of the surface modulus between d(2) and d(4). The value of
the subgrade modulus can be estimated from the deflection located at 2100 mm form the load (req = 914
mm). It seems that the principle of equivalent layers cannot been applied in this case, probably because of
the absence of friction at both interfaces of the base course.
24.4.4 Analysis of a two-layer on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth

Consider the multilayered pavement system of Table 24.7.
Layer E H Adhesion
Surface 10000 0.2 100 1
Base 3000 0.3 300 1
Soil1 50 0.5 500 1
Soil2 200 0.5 500 1
Soil3 500 0.5 500 1
Soil4 1000 0.5 n/a n/a
Table 24.7 Multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 69.7 43.2 30.6 20.6 12.9 7.5 4 1.9 0.9
E0 2152 579 408 405 484 667 1042 1880 3472
Table 24.8 Deflections and Surface moduli of multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing
stiffness with depth
Backcalculated moduli:
E1 = 11241 E2 = 348 E3 = 3455 N/mm
246
E0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
0
300
600
Disatances
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.6 Surface moduli of multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth
The results obtained with a three layer are entirely incorrect. Convergence was never obtained. The
increase of the subgrade modulus can be detected on the graph from deflection d(4) on. Such an evolution
of the surface modulus indicates that the classical back-calculation procedure (with 3 or 4 layers) cannot
be applied.
24.5 Algorithm of Al Bush III (1980)

Many back-calculation programs are based on an algorithm developed by Al Bush of the Waterways
Experiment Station. A broad regression analysis based on multilayer computations allowed him to
discover a sort of correlation between the deflections at the surface of a multi-layer and the logarithms of
the values of the moduli of each layer. For example, in the case of a three layer
wobs ( i ) = a( i ) log E1 + b( i ) log E 2 + c( i ) log E3 + d ( i ) (24.7)
where wobs(i) is the deflection observed at a distance r(i) of the load and a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i) are
coefficients to be determined by a regression analysis based on the set of observed deflections. Equation
(24.7) is the basic equation utilised in the regression analysis. However, the correlation subtending (24.7)
is not of very high quality. Hence, the values of the back-calculated moduli giving computed deflections
as close as possible to the observed deflections are not obtained by one application of (24.7). They have
to be computed in an iterative manner until a pre-required fit between observed and computed deflections
is obtained. The programs differ from each other following the manner how the iterative computations are
organised.
In Chapter 25 well analyse a program that we have developed for practical use.
247
248
NUMERICAL BACKCALCULATION OF A MULTILAYER
Chapter 25 The Numerical Procedure of the Backcalculation of a Multilayered

Structure
25.1 The analysis of a back-calculation program for a three-layered structure

We will explain the successive steps for the determination of the moduli of a three layered structure based
on a set of np (often 9) deflections.
1. Input of the measured deflections: np, zp(i), r(i)

2. Input of the data related to the load: a, p
3. Input of the seed moduli: E10, E20, E30.
The values of the seed moduli are required to start the procedure. It is advised to select seed values as
close as possible to the expected values.
4. Computation of the corresponding deflections: z0(i)
5. Computation of the alternative moduli.
It is highly improbable that the values chosen as seed values would by chance be the expected values
of the moduli. Therefore one has to assume new values for the moduli hopefully closer to the
expected values than the initially chosen values. In order to meet this assumption, we suggest to
compute the alternative moduli by a formula based on the deflection at the surface of a semi-infinite
2( 1 2 )
body: w = pa .
E
2( 1 2 ) pa w11 w
E11 = E10 = E10 11
2 pa w
2( 1 ) 10 w10
In practice we assume that the first modulus E1 is proportional to the first deflection, zp(1), that the
second modulus E2 is proportional to the second deflection, zp(2), and that the third modulus E3 is
proportional to the last deflection, zp(np),
z0 ( 1 ) z0 ( 2 ) z 0 ( np )
E11 = E10 E21 = E20 E31 = E30
zp( 1 ) zp( 2 ) zp( np1 )
6. Computation of the deflections with the alternative moduli.
Compute 4 sets of deflections, z0(i), z1(i), z2(i) and z3(i), corresponding with the 4 sets of moduli.
E10 , E 20 , E30 , z0 ( i )
E11 , E 20 , E30 , z1 ( i )
E10 , E 21 , E30 , z 2 ( i )
E10 , E 20 , E31 , z 3 ( i )
7. Estimation of the moduli by the method of the least squares.
- Introduce the obtained results in Bushs algorithm
z0 ( i ) = a( i ) log E10 + b( i ) log E 20 + c( i ) log E30 + d ( i )
z 2 ( i ) = a( i ) log E10 + b( i ) log E 21 + c( i ) log E30 + d ( i )
z 3 ( i ) = a( i ) log E10 + b( i ) log E 20 + c( i ) log E31 + d ( i )
- Compute the values of the unknown parameters a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i)
z1 ( i ) z0 ( i )
a( i ) =
log E11 log E10
249
z 2 ( i ) z0 ( i )
b( i ) =
log E21 log E20
z 3 ( i ) z0 ( i )
c( i ) =
log E31 log E30
d ( i ) = z0 ( i ) a( i ) log E10 b( i ) log E20 c( i ) log E30
Replace a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i) by their values in order to obtain np equations for the deflections
in function of the unknown moduli E1, E2, E3.
Compute the sum of the squared differences between the computed deflections z0(i) and the
observed deflections zp(i).
np
[zp( i ) z0 ( i )]2
1
Minimise the sum and deduce the values of the expected moduli E1, E2, E3.

=0 =0 =0
log E1 log E 2 log E3
8. Compute the deflections zres(i) resulting from the values of the expected moduli and compute the sum
np
of the absolute differences between the measured and the computed deflections zp( i ) z res ( i ) .
1
If the difference is less than an a specified minimum limit, then the obtained values are the best fitting
moduli. If the difference is higher than the limit, start the whole process again from step 2 on, with
the computed values E1, E2, E3 as values for the new seed moduli.
Sometimes the effect of the formula of step 4 for the computation of the alternative moduli can be very
drastic in the sense that the value obtained for one of the moduli can be smaller than 1. The process
becomes then chaotic. Indeed, to compensate for the very low value of one of the moduli, the application
of the least squares method will lead to a very high value for an another modulus and the results become
worse after each loop.
An appropriate test must be built in the program in order to stop the computations when this happens.
Often the reason is as simple as an inappropriate choice of the seed moduli and a modification of some of
them will solve the problem. Sometimes, but seldom, whatever the values of the seed moduli, the problem
keeps going on. This means that the input data are such that back-calculation, with the available tool, will
become impossible.
In fact, back-calculation is an artificial procedure. The multilayer theory is intended to compute stresses
and displacements of a multilayered structure subjected to a load at its surface and whos mechanical and
geometrical characteristics are known. The solutions of the computations are unique and do not give
allowance for interpretation. In contrast, the computations in a backcalculation procedure are
approximates. First because they are based on approximate field data, and secondly because the results
are approximate and vary in function of the chosen algorithm and in function of the before hand specified
convergence limit. To gain insight in the value of the obtained results, we analyse the influence of a series
of factors inherent to the back-calculation procedure in the next paragraphs. The sensitivity is analysed
for a three and a four layer structure.
250
25.2 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a three layer structure
We analyse the sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections and the sensitivity of the
procedure in the case of the presence of a weak layer. Furthermore we analyse the influence of fixing one
of the moduli of the structure.
25.2.1 The sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections
The quality of the results of back-calculation evidently depends on the number of measured deflections
and the values of this deflections. Then the question arises how many deflections are required to define an
adequate deflection basin and in how far the deflection values may be rounded off when taking, for
example, the mean value of three measurements. To analyse this, we consider the 3-layered structure
defined in table 25.1.
Layer Thickness (mm) Emodulus (N/mm) Poissons ratio

Surface (AC) 100 10000 0.2
Base (Stabilized sand) 300 3000 0.3
Subgrade 500 0.5
Table 25.1: Three layered structure
In table 25.2, we compute the deflections under a falling weight (radius: 150 mm, pressure: 1,41 N/mm)
at the usual distances on a pavement (0, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400 mm) in the case of
full friction at the interfaces. We call them the reference deflections, as if they were determined on site.
Distances (mm) 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Deflections (m) 192.3 120.9 83.2 60.5 45.5 35.5 28.7 23.9 20.5
Surface modulus E0(i) 1650 656 477 437 436 447 461 474 474
Table 25.2: Deflections in m due to inpact of a falling weight
Table 25.3 gives the values of the backcalculated moduli based on the deflection basin of reference.
Moduli E1 E2 E3 Fit Loops

With 9 not rounded off deflections 9815 3070 497 0.19 8
With 9 rounded off deflections 9940 3008 500 0.02 7
With 6 not rounded off deflections 9837 3063 497 0.20 8
With 6 rounded off deflections 9942 3007 500 0.01 8
Table 25.3: Back-calculated moduli
The fit is defined as the mean value of the absolute differences between the calculated and the reference
deflections; the loops are the number of iterations required to reach the specified convergence. We
conclude that, in the case of a three layer system rounding off or limiting the number of deflections to the
first six does not seem to have a significant influence.
25.2.2 The sensitivity to the presence of a soft intermediate layer

We consider the 3-layered structure with a weak base defined in table 25.4.
251

Surface (AC) 100 10000 0.2
Sandy material 200 200 0.5
Subgrade 500 0.5
Table 25.4. Three-layered structure with a weak base
In table 25.5, we give the deflections for the structure of table 25.4 with the corresponding E0(i) values.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 106.6 72.6 25.6 14.2 11.6 9.8 8.3 7.1 6.2
E0(i) 934 344 488 587 539 510 502 503 504
Table 25.5. Deflections in m under falling weight on a structure with weak base
The back-calculation provides next results: E1 = 10021, E2 = 199, E3 = 500. The fit is 0.02 and the
number of required loops is 5. Thus, the presence of a weak intermediate layer seems to have no influence
on the accuracy of the results in the case of a three layer structure.
25.2.3 The influence of fixing beforehand the value of one modulus

To improve the results of the back-calculation, setting one of the moduli to a fixed value can be of
interest. Using the deflections of table 25.2, we investigate the influence of fixing on beforehand the value
of one of the moduli of the structure on the backcalculated values of the other moduli. In Tables 25.6 to
25.8, we consecutively fix the values of moduli E1, E2 and E3. The true values of the fixed moduli are
indicated between quotes.
E1 fixed E2 E3 Fit Loops

12000 2576 503 0.15 5
11000 2726 502 0.08 5
10000 2907 500 0.03 6
9000 3130 499 0.09 6
8000 3418 497 0.19 6
Table 25.6: Back-calculation with E1 fixed
E1 E2 fixed E3 Fit Loops

7984 3600 495 0.20 4
8863 3300 497 0.11 4
10006 3000 500 0.03 4
11511 2700 504 0.13 4
13515 2400 508 0.30 4
Table 25.7: Back-calculation with E2 fixed
252
E1 E2 E3 fixed Fit Loops

18934 1551 600 1.78 7
14161 2098 550 0.96 5
10021 2988 500 0.02 4
6185 5276 450 1.19 7
3662 13360 400 2.67 7
Table 25.8 Back-calculation with E3 fixed
In table 25.9 we compare the relative influence of the different moduli.
Fixed modulus Variation E1 Variation E2 Variation E3

E1 [- 20%, + 20%] [+ 14%, - 14%] [- 1%, + 1%]
E2 [+ 27%, - 27%] [- 20%, + 20%] [+ 1%, - 1%]
E3 [- 75%, + 75%] [+200 %, -200 %] [- 20%, + 20%]
Table 25.9 Relative influence of fixed values of moduli
We conclude that making an error of 20 %, when fixing the values of the moduli E1or E2 does not have
a significant influence on the back-calculated values of the other moduli. However making the same error,
when fixing the value of the modulus E3 of the subgrade yields considerable errors on the estimation of
the values of the moduli E1 and E2. Thus, although often practised because the value of E3 is supposed to
be deductible from the value of the most outside deflection, this method should be avoided when
backcalculating moduli.
25.3 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a four layer structure
The study into the sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure is now extended to a four layered
structure. Indeed, experience thought that many problems can arise with such a pavement system. We will
analyse the sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections, the value of the information
given by the surface modulus, the presence weak interlayer and the influence of fixing beforehand the
value of one modulus and of a fixed bottom..
Consider the 4-layered structure defined in Table 25.10.

Surface (CRCP) 200 35000 0.2
Base (lean concrete) 200 10000 0.2
Sub-base (sand) 300 300 0.5
Subgrade 50 0.5
Table 25.10 Four layered structure
In Table 25.11, we compute the deflections under a standard falling weight (radius: 150 mm, pressure:
1,41 N/mm) at the usual distances for a concrete pavement (0, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100,
2400 mm) in the case of full friction at the interfaces. Again we call them the reference deflections, as
if they were determined on site.
253
Distances (mm) 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Deflections (m) 399.4 380.9 359.6 336.4 312.4 288.6 265.6 243.8 223.5
Table 25.11 Reference deflections in m due to inpact of a falling weight
In table 25.12 we give the values of the back-calculated moduli based on the deflection basin of reference.
Moduli E1 E2 E3 E4 Fit Loops

With 9 not rounded off deflections 35144 10027 293 50 0.02 4
With 9 rounded off deflections 40255 8103 415 50 0.21 5
With 6 not rounded off deflections 35319 9891 306 50 0.01 4
With 6 rounded off deflections 41932 7236 502 49 0.24 4
Table 25.12 Backcalculated moduli in N/mm2
We conclude that in the case of a four layer system, rounding off of averaged deflections should be
avoided. On the contrary, limiting the number of deflections to the first six does not seem to have a
significant influence.
25.3.1 Value of the information given by the surface modulus

- Case of a classical structure with decreasing moduli
In Table 25.13 we computed de surface moduli for the deflections of Table 25.11.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 399.4 380.9 359.6 336.4 312.4 288.6 265.6 243.8 223.5
E0(i) 794 208 110 79 63 55 50 46 44
Table 25.13 Surface moduli for a classical road structure
The surface moduli decrease regularly with the distance to the load. In the case of full friction between all
the layers, E0(n) gives a good indicative value, but not the exact value of the modulus of the subgrade.
- Case of the presence of a fixed bottom
Often a rocky layer is present at a certain depth and the vertical deflection vanishes at the corresponding
level. In structural language one speaks of a so-called fixed bottom. This notion can also recover a
phenomenon of a subgrade with increasing stiffness. Then the depth of the so-called fixed bottom is more
difficult to establish. In Table 25.14, we give the deflections for the structure of Table 25.10 with a
thickness of the subgrade (depth of the fixed bottom) of 5000 mm in the hypothesis of full friction at the
interfaces.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 248.8 230.4 209.6 187.3 164.4 142.1 121.0 101.3 83.4
E0(i) 1275 344 189 141 121 112 109 112 119
Table 25.14 Deflections in m under falling weight, bottom fixed at 5000 mm
254
Increase of the E0(i) values from deflection d(8) reveals the presence of a fixed bottom. In Table 25.15,
we calculate the depth of the fixed bottom giving the best fit for the backcalculated moduli.
Subgrade thickness E1 E2 E3 E4 Fit Loops

5500 33465 11447 103 57 0.06 6
5000 35052 9918 309 50 0.02 5
4000 38968 7002 740 35 0.15 4
3000 43478 4790 1148 19 0.28 4
Table 25.15 Calculation of the depth of the fixed bottom
Fortunately, the depth giving the best fit is indeed 5000 mm. Nevertheless, the fit can be considered as
very satisfactory for all four thickness. But the table shows that a wrong estimation of the depth of the
fixed bottom can yield important erroneous estimations of the values of the moduli.
- Case of a weak intermediate layer.
We consider the 4-layered structure with a weak base defined in Table 25.16:

Surface (CRCP) 200 35000 0.2
Sandy material 200 1000 0.5
Stabilised sand 300 3000 0.3
Subgrade 50 0.5
Table 25.16 Four-layered structure with a weak base
In Table 25.17, we present the deflections for the structure of Table 25.16 with the corresponding E0(i)
values.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Deflections 106.7 90.0 74.3 60.2 48.3 38.7 31.3 25.7 21.0
E0(i) 2973 881 534 439 411 410 422 441 461
Table 25.17 Deflections in m under falling weight on a structure with weak base
Increase of the E0(i) values from deflection d(7) on reveals the presence of a weak intermediate layer.
Table 25.18 lists the reference deflections and compare them to the back-calculated deflections.
Distances 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400

Reference deflections 106.7 90.0 74.3 60.2 48.3 38.7 31.3 25.7 21.0
Computed deflections 106.7 90.1 74.1 60.2 48.4 38.8 31.3 25.5 21.1
Table 25.18 Comparion of reference and back-calculated deflections
The fit is 0.09 which can be considered as excellent. However the back-calculated values of the moduli
after only 6 loops are: E1 = 38671, E2 = 8324, E3 = 194, E4 = 556 N/mm2.
These values are completely wrong! Thus the presence of a weak intermediate layer has a profound
influence on the accuracy of the results.
255
25.3.2 The influence of fixing beforehand the value of one modulus

Using the deflections of Table 25.11, we investigate the influence of fixing on beforehand one of the
moduli of a four layer system. In Table 25.19 to Table 25.22, we consecutively fix the values of moduli
E1, E2, E3 and E4. The real value of the fixed modulus is indicated between quotes.
E1 fixed E2 E3 E4 Fit Loops

42000 7730 410 50 0.19 4
38500 8804 354 50 0.10 5
35000 10085 290 50 0.01 5
32500 11183 238 50 0.07 5
28000 13765 126 50 0.24 6
Table 25.19 Back-calculation results with E1 fixed
E1 E2 fixed E3 E4 Fit Loops

31511 12000 180 50 0.13 5
33224 11000 236 50 0.06 5
35201 10000 294 50 0.01 5
37498 9000 355 50 0.08 5
40178 8000 438 50 0.16 5
E1 E2 E3 fixed E4 Fit Loops

36921 9079 360 50 0.08 5
36104 9499 330 50 0.05 5
35324 9925 300 50 0.02 5
34578 10357 270 50 0.03 5
33863 10796 240 50 0.06 5
E1 E2 E3 E4 fixed Fit Loops

23527 18750 1 52 2.51 12
28211 15572 3 51 0.44 7
35263 9955 298 50 0.01 6
50988 4163 760 49 0.64 7
80950 610 1112 48 1.09 10
256
In Table 25.14 we examine the relative influence of the different moduli.
Fixed modulus Variation E1 Variation E2 Variation E3 Variation E4

E1 [- 20%, + 20%] [+ 30%, - 30%] [- 49%, + 49%] Constant
E2 [+ 12%, - 12%] [- 20%, + 20%] [+ 40%, - 40%] Constant
E3 [- 4%, + 4%] [+ 9 %, - 9 %] [- 20%, + 20%] Constant
E4 [+ 82%, - 82%] [- 91%, + 91%] [+186%, -186%] [- 4%, + 4%]
Table 25.23 Relative influence of fixed values of moduli
We conclude that making an error of 20 %, when fixing the values of the moduli E1, E2 or E3, has not
an importance of greater amplitude on the backcalculated values of the other moduli. However making an
error as small as 4 %, when fixing the value of the modulus E4 of the subgrade yields considerable
errors on the estimation of the values of the moduli E1, E2 and E3. Thus here also fixing the value of E4
should be avoided when back-calculating moduli.
As a general conclusion, we note that in all tables of results, except of course in tables 25.8 and 25.23, the
values of the fits remain very satisfactory. Nevertheless the under- or overestimates of the values of the
moduli can be of major importance in residual life calculations. One must also realise that the precision of
a falling weights transducer can have a profound influence on the back-calculation result. Its accuracy is
2% of the reading with a precision of 2 m. It is important that H/FWD deflection results of all
devices must be reproducible. Calibration according to the COST approach or CROW Protocol is
mandatory.
25.4 The influence of degree of anisotropy and Poissons ratio on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a semi-infinite subgrade
In most of the cases, the Poissons ratios of the layers and eventually the degree of anisotropy of the
subgrade are not known. Nevertheless their values are required as input values of the process and must be
estimated. Important is to appreciate their influence. We examine the influence based on a three-layered
structure.
E1 = 10000 N/mm E2 = 3000 N/mm2 E3 = 500 N/mm

1 = 0.2 2 = 0.3 3 = 0.5 for n 1
h1 = 100 mm h2 = 300 mm 3 = n/2 for n < 1
The load is a uniform pressure of p = 1 N/mm on a circular area with a = 100 mm
25.4.1 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the back-calculated moduli

In Table 25.24 we give the reference deflections at the usual distances utilised in the case of flexible
pavements, for a degree of anisotropy n = 1.
Distances (mm) 0 300 600 900 1200 1500

Deflections (m) 70 38 26 19 14 11
Table 25.24 Reference deflections
257
In Table 25.25 we present the backcalculated moduli for different values of the degree of anisotropy and
the corresponding computed deflections
n 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 Fit E1 E2 E3 loops

1 70.0 38.0 26.0 18.8 14.2 10.0 0.06 9920 2924 506 5
1.5 70.0 38.0 25.9 18.8 14.2 10.2 0.14 10580 2732 595 5
2 70.0 38.0 25.8 18.8 14.3 10.3 0.16 10732 2693 656 5
5 70.0 38.0 25.8 18.8 14.2 10.2 0.15 10536 2753 900 5
0.5 70.0 38.1 25.6 18.8 14.4 10.5 0.26 11932 2386 448 4
0.2 70.0 38.2 25.2 18.7 14.6 10.9 0.47 14247 1949 377 5
Table 25.25 Back-calculated moduli in function of the degree of anisotropy
If the subgrade of reference (the observed subgrade) is isotropic, assuming a degree of anisotropy higher
that 1 has no influence on the results of the backcalculation. The value of modulus E3 increases slightly
when n increases. This is normal since n = E3vert/E3hor when the table gives E3vert. However, assuming
a degree of anisotropy smaller than 1 has a great influence on the values of the three moduli.
25.4.2 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections (n = 1)

In Table 25.26, we compute the surface deflections in function of Poissons ratio of the subgrade. The
data are those of Table 25.24.
0 300 600 900 1200 1500

0.5 70 38 26 19 14 11
0.4 70 39 27 20 15 12
0.3 70 39 27 20 16 12
0.2 69 38 26 20 15 12
0.1 67 36 25 19 15 12
Table 25.26 Deflections function of Poissons ratio of the subgrade
We conclude that the value assumed for the Poissons ratio of the subgrade has little influence on the
results.
25.5 The influence of Poissons ratio and degree of anisotropy on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a subgrade of finite thickness
Consider the three-layered structure given below:
E1 = 10000 N/mm E2 = 2000 N/mm2 E3 = 100 N/mm

1 = 0.2 2 = 0.3 3 = 0.5 for n 1
h1 = 100 mm h2 = 200 mm 3 = n/2 for n < 1
h3 = 1000 mm
The load is a uniform pressure of p = 1 N/mm on a circular area with a radius a = 100 mm
25.5.1 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the back-calculated moduli

In Table 25.27 we give the reference deflections for a degree of anisotropy n = 1.
258
Distances (mm) 0 300 600 900 1200

Deflections (m) 115 66 34 13 1
Table 25.27 Reference deflections for a degree of anisotropy n = 1.
In Table 25.28 we give the backcalculated moduli for different values of the degree of anisotropy and the
corresponding computed deflections.
n 0 300 600 900 1200 Fit E1 E2 E3 loops

1 115.0 66.0 33.9 13.1 1.0 0.04 9550 2025 101 5
1.1 115.0 66.4 33.1 13.2 2.3 0.53 12519 1490 137 20
1.2 115.0 66.6 32.7 13.2 2.9 0.80 14191 1261 161 30
1.3 114.9 66.7 32.4 13.2 3.3 0.97 15276 1129 178 38
1.3 114.9 66.7 32.4 13.2 3.3 0.97 15276 1129 178 38
1.3 114.9 66.7 32.4 13.2 3.3 0.97 15276 1129 178 38
0.9 115.0 66.0 33.3 13.2 2.0 0.46 12189 1530 130 18
0.8 115.0 66.6 32.7 13.3 2.9 0.80 14579 1192 154 26
0.7 114.9 66.8 32.2 13.4 3.7 1.15 16887 923 174 59
Table 25.28 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the backcalculated moduli
If the subgrade of reference (the observed subgrade) is isotropic, assuming a degree of anisotropy
different from 1 has a great influence on the values of the results, which was not the case with a semi-
infinite subgrade.
25.5.2 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections (n = 1)

In Table 25.29, we compute the surface deflections in function of Poissons ratio of the subgrade.
0 300 600 900 1200

0.5 115 66 34 13 1
0.4 134 85 52 29 13
0.3 141 93 59 35 19
0.2 144 95 62 38 22
0.1 143 95 62 39 23
Table 25.29 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections
We conclude here that the value assumed for the Poissons ratio of the subgrade has a significant
influence on the results. As a general conclusion we note that backcalculation of moduli is more delicate
for anisotropic subgrades and for subgrades with a finite thickness.
As a general conclusion we state that back-calculation of moduli, thus estimating the residual life of a
pavement, is a difficult, if not, a hazardous task.
259
260
THE OVALISATION TEST
Chapter 26 The Ovalisation Test
26.1 Description of the ovalisation test

The ovalisation test developed by the French Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses (Kobisch,
Peyronne, 1979) is a very interested field test that allows to measure, in all directions and ad all levels, the
strains in a hollow pavement subjected to a vertical load. The test can be of great help in the whole
evaluation process and allows a field verification of the back-calculation results. Furthermore, it gives
direct information about the adhesion at the interfaces of the layers. For our purpose it presents the
specific interest that the interpretation of the results requires both theories that we have utilised in
pavement engineering. We briefly present the test and develop the involved mathematics in greater detail.
The test consists in the determination, at different levels, of the variation of the diameter of a core hole
under the passage of a load, usually a 13 t axle (figure 26.1).
< 0 shortening
> 0 lengthening
Figure 26.1 Variations of the diameter in a core hole
26.2 Interpretation of the results of the ovalisation test

The mathematical problem is to deduce the strain in the axis of the load of a plain pavement from strains
measured at the walls of a hollow pavement. In the case of a symmetrical load, we identify the problem
with that of a hollow plate subjected to a uniform circular vertical load and resting on a Winkler
foundation (a generalization of the Westergaards solution). The method allows us to determine the value
of a correction factor to apply to the measured strains in order to obtain the value of the strains in the axis
of the load on a plain pavement. In the case of a non-symmetrical load, we shall establish the relation
between the tangential strains at the boundary of a hollow plate and the strains in a plain plate subjected
to orthogonal horizontal forces acting in the plane of the plate and apply to the obtained results the
correction factor determined for the case of a symmetrical load.
261
26.3 Slab with a cavity on an elastic subgrade subjected to a symmetrical load

Consider the slab presented in figure 26.2.
2a
2b
Figure 26.2 Slab with a cavity on an elastic subgrade
The slab with a cavity with radius b is subjected to a uniformly distributed pressure p over a circular area
with radius a. The problem is solved under the assumption of a Winkler foundation. It can also be solved
in the assumption of a Pasternak foundation. Hence, the solution is based on the theory of Strength of
Materials.
26.3.1 Resolution in the case of a plain slab

This problem has previously been solved in Chapters 12 and 14. The load is expressed by

pa
l
p= J 0 ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )dm (26.1)
0
and the deflection by

pa J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
w=
kl m 4
+ 1
dm (26.2)
0
The stresses are given by
Dz d 2 w 1 dw
r = 12 +
h 3 dr 2 r dr
Dz d 2w 1 dw
= 12 ( 2 + )
h dr r dr
r +
If r = 0, r = = , hence
2
Dz d 2 w 1 dw
r 0 = 6 ( 1 + ) +
3 2
r dr
h dr
The tangential strain becomes
r 1 + 1
0 = = r ( 1 ) = [ r ( 1 )]
E E 2 E
262

z pa m 2 J 1 ( ma / l )
0 = m 4 + 1 dm
2 kl 3 0
(26.3)
If r > 0

zpa mJ 1 ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
=
rkl 0 2 m4 + 1
dm (26.4)
26.3.2 Resolution in the case of a slab with a cavity

One will notice that is not necessary to modify the expression of the load and considering it as a ring. The
boundary conditions itself are sufficient to express the presence of the cavity. However, one must modify
the intensity of the pressure applied on a surface equal to (a2 b2) and not to a2. Hence, we must
replace in the expressions for the stresses and the deflection, the pressure p by a pressure
q = a2 / (a2 b2).
The general solution of the equilibrium equation writes

qa J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
w=
kl m 4
+ 1
dm (26.5)
0
The boundary conditions are : in r = b, M = 0 and T = 0.
To express them, we need two supplementary solutions of the homogeneous equation
2 1 2 w 1 w kw
+ + + =0 (26.6)
r 2 r r r 2 r r D

Those solutions are given by equation (12.19)
w A = A ker( r / l ) (26.7)
wB = Bkei( r / l ) (26.8)
Out of the four solutions of equation (12.19), we have chosen the ker and kei functions, which tend to
zero at infinity. We call the total solution

qa J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
wtot = dm + A ker( r / l ) + Bkei( r / l ) (26.9)
kl 0 m4 + 1
The boundary conditions become, for r = b,
2 wtot 1 wtot
M r = D + =0 (26.10)
r 2 r
r
2 wtot 1 wtot
Tr = D + =0 (26.11)

r r 2
r r
The constants A and B are determined from the system equations (26.10) and (26.11).
The equations for stresses, strains and displacement in r = b write

Dz wtot
2
1 wtot
r = 2 + =0 (26.12)
I r r r
263
Dz wtot
2
1 wtot
= + (26.13)
I r 2 r r
with r = 0
Dz 2 wtot
r = (1 2 ) (26.14)
EI r 2
Dz 1 dwtot
= (1 2 ) (26.15)
EI r dr
Dz dw
u = r = ( 1 2 ) tot (26.16)
EI dr
For r = b
u Dz 1 dwtot
= = = (1 2 ) (26.17)
b EI r dr
Then we define the correction parameter by

R= = (26.18)
r0 r0
E E
The value of R only depends on the geometrical parameters of the structure a/l and b/l. It can be shown
that the value of R is approximately independent of Poissons ratio.
Apply Hookes law in r = 0
r0
r0 = 0 = (1 )
E
Hence, we obtain the radial strain in the axis of a plain slab by
1
0( r = 0 ) = ( r = b ) (26.19)
R
It appears, as can numerically be shown, that lim R = 2 .
b 0
In table 26.1, a series of values of R for = 0.25 is presented.
2b/l\2a/l 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

0.05 1.872 1.914 1.937 1.950 1.959 1.966 1.971
0.075 1.795 1.856 1.890 1.912 1.927 1.937 1.946
0.1 - 1.797 1.842 1.871 1.891 1.906 1.918
0.15 - - 1.746 1.787 1.816 1.839 1.856
0.2 - - - 1.705 1.741 1.770 1.793
0.3 - - - - - 1.636 1.668
Table 26.1 Values of R vs 2a/l and 2b/l.
264
26.4 Strains in the case of a non-symmetrical load

Often the wheel-load will be a dual wheel load with a non-symmetrical load distribution. The solution of
the hollow plate subjected to horizontal forces will allow us to take into account the asymmetry of the
problem. Therefore we first present the solution for a hollow cylinder subjected to a uniform external
pressure, followed by the solution for the hollow plate. Both solutions are based on the theory of
elasticity.
26.4.1 Stresses in a hollow cylinder subjected to a uniform external pressure

Consider the hollow cylinder subjected to an external uniform tensile stress S given in figure 26.3.
2b
2a
Figure 26.3. The hollow cylinder subjected to a uniform tensile stress
Because of the axial symmetry, the problem will be solved in polar co-ordinates.
The continuity equation writes
2 1 2 1
+ + =0 (26.20)
r 2 r r r 2 r r

Develop equation (26.20)
4 2 3 1 2 1
+ + =0
r 4 r r 3 r 2 r 2 r 3 r
z
Make the substitution r = e
4 3 2
4 +4 =0
z 4 z 3 z 2
The characteristic equation is
G 4 4G 3 + 4G 2 = 0
with roots G1,2 = 0, G3,4 = 2.
Hence
f ( z ) = Az + Bze 2 z + Ce 2 z + D
and
= A log r + Br 2 log r + Cr 2 + D (26.21)
The stresses are
265
A
r = + B( 1 + 2 log r ) + 2C (26.22)
r2
A
= + B( 3 + 2 log r ) + 2C (26.23)
r2
r = 0 (26.24)
For reasons due to the radial displacements, which will not be developed here, B = 0. The boundary
conditions are
In r = b
A
+ 2C = 0
b2
In r = a
A
+ 2C = S
a2
Hence
a 2b 2 a2
A = S 2C = S
a2 b2 a2 b2
The stresses are
Sa 2 b2 Sa 2 b2
r = 1 = 1 + (26.25)
a 2 b 2 r 2 a 2 b 2 r 2
26.4.2 Stresses in a hollow plate

Consider the plate given in figure 26.4.
ST
S
SL
2b
2a
Figure 26.4. Stresses in a hollow plate
Timoshenko (1948) presents the solution for a plate solicited in one direction (figure 26.4. left). Lets
generalize the solution for a plate solicited in two orthogonal directions (Figure26.4 right). Note b the
radius of the hole in the plate and a the radius of a concentric circle, with a great in comparison with b.
Transform the stresses expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates in polar co-ordinates.
266
r = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy cos sin
= x sin 2 + y cos 2 2 xy cos sin
r = ( y x ) cos sin + xy (cos 2 sin 2 )

This results in
1 1
r = ( SL + ST ) + ( SL ST ) cos 2 (26.26)
2 2
1 1
= ( SL + ST ) ( SL ST ) cos 2 (26.27)
2 2
1
r = ( SL ST ) sin 2 (26.28)
2
The stresses can be divided into two parts. A first part, constant and equal to (SL+ST)/2 are normal
stresses, which can be determined by equation (26.25)
SL + ST a 2 b2 SL + ST a 2 b2
r = 1 2 = 1 + 2 (26.29)
2 a2 b2 r 2 a2 b2 r
The second part corresponds to an association between the normal stresses (SL - ST)cos2/2
and the shear stresses (SL - ST)sin2/2.
The compatibility equation

2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
+ + + + =0 (26.30)
r 2 r r r 2 2 r 2 r r 2
2
r
can be resolved by separation of the variables. It seems appropriated to express the -function as a
trigonometric function and well as f ( ) = cos 2 so that the shear stresses can vanish when the normal
stresses are maximal. Hence, we take
= f ( r ) cos 2
so that equation (26.30) transforms into
d2 1 d 4 d 2 f 1 df 4 f
+ + cos 2 = 0 (26.31)
dr 2 r dr 2 2 2 2
r dr r dr r
Develop equation (26.31)
d4 f 2 d3 f 9 d2 f 9 df
+ + =0 (26.32)
dr 4 r dr 3 2
r dr 2
r 3 dr
Make the substitution r = ez
d4 f d3 f d2 f df
4 4 + 16 =0
dz 4 dz 3 dz 2 dz
The characteristic equation is
G 4 4G 3 4G 2 + 16 G = 0
267
G( G 3 4G 2 4G + 16 ) = G( G 2 4 )( G 4 ) = 0
The roots are
G1 = 2 G2 = 2 G3 = 4 G4 = 0
Hence
1
f ( r ) = Ae 2 z + Ce 2 z + Be 4 z + D = Ar 2 + Br 4 + C +D
r2
and
1
= ( Ar 2 + Br 4 + C + D ) cos 2 (26.33)
r2
The stresses are
1 1 2 6C 4 D
r = + = 2 A + + cos 2 (26.34)
r r r 2 2 r4 r2
2 6C
= = 2 A + 12 Br 2 + cos 2 (26.35)
2
r r4
1 2 6C 2D
r = = 2 A + 6 Br 4 2 sin 2 (26.36)
r r r r
The boundary conditions regarding r and r are
In r = a
6C 4 D 1
2A + 4
+ 2 = ( SL ST )
a a 2
6C 2D 1
2 A + 6 Ba 2 4 2 = ( SL ST )
a a 2
In r = b
6C 4D
2A + + 2 =0
b4 b
6 C 2D
2 A + 6 Bb 2 4 2 = 0
b b
Let a tend to infinite

( SL ST ) ( SL ST )b 4 ( SL ST )b 2
A= B=0 C= D= (26.37)
4 4 2
Adding solutions (26.29), the final expressions for the stresses become
SL + ST b2 SL ST 3b 4 4b 2
r = (1 )+ (1+ ) cos 2 (26.38)
2 r2 2 r4 r2
SL + ST b2 SL ST 3b 4
= (1+ ) (1+ ) cos 2 (26.39)
2 r2 2 r4
268
SL ST 3b 4 2b 2
r = (1 + ) sin 2 (26.40)
2 r4 r2
The strains are
r r 2( 1 + ) r
r = = r =
E E E
Hence
1 SL + ST
1 b
2 SL ST
+
4
1 + 3b 4b
2
cos 2
r =
E 2 r2 2 r4 r2

SL + ST b 2 SL ST 3b 4
1+ 1+ cos 2
2 r 2 2 r 4

1 SL + ST b 2 SL ST 3b 4 4b 2
r = ( 1 ) ( 1 + ) + 1 + cos 2
E 2 2
2 4 2
r r r
SL ST 3b 4
( 1 + 4 ) cos 2 ) (26.41)
2 r
The displacement is obtained by integration of equation (26.41)

u = rdr
1 SL + ST a 2 SL ST b 4 4b
u= ( 1 )r ( 1 + ) + (r + ) cos 2
E 2 3

r
2 r r
SL ST 3b 4
(1 ) cos 2 (26.42)
2 r3
ST
Let = , one obtains in r = b:
SL
b SL + ST
u= (( 1 ) ( 1 + )) + SL ST ( 1 1 + 4 ) cos 2
E 2 2
SL ST
( 1 1 ) cos 2 )
2
u = [SL + ST + 2( SL ST ) cos 2 ]
b
E
u=
bSL
[1 + + 2( 1 ) cos 2 ] (26.43)
E
269
Consider figure 26.5:
ST

SL
Figure 26.5: Principal strains
Define the strain as the displacement divided by the initial length (this definition is not that of the theory
of elasticity where the strain is defined for infinitesimal lengths).
2u SL
= = [1 + + 2( 1 ) cos 2 ] (26.44)
2b E
For = 0
L SL
= [1 + + 2( 1 )] = SL ( 3 ) (26.45)
L E E
For =
2
T SL
= [1 + 2( 1 )] = SL ( 3 1 ) (26.46)
T E E
We define
L

RL = L = 3 (26.47)
SL
E
T

RT = T = 3 1 (26.48)
ST
E
Applying Hookes law one obtains for a plate without a hole

1 SL
L = ( SL ST ) = ( 1 ) (26.49)
E E
1 SL
T = ( ST SL ) = ( ) (26.50)
E E
Eliminating SL/E and out of equation (26.45) into (26.50) yields
270
1 L T

L = 3 + ( L + 3 T
) (26.51)
8 L T L T

1
T = L + 3 T ( 3 L + T ) (26.52)
8 L T L T
26.4.3 Application of the ovalisation test.

Equations (26.51) and (26.52) give the relations between the strains in a plain plate and the strains at the
boundaries of a hollow plate. However, these strains are the result of the application of unknown forces or
stresses. These stresses are given by the solution developed in 26.3 for the symmetrical case. The link
between the two solutions is given by the parameter R, for the first solution, and the parameters RL and
RT, for the second solution. Those three parameters become equal to two when 0 in the first model
(symmetrical model, = 1) and when SL = ST in the second model (symmetrical case, = 1). Hence,
both models provide identical results under the mentioned conditions. However, in reality 0 and, in
the assumption that SL > ST,
L T

RL = L < 2 and RT = T < 2
SL ST
E E
Hence equations (26.51) and (26.52) underestimate the values of SL/E and ST/E and thus L and T by a
factor R/2. The correct strains then become
2
'L = L (26.53)
R
2
T' = T (26.54)
R
In the symmetrical case ( = 1), one finds that
2 1 1
'L = T' = ( r = 0 ) = 4( 1 ) = ( r = b )
R8 R
which corresponds exactly with equation (26.19) established for the first solution.
Through all this chapter, we have assumed that L / L and T / T where the principal strains, hence,
that L and T where the principal directions. In practice this is not necessarily always the case. The
principal strains are then obtained by application of the properties of Mohrs circle on strains measured in
three directions.
271
272
REFERENCES
References
Airy (1862): The Airy stress function. Brit. Assoc. Advan. Sci. Rept.
Barden (1963): Stresses and Displacements in a Cross-Anisotropic Soil. Geotechnique n 13. London.
Boussinesq (1885): Application des Potentiels lEtude de lEquilibre et du Mouvement des Solides lastiques.
Gauthier-Villars, Paris.
Bowman (1958) : Introduction to Bessel Functions. Dover Publications Inc. New York.
Burmister (1943): The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems and Applications to the Design
of Airport Runways. Proc. of the Highway Research Board.
Burmister (1944): The General Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems. Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol 16.
Bush (1980): Nondestructive Testing for Light Aircraft Pavements, Phase II. FAA Report FAA-RD-80-9-II,
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington DC.
Bradbury (1938): Reinforced Concrete Pavements. Wire Reinforcement Institute. Washington DC.
CROW. (1998a): Falling Weight Deflectometer Calibration Guide, Record 18, Ede, the Netherlands.
CROW. (1998b): Deflection profile; not a Pitfall anymore, Record 17, Ede, the Netherlands.
De Jong, Peutz, Korswagen (1973): Computer Program BISAR. Royal Shell Laboratory, Amsterdam.
Eckmann (1998): The NOAH Software. BCRA 98, Trondheim, Norway.
Eftimie (1973): Starea de tensiure in terenurile anizotrofe de fundatie. Buletinul Institutului Politechnic di Tasi.
Tome XIX, Fasc 1-2.
Frhlich (1934): Druckverteilung in Baugrund. Springer Verlag, Wien.
Kobisch, Peyronne (1979): Lovalisation, une nouvelle mthode de mesure des dformations lastiques des
chausses. Bulletin de Liaison Labo P. et Ch. n 102. Paris
Lekhnitskii (1963): Theory of Elasticity of an anisotropic Body. Holden Day Inc. San Francisco.
Love: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Cambridge University Press. New York.
Muki: Asymmetric Problems of the Theory of Elasticity. North Holland Publishing Company. Amsterdam.
Pasternak (1954): On a new method of analysis of an elastic foundation by means of two foundation constants.
Moscow: Gps. Izd. Lit. po Strait I Arkh. (In Russian).
Prandtl (1921): Uber die Eindringungsfestigkeit plastischer baustoffe und die Festigkeit von Schneiden.
Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik. Vol. 1, N 1. Pronk (1991): Personal communication.
Pronk (1993): The Pasternak foundation. An attractive alternative for the Winkler foundation. Proc. of the 5th
Intl. Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation. Purdue University. West Lafayette. USA.
Spiegel (1971): Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists. Schaums outline series. McGraw Hill Book
Company. New York.
Stet, Thewessen and Van Cauwelaert. (2001), Standard and Recommended Practices for FWD Evaluation and
Reporting Strength of Airfield Pavement; Standard submitted to NATO for Enquiry, First European FWD
Users Group Meeting, Delft University of Technology, February 2001.
Stet and Van Cauwelaert. (2004). The Elastic Length: Key to the Analysis of Multi-layered Concrete Structures.
5th International CROW Workshop On Concrete Roads. Istanbul, Turkey.
Stet, Thewessen and Van Cauwelaert. (2004). The Pavers System. A Knowledge Sharing Concept in the Design
and Assessment of Road, Airfield and Industrial Pavement. 9th International Symposium On Concrete Roads.
Istanbul, Turkey.
Timoshenko (1948): Thorie de lElasticit. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Timoshenko (1951): Thorie des Plaques et des Coques. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Timoshenko (1953): Rsistance des Matriaux. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Ullidtz (1998): Modeling Flexible Pavement Response and Performance. Polyteknisk Forlag. Narayana Press,
Denmark.
Van Cauwelaert (1977): Coefficients of Deformation of an Anisotropic Body. ASCE Journal of the Engineering
Mechanics Division. New York.
Van Cauwelaert, Cerisier (1982): Bearing Capacity considered as a geotechnical concept. BCRA92. Trondheim.
Norway.
Van Cauwelaert (1983): Llasticit anisotrope applique la mcanique des milieux granulaires. Thse de
Doctorat. Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne. Suisse.
Van Cauwelaert (1985): Contraintes et Dplacements dans un massif semi-infini isotrope ou anisotropie
transverse soumis des charges rectangulaires souples et rigides en surface. Revue Franaise de Gotechnique
n 28. Paris.
Van Cauwelaert, Lequeux, Delaunois (1986): Computer Programs for the Determination of Stresses and
Displacements in Four layered Structures. Waterways Experiment Station. Vicksburg. Mississippi.
273
Van Cauwelaert, Alexander, White, Barker (1988): Multilayer elastic program for Backcalculating Layer Moduli in
Pavement Evaluation. Nondestructive Testing of Pavements and Backcalculation of Moduli. Bush III and
Baladi Editors. STP 1026. ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
Van Cauwelaert, Stet (1998): Shear transfer and Deflection Ratios at a Joint of a Concrete Slab. Proceedings of
the 4th International Workshop on Theoretical Design on Concrete Pavements. CROW. Buaco, Portugal.
Veverka (1973) : Modules, Contraintes et Dformations des massifs et couches granulaires. Rapport de
Recherche n 162. Centre de Recherches Routires. Bruxelles.
Watson (1966): A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Wayland (1970): Complex variables applied in Science and Engineering. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New
York.
Westergaard (1926): Stresses in Concrete Pavements computed by Theoretical Analysis. Proc. Highway Research
Board, Part 1.
Westergaard (1927): Analysis of Stresses in Concrete Pavements due to the Variation of Temperature. Proc.
Highway Research Board.
Westergaard (1948): New Formulas for Stresses in Concrete Pavements of Airfields. Proceedings American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 113.
Winkler (1867): Die Lehre von der Elasticitt und Festigkeit. Prage Dominicus.
274
APPENDIX COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Appendix Complex Functions
1 Complex variables. Basic definitions.
Given the complex number

z = x + iy (A.1)
where x and y are real numbers, we call x the real part of z [x = ( z)] and y the imaginary part of z
[y = ( z)] (although y itself is real).
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal, that is
x1 + iy1 = z1 = z2 = x2 + iy 2
if and only if
x1 = x2 y1 = y2
The sum of two complex numbers is defined by the following equation
( a + ib ) + ( c + id ) = ( a + c ) + i( b + d ) (A.2)
2
and the product, replacing i by -1,
( a + ib )( c + id ) = ( ac bd ) + i( bc + ad ) (A.3)
Since a complex number is completely determined by two parameters, its real and its complex parts, it
can readily be represented by a point in a Cartesian co-ordinate system: z = x + iy is represented by the
point (x,y) (figure A.1)
y
z = x + iy
Figure A.1 Point in a Cartesian co-ordinate system
A useful extension of the geometric interpretation is the expression of complex numbers in polar form.
Using the usual relation between plane Cartesian and plane polar co-ordinates, we write
z = x + iy = r cos + ir sin
(
r = x2 + y 2 )1 / 2
= a tan( y / x )
One speaks of the length of the radius vector, r = (x2 + y2)1/2, as the modulus or absolute value of the
complex number z = x +iy. Manipulations of complex numbers in polar form are greatly facilitated by the
introduction of an identity between exponential and trigonometric functions:
ei = cos + i sin
which is easily demonstrated by expanding each of the functions in its series.
Hence we can write
275
z = r (cos + i sin ) = rei (A.4)

We conclude that the exponential function with imaginary exponent obeys the equation
ei = ei( + 2 n )
Accepting the fact that the exponential function for complex and imaginary exponents obeys the same
rules as it does for real functions, we may write
z1 z2 z3 ...zn = r1r2 r3 ...rn exp[i (1 + 2 + 3 + ...n )]
= [cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )]
z1 r1
z2 r2
z n = r n (cos n + i sin n ) (A.5)
The extraction of roots requires us to take into consideration the ambiguity in representation of a complex
number in polar form. Let us illustrate with the cubic root. We might be tempted to write
z 1 / 3 = r 1 / 3ei / 3 = r 1 / 3 [cos( / 3 ) + i sin( / 3 )]
We shall take r1/3 to mean the real cube root of the non-negative number r. The expression is a perfectly
respectable cube root of z, but the theory of equations tells us that there should be three cube roots of any
real number, and if we choose = 0 to make z real, we will have only one cube root. We can get around
this difficulty by representing z in the form
z = rei( + 2 n )
Then
z 1 / 3 = r 1 / 3 e i( / 3 + 2 n / 3 ) (A.6)
Exploration of the right side of the equation shows that there are three (and only three) distinct values for
z1/3:
z1 = r 1 / 3 e i / 3
z 2 = r 1 / 3 ei( / 3 + 2 / 3 )
z3 = r 1 / 3 ei( / 3 + 4 / 3 )
Interesting particular values are (with r = 1):
ei = cos( ) + i sin( ) = 1 (A.7)
ei / 2 = cos( / 2 ) + i sin( / 2 ) = i (A.8)
More generally (A.6) can be written

2 k 2 k
z 1 / n = r 1 / n cos + + i sin +
n
(A.9)
n n n
This last equation is called De Moivres theorem
Following equations are easily deduced from the definition (A.1)

z1 + z2 z1 + z2
z x+ y
z 1 z 2 z1 z 2
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2
276
2 Derivative of a complex function.
2.1. Definitions
If to each of a set of complex numbers with a variable z we may assume there corresponds one or more
values of a variable w, then w is called a function of the variable z, written w = f z).
A function is single-valued if for each value of z there corresponds only one value of w.
If f(z) is single-valued in some region of the z plane, the derivative of z, denoted by f(z), is defined as
f ( z + z ) f ( z )
f ' ( z ) = lim (A.10)
z 0 z
provided the limit exists independent of the manner in which z 0.
If the limit exists for z = z0, then f(z) is called analytic at z0. If the limit exists for all z in a region , then
f(z) is called analytic in . The function f(z) is continuous at z0 if lim f ( z ) = f ( z0 ).
z z0
2.2. The Cauchy Riemann conditions.

Let us establish the conditions required for the derivative to exist. Consider the complex variable
z = x + iy (A.11)
and the complex function
w = f ( z ) = + i (A.12)
We assume that the function is analytic thus that w = f(z) and its derivative dw/dz are both single-valued
and finite.
The derivative of w is given by (A.10). However, unlike real variables, z = x + iy is itself a complex
variable which can approach zero along infinitely many paths.
y O
N = z + z
= x + x +i(y + y)
Q
M = z = x + iy
Figure A 2. Cauchy Riemann conditions
Consider figure A 2. The point N = z + z can approach the point M = z along any of the paths shown. In
particular, let us consider two cases: (1) N tends to M parallel to the x-axis (along NO), thus y = 0 and
z = x; (2) N tends to M parallel to the y-axis (along NQ), thus x = 0 and z = iy. In the general case,
equation (A.10) becomes
dw ( x + x , y + y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x + x , y + y ) ( x , y )]
= lim
dz x 0 x + iy
y 0
For case (1)
277
dw ( x + x , y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x + x , y ) ( x , y )]
= lim (A.13)
dz x 0 x
and for case (2)
dw ( x , y + y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x , y + y ) ( x , y )]
= lim (A.14)
dz y 0 iy
Recognising that the difference coefficients in (A.13) and (A.14) are partial derivatives with respect to x
and y, we have respectively
dw
= +i (A.15)
dz x y
dw
= i (A.16)
dz y x
Now, if the derivative dw/dz is to be single-valued, it is necessary that (A.15) and (A.16) be equal.
Hence

= = (A.17)
x y x y
Equations (A.17) are called the Cauchy Riemann equations. They are the necessary conditions that
w = f(z) be analytic.
3 Integration of a complex function
3.1 Introduction
The integration of a complex function is a difficult operation that requires the knowledge of the following
series of preliminary steps :
- definition of a line integral:
[P( x , y )dx + Q( x , y )dy ]
C
- definition of a simple closed curve: a simple closed curve is a closed curve, which does not
intersect itself anywhere.
- integration along a closed curve:
Q P
[Pdx + Qdy ] =
C x y dxdy

- Cauchys theorem:

C
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz = 0
C
- Pole of a function: if f(z) = (z)/(z-a)n, (a) 0, where (z) is analytic in a region including
z = a, and if n is a positive integer, then z = a is called a pole of order n.
- Residue of a function: the residue of a function f(z) at a pole z = a, of order n, is defined by
the formula
a 1 = lim
za ( n
1
1 )!
d n 1
dz n 1
[
( z a )n f ( z ) ]
- If f(z) is analytic in a region bounded by two closed curves C1 and C2 then

C1
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
C2
- If C is a simple closed curve having z = a as interior point then
278
dz
C ( z a )n = 2i if n=1
dz
C ( z a )n =0 if n = 2 ,3 ,4 ,.....
- Residue theorem: if f(z) is analytic in a region except for a pole of order n at z = a and if
C is any simple closed curve in containing z = a, then
C f ( z )dz = 2ia 1 (A.18)
3.2. Definition of a line integral.

If f(z) is defined, single-valued and continuous in a region , we define the integral of f(z) along some
path C in from point z1 to point z2, where z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2, as
x 2, y 2
C
f ( z )dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy )
x1, y1
x1, y 2 x 1, y 2
= udx vdy + i vdx + udy (A.19)
x1, y1 x1, y1
With this definition, the integral of a function of a complex variable can be made to depend on line
integrals for real functions in the xy plane. Let C be a curve in the xy plane, which connects points A (a1,
b1) and B(a2,b2) (figure A 3).
b2 B
A
b1
a1 a2 x
Figure A 3 Line Intergal
Let P(x,y) and Q(x,y) be single-valued functions defined at all points of C. Subdivide C into n parts by
choosing (n 1) points on it given by (x1, y1), (x2, y2) (xn-1, yn-1). Call xk = xk xk-1 and yk = yk yk-1, k
= 1, 2, 3, , n where (a1,b1) (x0,y0) and (a2,b2) (xn,,yn) and suppose that points (k,k) are chosen so
that they are situated on C between points (xk-1,yk-1) and (xk, yk). Form the sum
n
[P( k , k )xk + Q( k , k )y k ]
k =1
The limit of this sum as n in such a way that all the quantities xk and yk approach zero, if such
limit exists, is called a line integral along C and is denoted by
C [P( x , y )dx + Q( x , y )dy ] (A.20)
or
279
a1,b1 [P( x , y )dx + Q( x , y )dy ]

a 2 ,b 2
(A.21)
3.3. Definition of a simple closed curve.

We define a simple closed curve as a closed curve, which does not intersect itself anywhere.
Mathematically, a curve in the xy plane is defined by the parametric equations x = (t) and y = (t),
where and are single-valued and continuous in an interval t1 < t < t2. If (t1) = (t2) and (t1) = (t2)
the curve is said to be closed. If (u) = (v) and (u) =(v) only when u = v (except in the special case
where u = t1 and v = t2) the curve is closed and does not intersect itself and so is a simple closed curve. If
we look down upon a simple closed curve in the xy plane, the traversal of the curve in the counter
clockwise direction is taken as positive while the traversal in the clockwise is taken as negative. We
assume that and are piecewise differentiable in t1 < t < t2.
3.4. Integration along a simple closed curve.

Let P, Q, P/y, Q/x be single-valued and continuous in a simply connected region bounded by a
simple closed curve C. Consider figure A 4.
y
F
f
A B
e
E
a b x
Figure A 4 Integration along a simple closed curve
Let the equations of the curves AEB and AFB be y =Y1(x) and y = Y2(x). If is the region bounded by C,
we have
b Y 2( x )
P P
R y dxdy = y dy dx
x = a y = Y 1( x )
b
= P( x , y ) Yy 2=(Yx1)( x ) dx
x=a
b
= [P( x ,Y2 ) P( x ,Y1 ]dx
a
b a
= P( x ,Y1 )dx P( x ,Y2 )dx
a b
280
= Pdx
C
Similarly let the equations of curves EAF and EBF be x = X1(y) and x = X2(y). One gets
Q
R x dxdy = C Qdy
Adding both result yields
Q P
C [Pdx + Qdy ] = R x dy dxdy (A.22)
3.5. Cauchys theorem.

Let C be a simple closed curve and f z) analytic within the region bounded by C as well as on C.
Apply the definition (A.19) of an integral
C f ( z )dz = C ( u + iv )( dx + idy )
. f ( z )dz = ( udx vdy ) + i ( vdx + udy )
C C C
By (A.22)
v u
C [udx vdy ] = R x y
u v
C [vdx + udy ] = R x y
Since f(z) is analytic, u/x = v/y and v/x =- u/y.
Hence the above integrals are zero and
C f ( z )dz = 0 (A. 23)
and Cauchys theorem is proved.
3.6. Pole of a function.

We define a singular point of a function f(z) as a value of z at which f(z) fails to be analytic. If f(z) is
analytic everywhere in some region except at an interior point z = a, we call z = a an isolated singularity
of f(z). If f(z) = (z)/(z-a)n, (a) 0, where (z) is analytic in a region including z = a and if n is an
integer, then f(z) has an isolated singularity at z = a which is called a pole of order n.
If n = 1, the pole is called a simple pole. A function can have other types of singularities besides poles.
For example f(z) = (z) has a branch point at z = 0: f(z) is not a single-valued function of z (cfr relation
(A.6) giving the 3 roots of z1/3). The function f(z) =sin(z)/ z has a singularity at z = 0. However, due to the
fact that lim sin( z ) / z is finite, such a singularity is called a removable singularity.
z 0
3.7. Residue of a function.
Consider the function f1(z) which we expand in a Taylor series around z = a

f 1 ( z ) = b0 + b1 ( z a ) + b2 ( z a )2 +
where
1 d i 1
bi 1 = f 1 ( z )z = a
( i 1 )! dz i 1
281
Form the series

f1( z ) a n a n + 1 a1
f(z)= = + + +
n n n 1 (za)
(za) (za) (za)
+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 + (A.24)
which is called the Laurents series of f(z).
Multiplying (A.24) by (z a)n and taking the (n 1)st derivative of both sides and letting
z a we find
a 1 = lim
1 d n 1
z a ( n 1 )! dz n 1
[
( z a )n f ( z ) ] (A.25)
the residue of the function f(z) at the pole z = a ,where n is the order of the pole.
For simple poles the calculation of the residue reduces to
a 1 = lim ( z a ) f ( z ) (A.26)
za
3.8. Region bound by two closed curves C1 and C2.
Consider figure A 5
Q
R
A
B
Figure A 5 Region bound by two closed curves C1 and C2
The line AB (called a cross-cut) connects any point on C2 and a point on C1 .

Hence by (A.23)
f ( z )dz = 0
AQPABRSBA
Thus
f ( z )dz + f ( z )dz + f ( z )dz + f ( z )dz = 0
AQPA AB BRSB BA
But
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
AB BA
Hence
282
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz

AQPA BRSB BSRB
and

C1
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
C2
(A.27)
dz
3.9. Resolution of the integral
C ( z a )n
Consider figure A 6.
C1
z=a

Figure A 6 Resolution of the integral
Let C be a simple closed curve bounding a region having z = a as an interior point. Let C1 be a circle with
radius having a centre at z = a. Since (z a)n is analytic within and on the boundaries of the region
bounded by C and C1. we have by (A.27)
dz dz
C ( z a )n = C1 ( z a )n
To evaluate this last integral, note that on C1, (z a) = ei and dz = i ei. The integral equals
2 2
i e i i ( 1 n )i
n in
d =
n 1 e d
0 e 0
2
dz e( 1 n )i
i
C ( z a )n n 1 ( 1 n )i = 0
= if n1 (A.28)
0
If n = 1, the integral equals
2
dz
C ( z a )n = i d = 2i (A.29)
0
Notice that for n = 0, -1, -2, -3, ..the integrand is 1, (z a), (z a)2 and is analytic everywhere inside
C1, including z = a. Hence by (A.23) the integral is zero.
283
3.10. The residue theorem
Let f(z) be analytic within and on the boundary of the region bounded by C except at a pole a within the
region, having a residue a-1.
Expand f(z) in its Laurents series
a n a n + 1 a1
f(z)= + + +
( z a )n ( z a )n 1 (za)
+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 +
By integration we have
a n a n + 1 a1
C f ( z )dz = C ( z a )n dz + C ( z a )n 1 dz + ..... + C ( z a ) dz

+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 + .....dz
C
Hence by (A.28) and (A.29)
C f ( z )dz = 2 ia 1 (A.30)
which is the residue theorem.
Because only the term involving a-1 remains, a-1 is called the residue of f(z) at the pole z = a.
Further if f(z) is analytic within and on the boundary C of a region except at a finite number of poles
a, b, c, ..within , having residues a-1, b-1, c-1 respectively, then
C f ( z )dz = 2 i( a1 + b1 + c1 + ....) (A.31)
284
The author, Frans Van Cauwelaert, graduated in Civil Engineering at the University of Louvain
(Belgium) and obtained a PhD in Technical Sciences at the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne
(Switzerland).
Frans can be considered as a nomad and a pioneer in the field of interest of pavement engineering, and
is well known for his unique and rigorous mathematical solutions, and the ability to put advanced
theory into everyday practice. He is also a kind of geographical nomad, having worked in many parts
all over the world: in Western Europe, Central Africa, Middle East and the United States of America.
He must be considered a technical and scientific nomad too, having worked in the field as a young
engineer, in the laboratory, in design and engineering offices and in class rooms as well. He ended his
impressive career as Head of the Department Promotion, Research and Development of the Federation
of the Belgium Cement Industry (Febelcem).
In the early seventies Frans became interested in the field of rational design of pavements and
developed several design programs: for the US Corps of Engineers, for universities, research centres,
contractors and consultants. He is also one of the three musketeers, who started the Pavers Team.
Retired, he finally found the time to reassembled 30 years of study, research and experience in his
book.

Differntial Mathematics PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Differntial Mathematics PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION

THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS

Editor: Marc Stet

Federation of the Belgian Cement Industry

Frans Van Cauwelaert

Brussels, December 2003.

Part 1: The Required Mathematics

Part 2: The Applications

PART 1: THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS................................................................................ 1

Chapter 1 The Laplace Equation.................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 The Gamma Function.................................................................................................... 9

Chapter 3 The General Solution of the Bessel Equation. .............................................................. 15

Chapter 4 Properties of the Bessel Functions. .............................................................................. 27

4.3.3 Derivative of Jp (rt)..........................................................................................................29

Chapter 5 The Beta Function ....................................................................................................... 41

Chapter 6 Definite integrals of Bessel functions ........................................................................... 45

Chapter 7 The hypergeometric type of series ............................................................................... 49

Chapter 8 Infinite Integrals of Bessel Functions........................................................................... 57

Chapter 9 Bessel functions in the complex plane .......................................................................... 77

PART 2: THE APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................... 93

Chapter 10 Laplace Equation in Pavement Engineering ............................................................ 93

10.2 Equilibrium equation for bent plates....................................................................................97

Chapter 11 The Integral Transforms........................................................................................ 111

13.4 Case of a finite beam with a joint.......................................................................................138

Chapter 16 The Multislab......................................................................................................... 163

Chapter 17 Back-calculation of Concrete Slabs ........................................................................ 171

17.6 Influence of the reference deflection..................................................................................175

Chapter 18 Thermal Stresses in Concrete Slabs ....................................................................... 179

Chapter 19 Determination of the Parameters of a Rigid Structure ........................................... 193

Chapter 20 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to a Vertical Load ............................................ 203

20.7 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform circular pressure.................................211

Chapter 21 The Semi-Infinite Body Subjected to Shear Loads ................................................. 217

Chapter 22 The Multilayered Structure ................................................................................... 225

Chapter 23 The Resolution of a Multilayered Structure ........................................................... 233

Chapter 24 The Theory of the Back-Calculation of a Multilayered Structure .......................... 241

25.4.2 Influence of Poissons ratio of the subgrade on the deflections (n = 1) ..........................258

Chapter 26 The Ovalisation Test .............................................................................................. 261

References ............................................................................................................................... 273

Appendix Complex Functions ..................................................................................................... 275

PART 1: THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS

Chapter 1 The Laplace Equation

1.1 Introductory note.

in plane Cartesian co-ordinates

Consider the relations between Cartesian and polar co-ordinates:

1.3 Equations related to the Laplace equation.

1.3.1 The Laplacian with coefficients different from 1.

For example in plane Cartesian co-ordinates

1.3.2 The double Laplacian

1.3.3 The extended Laplacian

1.4 Resolution of the Laplace equation

1.4.1 Resolution by separation of the variables

Solution in axi-symmetric cylinder co-ordinates ( Bowman,1958):

Consider equation (1.7) and apply a solution such as = f(r)g(z).

1.4.2 Resolution by means of the characteristic equation (Spiegel, 1971)

One must consider three cases:

Case 1. Roots all real and distinct.

Case 3. Some roots are repeated.

If m1 is a root of multiplicity k, then a solution is given by:

Consider the double Laplacian in plane Cartesian co-ordinates:

1.4.3 Resolution by means of indicial equations

2.1.a 2 + 3.2.a 3 x + 4.3.a4 x 2 L + k 2 a0 + k 2 a1 x + k 2 a 2 x 2 L = 0

Chapter 2 The Gamma Function

2.1 Introductory note