.

2013


, 2 3
, ,
.

. " "
, . ""
.
.

, . -
.
1 . 1
,
,
. -
, ,
.
2
, ,
, .
3
.
2 3
, . -
,
, , -
, -
.

/
.
SPICE ,
M.Sc. . (
& ).

. .
(
& ).


/ .

.
, 14 2013

iii


iv


1
1.1 1
1.2 1
1.2.1 2
1.2.2 2
1.2.3 3
1.3 3
1.3.1 3
1.3.2 3
1.3.3 - 4

5
2.1 5
2.2 6
2.3 9
2.4 10
2.5 12
2.5.1 13
2.5.2 13
2.5.3 13
2.5.4 13
2.5.5 14
2.5.6 14
2.5.7 14
2.5.8 15
2.6 15
2.7 18
2.8 20
2.9 22

2.10 23
2.11 25
2.12 26
2.13 26
2.14 MILLER 27
2.15 - 28
2.16 29

31
3.1 31
3.1.1 34
3.1.2 34
3.1.3 35
3.1.4 35
3.2 36
3.3 38
3.4 40
3.5 SUPERSTRIP 43
3.6 UNI-T 44

1: 45
1.1 45
1.2 45
1.3 45
1.4 49

2:
51

2.1 51
2.2 51

vi


2.3 56
2.3.1 58
2.3.2 59
2.3.3 60
2.3.4 60

2 62
2.4 62
2.5 63
2.6 64
2.7 64

2 65
2.8 65
2.9 66
2.10 66
2.11 66

3:
SPICE
67

3.1 67
3.2 SPICE 68
3.3 69
3.4 69
3.5 , 70
3.5.1 70
3.5.2 72
3.5.3 77
3.6 78
3.6.1 78
3.6.2 81
3.6.3 82

vii


1:
83

1.1 83
1.2 84
1.3 86
1.4 () 89
1.5 BODE 92
A1.6 93
1.7 95
1.8 99
1.9 100

1 101
1.10 101
1.11 102
1.12 103

1 104
1.13 104
A1.14 105
1.15 106
1.16 106

2:
107
A2.1 107
2.2 THEVENIN 108
2.3 NORTON 111
2.4 THEVENIN NORTON 112
2.5 112
2.6 115

viii


2.6.1 116
2.6.2 118
2.6.3 119
2.6.4 121
2.7 122

2 124
2.8 124
2.9 125
2.10 126
2.11 126

3: 127
A3.1 127
A3.2 127
A3.3 128
A3.4 129
A3.4.1 129
A3.4.2 130
A3.4.3 131
A3.4.4 G 133
A3.4.5 ABCD 135
A3.4.6 'B'C'D' 136
A3.5 136
A3.6 136
A3.6.1 136
A3.6.2 138
A3.6.3 139
A3.7 140
A3.8 - 141

3 144
A3.9 144
A3.10 145
A3.11 146
A3.12 146

ix


147
148
155

x

1


1.1
:

1.
, .
2. ,
.
3. ,

.
4.
.
5. .

1.2
" " -
. -
: , -
.

1.2.1
,
-
, .
,
"", . -
, , , ,
.

, ,
,
.
.
.

.

( ) .

1.2.2
,
"
". ,

, " ",
.

,
. -

. -
,
, .

(..
) . ,
(.. Hameg HM204),
(.. 5 W) ,
. ,
"",
.

,
(Volts / Div) -
(Sec / Div) , . ,
.
(.. I = 2.0 A),
.
(.. U1 = 2.20 V, I3 = 34 mA, R = 22 k).

,
,

.
:
.

1.2.3
,
.
,
, ,
.

" ".

,
,
. ,
,
, .

,
.

1.3
,
, .

1.3.1
1. ,
, .
2.
,
. , .
3. , ,
, .
4. , .
5.
, .

1.3.2
,
, .
.
.

.
. , .

1.3.3 -
, : ()
, () () .
.

(, , , ...),
.

2.1


2-1.

2-1

G Giga 109
M Mega 106
k Kilo 103
m Milli 10-3
Micro 10-6
n Nano 10-9
p Pico 10-12

, .
:

1. Ohm, [].
, , [E].

[k], [M] [G] [m]. ,
, [] : ..
10 k = 10 k, 1 M = 1 M. ,
: .. 2k2 = 2.2 k, 1M5 = 1.5 M.

2. Farad, [F].
[F], [nF] [pF].
[F], : ..
10 = 10F, 3n9 = 3.9 nF . , [] ,

.

3. Henry, [H].
[mH] [nH].
[H] .

4. byte. :
1 kB = 1024 bytes 1 MB = 1048576 bytes = 1024 kB.
bit, 1 kb = 1024 bits, 1 Mb = 1048576 bits.

2.2
,
( ),
,
.
, . ,
2-2, 2-3
.

1. 2-1().
. , ,
: , , , . , :

2 7 000 5%

27 k 5%.
25650 ... 28350 .

2-2
1 2 (%)
- 0 1 20 (M)
1 1 10 1 (F)

2 2 100 2 (G)
3 3 1000
4 4 104
5 5 105
6 6 106
7 7 107
8 8 108
9 9 109
0.1 5 (J)
0.01 10 (K)

() ()

2-1. () () .

1%,
. , ,
.

2-3
1 2 (%) (V)
- 0 1 20 (M)
1 1 10 1 (F)
2 2 100 2 (G) 250

3 3 1000
4 4 104 400
5 5 105 5 (J)
6 6 630
7 7
8 8 10-2
9 9 10-1 10 (K)

2. 2-1(). :
, , , , . , :

1 2 7 000 1%

127 k 1%.
125730 ... 128270 .

, ()
.
: 2M2 K = 2.2 M 10%, 1k8 J = 1.8 k 5%,
330R M = 330 20%, 1R0 G = 1 2%,
R56 M = 0.56 20%.

(
, ).
5 ,
, 3 (
[pF]), 4 5 .

. 2-3 .
5 , .

3. 2-2.
. , , : , , , , .
, :

1 2 0000 20% 630V

120000 pF (120 nF) 20%.

96 nF ... 144 nF.

2-2. .

, ( )
,
. , , .
: 104 = 100000 pF 20% (100 nF),
472 = 4700 pF 10% (4.7 nF),
12 J = 12 pF 5%.

[F].
: .1 = 0.1 F (100 nF),
.0047 = 4.7 nF.
220 = 220 F (),

2.3
,
, -
,
. , ,
.
12. 12
2-4.
,
1318 , , 1200 .

2-4

12

1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2

E
. E12 20%,

10%. .
:

3 6 12 24 48 96 192

E48. 2-5.
(metal film) 1% E48.

2-5

48

1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.21 1.27 1.33 1.40 1.47 1.54 1.62 1.69

1.78 1.87 1.96 2.05 2.15 2.26 2.37 2.49 2.61 2.74 2.87 3.01

3.16 3.32 3.48 3.65 3.83 4.02 4.22 4.42 4.64 4.87 5.11 5.36

5.62 5.90 6.19 6.49 6.81 7.15 7.50 7.87 8.25 8.66 9.09 9.53

2.4

,
. , ,
.
,
, .
, .
() (),
.

2-3. .

, 2-3.
.

10


(dissipation or loss factor) D, :

1
D = R s Cs = (2.1)
R p Cp

D (D x 100 %).
.
:

D2
Cs = (1+ D 2 ) Cp R s = Rp (2.2)
1+ D 2

, ,
, Q, :

o = arctan D Q = 1 D (2.3)

, 2-4.
,
, .
(quality factor) Q,
:

Ls Rp
Q= = (2.4)
Rs L p

2-4. .

11


.
.
:

Q2 1
Ls = Lp R s = Rp (2.5)
1+ Q 2 1+ Q 2

2.5


,
T, . f(t) :

f (t) = f (t + T) (2.6)

,
:

f ( t ) = A o cos ( t ) (2.7)

2-5. () ()
.

12


f(t) (2.7) (2.6).

(
Fourier) :

f ( t ) = A o + A1 cos ( t ) + A 2 cos ( 2t ) + (2.8)

, ,
2-5(), 2-5(). -
.

2.5.1
(amplitude) ( )
, . ,
, , . : V0, Vm, Vmax, I0, Im, Imax.

(positive peak value) (negative
peak value).

2.5.2
(peak-to-peak value)
,
. .
: Vpp, Ipp.

2.5.3
(root-mean-square value or effective value)
, ,
. .
, v(t),
:

T
1 2
v ( t ) dt
T 0
Vrms = (2.9)

. : Vrms, Veff, Irms, Ieff.

2.5.4
(average value or mean value)
. f(t) :

13


T
1
f avg = f ( t ) dt (2.10)
T0

2.5.5
(total harmonic distortion)
.
:

A 22 + A 32 +
THD = 100% (2.11)
A1

A1, A2 Fourier (2.8).

A0 (2.11),
.
.

2.5.6
(form factor)
,
RMS .
:

Vrms
ff = (2.12)
Vavg

.

.

2.5.7
(crest factor).
"" .
.
(sampling),
:

Vpeak
cf = (2.13)
Vrms

14


2.5.8
, 2-5.
2-6.

2-6
Peak-to-peak


() Im I pp = 2I m I rms 0
() - I pp = I m1 I m2 I rms Iavg

(AC ). ,
, ,
:

T
1
v ( t ) dt
T 0
= (2.14)

(rms) .
. ,
.
, ,
(true rms DMM).

27
.

2.6
, , PC (per cent, [%])
PT (per thousand, [])
PM (part per million, [ppm]).
:

PT = PC 10 [ % ] PM = PC10000 [ ppm ] (2.15)

.
, ,
.
, "" decibel (db),
.

15


Am
A m sin ( t ) Am 2A m 0
2

A m sin ( t )
0 t<T 2
Am Am
-- Am
2
0
T 2 t<

Am 2A m
A m sin ( t ) Am
2

A m
0 t<T 2
Am 2A m Am 0
-A m
T 2 t<T

A m
0 t<d
Am d Amd
-- Am
T T
0
dt<T

( A m d) t
0 t<d
Am d Amd
-- Am
3T 2T
0
dt<T

16


, , db
( log 10) :

V1
rv = 20log [db] (2.16)
V2

I1
ri = 20log [db] (2.17)
I2

P1
rp = 10 log [db] (2.18)
P2

V1 V2 , rv
( ) db.
.
db, :

V1 V
20log [ db] = -20log 2 [ db] (2.19)
V2 V1

db ( ),
( ),
.

decibel
P = 1 mW, R = 600 .
V = P R = 0.775 V ,
I = P / V = 1.29 mA. ,
, dbm, :

V
Vdbm = 20log [ dbmV ] (2.20)
0.775 V

I
Idbm = 20log [ dbmA ] (2.21)
1.29 mA

P
Pdbm = 10log [ dbmW ] (2.22)
1mW

17


V = 1 V
R = 75 . P = 13.33 mW
I = 13.33 mA. ,
, dbV, :

V
VdbV = 20log [ dbV V ] (2.23)
1V

I
IdbV = 20log [dbV A ] (2.24)
13.33mA

P
PdbV = 10log [ dbV W ] (2.25)
13.33mW

PC [%],
decibel r [db], , :

r = 20 ( logPC - 2 ) [ db ] PC = 10( [%]

r 20 ) +2
(2.26)

A ( = A1-A2) ,
PC = (A|A1) x 100 %, A2 / A1 decibel ( )
:

r = 20 1 log ( PC 100 ) [ db ] PC = 100 (110r 20 ) [ % ] (2.27)

2.7
,
(220 V),
.
, ,
. , , ,
.

26 ,
. ,
, ( ). ,
, . ,
, ,

18


. , R2
.

R1

-
-
R2 IN

GND

2-6. .

1. , , .
, ,
.

2. () ,
, .
.

220V 220V

2-7. .

3. .
1:1,
220 V, 220 V. ,
,
. 2-7
.

19


.
, ,
, .

4.
, . ,
.

2.8

2-8 .
:

2-8. .

1. T, [sec].
2. To Am [V] [A].
3. d [sec], .

dc (duty cycle) :

d
dc = 100 % (2.28)
T

20


, ,
2-9. :

pulse duration d

settling
time ts
tilt s
overshoot Ao
ringing Ar

90%

amplitude Am
50% A

10%

droop Ad
rise time tr

fall time tf

period T

2-9. .

1. ts (settling time)
.
2. tr (rise time)
10% 90%.
3. tf (fall time)
90% 10%.
4. Ao (overshoot) [%]
.
5. Ar (ringing)
, [%] .
6. Ad (droop) , .
7. Tj (jitter)
, [%] .
8. s (tilt) ,
2-9.

21


2-9,
fH (upper cutoff frequency) :

0.35
fH =
tr
[ Hz ] (2.29)

fL (lower cutoff frequency)

:

s
fL =
2d
[ Hz ] (2.30)

, ,
. ,

,
.
, 17.5 nsec ,
2 nsec. tr,
:

t r = t 2m - t 02 - t p2 (2.31)

tm , to
tp .
100 nsec,
(2.31).

2.9
,
(transistors, .)
.
,
. ,
.
, 2-10().
.

22


14 13 12 11 10 9 8 8 7 6 5 5
6 4

SN 7404 LM 741 7 LM 741 3

8 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1

() () ()

2-10. : () 14 , () 8 -
() .

2-10() 8
, , .

2.10
, , ,
.
, :

1. (.. 10, 20, 30 .)

. ,
.

2.
, .. i [A].

3. .
,
: ..
2.5 A...3 A, 2.5 A 2 A.

4. .
, .

5. .
, ,
.

6.
. .

23


2-11
R-C, .

2-11. .

24


2.11
,
(voltage divider) (current divider).
2-12(), 2-12().

+ i
Z1 o

Vi Z1 Z2
+
Z2 Vo
- -

() ()

2-12. () () .

,
:

Z2
Vo = Vi (2.32)
Z1 + Z2

,
:

Z1
Io = Ii (2.33)
Z1 + Z2

25


2.12
,
: - :
- , (source transformation).

2-13. .

2-13() Vs Zs,
2-13() Is Zs.
2-13 Zs
, Vs Is :

Vs = Is Zs (2.34)

2.13
,
,
.
2-14() . [2]
Vs Z1 Z2.
2-14(),
. Z1,
Z2, ... Zn [2].

26


2-14. .

2 2
Z1 Z2 1 Z1 Z2 3

1 3

Is Is Is
() ()

2-15. .

2-15() . [1] [3]

Is Z1 Z2.
2-15(),
.
Z1, Z2, ... Zn [1] [3].

2.14 MILLER
Miller ( )
( transistors, ),
. 2-16()
, G.
[1] [2] V1 V2, .
Z. Miller,
2-16(),
, :

V1Z V2 Z
Z1 = Z2 = (2.35)
V1 - V2 V2 - V1

27


2-16. Miller.

1 2 1 2

I1 I2 Z1 I1 I2 Z2

G G

() ()

2-17. Miller.

2-17() ,
.
[1] [2] I1 I2, .
Miller,
217(), , :

Z1 =
( I1 + I2 ) Z Z2 =
( I1 + I2 ) Z (2.36)
I1 I2

2.15 -
-
, ,
, (star - delta transformation or -T transformation).
2-18 .

28


Z3
Za Zb

Z2 Z1
Zc

() ()

2-18. .

Z = Za + Z b + Zc (2.37)

Z b Zc Za Zc Za Z b
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = (2.37)
Z Z Z

Z Y = Z1Z2 + Z1Z3 + Z2 Z3 (2.38)

Za =
Z Y
Zb =
Z Y
Zc =
Z Y
(2.38)
Z1 Z2 Z3

2.16

, .. , .
,
. ()
(), ()
( ) ()

(, ),

29


, -
.

(sensitivity) . Sy,x
y x, :

y y
Sy,x = (2.39)
x x

x x y
y. (x 0), :

y x
Sy,x = (2.40)
x y

, y -
x. . [%].
,
.

,
, :

Rf
AV = - (2.41)
Ri

Rf Ri . (2.40)
(2.41) :

1
SAV ,R f = 1 SAV ,R i = (2.42)
Rf

SA ,R Rf SA ,R
v f v i

Ri.

30


3.1
HAMEG HM203-6.
, ,
, 3-1.
,
.

1. (Power) - 5. (X-Y operation)

. X-Y (
Lissajoux ).
2. (Intensity) X
.
.
3. (Focus)
, . 6. (X position)

4. (Trace rotation) (-).
(
) 7. (Hold-off time)
. -
,
.

.

31


8. (Trigger LED) 18. (X-mag x10) -

[12],
. 10 .

9. (TV separator) 19. (Calibrator output) -

, - ,
. ,
probe .
10. (Trigger selector)
20. (Component tester) -
. , -
AC:10 Hz...20 MHz, DC: 0...20 MHz, transistors.
HF: 1.5 kHz...40 MHz, LF: 0...1 kHz,
~: 21. (Y position I)
(50 Hz). I,
(-).
11. (Triggering slope)
- 22. (Invert Channel I)
(+) () - -
. I.

12. (Time / Div) 23. (Channel I input)

( - I.
).
24. (Ground) .
13. (Time / Div variable) -
. 25. (Vertical coupling) -

- I. DC:
[12]. , AC:

14. (External triggering) ( ), GD:
-
. .

15. (Trigger input) - 26. (Volts / Div)

I.
(
[14]). 27. (Variable gain) -
I
16. (Auto / Normal triggering) .
( -
) [26].
-
. 28. (Channel I / II - Trigger I / II selector)

17. (Trigger level) - . -
Dual [29], -
.

32


I 32. [27] II.

II.
33. [25] II.
29. (Dual)
34. .
. -
(alternate) . 35. [23] II.

Add [30], 36. [22] II.
(chopped) . X-Y -
.
30. (Add)
- 37. [21] II.
, X-Y
Dual [29]. .
Invert [22]
-
.

31. [26] II.

3-1. .

33


probe,
[x1x10] probe. [x10],
, -
(Volts / Div) x10. [x1] -
.

, , probe,
.
: () probe [19] . ()
(Volts / Div) (sec / Div),
. ()
probe, .

, ,
() probes,
.
.

.

3.1.1
,
(peak to peak).
,
. 5.3 DIV.
2 V / DIV, :

Vpp = 5.3 DIV 2 V DIV = 10.6 V (3.1)

, RMS
:

Vrms 0.35 Vpp (3.2)

3.1.2
,
.
2.7 (DIV)
. 5 ms / DIV. ,
:

t = 2.7 DIV 5 ms DIV = 13.5 ms (3.3)

34


3.1.3
,
(
) . ,
5.5 DIV. -
. :

1 1
f= = = 36.36 Hz (3.4)
5.5 DIV 5 ms DIV 27.5 ms

3.1.4
(phase displacement)
, .
, ,
( ) (
) . ,
.
.
0.6 (DIV). :

0.6 DIV 5 ms DIV

= 360 = 39.28 (3.5)
5.5 DIV 5 ms DIV

35


3.2
GOOD WILL GDM-8035F.
,
3-2. 3+1/2 .

3-2. .

.
[COM], , .
,
500 V, .
.
.

: (5
) (6 ).
, ,
. , ,
, , . , -
.
.

1. . [V-].
[DCV]. [0.2...2000].
( [2000]) 1200 V,
, [2000],
[DCV]. Volts
. (-),

( [+], [-]).

2. .
[V]. [ACV].
[0.2...2000]. ( [2000])
1000 Vrms. (rms) Volts.

36


3. .
[2AMAX]. [DCmA].
[0.2...2000]. mA. 20 A,
[20AMAX]
[20] . , , Amp.

4. . ,
[ACA]. (rms).

5. . [V-]. -
[k]. [0.2...2000].
k. 20 M,
[20] . , , M.
, [k] [2].
. .
, (V) V.

,
[V-].
, .

, , [DCV].

.

37


3.3
ESCORT ECG-2230.
, , ,
, 0.02 Hz 2 MHz.
50 > 20 Vpp .
0.1 Hz 10 MHz. 3-3
.
.

3-3. .

1. (Power) 6. (Hz)
. Hz.

2. (Counter Display) - 7. (Freq) -

[INT] [EXT]
(- ,
). -
[14].
3. (Over)
8. (Width) ,

. ,

4. (Gate) VCF [22].
. ,

5. (kHz) ,
kHz. .

38


9. (Rate) -
- [21].
,
[8]. - 16. (-20dB)
, - , -
.
[15].
10. (Duty) - 20 mV,
(duty cycle) - 200 mV.
50 %
100 %. 17. (-40dB) ,

. 40 dB (100 ).
- .
, [18]
60 dB (1000 ).
0 % 50 %.
18. (-20dB) ,
11. (Offset) ,
20 dB (10 ).
- . -
. - [17]
60 dB (1000 ).
. -
19. (Mode selector) -
. , -
.
12. (Push TTL) -
, - 20. (TTL / CMOS)
[20] TTL
TTL (0V 5V). CMOS,
, [12].
-
CMOS (0V [19].
5..15V).
21. (Ext Counter)
13. (Amplitude)
.
[23].
22. (VCF)
14. (Range Selector) -
- -
. - . [8]
[7]. [9].

15. (Ext) , 23. (Output)

-
, - ,
. , .
-

39


3.4
ESCORT EPS-2250.
: () 5 V , 2 A. () 0..20 V ,
0.5 A () 0..20 V , -
0.5 A.
, 3-4. [+]
, [-]. .

15 12 14 15 13 11

2 A/B OUTPUTS
POWER A TRACKING

1 0 25 0 600
PARALLEL
INDEP-
ON SERIES ENDED

V B mA A B
OFF VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

5V 2A 0..20V 0.5A 0..20V 0.5A

MIN MAX MIN MAX
overload overload overload CURRENT CURRENT
GND
- + - + - +
MIN MAX MIN MAX

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3-4. .

1. (Power) 5. (0..20V - 0.5A)

. ()
0..20V. [7].
2. (Power LED)
. 0.5A [8].

3. (GND) - , -
. - (overload) .

. .

4. (5V - 2A) 6. (0..20V - 0.5A)

5V. () -
2A. 0..20V.
[9].
, 0.5A [10].
(overload) . -
2A. ,

40


(overload)
. - [tracking]. -
. (A) -
(B), 0..20 V
7. (A Voltage) 0..1 A. [7]
(A) . [8].
[series] (A)
8. (A Current) (B)
(A)
.
[tracking]. -
9. (B Voltage) - [+] (A)
(B) . [-] (B),
[11] 0..40 V 0..0.5 A.
[tracking] [7]
[8].
.
12. (Voltmeter) -
10. (B Current) (A) (B), -
(B) [14].
.
[11] 13. (Ammeter) -
[tracking] (A) (B), -
. [14].

11. (A / B Outputs) 14. (A / B meter switch)

[independent] (A) (B)
.
-
[7],[8] [9],[10]. 15. (Zero adjust)
[parallel] (A) (B) ()
, ,
.

[overload],

.

[11] [independent],
3-5. [11] [parallel], -
3-6. [11]
[series], 3-7.

41


3-5. independent.

3-6. parallel.

3-7. series.

42


3.5 SUPERSTRIP
-
,
,
.
.

superstrip,
.
superstrip 3-8.

,
.
(+Vcc -Vcc),
(0V)
.
.

3-8. SUPERSTRIP.

43


UNIT UTG9000C Series

DC offset :

ATTENUATOR :

10 db, 20db,30 db, 40 db, ...

UNIT UT803

44

2

( 102)


A1

1.1

.

1.2
1, 2 3 .

1.3

1. . (, , , ,
, ).

. (, )
.
,
.

45


. .
.
.

2. probe
probe ( ) [ 2V]
. [GD] [Vertical
coupling]
. [DC].
[Volts/Div] [Time/Div]
. [Variable
gain]
[Volts/Div].
[ 1 - 10] probe. , ,
(2)
.
(peak to peak). [Volts/Div]
.

3. vs(t)
f = 1 kHz Vpp = 8 V 1-1.

, ,
.
.
[Volts/Div] [Time/Div]
vs(t)
Vpp. [GD]
[Vertical coupling]
vs(t) . , ,
vs(t)
. [Volts/Div]
[Time/Div] .

1-1.

. T vs(t)
[Time/Div variable]
[Time/Div].
[Time/Div] .

46


. T,
vs(t)
.

. vs(t)
f = 500 KHz Vpp = 8 V 1-2.
[Offset] . ,
, vs(t)
. [Volts/Div]
[Time/Div] .

1-2.

4. . f = 1 kHz
Vpp = 10 V 1-3.
, ,
vs(t) .
[Volts/Div] [Time/Div] .

Vpp = 50 mV
[-40 db] . , ,
vs(t)
.

vs
Vo

0 T t

-Vo

1-3. .

47


. f = 1 KHz
Vpp = 10 V.

, 1-4.
. vc(t)
vR(t) ,
.

() probes,
.
.

1-4. RC .

[Invert channel II]

vR(t)
. .

[Dual]
. [Time/Div]
vc(t) vR(t).

t vc(t)
vR(t).
[Time/Div] . ;

.

. Vcpp VRpp. [Volts/Div]

.

. Vspp
vs(t)
(vs(t) = vc(t) + vR(t)) [ADD] .

Vspp = Vcpp + VRpp

. .
.
.
;
Vspp = 10 V .

5. .
[5V 2A] .

48


.
;

.
= 10 V.

. [Series] [A / B outputs].
() () .
[+] () [-] ().
= 30V.

1.4
1.
1k, , .
2.
100n, .
3. -
,
4.
1N4148

49


A2

2.1

. (first order electric circuit)
(energy storage element),
(capacitor or inductor), (second order)
.

(linear differential equations), ,
,
.

2.2

(resistor), 2-1.

(t = 0) (switch) S (
). Kirchhoff (KVL,

51


Kirchhoff's Voltage Law) , (-

), :

t
1
E = R i ( t ) + i ( ) d + vC ( 0 ) t0 (2.1)
C0

i(t) vC(0) ( -
) t = 0.

2-1. RC .

vC(0) = 0,
(source excitation). ,
vC(0), (initial
conditions excitation). , ,
(complete excitation).

(2.1), , :

di ( t ) 1
+ i(t) = 0 t0 (2.2)
dt RC

t

y(t) = A e
t0 y(t) = 0 t 0 (2.3)

(2.3) (2.2), y(t) = i(t) A = Io,

:

= RC (2.4)

52


2-2. .

(time constant) .
y(t) 1 / e ( 36.79%)
t = 0, 2-2. ,

63.21% . 1 / (natural
frequency) , rad/sec. Io = i(0),
:

E vC ( 0 )
Io = (2.5)
R

, (time domain)
:

E v C ( 0 ) t
i(t) = e (2.6)
R

i(t) , ..
vC(t) :

vC ( t ) = E R i ( t ) (2.7)

v C ( t ) = E (1 e t ) + vC ( 0 ) e t (2.7)

v C ( t ) = E E v C ( 0 ) e t (2.7)

(2.7), E(1-e-t / ) (zero state

response) , vC(0)e-t /

53


(zero input response) .

(complete response).
(initial state).

(2.7), E (steady state response)

t , [E - vC(0)]e-t /
(transient response) . -

5 .

i(t)
E/R

0 t

vR(t)
E

0 t

vC(t)
E

0 t

2-3. RC .

2-3 i(t),
vR(t) vC(t).
vC(0) = 0.

2-4 i(t), RC
.

, , :

1. (direct current), (open circuit),

(short circuit).

54


2. vC(t) iL(t), -
(continuous functions) t.
t 0,
(bounded) .

2-4. : () () -
.

2-5 RC
(square wave generator) vs(t),
vs(t), i(t), vC(t).

2-5. RC .

55


L R.
, -
, , :

L
= (2.8)
R

( ) ,
-
:

1. (
, ).

2. ( )
.

( ) , -
, :

= R eq Ceq = Leq R eq
(2.9)

Req, Ceq Leq (equivalent)

.

2.3
--
, RLC, 2-6.

1
- vC +
i
-
S
2 C L vL
+
R -
E
vR
+

2-6. RLC .

, S
1 ,
(i(t) = 0, vC(t) = E). , S 2 (t = 0). R, L
C i(t),

56


RLC, (periodic
damped oscillation).
.
. -
: ,
, ,
, .

Kirchhoff, ,
RLC
2 :

d 2i ( t ) R d i ( t ) i ( t )
+ + =0 t0 (2.10)
dt 2 L dt LC

i ( t ) = A est
(2.11)

s (complex variable) s = a + j (j
, j2 = -1). (2.11) (2.10), :

2 R 1 st
s + s + Ae = 0 t0
L LC (2.12)

Aest 0 t > 0, (2.12) :

R 1
s2 + s+ =0 (2.13)
L LC

(characteristic polynomial) -
. :

R 1
a= o = d = o2 a 2 (2.14)
2L LC

(2.13) :

s 2 + 2a s + o2 = 0 (2.15)

a (damping constant, rad/sec),

o (o = 2f, angular resonant frequency)
RLC. d -
(natural resonant frequency). (2.15) :

57


s1 = a + jd s 2 = a jd (2.16)

(2.10) :

i ( t ) = A1es1t + A 2 es2 t t0 s1 s 2 (2.17)

i ( t ) = ( A1 + A 2 t ) es t t0 s1 = s 2 = s
(2.17)

s1 s2 (poles) . A1 A2
. , ,
(quality factor) Q RLC :

o o L 1 L 1
Q= = = = (2.18)
2a R R C o RC

RLC -
.

RLC ,
a o.

2.3.1

L 1
a > o R > 2 Q< (2.19)
C 2

E
vc(t)

i(t)

0 t

2-7. i(t) vc(t) RLC

(overdamping).

58


s1,2 (negative real

numbers). (imaginary) ( -
). i(0) = 0 vC(0) = E,
(2.17a) (2.20), i(t) vc(t)
27.

E
i(t) = (e s2 t
es1t ) (2.20)
2L a
2 2
o

2.3.2

L 1
a = o R=2 Q= (2.21)
C 2

s1 = s2 = -a.
d = 0 ( ). i(0) = 0 vC(0) = E,
(2.17b) (2.22), -
i(t) vc(t) 2-8.

E a t
i(t) = te
L (2.22)

E
vc(t)

i(t)
0 t

2-8. i(t) vc(t) RLC

(critical damping).

59


2.3.3

L 1
a < o R < 2 Q> (2.23)
C 2

s1,2 (conjugate complex) .

( T).
i(0) = 0 vC(0) = E, (2.17a) -
(2.24). (E / Ld)eat (envelope) -
i(t). i(t) vc(t)
2-9.

E a t
i(t) = e sin ( d t ) (2.24)
Ld

2-9. i(t) vc(t) RLC

(underdamping).

2.3.4

a =0 R =0 Q (2.25)

s1,2 .
, d = o ( T).
i(0) = 0 vC(0) = E, (2.24)

60


(2.26), i(t) vc(t)

2-10.

E
i(t) = sin ( d t )
Ld (2.26)

E vc (t)

0 T t

i(t)

2-10. i(t) vc(t)

RLC (lossless).

61


2.4

1. . 2-1. W,
(t = 0)
. -
t > 0.

. 2-11. vs(t)
Vo = 5 V.
Ro .
vC(t)
(T/2 > t > 0 T > t > /2). 3
2-1,
RC.

2-1

1 2 3

f 1 kHz 1 kHz 500 kHz

R 4.7 k 47 k 4.7 k

C 10 nF 10 nF 10 pF

2-11. RC .

62


. 3 2-1,
, , vs(t)
vC(t) .

. 1 2-1, tr
.

2. 2-12. vs(t)
Vo = 5 V
f = 1 kHz. Ro
R1 R2. D
( ,
), -
- .
. vC(t)
vR2(t)
R2 (T/2 > t > 0
T > t > /2). vs(t),
VR2(t) R2 vC(t) .
1 2 .

R1
4k7
D
R2 C +
vs vC
4k7
10n
-

2-12. RC - .

2.5

1. 2-11. I -
II .

. , , vs(t)
vc(t) 1 2-1.
tr. , vR(t)
, , (
)
.

. 2 , , vs(t)
vc(t). Vpp
. Vpp .

. vs(t) vc(t) 3
. .

63


2. 2-12. vs(t)
Vo = 5 V
f = 1 kHz. I
R2 II . , ,
vR2(t) vc(t)
.

2.6

1. .
.
,
Ro . 3 2-1,
;

.
( ) -
1 2-1.
; -

, , ;

. 2 2-1,
;
;

, -
, ;

.
;

2. .
.

. ;

2.7
1.
4k7 x 2, 47k
2.
10p, 10n
3.
1N4148

64


2.8

1. 213. vs(t)
Vo = 5 V f = 100 Hz.

.
. ,
(>> 5)
. -
.

2-2

1 2 3 4

R 0 100 2.2 k 1 k

C 100 nF 100 nF 100 nF 100 nF

2-13. RLC .

.
. 4
2-2, fo, fd,
a Q
.

65


T ,
.

. , ,
vs(t) vc(t) , 4
2-2.

2.9
1. 2-13. vs(t)
Vo = 5 V
f = 100 Hz. I
II . ,
, vs(t) vc(t)
4 2-2.
fd
.

2.10

1. . -
. Ro
;

.
LC;

2.11
1.
100, 1k, 2k2
2.
100n
3.
30 mH ( 0.24 )
4.
1N4148

66


A3
SPICE

3.1

: )
) .

) .
.
.
,
,
. MATLAB.

) .
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis). ,
(, , transistor, ..),
(, , ..) (
) (AC, DC ..).
,
, .

Spice 67


3.2
SPICE

SPICE, o
,
.

SPICE :

)
.

)
(Monte Carlo
Analysis).

)
(Circuit Optimization).

)
(Worst Case).

)

(Parameter Sweeping).

)
SPICE.

)
.

) ,
.

SPICE .
IsSpice
SPICE Intusoft.

http://www.intusoft.com .

Spice 68


3.3
IsSpice ,
.

) DC . DC
(.. , ) .
, ,
.

) AC . AC
.
.

) (Transient Analysis).
,
.
Fourier.

A3.4

IsSpice (IsEd),
(SpiceNet). :

) ,
.
.

) ,
. :

_ _

,
.
.

) ,
,
. :

,
( , scientific notation ),
.
:

Spice 69


T = 1x1012 = 1E12 (Tera) M = 1x10-3 = 1E-3 (Mili)

G = 1x109 = 1E9 (Giga) U = 1x10-6 = 1E-6 (Micro)
MEG = 1x106 = 1E6 (Mega) N = 1x10-9 = 1E-9 (Nano)
K = 1x103 = 1E3 (Kilo) P = 1x10-12 = 1E-12 (Pico)
F = 1x10-15 = 1E-15 (Fino)

.
.
,

. ,
[ ... ].
, (default value).

) (.END) .

3.5 ,

IsSpice
,
.
( ),
.
, ,
.

3.5.1
) (Resistor). ,
:

Rxxxxxx NI NF RESISTANCE () [TC=tc1 [tc2]]

R.
NI (initial node) NF (final node) .

tc1 tc2 .
.

RLOAD 2 6 18K

R17 8 3 1.2MEG

Spice 70


) (Capacitor). ,
:

Cxxxxxx NI NF [POLY] CAPACITANCE (F) [C1 [C2]] [IC=INITIAL_VOLTAGE (V)]

C. C1, C2,

,
POLY.

IC (IC=INITIAL_VOLTAGE=VOLTAGE(NI)-VOLTAGE(NF))
.
(.TRAN), UIC
(Use Initial Conditions). (default value) .

C2 12 4 3U
CIN 2 5 400N IC=0.95

) (Inductor). ,
:

Lxxxxxx NI NF [POLY] INDUCTUNCE (H) [L1 [L2]] [IC=INITIAL_CURRENT (A)]

L. L1, L2,

,
POLY.

IC (IC=INITIAL_CURRENT NI NF
) .
(.TRAN),
UIC (Use Initial Conditions). (default value) .

LPRIMARY 4 0 8
L3 2 6 5M IC=10M

) (Coupled Inductors). :

Kxxxxxx LAAAAAA LBBBBBB COEFICIENT_OF_COUPLING

Kxxxxxx , LAAAAAA LBBBBBB

. COEFICIENT_OF_COUPLING
k 0 k 1.

, .
. NI (Initial Node) .

Spice 71


KTFR LPRI LSEC .98

KIF1 L11 L21 .6

3.5.2
IsSpice .
, .

) . :

Vxxxxxx N+ N- TYPE PARAMETERS

V. N+ N-
,
.

) . :

Ixxxxxx NFROM NTO TYPE PARAMETERS

I.
NFROM NTO .

) .
( ) (TYPE)
(PARAMETERS).

) DC .

[DC [VALUE]]

DC
DC . (default
value) VALUE 0 V () 0 ()
.

VBB 8 7 DC 9
ISOURCE 2 3 DC 100M
IC 2 4 12M
VAM 5 8

) AC .

AC [AMP [PHASE]]

AC
AC . AMP

Spice 72


(Amplitude) (Volt Ampere). PHASE

0.

VGEN 3 4 AC 120 30
ISRC 6 3 AC 12M
VIN 5 6 AC

AC DC
.

VIN 8 7 DC 9 AC

9 Volts DC .
AC 1 Volt 0 AC
..

) .

PULSE (VI VP [DELAY [RISE [FALL [WIDTH PERIOD]]]])

3-1.

3-1. .

Spice 73


3-1.

3-1
default
VI VA
VP VA
DELAY 0 sec
RISE TSTEP sec
FALL TSTEP sec
WIDTH TSTOP sec
PERIOD TSTOP sec

TSTEP TSTOP
( .TRAN).
PERIOD TSTOP, .

VTRIG 5 6 PULSE (0 4.55)

IIN 2 1 PULSE (1 3 1.2M 1U)
V12 5 8 PULSE (0 9 0 1U 1.8U 0.2M 1M)

) .

SIN (V0 AMP [FREQ [DELAY [DAMPING]]])

3-2.

V0 + AMP exp[-(t-DELAY) DAMPING] sin[2 FREQ(t-DELAY)] u(t-DELAY)

3-2. .

Spice 74


3-2.

3-2
default
V0 Offset VA
AMP VA
FREQ 1/TSTOP Hz
DELAY 0 sec
DAMPING 0 1/sec

IS1 8 9 SIN(0 7 3K)

VA 2 5 SIN(1.5 1)
IOSC 3 6 SIN(0 3 120 0 6.5)

) .

EXP (VI VF [DELAY1 [TAU1 [DELAY2 [TAU2]]]])

3-3.

VI + (VF-VI)(1-exp[-(t-DELAY1)/TAU1]) u(t-DELAY1) +

+ (VI-VF)(1-exp[-(t-DELAY2)/TAU2]) u(t-DELAY2)

VF

TAU1 TAU2

VI

0 DELAY1 t
DELAY2

3-3. .

Spice 75


3-3.

3-3
default
VI VA
VF VA
DELAY1 0 sec

TAU1 TSTEP sec

DELAY2 DELAY1+TSTEP sec

TAU2 TSTEP sec

VCHARGE 1 2 EXP(0 5 0 50U 1M 50U)

IS2 3 7 EXP(6M 12M 1M 0.5M 0.1)
VSPIKE 3 5 EXP(0 6 0 0 0.001 0.2M)

)
Piecewise.

PWL (T0 V0 [T1 V1 [T2 V2 [ ]]])

3-4.

(T4, V4)
(T5, V5)

(T2, V2)

(T3, V3)

(T0, V0) (T7, V7)

(T1, V1)
(T6, V6)

0 t

3-4. Piecewise.

0, 1, 2, ... ,
0<1<2<... , .

Spice 76


3-4.

3-4

T0 Sec
V0 VA
T1 sec
V1 VA
: : :

ITRIANGL 0 1 PWL(0 0 3M 100M 6M 0 10M 0)

VSQUARE 3 6 PWL(0 0 0.1 5 1.9 5 2.1 -5 3.9 -5 4 0)

3.5.3
) (VCVS).
:

+ - NC+ NC- GAIN

N+ - . NC+
NC- ,
. GAIN .

EOPAMP 4 0 2 0 1E6

E1 22 9 12 13 0.88

) (CCCS).
:

F FROM TO CONTROLNAME GAIN

NFROM NTO ,
NFROM NTO. CONTROLNAME
,
.
, ,
.

FBJT 3 0 VBASE 88

F8 12 9 VAM 0.2

Spice 77


) (VCCS).
:

G FROM TO NC+ NC- TRANSCONDUCTANCE

NFROM NTO .
NFROM NTO. NC+
NC- .
TRANSCONDUCTANCE
siemens.

GFWD 6 2 5 0 2.1E-3

G11 2 19 7 1 0.08

) (CCVS).
:

+ - CONTROLNAME TRANSRESISTANCE

N+ - . CONTROLNAME
,
.
, ,
CONTROLNAME. TRANSRESISTANCE
(ohms).

HOUT 2 7 VAM1 40

H2211 12 19 VGEN 500

3.6

3.6.1
) DC . DC
.
,
AC .
DC
,
.

DC (.P) DC
DC

Spice 78


(.. , ). ,
.
:

.OP

.DC
DC .
. :

.DC DCSOURCENAME STARTVALUE STOPVALUE INCREMENT

DCSOURCENAME ,
STARTVALUE
STOPVALUE INCREMENT.

.DC VCC 3 18 3

.DC ISRC 0 20M 2M

DC (.TF)
DC (.SENS) .

) AC . .AC
.

. ,
AC DC . DC

AC . :

.AC SCALE NP FSTART FSTOP

SCALE .
LIN (linear) , DEC (decade)
OCT (octave)
.

NP
.

SCALE LIN, NP
. DEC OCT, NP
.

DEC OCT.

FSTART FSTOP
( Hertz) .

Spice 79


.AC DEC 10 1 10K

.AC LIN 100 200 300K

(.NOISE) (.DISTO)
.

) . .TRAN
( )
. :

.TRAN TSTEP TSTOP [TSTART [TMAX]] [UIC]

t=0. TSTEP (sec)

. TSTOP (sec) .
TSTART (sec)
. TSTART .
TMAX (sec)
.
(<TSTEP),
.

UIC (Use Initial Conditions)

IC
.

UIC UIC IC
,
(0V 0A).

.TRAN 10N 1U UIC

.TRAN 1N 1000N 500N

.FOUR
FOURIER (
).
. :

.FOUR FUNDAMENTALFREQ OV1 [OV2 [OV3 []]]

FUNDAMENTALFREQ .
FOURIER TSTOPT TSTOP. TSTOP
.TRAN.

, =1/ FUNDAMENTALFREQ.

Spice 80


OV1, OV2, OV3, ...

FOURIER. FOURIER 9
FOURIER .

.FOUR 100K V5

3.6.2
) .PRINT.
, , .
(
AC ).
:

.PRINT ANALYSISTYPE OV1 [OV2 [OV8]]

ANALYSISTYPE DC,
AC, TRAN, DISTO, NOISE,
.

, OV (output variable),
.PRINT, .
.

V(N1
[N2]). 1 2.
2, 2 ( ).

I(VNAME). VNAME.
,
.
,
(0V DC) .

AC
. , 3-5,

.

3-5

VM(N1 [N2]) IM(VNAME) V
VP(N1 [N2]) IP(VNAME) deg
VR(N1 [N2]) IR(VNAME) V
VI(N1 [N2]) II(VNAME) V
VDB(N1 [N2]) IDB(VNAME) 20log() dB

Spice 81


.PRINT TRAN V(2 5) V(1) I(VAM1)

.PRINT AC VM(4) VP(4) IR(VAM2) II(VAM2) VDB(1)

) .PLOT. .PLOT
.
.PLOT .PRINT,
.
,
. :

.PLOT ANALYSISTYPE OV1 [(LO1,HI1)] [OV2 [(LO2,HI2)] ...[OV8]]

.PLOT TRAN V(2 3) V(4) (-12,12)

.PLOT AC VDB(6) VP(6)

.PLOT Intu-Scope.
,
.PRINT, .
.
,
, .
.
, .

) - .WIDTH. .WIDTH
.
80 .

3.6.3
) (.TEMP). .TEMP
.
27 C.

) .OPTIONS. .OPTIONS

( , ),
,
.

) (.MODEL).

.

) (.SUBCKT).
.
.
.

Spice 82

3

( 202)


A1

1.1
,
(t > 10, ),
. ,

, .
,
(Sinusoidal Steady State).

-

. . ,
,
.

(complex numbers),
(phasors).
.

, , 83


1.2
Ohm ,
:

R = V/I (1.1)

(1.1) . -
, , . -
, , . -
(impedance), Z:

Z = V/I (1.2)

H Z, :

Z = R + jX (1.3)

R, , X
(reactance).
(conductance) G, :

G = I/V (1.4)

(admittance) :

Y =I /V (1.5)

Y = G + jB (1.6)

G, ,
, (susceptance).
:

Y =1/ Z (1.7)

, , 84


I v(t)
t
+
V Z
0 t
-
i(t)

() ()

1-1. .

1-1() , ,
, .
,
(phase displacement). , (A1.3) ( -
), (phase lag) . -
( ), (phase
lead) . 1-1(),
t, :

t 360o
o = (1.8)
T

(period) . -
.
,
:

Z = Z e j (1.9)

, :

ZR = R (1.10)

, . (1.10), -

().

, , 85


, :

1 j
ZC = XC = =- (1.11)
jC C

,
(capacitive reactance). ,
(1.11), 90 . , ,
R,
:

1
Y= + jC (1.12)
R

,
:

Z L = X L = jL (1.13)

, , ,
(inductive reactance). 90 -
.
RL , :

Z L = R L + jL (1.14)

1.3
-
r, ( ).
1-2(). I
VZ, II
r Vr.
GND. -
, II (CH II INVERT), -
VZ Vr .

(amplitude) , -
|Vz|. |Vr|. 1-2() -

, , 86


. -
:

Vr
I = (1.15)
r

Vz
Z= (A1.16)
I

, T
t (1.8).
Vr I , r
. , (1.9) -
. (. ) (1.3) Z
.

1-2. .

, AC,
, (1-15) (1-16),
(rms) , -
.

Z ,
(differential measurement). :
1. r 1-2(),
X1 ( 1 / jC jL)
( rms ) |Vs1| |V1|.

, , 87


2. X2
|Vs2| |V2|.
3. :

Vs1 X1 Vs2 X 2
a= b = (1.17)
V1 V2

4. : Z = R + jX. X -
:

1 a 2 - b2
X= - X1 - X 2 (1.18)
2 X1 - X 2

5. R :

R = a 2 - ( X + X1 )
2
(1.19)

X Z. -
L C X, -
f Vs ( ), X
X = 2fL X = 1 / 2fC. ,
Vs1 = Vs2 = Vs.

1-3. .

Zi (input impedance) ,
1-3, .
Zo (output impedance)
: ()
, () |Vo|
, () 1..5 ,
Vs1 = Vs2 = Vo Zo.

, , 88


, ,
:
1. 1-3, -
Vs, R1 = 0 ( R1) -
R2 ( , R2 = ). Vs
( ), VL1 ( Vs).
2. R1
(R2 = ), VL2.
3. :

VL2 R1
Zi = (1.20)
VL1 - VL2

4. R1 = 0, R2 .
, VL3.
5. :

Zo =
( VL1 - VL3 ) R 2 (1.21)
VL3

1.4 ()
1-4 (block diagram)
(excitation) vi(t) (response) vo(t).
, , -
:

Vo (j)
H (j) = = H (j) = arg [ H (j)] (1.22)
Vi (j)

H(j) (transfer function)

(network function) . , , -
,
() , ,
(),
.

, , 89


1-4. .

. .
, (, roots) -
(1.22) (zeros) , -
(poles).

1-5. R-C.

1-5, Vi,
Vo.
(1.22) :

Vo 1
H1 (j) = = (1.23)
Vi 1
1- j
R1C1

1
f= f L = (1.24)
2 2R1C1

(1.23) :

1
H1 (j) = (1.25)
f
1- j L
f

, , 90


1 f
H1 (j) = 1 = arctan L (1.26)
1+ ( f L f )
2
f

H1(j) f = 0 ( H1(0) = 0)
f = jfL.

1-6. R-C.

1-6,
:

1 1
H 2 (j) = f H = (1.27)
f 2R 2 C2
1+ j
fH

1 f
H 2 (j) = 2 = -arctan (1.28)
1+ ( f f H ) fH
2

H2(j) f = jfH .

fp ,
f >> fp.
(fp1 < fp2 < fp3 < ..), fp1 << fp2,
fp2, fp3
. fp1 (dominant pole).

, , 91


1.5
BODE
H(j), ,
(frequency response) .
.
Bode
.
. db,
:

H dB = 20log H(j) (1.29)

,
. .

(decade) . -
(octave) .

1-5 ( R-C), f >> fL

|H1(j)| 1 H1db 0 db. f = fL H1 (j) = 1 2 = 0.707 H1db =
- 3 db.

1-6 ( R-C), f << fH

|H2(j)| 1 H2db 0 db. f = fH H 2 (j) = 1 2 = 0.707 H2db =
-3 db.

fL fH () 3 db
(cutoff frequencies) (corner frequencies). ,
( 3 db)
. fL fH
. Bode
, 1-7.

Bode 1-7(),
, .
(high pass). , 1-7()
,
(low pass). ,
, 6 db / octave 20 db / decade.

, , 92


20log|H1(j)| arg[H1(j)]
(db)
0 90
-3

-10 20db/decade

-20 () 45

-30

-40 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 f/fL 0.01 0.1 1 10 f/fL

(db) 20log|H2(j)| arg[H2(j)]

0.01 0.1 1 10
0
0
-3 f/fH
-10 20db/decade

-20 () -45

-30

-40
-90
0.1 1 10 100 f/fH

1-7. Bode ()
() .

A1.6
1-4, vi(t)
. vo(t) , ,
(step response) -
. (
) , -
.

1-5
1-8(). s (tilt) , :

Vm - V
s= 2f L t p (1.30)
Vm

, , 93


tp .
fL.

1-8. () () .

1-9. () () .

1-6
1-9(). tr (rise time) , :

0.35
fH (1.31)
tr

fH.

(cascading),
1-10, H1(j), H2(j) ,
:

H (j) = H1 (j) H 2 (j) H 3 (j) ... (1.32)

, , 94


1-10. .

,
.
,
.
:

f L 1.15 f L21 + f L22 + f L23 + ... (1.33)

1 1 1 1
1.15 2 + 2 + 2 + ... (1.33)
fH f H1 f H2 f H3

s 1.15 s12 + s 22 + s32 + ... (1.33)

t r 1.15 t 2r1 + t 2r2 + t 2r3 + ... (1.33)

1.7
(resonant circuits)
.
R, L C.

1-11. RLC .

, , 95


(series resonant circuit) 1-11.

RLC,
:

1 1
Z(j) = R + jL + = R + j L - (1.34)
jC C

R L C.
:

1
o = = 2f o (1.35)
LC

Z(jo) |Z(jo)|
. o (angular resonant frequency).
, R , -
|VL| |VC| . -
, , VC, VL VR Vi.
Hs(j) , , :

Vo R 1
H s (j) = = = (1.36)
Vi Z f f
1+ jQs o
fo f

o L 1
Qs = = (1.37)
R o RC

|Hs(j)| = o. fL fH
|Hs(j)| (-3 db). -
(1.34) :

f L,H =
fo
2Q
( )
4Q 2 +1 1 (1.38)

, , 96


Io
Ii L C
R

1-12. RLC.

(parallel resonant circuit)

1-12. RLC,
:

1 1 1 1
Y(j) = + jC + = + j C - (1.39)
R jL R L

R L C.
(1.35) Y(jo)
|Y(jo)| . ,
R , |IL|
|IC| . , ,
IC, IL IR Ii. Hp(j) ,
, :

Io 1 1
H p (j) = = = (1.40)
I i RY f f
1+ jQ p o
fo f

R
Qp = = o RC (1.41)
o L

|Hp(j)| = o. fL fH
|Hp(j)| (-3 db).
(1.38) (1.36) Qp.

1-13() |H(j)| -
Q, -

, , 97


. 1-13()
.

1-13. () () RLC.

1-13, f,
(normalized) f / fo.
.

, , 98


1.8
|H(j)|,
RLC , 0 1. 1-14
Q = 1. fL
-3 db |H(j)|, fH -3 db.
:

BW = f H - f L (1.42)

(bandwidth)
.
, ,
,
.

1-14. .

RLC, (1.38)
RLC :

fo
BW = (1.43)
Q

, , 99


1.9
(quality factor)
, :

Q = o
(1.44)

" " ,
, L C. "
"
(, ,
, .) .

-
,
.
, , -
. Q, .
, (1.43)
, , .

RLC,
(1.37) (1.41).

, o,
:

VL (o ) VC (o ) I L (o ) I C (o )
Qs = = Q p = = (1.45)
Vs (o ) Vs (o ) I s (o ) I s (o )

, , 100


1.10
1. 1-15(). Z -
1-15().
, Z ,
VR, VZ ,
. , , Vs = VR + VZ.

1-15. () ()
.

2. 1-16. H(j)
Vo Vs.

. -3 db .

, , 101


. Bode .

. Bode .

CH I
C
CH II
100n +
Vs R V
1k5
5V -
GND

1-16. R-C.

3. 1-17. -
.

CH I
R
CH II
1k5 +
Vs 100n C Vo
5V -
GND

1-17. R-C.

1.11
1. 1-15(). R
1k 1%,
, 5 V
f = 1591 Hz. VZ VR.
CH II - INVERT
. , , Z
1-15(), |VR|, |VZ| , -
. Vs = 5 V ( -
).
[ADD] .

, , 102


2. 1-16.
, 5 V.
, Vs = 5 V. -
Vs Vo:

. -3 db .

. Bode
,
|Vo|, .
.

3. 1-17
.

1.12
1. (1.10.1) (1.11.1) -
.

2. . Bode
1-16. .
.
; ;

3.
1-17.

, , 103


1.13
1. 1-18.

. -3 db .

. Bode .

. Bode .

1-18. R-C.

2. 1-19. H(j)
VR Vs.

1-19. RLC .

, , 104


. -3 db
.

. , VR, VL, VC I
Vs = VR + VL + VC.

. Q ,
BW.

. Bode .

. Bode .

A1.14
1. 1-18
.
5V, :

.
-3 db.

. Bode
,
|Vo|, .
.

2. 1-19
.
5 V, :

.
-3 db.

. Bode -
, -
|VR|, .
.

. |VR|, |VL| |VC| -

.

, , 105


1.15
1. . Bode (1.14.1).
.

. -
; ;

2. . Bode (1.14.2).
. , , -
;

.
|VR|, |VL| |VC|. .

. -
. .

1.16
1.
100 , 470 x 2, 1 k, 1 k @ 1 %, 1.5 k
2.
100 nF x 2
3.
30 mH

, , 106


A2

A2.1
,

. ,
,
,

.

A2-1. .

A2-1, (equivalent)
N1, Neq , N1,
N2.

107


. :

1. N1 N2 ,
A2-1.

2. i ,
N1 N2 (.. .)

3. N1
. N2 ( -
- -).

, Thevenin
( ) Norton (
).

Thevenin Norton
. O
Thevenin Norton ,
.

2.2 THEVENIN
2-2() , (
). 2-2() , ,
Thevenin . Voc
No.

2-2. Thevenin.

Voc [1] [2],

. (open-circuit voltage).
No , () -
( , ) ()

108


. (dependent sources) .
N (), No -
(equivalent) Zeq.
.

1. 2-3(), N,
Thevenin. , ()
Vs, .
.

R1 1' R3 1 R1 1' R3 1 Req 1

load

load
Vs Req Voc
R2 R2

2 2 2

() () ()

2-3. Thevenin.

, Voc. , R3
, ,
[1] [2] [1'] [2]. [1'] [2] -
R1 R2 :

R 2 Vs
Voc = (2.1)
R1 + R 2

, No. Vs ( )
2-3(). -
R1 R2 R3.
No, , :

R 1R 2
R eq = + R3 (2.2)
R1 + R 2

Thevenin 2-3().
[ 2-3()]
. , , ,
.
N, -
Req . -
.

109


2. Thevenin 2-4(), [1] [2].

. kIs
(current dependent voltage source), Is. k
. , ,
[1] [1'], Kirchhoff
() :

Vs
Vs - kI s = ( R1 + R 2 ) I s Is = (2.3)
R1 + R 2 + k

V', 1' 2, R2
:

Vs ( R 2 + k )
V ' = Voc = R 2 I s + kI s Voc = (2.4)
R1 + R 2 + k

No ,
2-4().
[1] [2] V, I. -
[1] [2] Zeq = V / I. , -
:

load
load

2-4.
Thevenin.

-R 2 I
-kI s = R1I s + R 2 ( I s + I ) I s = (2.5)
R1 + R 2 + k

110


V - kI s = R 3 I + R 2 ( I + I s ) (2.6)

(2.5) (2.6), , :

V R 1R 2
R eq = = + R3 (2.7)
I R1 + R 2 + k

2.3 NORTON
Norton Thevenin.
2-5() N ,
( ). 2-5() , ,
Norton . Isc -
N.
Load

Load

2-5. Norton.

Isc [1] [2],

[1] [2] .
(short-circuit current). No
, ( -
). N (),
No (equivalent) Yeq.

111


2.4 THEVENIN
NORTON
Thevenin Norton , -
, . -
Thevenin Voc Zeq, -
Norton :

I sc = Voc /Z eq (2.8)

Yeq = 1/Z eq (2.9)

Norton Isc Yeq,

Thevenin Voc = Isc / Yeq
Zeq = 1 / Yeq.

2.5

Thevenin ( Norton) , -
,
. Thevenin
Norton, ,
:

1. ,
|Voc|.
2. ( )
|Isc|, .
3. Req :

R eq = Voc / I sc (2.10)

4. Thevenin Voc
Req.

112


, -
, , :

Zeq +
V1 X1
Voc
-

2-6. Thevenin .

1. , , ,
( rms ) |Voc|.
2. X1 (
1 / jC jL) ( rms )
|V1|. 2-6.
3. X2
|V2|.
4. :

Voc X1 Voc X 2
a= b = (2.11)
V1 V2

5. : Zeq = Req + jXeq.

Xeq :

1 a 2 - b2
X eq = - X1 - X 2 (2.12)
2 X1 - X 2

6. Req :

R eq = a 2 - ( X eq + X1 )
2
(2.13)

113


Xeq Zeq.
L C Xeq,
f Voc ( ), Xeq -
Xeq = 2fL Xeq = 1 / 2fC.
(rms). |Voc|, |V1| |V2|
rms
.

2-7. Thevenin .

, -
, :
1. ,
, Voc.
2. R1 -
V1. 2-7.
3. R2
V2.
4. :

Voc R1 Voc R 2
a= b = (2.14)
V1 V2

5. Req :

1 a 2 - b2
R eq = - R1 - R 2 (2.15)
2 R1 - R 2

114


2.6
(measurement bridges)
(,
, ). , , .
, , ,
, .
, ,
( ).

( , , , ,
).

2-8. .

2-8.
, Vs (null detector). -
, -
.
. (balance
condition)
. ,
Z1..Z4 :

Z1 Z3 = Z 2 Z 4 (2.16)

,
. ,
. -
, , ,
, , .

(Z or RLC instruments) (universal bridges).
. -
5 6 , ( )
, .

115


Wheatstone.
.
, .

,
. ,

, (2.16) .
,
. (2.16)
. ,
(, , ).
.
-
.

2.6.1
: ,
Schering.

2-9. .

(series capacitance comparison)

(
). -
(0.001 < D < 0.1) 2-9.
: (similar angle)
(series resistance capacitance).
R2 R3. -
Cx-Rx. (2-16) :

R 1R 3 R 2 C3
Rx = Cx = D x = R 3C3 (2.17)
R2 R1

116


(parallel capacitance comparison)

2-10.
(0.05 < D < 50). R2
R3. :

2-10. .

R 1R 3 R 2 C3 1
Rx = Cx = D x = (2.18)
R2 R1 R 3C3

Schering, ,
, ( 90).
2-11. C3 .
,
. R1
C2. :

R1C2 R 2 C3
Rx = Cx = D x = R 2 C2 (2.19)
C3 R1

2-11. Schering .

117


2.6.2
: Maxwell,
.
Maxwell 2-12.
( Q, 1 < Q < 10).
Maxwell-Wien. Lx-Rx.
R2 R3.
:

R 1R 3
Rx = L x = R 1R 3 C 2 Q x = R 2 C2 (2.20)
R2

2-12. Maxwell .

(opposite angle) 2-13.

( Q, 10 < Q < 1000).
Hay.
R2 R3. :

2-13. .

118


2 R1R 2 R 3C22 R 1R 3 C 2 1
Rx = Lx = Q x = (2.21)
1+ 2 R 22 C22 1+ 2 R 22 C22 R 2 C2

(inductance comparison) 2-14.

. -
R1 R2. :

R 1R 3 R 3 L1 L1
Rx = Lx = Q x = (2.22)
R2 R2 R1

2-14. .

2.6.3
: Wien,
.

2-15. Wien .

Wien 2-15. -
(.. ).

119


,
R2 R1 R4.
R1-C1 ( ), :

1
D = R1C1 =
R 4 C4
(2.23)
R D2 R
R1 = R 4 2 C1 = C4 3 1+ D 2
R 3 1+ D 2 R2

R4-C4 ( ),
( D ) :

R 3 1+ D 2 R2 1
R 4 = R1 C4 = C1 (2.24)
R 2 D2 R 3 1+ D 2

2-16.
.

(radio frequency)
.
2-16.
C2 C4. Zx -
C2 C4 . Zx
C2n C4n. :

R3 1 1 1
Rx = ( C2n - C2 ) X x = - (2.25)
C1 C4n C4

120


2-17. .

(resonance) 2-17.
.
R1 . , :

R 1R 3 1
RC = - RL C = (2.26)
R2 2 L

R 1R 3 1
RL = - RC L = (2.27)
R2 2 C

2.6.4
Wheatstone
R R .
(transducers)
. (strain gage).
,
. -
.

2-18 .
R R, -

R.

121


2-18. .

, R (R = 0)
Vo = 0 V.
:

R
Vo = Vs (2.28)
2R + R

R << R, :

Vs
Vo R (2.29)
2R

Vs, R
, Vo
R.
.

2.7
(current limiters)
. (
) . 2-19()
. 2-19()
, 2-19()
[1] - [2]. Vmin Vcl
. Icl
.
- ( ) .
[1]-[2] E.

122


2-19. .

2-20 .
transistor N (field effect transistor, N-
channel FET), transistor PNP.
.
.
.

2-20. .

123


2.8
1. 2-21 .
Vs = 5 Vrms f = 1591 Hz.

. Thevenin .

. Norton .

2-21. Thevenin Norton .

2. 2-22
transistor FET BF244B. Icl = 8 mA.
E = 20 V.

. Thevenin .

. Norton .

124


2-22. Thevenin Norton

.

3. 2-23 Schering .
R1 R2
, Cx,
Rx .

2-23. Schering .

2.9
1. 2-21.
2-5, -
Thevenin ,
. X , ,
MKT C1 = 100 n C2 = 47 n.

2. 2-22,
. (-
A)
E = 20 V. 2-5 :

125


. Thevenin
.

. Thevenin ,
1% R1 = 1 k R2 = 2k2.

3. Schering 2-23.
5 Vrms 1591 Hz.
, [AC].
Cx-Rx . R1 R2
, .
, ,
R1 R2.

2.10
1. . Thevenin Norton .

. ,
.

2. . Thevenin Norton .

. ,
.

3. , ,
.

2.11
1.
1 k x 2, 1 k @ 1%, 2.2 k, 2.2 k @ 1%, 2.2 k x 2.
2.
33 nF, 47 nF MKT, 100 nF disk, 100 nF MKT, .
3.
BF244B N-FET.

126


A3

A3.1

.
(), -
"" ().

, (port). -

s ( Laplace).

A3.2
(one-port networks)
-
. A3-1.
V(s) (port voltage)
I(s) (port current).
(driving-point impedance) Z(s) = V(s) / I(s)
(driving point admittance) Y(s) = I(s) / V(s).

127


A3-1. .

A3.3
(two-port network) (), -
(input-port) (output-port). -

, A3-2.
(port current requirement).
:

A3-2. .

U1 (s) = k11 (s)W1 (s) + k12 (s)W2 (s)

(A3.1)
U 2 (s) = k 21 (s)W1 (s) + k 22 (s)W2 (s)

U1(s), U2(s), W1(s) W2(s) I1(s), I2(s),

V1(s) V2(s). kij(s) (network functions)
, (network
parameters). -
(matrices) .
(equivalent circuit) .
(),
(phasors) I1(j), I2(j),
V1(j) V2(j), s, , j.

128


- , ,
, (reciprocal).
(passive), .

,
(electrical symmetry).
,
.

A3.4
,
( ),
. 6
.
,
.
.

A3.4.1
z (
, open-circuit impedance parameters)
A3-3. :

V1 (s) = z11 (s)I1 (s) + z12 (s)I 2 (s)

(A3.2)
V2 (s) = z 21 (s)I1 (s) + z 22 (s)I 2 (s)

z .
, V(s) = Z(s)I(s), V(s) = [ V1 V2 ]T I(s) = [ I1 I2 ]T.
z .

I1 I2

z11 z22

V1 V2
z12I2 z21I1

A3-3. Z.

129


2 :

V1 V2
z11 = z 21 = (A3.3)
I1 I =0 I1 I =0
2 2

1 :

V1 V2
z12 = z 22 = (A3.3)
I 2 I =0 I 2 I =0
1 1

Z , z12 = z21.
z11 = z22. A3-4
, :

z a = z11 - z12
z b = z 22 - z12 (A3.4)
z c = z12

A3-4. T .

A3.4.2
y (
, short-circuit admittance parameters)
A3-5. :

A3-5. Y.

130


I1 (s) = y11 (s)V1 (s) + y12 (s)V2 (s)

(A3.5)
I 2 (s) = y 21 (s)V1 (s) + y 22 (s)V2 (s)

y .
, I(s) = Y(s)V(s), V(s) = [ V1 V2 ]T I(s) = [ I1 I2 ]T.
y .
2 :

I1 I2
y11 = y 21 = (A3.6)
V1 V =0 V1 V =0
2 2

1 :

I1 I2
y12 = y 22 = (A3.6)
V2 V =0 V2 V =0
1 1

z , Y(s) = Z(s)-1.
y12 = y21.
y11 = y22. A3-6 ,
:

A3-6. .

ya = y11 + y12
y b = y 22 + y12 (A3.7)
yc = -y12

A3.4.3
h (
, hybrid parameters) A3-7.
:

131


I1 I2

h11 h22

V1 V2
h12V2 h21I1

A3-7. h.

V1 (s) = h11 (s)I1 (s) + h12 (s)V2 (s)

(A3.8)
I 2 (s) = h 21 (s)I1 (s) + h 22 (s)V2 (s)

h .

2 :

V1 I2
h11 = h 21 = (A3.9)
I1 V =0 I1 V =0
2 2

1 :

V1 I2
h12 = h 22 = (A3.9)
V2 I =0 V2 I =0
1 1

h12 = -h21.
detH = 1.

h transistors.
dc transistor ,
A3-8(). transistor rb,
re, rc .
(A3.9) h :

rc re (1+ ) re
rb +
h h re rc + re rc + re
H = ie = (A3.10)
h fe h oe r (1+ ) 1
- e
rc + re rc + re

132


transistor , .
rc (rc >> 1) h :

r + r (1+ ) 0
H=b e (A3.11)
0

(A3.11) h,
transistor, A3-8().

A3-8. () transistor
() transistor rcc >> 1.

A3.4.4 G
g (
, inverse hybrid parameters) A3-9.
:

I1 (s) = g11 (s)V1 (s) + g12 (s)I 2 (s)

(A3.12)
V2 (s) = g 21 (s)V1 (s) + g 22 (s)I 2 (s)

133


A3-9. g.

g .

2 :

I1 V2
g11 = g 21 = (A3.13)
V1 I =0 V1 I =0
2 2

1 :

I1 V2
g12 = g 22 = (A3.13)
I 2 V =0 I 2 V =0
1 1

h , G(s) = H(s)-1.
g12 = -g21.
detG = 1. g12(s) = 0, -
, A3-10.
2 1 ( , unilateral network).

I1 I2

g22
V1 g11 V2

g21V1

A3-10. .

134


A3.4.5 ABCD
ABCD
( , transmission parameters) A3-11.
T A
(chain parameters)
(general circuit parameters). :

V1 (s) = A(s)V2 (s) - B(s)I 2 (s)

(A3.14)
I1 (s) = C(s)V2 (s) - D(s)I 2 (s)

A3-11. ABCD.

ABCD .

2 :

V1 I1
A= C= (A3.15)
V2 I =0 V2 I =0
2 2

2 :

V1 I1
B= D= (A3.15)
I 2 V =0 I 2 V =0
2 2

detA = 1.
A = D.

135


A3.4.6 'B'C'D'
:

V2 (s) = A ' (s)V1 (s) - B' (s)I1 (s)

(A3.16)
I 2 (s) = C' (s)V1 (s) - D ' (s)I1 (s)

A'B'C'D' (inverse transmission parameters) -

ABCD.
T' A'.

A3.5
.
3-1 .

A3.6

,
.

A3.6.1
A3-12. -
Z Z -
.
. :

V (s) V (s) + V1b (s)

V (s) = 1 = 1a
V2 (s) V2a (s) + V2b (s)

I (s) I (s) I (s)

I (s) = 1 = 1a = 1b (A3.17)
I 2 (s) I 2a (s) I 2b (s)

Z(s) = Z a (s) + Z b (s)

136


Z Y H G A A'

y22 -y12 det H h12 1 -g12 A det A D' 1

z11 z12
det Y det Y h22 h22 g11 g11 C C C' C'
Z
-y21 y11 -h21 1 g21 det G 1 D det A' A'
z21 z22
det Y det Y h22 h22 g11 g11 C C C' C'

z22 -z12 1 -h12 det G g12 D -det A A' -1

y11 y12
det det h11 h11 g22 g22 B B B' B'
Y
-z21 z11 h21 det H -g21 1 -1 A -det A' D'
y21 y22
det det h11 h11 g22 g22 B B B' B'

det z12 1 -y12 g22 -g12 B det A B' 1

h11 h12
z22 z22 y11 y11 det G det G D D A' A'
H
-z21 1 y21 det Y -g21 g11 -1 C -det A' C'
h21 h22
z22 z22 y11 y11 det G det G D D A' A'

1 -z12 det Y y12 h22 -h12 C -det A C' -1

g11 g12
z11 z11 y22 y22 det H det H A A D' D'
G
z21 det Z -y21 1 -h21 h11 1 B det A' B'
g21 g22
z11 z11 y22 y22 det H det H A A D' D'

z11 det Z -y22 -1 -det H -h11 1 g22 D' B'

z21 z21 y21 y21 g21 g21 A B
h21 h21 det A' det A'
A
1 z22 -det Y -y11 -h22 -1 g11 det G C' A'
z21 z21 y21 y21 g21 g21 C D
h21 h21 det A' det A'

z22 det Z -y11 -1 1 h11 -det G -g22 D B

z12 z12 y12 y12 h12 h12 g12 g12 A' B'
det A det A
A'
1 z11 -det Y -y22 h22 det H -g11 -1 C A
z12 z12 y12 y12 g12 g12 C' D'
h12 h12 det A det A

A3-1. .

137


3- 12. .

A3.6.2
A3-13.
Y Y
.
. :

V (s) V (s) V (s)

V (s) = 1 = 1a = 1b
V2 (s) V2a (s) V2b (s)

I (s) I (s) + I1b (s)

I (s) = 1 = 1a (A3.18)
I 2 (s) I 2a (s) + I 2b (s)

Y(s) = Ya (s) + Yb (s)

138


I1a I2a

I1 V1a V2a I2

V1 I1b I2b V2

V1b V2b

A3-13. .

A3.6.3
(cascade connection) A3-14.
, ABCD,
,
ABCD .

A3-14. .

A B A1 B1 A 2 B2
C D = C D1 C2 D 2
(A3.19)
1

139


A3.7
A3-15.
(terminated).

A3-15. .

(input impedance) Zi(s)

:

Zi (s) = V1 (s)/I1 (s) (A3.20)

(output impedance) Zo(s)

:

Zo (s) = V2 (s)/I 2 (s) (A3.21)

(voltage transfer function) Av(s) :

A v (s) = V2 (s)/V1 (s) (A3.22)

(current transfer function) Ai(s) :

A i (s) = -I 2 (s)/I1 (s) (A3.23)

Zi(s), Zo(s), Av(s) Ai(s)

, ,
.

140


A3-2. Zi(s), Zo(s), Av(s) Ai(s) .

A3.8 -

(coupled inductors), (transformers). A3-16
.
,
.

A3-16. .

.
, , (reference
direction).

,
, :

141


di1 di
v1 = L11 + M12 2
dt dt
(A3.24)
di di
v 2 = M 21 1 + L 22 2
dt dt

L11 L22 , -
, M12 = M21 = M (mutual inductance)
. ,
, M > 0.

(coupling coefficient) k, :

M
k= (A3.25)
L11L 22

0 < k < 1.
,
:

V1 = jL11I1 + jMI 2
(A3.26)
V2 = jMI1 + jL 22 I 2

-
, .
z :

z11 = jL11 z12 = z 21 = jM z 22 = jL 22 (A3.27)

L11, L22 M ,
RLC , .
L11 L22 . M
A3-17,
, ,
.

142


A3-17. M .

A3-17() A3-17(),
:

Ls - L11 - L 22
M= (A3.28)
2

A3-17() A3-17(),
:

L11L 22 - M 2
M= - L11 - L 22 (A3.29)
Lp

143


A3.9
1. A3-18 ,
f = 100Hz.

. Z(j) ( r
VS).

. Z(j) Y(j), G(j),

H(j), T .

. Z, Y, G
H .

. T .

A3-18. T.

144


2. A3-19 .

. A(j) .

. Av(j) = V2(j) / V1(j) -

A ZL = .

. Bode
.

A3-19. .

A3.10
1. A3-18(), (
100Hz) . -
. r
I1.

. 2 CH2(a),
V1 = 5 V, Vs ( ),
V1 ( = 0).
I1 = (Vs - V1) / r. V2, -
2 CH2(b).

. A3-18()
. V1 Vs
2, V2 , V2 = 5 V.

. , -
Z, Y, G H 100Hz.

. T .

145


2. A3-19 -
.
Vs = 5 V.
. Bode -
Av
V2 .

A3.11
1. -
. -
.

2.
.
;

A3.12
1.
470, 1k
2.
220nF, 470nF, 1F
3. -
1 mH ( 10 ),

146



1. Alexander and Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

2. Alloca J. and Stuart A., Transducers - Theory and Applications, Reston, 1984.
3. Bird B. and King K., An Introduction to Power Electronics, Wiley, 1985.
4. Boros A., Electrical Measurements in Engineering, Elsevier, 1985.
5. Chua L., Desoer C. and Kuh E., Linear and Nonlinear Circuits, Mc Graw- Hill, 1987.
6. Desoer and Kuh, Basic Circuit Theory, Mc Graw Hill, 1987.
7. Dorf R. C., Introduction to Electric Circuits, Wiley, 1989.
8. Gayakwad R., OP-AMPS and Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988.
9. Holt C., Electronic Circuits Digital and Analog, Wiley, 1978.
10. Holman J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 4th Edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 1987.
11. Huelsman L., Basic Circuit Theory, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1991.
12. Hufault J., OP-AMP Network Design, Wiley, 1986.
13. Jones and Chin, Electronic Instruments and Measurements, Wiley, New York, 1983.
14. Lang T.T., Electronics of Measuring Systems, Wiley, 1987.
15. Mylroi M. and Calvert G., Measurement and Instrumentation for Control, IEE Control
Engineering Series, 1984.
16. Nilsson J. and Riedel S., Introductory Circuits for Electrical and Computter Engineering,Prentice
Hall Pub. ,2002.
17. Seippel R., Transducers, Sensors and Detectors, Reston, 1983.
18. Stout M., Basic Electrical Measurements, Prentice Hall.\
19. Thomas and Rosa, The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits, 4th Edition, Wiley, 2003.
20. Van Valkenburg M., Network Analysis, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1986.
21. Wobschald D., Circuit Design for Electronic Instrumentation, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 1987.
22. Weldock and Roberge, Electronic Components and Measurements, Prentice Hall.
23. Wolf S., Guide to Electronic Measurements and Laboratory Practice, Prentice Hall, 1983.
24. ., , ..., 1984.
25. ., - , ..., 1985.
26. . ., ,
, 1991.
27. M ., , , 2010.
28. . ., , , 1987.

147


(complex numbers), .

.

(rectangular representation)
:

z = x + jy (B.1)

, z , x (real part) y
(imaginary part). j :

1
j2 = -1 = -j j = -1 -a = j a (B.2)
j

-1. .

Re ( z ) = x (B.3)

Im ( z ) = y (B.3)

148


,
(polar representation) Euler :

z = z e j (B.4)

, |z| (magnitude or amplitude)

(angle, phase, argument). -1
.
(complex plane).

(B.4) ( de Moivre) :

= arg ( z ) = arctan ( y x ) (B.5)

(B.2) (B.4) :

z = x 2 + y2 (B.6)

z = z cos + j z sin (B.6)

arctan (= tan-1), .
(B.4) (B.2) :

x = z cos (B.7)

y = z sin (B.7)

H (B.4) :

z = z o (B.8)

(, ) ,
. ,
,
, .

149


(B.6) (quadrant)
, -1.
:

z1 + z 2 z1 + z 2 (B.9)

z1 - z 2 z1 - z 2 (B.9)

z1 z 2 = z1 z 2 (B.9)

z1 z
= 1 (B.9)
z2 z2

2
z2 = z (B.9)

-1

x0 , y0 1

x0 , y0 2

x0 , y0 3

x0 , y0 4

z*, (complex conjugate) z

:

z* = x - jy (B.10)

2
z z* = z (B.11)

150


,
.
:

( z1 z 2 )
*
= z1* z*2 (B.12)

( z1 z 2 )
*
= z1* z*2 (B.12)

*
z1 z1*
= *
(B.12)
z2 z2

, z1 = x1 + jy1 , z 2 = x 2 + jy 2 ,
:

()

z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + j ( y1 + y 2 ) (B.13)

()

z1 - z 2 = ( x1 - x 2 ) + j ( y1 - y 2 ) (B.14)

()

z1z 2 = ( x1x 2 - y1 y 2 ) + j ( x1 y 2 + x 2 y1 ) = (B.15)

= z1 z 2 e ( 1
j + 2 )
(B.15)

()

z1 ( x1x 2 + y1 y 2 ) + j ( -x1 y 2 + x 2 y1 )
= = (B.16)
z2 x 22 + y 22

z1 j( 1 -2 )
= e (B.16)
z2

151


()

z n = z e jn = z cos ( n ) + j sin ( n )
n n
(B.17)

( cos + j sin ) = cos ( n ) + j sin ( n )

n
(B.17)

()

z1 = z 2 x1 = x 2 y1 = y 2 (B.18)

( )

x ( t ) = A m cos ( t + ) (B.19)

, :

x ( t ) = Re A m e (
j t+ )
(B.20)

-2. .

152


-2, N
vs(t), vo(t), ( ).
vs(t) :

vs ( t ) = Re Vs e ( 1 )
j t+
(B.21)

vo(t) :

v o ( t ) = Re Vo e ( 2 )
j t +
(B.22)

, (B.21) (B.22) ,
Vs Vo ( ) 1 2. ,
Re [...], ,
ejt. , vs, -
:

Vs = Vm e j1 (B.23)

, , :

Vo = Vo e j2 (B.24)

(B.23) (B.24), ,
.
vo(t) , (B.24)
(B.22) vo(t) :

v o ( t ) = Vo cos ( t + 2 ) (B.25)

H (B.23)
(phasor).
ejt ,
, .

153


1. (sinusoidal steady state)

(Ohm, Kirchhoff )
.

2. ( ),
Z = V / I. (impedance)
Z = R + jX. R (resistance),
X (reactance).

3. ( ),
Y = 1 / Z.
(admittance) Y = G + jB. G
(conductance), B (susceptance).

4. . Z = R, = 0 ( -
).

5. . Z = jXL = j, = 90 (
). XL .

6. . Z = jXC = 1 / jL, = -90 (

). XC .

7.
, , , . V = Vrmsej.
, ,
.

154


Zener

transistor NPN

transistor PNP


+

AND

OR
Z

+ XOR

+ -

+ -
+


-

155


156