CHAPTER 1 NTRODUCTION This chapter presents the detailed introduction to the subject matter of the thesis and basic aspects of series and shunt compensation with a view to enhance voltage stability and power transfer capability of the power system. 1.1 Introduction 1.2. Series Compensation 1.3, Shunt Compensation 1.4 Advantages of Series Compensation 1.5. Problems associated with series compensation 1.6. Advantages of shunt compensation 1.7. Compensation equipments 1.8. Voltage Stability 1.9. Definition of Power System Stability 1.10 Classification of Power System Stability LLL Analysis of Power System Voltage Stability 1.12 FACTS Controllers for Power System 1.13 Series Connected Controllers 1.14 Shunt Connected Controllers 1.15 Combined Series-Shunt Controllers 1.16 Combined Series-series Controllers 1.17 Objective and Scope of Thesis, 1.18 Outline of the Thesis,Chapter: 1 Introduction 1.LINTRODUCTION Over the past two decades,lectric power systems have experienced a continuous increase in power demand without a matching expansion of the transmission and generation facilities. This discrepancy has resulted in increased system vulnerabilities to voltage disturbance and instabilities have been observed in the power networks throughout the world U2) Worldwide transmission systems are undergoing continuous change due to steady growth in demand for electric power, much of which has to be transmitted over long distances. However, public concern over the environmental impact of power generation andtransmission, coupled with problems related to costand right-of-way issues, have hindered addition of new plants to meet this increased demands [3,120]. Most, if not all, of the world’s electric power supply systems are widely connected, involving connections inside utilities’ own territories which extend to inter-utility interconnections, than to inter-regional and international connections. This is done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of electricity to improve reliability of power supply. We need these interconnections because, apart from delivery, the purpose of the transmission network is to pool power plants, load centers in order to minimize need for the total power ‘generation capacity andthe fuel cost. The analysis of voltage stability has assumed importance, due to several documented incidents of voltage collapse in France, Japan etc, Several factors contribute to voltage collapse such as increased loading on transmission lines, reactive power constraint, on load tap changing transformer and dynamic load characteristics (39,112]. ‘The power transmission capability of an EHV (Extra High Voltage) line is determined by (19K: Conductor thermal limit © Steady state stability limit © Transient stability limit Normally, for long distance transmission line, stability limit is reached well before the conductor's thermal limit. Hence, power transfer capability of transmission line can be enhanced, by increasing stability limit, up to the scope of thermal limit of conductor. The stability limit can be increased by one or more of the following methods: * Use of bundled conductors * Lowering of reactance of generators/ transformersChapter: 1 Introduction * Use of Faster excitation systems ‘+ Increasing the inertia of generating units * Use of high speed relaying for auto-reclosing * Constructing intermediate switching-station(s) ‘+ Use of shunt reactance compensation * Use of series compensation ‘Most of the above mentioned methods can only provide limited increase in the stability limit and are also disproportionately expensive. The series and shunt compensation techniques are the most attractive thrust areas of research. Static VAR systems (SVS) use parallel combination of reactors, capacitors and thyristors which are used for controlling the reactive power output. An SVS has the ability of rapidly and continuously varying its reactive power output in response to changing system conditions. Therefore, they are commonly used for stabilizing the system voltageby regulating reactive power. Static VAR system applied on the load end of a circuit has several effects, one or more of which may be the reason for the following applications: * Controlling lagging component of circuit current * Maintaining constant voltage at the load end © Improving voltage regulation . Reducing ’R power loss in the system . Reducing PX, kVAR loss © Controlling P.F (power factor) of source (Generator) © Decreasing KVA loading of the source * By reducing KVA loading of the source, additional KW loading may be placed on the generators, if turbine capacity is available * Reducing Investment in system’s infrastructure for each KW of load demand Many of the existing difficulties have been associated with reactive power limits of the system. Other possible contributory factors such as load dynamics, automatic voltage regulator (AVR)and tap changing transformers have also been identified. There is on-going debate as to whether voltage stability factors are static in natureand can therefore be viewed as a parametric load flow problem or whether they are inherently dynamic,requiring solution of differential equation. Much of the research till date has been focused on steady stale aspect of the problem, its formulation in the context of Bifurcation theory (3, 4,40].Chapter: 1 Introduction On the other hand, Series Compensation is widely used in extra high voltage transmission Tine [5] in order to compensate the series inductive reactance. Recently series compensations are being used in the distribution network. Moreover, these are also proposed to be used in are furnace feeding network for increasedindustrial production [70]. Series compensations offer the best and most economical solution to voltage fluctuations at welding machine terminal. A Static VAR system, which has emerged as VAR [6] generation absorption system, can provide the best solution to the voltage stability problems.Most of the voltage stability studies have focused on presenting theoretical determination of voltage collapse conditions, defined voltage stability indices in order to predict stability margin from an operating point to the voltage collapse point in a power system. P-V Curves of the power systems are used for these studies[7, 8] Moreover, in today’s scenario, power systems are more difficult to operate, The reasons behind this are deregulation issues which require an open access power delivery system that enables power delivery within and between the regions, facilitates access to interconnected competitive generation, little or no market base incentives for transmission investment and on reliability, security and stability issues. With deregulation came an “open access" rule to accommodate competition that requires services to accept the generation load sources at any location in the existing transmission network. This "open a structure has challenged the transmission owners to continually maintain system security, while at the same time try to minimize costly power flow congestion in transmission corridors. When voltage security or congestion problems are observed, during the planning and study proce cost effective solutions must be considered for such problems Traditional solutions for congestion voltage security problem were to install new expensive transmission lines that are often faced with public resistance, or mechanically switched capacitor banks that have limited benefits for dynamic performance due to the switching time frequency. These trends have led to extensive research interest in flexible AC transmissionsystems (FACTS), with the aim of developing new devices/ technologies to control the flow of power so as to allow more efficient usage of existing power generation transmission power plants [32,113] The FACTS devices open up new opportunities for controlling power transmission, enhancing the usable capacity of present well as new upgraded lines[66]. These ‘opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS controllers to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission system \cluding _ seriesChapter: 1 Introduction impedance,current, voltage, phase angle and damping of oscillations.Over the last several years, there were numerous installations of FACTS in the United Statesand other countries around the world. FACTS have proven to be environmental friendly and provide cost effective solutions to a wide range of power system needs. FACTS have given the utilities the possibility of delaying the construction of new transmission lines by increasing capacity on existing lines through provision of compensation of the system voltages [126,127]. Series capacitor combined with static VAR compensators are used for enhancement of steady state voltage stabilities [5]. The objective of this research is on application of Static VAR Compensator with tap-changing transformer to improve voltage regulation and power transfer capabilities. SVS is a thyristor-based controller that provides rapid voltage control to support immediately after major system disturbances, Several studies [5,12,13,39,99, 102, 103,128,129] have shown that transformers with automatic tap changing can be used for improvement of voltage stabilities for both steady state and transient voltage stabilities. Some of these studies were interested in proposing new models for tap changing transformers [129,130]. On the other hand, static VAR compensator is used for improvement of voltage stabilities due to lines opening in the presence of induction motors [80] or due to starting of induction motors [104,131] or due to recoveries of short circuits at induction motors terminals or due to heavy loadabilities or due to high impedance corridors due to switching of parallel circuits [80]. The combinations of these two means of voltage instabilities are suggested in text book exercises, but have not yet been studied in detail [105,132] Both tap changing transformers and static VAR compensators can contribute to power system stability. The combined effect of these two methods is studied, effect of presence of tap changing transformers on static VAR compensator controller parameters and the rating required to stabilize load voltages at certain values are highlighted [5,14] ‘As power systems have evolved through continuing growth in interconnections, use of new technologies/ controllers, the increased operation in highly stressed conditions, different forms of system instability have emerged [42]. For example, voltage stability, frequency stability, inter-area oscillations have become greater concerns than in the past decade [75]. ‘The FACTS technology opens up new opportunities for controlling and enhancing the usable power capacity of present, as well as new upgraded lines [126,127].These opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS controllers to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission system including series impedance, current, voltage and phase angle damping of oscillations [18,3,52].Chapter: 1 Introduction ‘Under normal system conditions, both peak or off peak load conditions, the voltages need to be maintained between 95% -105% of the nominal [46,52] Low voltage conditions could result in equipment malfunctions like: ‘+ Motor will stall overheat or get damaged. ‘+ Reactive power output of capacitors will be reduced exponentially. ‘© Generating units may trip. High voltage conditions may damage major equipment cause insulation failure, and automatically trip major transmission equipment. Therefore, voltages are controlled by predicting and correcting reactive power demand from loads by providing sufficient rea power control margin to “modulate” supply needs through: * Compensation (Series, Shunt) * Proper voltage schedule of generation FACTS have proven to be environment friendly, cost effective solutions to a wide range of the power system needs, FACTS have given utilities the option to delay new transmission line construction by increasing capacity on existing lines, compensation of the stem voltages [85]. FACTS controllers are available in different forms such as static VAR 8 compensators (SVCs), thyristor controlled series capacitors (TCSCs), static reactive compensators (STATCOMs) and unified power flow controllers (UPFCs) [45]. 1.2 SERIES COMPENSATION Recent decades have witnessed an incredible growth rate of production/ consumption of electrical energy. This has amplified the complexity of power systemswith increasing need for transmitting large amounts of power over long distances in EHV and UHV voltage range. One of the major problems associated with responding to this demand is the stability of these complex power systems because they require a comprehensive survey taking into I. Several measures have been taken to improve the stability of power systems: account different aspects [71, © Reducing the reactance of generator transformers ‘© Increasing the number of parallel lines/ sections ‘* Adoption of multiple conductor lines with series and shunt compensation ‘© Use of Series Capacitor in conjunction with EHV lines. Seri pacitors offer an effective, practical and economical means forimproving the stability limits and allow lines to cary more power [29,32,47]. In addition, the seriesChapter: 1 Introduction capacitors are very valuable in other respects also, such as voltage regulation, the balance of reactive power, reducing transmission losses, load distribution, etc [23]. The amount of series capacitance used inlong EHV lines is generally designated by the degree of series compensation defined by the ratio of capacitive reactance of the series capacitor to the total series line reactance. However, the net transfer impedance with series capacitor installation varies with not only the degree of series compensation but also depends upon its location along the line length [21,32] In addition to series compensation, shunt compensation is also provided on these lines because of its ability to compensate the capacitive effect of generation on line and provide an economical technical means to control the voltage rise [31]. Moreover, the series capacitors artificially reduce series reactance of the line so as to increase the limit of stability of the system, When planning for long-distance transmission, it is necessary to determine not only average degrees of compensation, but also the most appropriate location of reactors/ capacitor banks and the optimal compensation schemes for number of intermediate stations [16,20]. Given the above considerations [16], in the present work, a comparative study is done using maximum receiving end power [Paimaxjl, compensation efficiency criterion for the various systems of the series shunt compensation for a 400 kV line under study. The optimal series compensation value for each scheme is determined. The performances of various schemes are evaluated by deriving the generalized expressions for maximum receiving end power in terms of generalized line constants, capacitive reactance used and receiving end/ sending end voltages. In India, we have a large transmission network with many long 220 kV lines in operation and a number of 400 KV lines have been added / are being added. Many super- thermal power stations, being connected to the system, call for effective evaluation of power requirements. Series compensation schemes are suitably planned for new 400 kV lines,as also for existing 220 kV, over 400 km net in operation. Since uncompensated network suffers from significant reactive losses, poor voltage profile causes insufficient exploitation of power transfer capability, suitable series compensation is appropriate to a large extent to reduce the above deficiencies [56]. In fact, series compensation is the ideal solution (o increase the transfer capability of power transmission lines [32Jsuch as those of 400 kV long transmission lines; this increase can be almost 100% by the installation of 40-45% to compensate with the additional expenditure of 20% only. Given these advantages, series compensation is strongly recommended for the Indian conditions [56].Chapter: 1 Introduction 1.2.1 SERIES COMPENSATION WITHOUT SHUNT COMPENSATION Series compensation technique has been widely used to make the most of the long EHV/ UHV lines [29, 71]. This technology is widely accepted and actively considered during the planning of long distance EHV lines. Series compensation implies a partial neutralization of the transm jon line reactance by a capacitor bank installed in series with the line, Advantages derived are: * Increase in the steady-state power transfer capability of a line * Reduction in the voltage drop,hence improvement in voltage regulation. + Improvement in voltage stability (voltage distribution) throughout the line # Improvement in the system power factor. * Better power distribution between parallel lines + Reduction in system losses 1.2.2 SERIES COMPENSATION WITH SHUNT COMPENSATION This type of series compensation consists of shunt capacitors, shunt reactors as well as series capacitors. The static shunt capacitors are installed near the load terminals in jobs in the plant, receiving end substation and in switching substations. Most of the industrial loads draw inductive currents of poor power factor. The shunt capacitor of the line generates lagging VARs to meet the reactive power demand of the consumers. The shunt capacitors are switched in when kVA demand on distribution line goes up and voltage of the bus goes down. The switching in the shunt capacitor should improve the bus bar voltage if the compensation is effective (30, 31]. Shunt capacitors are mainly used to improve the power factor voltage control [126,127]. The shunt capacitor compensates the lagging VARs absorbed by inductive loads. The shunt reactors meant to improve the power factor reduce the total demand KVA. Therefore, Q Losses through the line are reduced and the voltage regulation is improvedusing shunt (IVF/XL) MVAR devices (24, 25]. Shunt capacitors are used in assessments 1SkVAR more than 100 MVAR, Small banks of capacitors, a few hundreds of KVAR are used on individual circuits. Capacitor bank of 500-3000 kVAR is used in distribution substations on small scale while those with higher ratings are used in important positions. However, for voltage regulation, they must be turned off /on as required by the system. They have to be switched on at time of peak loads and switched off at the time of light loads [59].Chapter: 1 Introduction The shunt connected reactors are used to absorb lagging VARs generated by the line during light load conditions [63]. The inductor may be coreless or a gagged core type. The coreless type is linear and is used for large rating voltages (i.e. 100 MVAR at 400 kV). The type gagged kernel is designed to be linear up to a voltage of about 1.3p.u. It is also possible to use a tapped saturable reactor, which saturates at selected voltages within a range of + 10% of system nominal voltage. When these are saturated, VARs absorbed by the change of fast reactor for small changes in the tension or reactor change rapidly for small change in voltage, the static compensation equipment is often linked to the tertiary delta winding of the substation transformer. Certain capacitors are permanently connected andthe remaining capacitors and inductors are provided with the on load tap changing gear for switching as and when required. If the capacitors are connected in star, then: Te=IVVV3X ¢) KV Qc= (IV (V3Xc)) (IVUXc) = IVP/Xc MVAR where V is the tertiary line voltage in kV, Xcis the capacitive reactance per phase Qc is the lagging 30 VARs generated by the capacitors For star connected inductor. Qu =IVP/X, MVAR where Q, is the leading 3 6 VARs generated by the inductors 2X1 is the inductive reactance per phase ‘The use of series capacitors, which are connected in series with the line, is more recent than the use of shunt capacitors [71]. They generate VARs proportional to the square of the current in them, Their main use is to reduce the series inductance of the line to increase the power limit, improve system stability. The ability of series capacitors to supply the reactive power of the loads is negligible whereas the contribution of shunt capacitors in this respect is very important. The difference arises from the fact that the shunt capacitor actually supplies the reactive power requirement of the loads. 1.3 SHUNT COMPENSATION It is recognized that the steady state transmittable power can be increasedand the voltage profile along the line controlled by appropriate reactive shunt compensation. The aim of this reactive compensation is to change the natural characteristics of the electricChapter: 1 Introduction transmission line to make it more compatible with the prevailing load demand, Thus, shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched reactors are applied to minimize line surge in light load conditions, the shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are used to maintain voltage levels in conditions of heavy load. Basicconsideration is to increase the transmittable power by ideal shunt connected VAR compensation to provide power electronics-based compensation control techniques to achieve the specific goals of as well as compensation. This requires improving the steady state transmission characteris the stability of the system. VAR compensation is used for voltage regulation: ‘© Atthe midpoint (or some intermediate) for line segment, © Atthe end of (radial) line support to prevent voltage instability, © Forimprovement of transient stability, damp power oscillations * For power oscillation damping ‘The functional requirements of reactive shunt compensators used for increased power transmission, improved voltage transient stability power o: illation damping are: ‘* The compensator must be in synchronous operation with the AC system at the compensated bus under all operating conditions including major disturbances. Also the compensator must be able to recapture synchronism immediately on fault clearing, ‘+ The compensator must be able to regulate the bus voltage for voltage support, improved transient stability, control it for power oscillation damping transient stability enhancement, on a priority basis as system conditions may require. + For a transmission line connecting two systems, the best location for VAR compensation is in the middle, whereas for a radial feed to a load the best location is at the load end, Capacitors generatereactors (inductors) that absorb reactive power when connected to an AC power source. They have been used with mechanical switches for (coarsely) controlled VAR generation absorption of AC power transmission. Continuously variable VAR generation or absorption for dynamic system compensation was provided by over-or under- excited rotating synchronous machines but, later, by saturating reactors in conjunction with fixed capacitors. In the early 1970s, high-power line-commutated thyristors in conjunction with capacitors and reactors were employed in various circuit configurations to produce variable reactive output. These in effect provide variable shunt impedance by synchronouslyChapter: 1 Introduction switching shunt capacitors / or reactors "in" / "out" of the network. Gate turn off thyristors were used in the switching/ converting circuit to generate / absorb reactive power without the use of AC capacitors or reactors as they perform as ideal synchronous compensators (condensers), in which the magnitude of the internally generated AC voltage is varied to control the VAR output. All these types of semiconductor power circuits are called by the IEEE CIGRE common definition as static VAR generator (SVG). A static VAR compensator (SVC) is, by the IEEE-CIGRE co-definition, a static VAR generator whose output is varied so as to maintain or control specific parameters (e.g. voltage, frequency) of electric power system. The difference between the static VAR generator/static VAR compensator ‘+ The static VAR generator is a self-sufficiently functioning device that draws controllable reactive current from an alternating power source. © The static VAR compensator is a static VAR generator equipped with special external (or system) controls, with the necessary reference for its input, from the operating requirements prevailing variables of the power system. Modem static VAR generators are based on high power semi-conductor switching circuits that determine important operating characteristics, such as the applied voltage relative to obtainable reactive output current, harmonic generation, the loss versus VAR output, attainable response time, setting limits for achievable performance of the VAR generator or the VAR compensator. 1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SERIES COMPENSATION ‘The use of series compensation leads to a number of advantages as regards power transfer capability, system stability, voltage regulation etc. 1.4.1, INCREASE IN TRANSMISSION CAPACITY The power transfer Pg; over a line is given by: Pai =!VsllValsind x (ty Where, Vs = Sending end voltage Vue Receiving end voltage ower angle X;=Inductive reactance of the lineChapter: 1 Introduction If a series capacitor having reactance Xc is inserted, the net series reactance becomes (Xi-Xo); the power transfer Paa is given by Pro= _ IVsllValsin’ Xi-Xo” (1.2) From equations (1.1) and (1.2), itis seen that for the same magnitude of Vs andVx Pao is higher than Pay. The increase in power is given by Pra/Pai = Xi X_— Xe) = = Xi/ Xi(1- Xof X= M(1-S) (1.3) Where ‘S* is known as degree of series compensation. 1.4.2 IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEM STABILITY From equations (1.1) and (1.2) it is seen that for the same amount of power transfer,same values of IVs! IVa, the phase angle 8 the case of series compensated is less than that for the uncompensated line. It is known that a lower angle 6 means better system stability. Some other methods for improvement of system stability are also used. These include reducing the reactance of generator, transfers, use of bundled conductors, increasing the number of circuits in parallel/ series compensationwhich generally offer the most economic solution with respect to both the steady state / transient stability. 1.4.3 LOAD DIVISION BETWEEN PARALLEL CIRCUITS The reduction of series reactance by series compensation makes it a useful tool to balance the loading in parallel circuits. When a system is being strengthened by adding a new line or when an existing circuit is tuned for parallel operation in order to achieve maximum power transfer/ minimize losses, the series compensation can be used to a great advantage. 1.5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SERIES COMPENSATION ‘The use of series compensation introduces a few problems too. Some of these are: 1.5.1 SUB-SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE The series capacitor introduces a subsynchronous frequency (proportional to the square root of the degree of series compensation) in the system. In some cases, this frequency may interact with weak steam turbines, generators shafts to give rise to high torsional stresses. In the hydraulic turbine generators, the risk of subsynchronous resonance is small because the torsional frequencies are about 10Hz or even less. -RRO-RESONANCE, When an unloaded or a lightly loaded system is energized through a series of compensated line Ferro resonance can occur. The frequency of oscillation is an integralChapter: 1 Introduction multiple of the system frequency. Shunt resistors can suppress this across the capacitor or by short circuiting the capacitor temporarily through an isolator or bypass breaker. 1.5.3 LINE PROTECTION Series compensation can lead to mal-operation of the remote distance relays of the line protection if the degree of series compensation capacitor location is not proper. 1.5.4 HIGH FREQUENCY VOLTAGE Series capacitors can produce high frequency voltage across the circuit breaker contacts. 1.6 ADVANTAGES OF SHUNT COMPENSATION The shunt compensation equipment may consist of a static compensation (using capacitors reactance) or synchronous compensation, As compared to the synchronous compensation, the static compensation has the advantage of higher speed of response, absence of fault in the feed to the system, greater reliability, lower maintenance (because there are no moving parts), lower cost and easy erection. Because of these reasons, static compensation is being increasingly preferred over the synchronous compensation. ‘The most typical function of static VAR systems can be summarized as under: 1.6.1 VOLTAGE SUPPORT ALONG THE LINE ‘The VARs generated by a line (i.e. CV) equal the VARs consumed by the line (i.e. LP); net VARs are zero only when the load is equal to the natural load and if the load is greater than natural load, net VARs are consumed by the line. For maintaining equal voltages at the two ends of the line, equal amount of VARs must be supplied at each end. If the load on the line is less than the natural load (during off peak conditions), net VARs are generated by the line. For maintaining voltages at the two ends, those VARs must be absorbed by using shunt reactors at the two ends of the line. 1.6.2 IMPROVED STABILITY The interconnected system consists of two or more areas connected by the transmission lines. System faults cause loss of generation and hence stability problems, studies have indicated that by varying the VARs supply at the proper point in the network, system stability can be improved. The thyristor switched shunt capacitors are especially useful for the purpose.Chapter: 1 Introduction 1.6.3 CONTROL OF OVER VOLTAGES Shunt compensation can control over voltages under transient dynamic conditions, thereby allowing a reduction in design insulation level. Thus, function requires static VAR system to swing quickly into absorption mode making thyristor controlled reactor as best suited for this purpose. 1.6.4 REDUCTION IN VARs FLOW The provision of shunt compensation leads to a reduction in unnecessary circulation of VARs in the network leading to reduction of system lossesand increased availability of equipment rating. 1.7 COMPENSATION EQUIPMENTS The long distance EHV transmission system requires use of series capacitors, shunt reactors in addition to circuit breakers, isolators, CTs, PTsand other usual equipment. The purpose of this equipment is to artificially reduce the transfer impedance andshunt susceptance of the lines so as to improve system stability, voltage control, increase the efficiency of transmission, facilitate the line energizationand reduce temporary transient over voltage. The most of the loads absorb positive (i.e. lagging) VARs to supply the magnetizing current of transformers, induction motors etc. At any moment, the maximum VARs which can be transferred over the lines are fixed by the voltage profile. It follows that at times of peak loads, the VARs demand by the loads greatly exceeds the VARs which can be transmitted over the lines from the consideration of voltage drop. Thus, additional equipment is necessary to generate lagging VARs to meet the reactive power requirement of the consumers. If this is not done, the system voltage at some of the buses is likely to become lower than the nominal voltage. The shunt capacitance of the line absorbs the leading VARs (ie. generates lagging VARs). At the time of light loads, the lagging VAR produced by the lines, is much larger than that required by the consumer loads. These surplus lagging VARs must be absorbed by the additional equipment to maintain the voltage profile within limits. If it is not done, the system voltage at some of the buses is likely to become greater than the nominal voltage. Hence it follows that it is necessary to provide additional equipment called reactive power compensating equipment to generate or absorb VARs. A shunt connected inductor absorbs lagging VARs while a shunt capacitor generates lagging VARs (by absorbing leadingChapter: 1 Introduction VARS). Specially designed synchronous machine called synchronous compensator (or phase modifiers) can generate or absorb VARs. An application of compensation equipment in a system has the following effects: ‘+ Reduction in reactive component of circuit current. ‘+ Maintenance of voltage profile within limits. ‘+ Reduction of Cu-losses in the system due to reduction of current. ‘+ Reduction in investment in the system per kW of load supplied. ‘* Decrease in kVA loading of generators circuits. This decrease in kVA loading may relieve an overload condition or release capacity for additional load growth, ‘+ Improvement in power factor of generators ‘+ Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers Long EHV transmission lines need intermediate switching substations to enable installation of series capacitors/shunt reactors. 1.8 VOLTAGE STABILITY Voltage Stability refer to the ability of a power system to maintain steady voltages at all buses in the system after being subjected to a disturbance from a given initial operating condition, It depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between load demand/ load supply from the power system, Instability may result in the form of a progressive fall or rise of voltages of some buses. A possible outcome of voltage instability is loss of load in an area, or tripping of transmission linesor other elements by their protective systems leading to cascading outages. Loss of synchronism of some generators may result from these outages or from operating conditions that violate field current limit. Progressive drop in bus voltage can also be associated with rotor angle instability. For example, loss of synchronism of machine as rotor angles between two groups of machines approach 180° causes rapid increase in voltage at intermedi fe points in the network close to the electrical center. Normally, protective systems operate to separate the two groups of machinesso that the the voltages recover to levels depending on the post-separation conditions. If, however, the system is not so separated, the voltages near the electrical center rapidly oscillate between high/ low values as a result of repeated “pole slips” between the two groups of machines. In contrast, the type of sustained fall of voltage, that is related to voltage instability, involves loadsthat may occur where rotor angle stability is not an issue. The modelling of the following componentsChapter: 1 Introduction areconsidered; synchronous generators, automatic voltage controller load, on load tap changer and thermostatic load compensation devices [106,107,108] 1.8.1 VOLTAGE INSTABILITY The term voltage collapse is also often used, it is process by which the sequence of events accompanying voltage instability leads to a blackout or abnormally low voltages in a significant part of the power system,stable (steady) operation at low voltage may continue after transformer tap changer reach their boost limit, with intentional or unintentional tripping of some load, remaining load tends to be voltage sensitive, the connected demand at normal voltage is not met [105,108]. The driving force for voltage instability is usually the loads; in response to a disturbance, power consumed tends to be restored by the action of motor slip adjustment, distribution voltage regulators, tap changing transformers, thermostats [8]. Restored loads increase the stress on the high voltage network by increasing the reactive power consumption causing further voltage reduction. A run-down situation causing voltage instability occurs when load dynamics attempt to restore power consumption beyond the capability of the transmission networkof the connected generation A major factor contributing to voltage instability is the voltage drop that occurs when activeand reactivepower flows through inductive reactance of the transmission network; this S the capability of the transmission network for power transfer voltage support. The power transfer voltage support is further limited when some of the generators hit their field or armature current time-overload capability limits. Voltage stabi threatened when a ty i disturbance increases the reactive power demand beyond the sustainable capacity of the available reactive power resources. While the most common form of voltage instability is the progressive drop of bus voltages, the risk of over-voltage instability also existsthat has been experienced at least on one system. It is caused by a capacitive behavior of the network (EHV transmission lines operating below surge impedance loading) as well as by under excitation limiters preventing generators or synchronous compensators from absorbing the excess reactive power. In this case, the instability is associated with the inability of the combined generation transmission system to operate below some load level. In their attempt to restore this load power, transformer tap changers cause long-term voltage instability [6, 19] Voltage stability problems may also be experienced at the terminals of HVDC links used for either long distance or back-to-back applications [8]. They are usually associated with HVDC links connected to weak AC systemsand may occur at inverter stations, areChapter: 1 Introduction associated with unfavorable reactive power “load” characteristics of the converters. The HVDC link control strategies have a very significant influence on such problems, since the active reactive power at the AC/DC junction is determined by the controls. If the resulting loading on the AC transmission stresses is beyond its capability, voltage instabilities occur. Such a phenomenon is relatively fast with the time frame of interest being in the order of one second or less. The over voltage that results when generator load changes to capacitive is characterized by an instantaneous rise at the instant of change followed by a more gradual rise. This latter rise depends on the relation between the capacitive load component machine reactance together with the excitation system of the synchronous machine. Negative field current of the exciter is a feature that has a positive influence on the limits for self-excitation. As in the case of rotor angle stability, itis useful to classify voltage stability into the following subcategories [10, 11]: ‘+ Large-disturbance voltage stability refers to the system’s ability to maintain steady voltages following large disturbances such as system faults, loss of generation, or circuit contingencies. This ability is determined by the system load characteristics, the interactions of both continuous discrete control protections. Determination of Large-disturbance voltage stability requires the examination of the nonlinear response of the power system over a period of time sufficient to capture the performance interactions of such devices as motors, under load transformer tap changers and generator field-current limiters. The study period of interest may extend from a few seconds to tens of minutes. ‘+ Small-disturbance voltage stability refers to the system’s ability to maintain steady voltage when subjected to small perturbations such as incremental changes in system load. This form of stability is influenced by the characteristics of loads, continuous controls, discrete controls at a given instant of time. This concept is useful in determining, at any instant, how the system voltages will respond to small system changes. With appropriate assumption, system equations can be linearized for analysis thereby allowing computing of valuable sensitivity information useful in identifying factors influencing stability. This linearization, however, cannot account for nonlinear effects such as tap changer controls (discrete tap steps, time is used in a delays), Therefore, a combination of linear and nonlinear analysii ‘complementary manner.Chapter: 1 Introduction ‘As noted above, the time frame of interest for voltage stability problems may vary from a few seconds to tens of minutes, Therefore, voltage stability may be either a short-term or a long-term phenomenon as identified in Figure-1. ‘* Short-term voltage stability involves dynamics of fast-acting load components such as induction motors, electronically controlled loads, HVDC converters. The study period of interest is in the order of several seconds, analysis requires solution of appropriate system differential equations; this is similar to analysis of rotor angle stability. Dynamic modelling of loads is often essential. In contrast to angle stability, short circuits near loads are important. It is recommended that the term transient voltage stability not be used. ‘+ Long-term voltage stability involves slower acting equipment such as tap changing transformers, thermostatically controlled loads, generator current, limiters. The study period of interest may extend to several or many minutes, long- term simulations are required for analysis of system dynamic performance. Stability is usually determined by the resulting outage of equipment, rather than the severity of the initial disturbance. Instability is due to the loss of long-term equilibrium (¢.g., when loads try to restore their power beyond the capability of the transmission network connected generation), post-disturbance operating point being small-disturbance unstable, or a lack of attraction toward the stable post-disturbance equilibrium (e.g., when a remedial action is applied too late). The disturbance could also be a sustained load buildup (e.g., morning loads increase). In many cases, static analysis can be used to estimate stability margins, identify factors influencing stability, screen a wide range of system conditions and a large number of scenarios, Where timing of control actions is important, this should be complemented by quasi-steady-state time-domain simulations 1.9 DEFINITION OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY Power system stability is si ilar to the stability of any dynamic system and has fundamental mathematical under-pinnings. Precise definitions of stability can be found in the literature dealing with the rigorous mathematical theory of stability of dynamic systems, Power system stability [10, 11,105] is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after beingChapter: 1 Introduction subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact. The definition applies to an interconnected power system as a whole. Often, however, the stability of a particular generator or group of generators is also of interest. A remote generator may lose stability (synchronism) without cascading instability of the main system. Similarly, stability of particular loads or load areas may be of interest; motors may lose stability (run down/ stall) without cascading instability of the main system. The power system is a highly nonlinear system that operates in a constantly changing environment; loads, generator outputs and key operating parameters change continually. When subjected to a disturbance, the stability of the system depends on the initial operating condition as well as the nature of the disturbance Stability of an electric power system is thus a property of the system motion around an equilibrium set, ie., the initial operating condition. In an equilibrium set, the various opposing forces that exist in the system are equal instantaneously (as in the case of equilibrium points) or over a cycle (as in the case of slow cyclical variations due to continuous small fluctuations in loads or periodic attractors). Power systems are subjected to a wide range of disturbances, small/large. Small disturbances in the form of load changes occur continually; the system must be able to adjust (o the changing conditionsand operate satisfactorily. It must also be able to survive numerous disturbances of a severe nature, such as a short circuit on a transmission line or loss of a large generator, A large disturbance may lead to structural changes due to the isolation of the faulted elements, At an equilibrium set, a power system may be stable for a given (large) physical disturbance, unstable for another. It is impractical and uneconomical to design power systems to be stable for every possible disturbance. The design contingencies are selected on the basis that they have a reasonably high probability of occurrence. Hence, large disturbance stability always refers to a specified disturbance scenario, A stable equilibrium set thus has a finite region of attraction; the larger the region, the more robust the system with respect to large disturbances. The region of attraction changes with the operating condition of the power system. The response of the power system to a disturbance may involve much of the equipment. For instance, a fault on a critical element followed by its isolation by protective relays will cause variations in power flows, network bus voltages, or machine rotor speed, the voltage variations will actuate both generator transmission network and voltageChapter: 1 Introduction regulators.The generator speed variations will actuate prime mover governors. The voltage frequency variations will affect the system loads to varying degrees depending on their individual characteristics. Further, devices used to protect individual equipment may respond to variations in system variables causing tripping of the equipment, thereby weakening the system possibly leading to system instability. If following a disturbance, the power system is stable, it will reach a new equilibrium state with the system integrity preserved. Some generators loads may be disconnected by the isolation of faulted elements or intentional tripping to preserve the continuity of operation of bulk of the system.The actions of automatic controls, possibly human operations, will eventually restore the system to normal state. ‘On the other hand, if the system is unstable, it will result in a run-away or run-down situation; for example, a progressive increase in angular separation of generator rotors, or a progressive increase in bus voltages. An unstable system condition could lead to cascading ‘outages, a shutdown of a major portion of the power system. Power systems are continually experiencing fluctuations of small magnitudes. However, for assessing stability, when subjected to a specified disturbance, it is usually valid to assume that the system is initially in a true steady-state operating condition. 1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY A gppical modern power system is a high-order multivariable process whose dynamic response is influenced by a wide array of devices with different characteristics-response rates. Stability is a condition of equilibrium between opposing forces. Depending on the network topology, system operating condition, and the form of disturbance, the different sets of opposing forces may experience sustained imbalance leading to different forms of instability. In section, we provide a systematic basis for classification of power system stability [10, 11,122] The classification of power system stability proposed here is based on the following considerations: ‘* The physical nature of the resulting mode of instability as indicated bythe main system variables in which instability can be observed. ‘* The size of the disturbance considered which influences the method of calculative prediction of stability.Chapter: 1 Introduction ‘+ The devices, processes, the time span that must be taken into consideration in order to assess stability Figure (1.0) gives the overall picture of the power system stability problem, identifying its categories and subcategories [10, 11]. Power System Stability Rotor Angle Frequency Voltage Stability Stability Stability ‘Small Trans! Large- Small Disturbance Stabil Disturbance Disturbance ———— Voltage Voltage Short Short Long Short Long Term Term Term Term Tenn Figure 1.0:Classification of Power system Stability 1.11 ANALYSIS OF POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY A simple example: ‘The characteris! of voltage stability are illustrated by a simple example. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified two-bus system [10, 11]. The generator creates active power that is transmitted through a transmission line to the load. The reactive power capability of the generator is infinite, so the generator terminal voltage V1 constant load, including the active and reactive power P and Q Fig.1.1. Two-bus test systemChapter: 1 Introduction The purpose of this study is to calculate the load voltage V2 with different values of load. The load voltage can be calculated analytically in this simple example, Generally voltages are solved with a load-flow program. The solution of equation 1.1 is the load voltage for the load-flow equations of the example, when the voltage angle is eliminated. ay OX) + v4 —40xV, —4P*x* ‘The solutions of the load voltages are often presented as a PV curve (see Figure 1.2), PV curve presents load voltage as a function of load or the sum of the loads [3,105,106]. It presents both solutions of the system. The electricity system has low power high voltage high current-low voltage solutions. Power operated in the upper part of PV curve, this part of the PV curve is statically/ dynamically stable. The head of the curve is called the maximum loading point. The critical point is one where the solutions are combining voltage collapse point [123]. The maximum load point is more interesting from the practical point of view than the true voltage collapse point, because the maximum power system loading occurs when the constant power loads are taken into account, but in general they are different. The voltage dependence of loads affects the point of voltage collapse. Power system. voltage becomes unstable at the voltage collapse point. Voltage falls rapidly because of the requirement for an infinite amount of reactive power [124]. The lower part of PV curve (left of the voltage collapse point) is statically stable but dynamically unstable. The electric power system can only operate in stable equilibrium, so that the system dynamics act to restore the state of equilibrium when disturbed. 7 Range of operation Towanus Pew)Chapter: 1 Introduction Figure 1.2 presents five PV curves for the test system (V; =400 kV, X =100 12). These curves represent different load compensation cases (tan = QIP). Since inductive line lossesmake itinefficient to supply a large amount of reactive power over long transmission lines, the reactive power loads must be supported locally. According to Fig. 1.2 addition of load compensation [decrement of the value of tan (‘)] is beneficial for the power system. The load compensation makes it possible to increase the loading of the power system according to voltage stability. Thus, the monitoring of power system security becomes more complicated because the critical voltage might be close to voltages of normal operation range. The opportunity to increase power system loading by load line compensation is valuable nowadays. Compensation investments are usually much less expensive and more environment-friendly than line investments [12] Fig.1.3 The action of on-load tap changer caused by disturbance 1.12 FACTS CONTROLLERS FOR POWER SYSTEM The FACTS technology does not refer to a single high power controller, but rather to a collection of controllers, which can be applied individually or in coordination with others to control one or more of the interrelated system parameters such as series line impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase-angle etc, that govern the operation of power systems.{9, 18,126,127] In general, FACTS controllers can be categorized into four types: ‘© Series Connected controllers ‘© Shunt Connected controllersChapter: 1 Introduction ‘© Combined Series-Shunt connected controllers ‘* Combined series-series controllers 1.13 SERIES CONNECTED CONTROLLERS Variable series compensation is very effectual in controlling power flow in line as well as improving stability. The overall effective series transmission impedance from sending to the receiving end could be arbitrarily decreased with series compensation. This capacity to control the flow of power can be effectively used to increase the limit of transient stability through oscillation damping. By means of controlling impedance or phase angle or series injection of voltage, a series FACTS control can control the flow of current. Hence, the series controller could be variable impedance, such as capacitor, reactor or power electronics based variable source to serve the desired need. But generally all series controllers inject variable voltage in series with the line. Even variable impedance by current flow through it represents an injected series voltage. As long as voltage is in quadraturewith the line current, the series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve real power as well. ‘Types of series connected controllers are: ‘Static Synchronous Series Comparator (SSSC) ‘Inter line Power Flow Controller (IPFC) ‘+ Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) ‘* Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) ‘* Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR) ‘* Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR) 1.13.1 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR (SSSC): A static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as @ series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with and controllable independently of, the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted electric power. The SSSC may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing devices to enhance the dynamic behaviour of the power system by additional temporary real power compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real (resistive) voltage drop across the line,Chapter: 1 Introduction 1.13.2INTERLINE POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (IPFC): The combination of two or more static synchronous series compensators which are attached by a common DC link in order to facilitate bi-directional flow of real power between the AC terminals of the $SSC, are controlled to provide independent reactive compensation for the purpose of adjustment of real power flow in each lineto maintain the preferred distribution of reactive power flows between the lines. The IPFC structure may also include a STATCOM, coupled with IFFCs, common to DC link, with the purpose to provide shunt reactive compensation to supply or absorb the power deficit of the combined SSSC. 1.13.3 THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC A TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator comprising of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor so as to provide a smooth variable series capacitive reactance, The TCSC is based on thyristors, without the ability of gate turn-off. It acts as an alternative to the SSSC (discussed above) as anSSSC, it is a crucial FACTS controller. A variable reactor like the TCR is connected through a series capacitor. When the TCR firing angle is 180 degrees, the reactor becomes non-conductive and series capacitor attains its normal impedance. With the firing angle’s advancement from 180 degrees and below, there is, an increase in capacitive impedance. On the other hand, as the TCR firing angle turns 90 degrees, the reactor happens to be fully conducting and the total impedance turns out to be inductive, since the impedance of the reactor is designed to be much lower than the impedance of series capacitor. The TCSC could be a single large unit or may constitute several equal or different sized smaller capacitors to accomplish superior performance. 1.13.4 THYRISTOR-SWITCHED SERIES CAPACITOR (T: A TSSC is a capacitive reactance compensator which includes a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-switched reactor to offer progressive control of the series capacitive reactance. As an alternative to continuous monitoring of the capacitive impedance, this approach of transiting the firing angle of 90 degrees or 180 degrees, but without control of the firing angle could reduce costs/ losses of the controller. It is rational to hold one of the modules to have a controlled thyristor, while others could be switched thyristor. 1.13.5 THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES REACTOR (TCSR): This is an inductive reactance compensator containing a series reactor shunted by a thy stor controlled reactor with the purpose of providing a smoothly variable series inductive reactance, As the firing angle of thyristor controlled reactor turns 180 degrees, it ceases to conduct uncontrolled reactor and starts acting as fault current limiter. As the angle decreases,Chapter: 1 Introduction below 180 degrees, the net inductance too decreases until firing angel of 90 degrees, while the net inductance is the parallel combination of the two reactors. As for the TCSCs, the TCSR could possibly be single large unit or multiple units of small series. 1.13.6 THYRISTOR-SWITCHED SERIES REACTOR (TSSR): A TSSR is an inductive reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor shunted by a thyristor switched reactor to provide progressive control of the series inductive reactance. It is a complement but TCSR thyristor switches on or off completely (without firing angle) to achieve a combination of increased inductive reactance. 1.14SHUNT CONNECTED CONTROLLERS ‘As in the case of series controllers, shunt controller may be variable impedance, variable source or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system. Even variable shunt impedance causes a variable current injection into the line. As long as injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, it supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will nvolve real power exchange also, Placing the shunt compensator in the middle of a row divided the line into two segments; at this point the voltage can be so controlled that it has the same value at the end of the line. This leads to the advantage as the maximum transmission power is increased. By locating shunt compensator at the end of a line parallel to a load, it is possible to adjust the tension to this end, thereby preventing the voltage instability as caused by variations in load or generation or outages. As compensation shunt has capability of changing the power flow in the system by varying the value of the shunt compensation, applied during/ after disturbance, transient stability can be increasedand effective power oscillation damping ‘occurs. Therefore the tension of the transmission line neutralizes swings of the disturbed machine and hence the power oscillations are damped. ‘Types of shunt connected controllers are: ‘* Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) ‘* Static Synchronous Generator (SSG) ‘+ Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) ‘* Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) ‘* Static VAR Compensator (SVC) ‘+ Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)Chapter: 1 Introduction ‘+ Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR) ‘+ Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) ‘+ Static VAR Generator or Absorber ‘+ Static VAR system (SVS) ‘+ Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) 1.14.1 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM) A. static synchronous generator operates as a branch connected static VAR compensator where capacitive or inductive output current could be controlled irrespective of the AC system voltage. STATCOM is a FACTS controller core. Its basis can be on a voltage or current coming from the converter. From economical point of view, the voltage source converter seems to be most preferred, tends to be the basis for the presentations of most converter FACTS controllers. For the voltage source converter, AC output voltage is so controlled that it is just optimal for the requisite current flow for each AC voltage, bus capacitor voltage is automatically adjusted as needed to serve as a source of voltage converter. STATCOM can thus be designed to operate as an active filter so as to absorb the harmonics of the system. 1.14.2 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR (SSG) A. static self-commutated switching power converter, supplied from an appropriate electric energy source operated to produce a set of adjustable multiphase output voltages, which may be coupled to anac power system for the purpose of exchanging independently controllable real and reactive power. Obviously SSG is a combination of STATCOM andany energy sources to supply or absorb power. The term, SSG,generalized connecting any source of energy, inclusive of a battery, flywheel, superconducting magnet, large de storage capacitor, another rectifier / inverter, ete. An electronic interface known as a chopper is usually needed between the energy sourceand the converter. For a voltage-sourced convertor, the energy source serves to approximately compensate the capacitor charge through the electronic interfaceand maintain the capacitor voltage, required. 1.14,3BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (BESS): A system based on chemical energy storage using shunt connected, voltage source converters capable of rapidely adjusting the amount of energy that is supplied to or absorbed by an ac system. For transmission applications, BESS storage unit sizes range would tend to be small (a few tens of MWHs)and_ if the short-time converter rating was large enough, it could deliver MWs with a high MW/MWH ratio for transient stability. The converterChapter: 1 Introduction canalso simultaneously absorb or deliver reactive power withinthe converter’s MVA capacity. When not supplying active power to the system, the convertor is used to charge the battery at an acceptable rate. 1.14.4 SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE (S IES) A superconducting electromagnet energy storage device contains electronic converters which rapidly inject or absorb real or reactive power dynamically that controls power flow in an AC system. As the DC in the magnet does not fluctuate rapidly, the power input or output of the magnet can be changed by controlling the voltage across the magnet with a suitable electronics interface for connection to a STATCOM. 1.14.5 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC) A shunt connected static VAR generator or absorber whose output is adjustable to exchange capacitive or inductive current thus to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus bar voltage). This generally signifies the thyristor- controlled or thyristor-switched reactor or thyristor-switched capacitor or any of these combinations. SVC is based on thyristor without the gate tun off capability. SVC is often throught by some as a low cost option to STATCOM, though this may not be the case if the basis of comparison is the required performance andnot just the MVA size, 1.14.6 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR (TCR) A shunt associated thyristor controlled inductor whose effective reactance varies in an incessant manner by partial conduction of the thyristor valve. TCR is a subset of SVC wherein the conduction time, consequently, the current in the shunt reactor is controlled by a switch-based AC thyristor control with the firing angle, 1.14.7 THYRISTOR SWITCHED REACTOR (TSR) This is a shunt coupled thyristor-switched inductor, whose effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full or zero conduction operation of the thyristor valve. TSR is another asubset of SVC. TSR comprises multiple shunt connected inductors which are switched in andout by thyristor switches without any firining angle controles in order to achieve the required step change in the reactive power consumed from the system. The use of thyristor switches, without firing angle control, results in lower cost and losses, but without a continuous control 1.14.8 THYRISTOR SWITCHED CAPACITOR (TSC) A TSC is a shunt-connected thyristor-switched capacitor with a progressively ranging reactance by full to zero conduction operation of thyristor valve. TSC is also a subset of SVC wherein the thyristor based AC switches are used to switch on or off (without firingChapter: 1 Introduction anglecontrol) shunt capacitors unit,in order to achieve the much needed step change in the reactive power supplied to the system, Unlike shunt reactors, shunt capacitors can not be switched continuously with firing angle control. 1.14.9 STATIC VAR GENERATOR OR ABSORBER (SVG) A static electrical device, equipment or system that is capable of drawing controlled capacitive or inductive current from an electrical power supply system and there by generating or absorbing reactive power. G consists of shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled reactors or thyristor switched capacitors. The SVG (as broadly defined by the IEEE), is simply a reactive power (VAR) source, that, with appropriate controls, can be convertedin to any specific- or multi purpose reactive shunt compensator. Therefore, both SVC, STATCOM are static VAR generators equipped with appropriate control loops to vary. the VAR output so as to meet specific compensation objectives. 1.14.10STATIC VAR SYSTEM (SVS) It is a combination of diverse static mechanically switched VAR compensators whose outputs are coordinated. 1.14.11 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED BRAKING RESISTOR (TCBR) This is a shunt allied thyristor-switched resistance, which is controlled by means of stabilizing a power system or to lessen the acceleration power of a production unit during a disturbance. TCBR involves cyclic switching of resistor (usually a linear resistor) with a thyristor based AC switch with control of the firing angle. As a low cost option, TCBR may be thyristor switched, i.e. without firing angle control. However, with control of the firing angle, half-cycle firing control can be used to selectively damp low frequency oscillations. 1.15 COMBINED SERIES- SHUNT CONTROLLERS This is a combination of series shunt controller which is controlled in a coordinated manner or a unified power flow controller with series shunt elements. In principle, combined shunt series controller injects current into the line with the series part of the controller. However when the shunt series controllers are unified, there can be a real power link. Inferring from above, the shunt converter of the UPFC injects current into the line while the series converter injects voltage in series with the line. The power link enables real power exchange between the two [76]Chapter: 1 Introduction From the above discussion, it can be inferred that the word unified emphasizes or refers to the existence of a power link via which the combination of controllers i.e. series — series series-shunt exchange real power, also the power link if provided with a storage system such as DC capacitors, batteries etc, is much more effective for controlling the system dynamics. This has to do with dynamic pumping of real power in/ out of the system as against only influencing transferring of real power within the system as in the case of power links lacking storage. ‘There are three types of combined series-shunt controllers: * Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) + Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST) ‘Interphase PowerController (IPC) 1.15.1 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLERS (UPFC) A combination of static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and static series ‘compensator (SSC), linked by a common DC link to let the real power flow bi-directionally between the output terminals set by the SSSC, the shunt output terminals of the STATCOM, are controlled to provide concurrent real or reactive series line compensation without any external electric energy source. The UPFC with the help of angularly unconstrained series voltage injection is capable of controlling, simultaneously or selectively, the voltage of the transmission line, the impedanceand the angle or the flow of active reactive power in the line. The independently controllable shunt reactive compensation may also be offered by UPEC. 1.15.2 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER (TCPST) A TCPST is a phase shifting transformer adjustable by thyristor switches in order to provide a rapidly variable phase angle. 1.15.3 INTERPHASE POWER CONTROLLER (IPC) This is a series-connected controller of active and reactive power consisting, in each phase, of inductive and capacitive branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages. The active and reactive power can be set independently by adjusting the phase shifts and/or the branch impedances, using mechanical or electronic switches. In this particular case, where the inductive and capacitive impedance from a conjugate pair, each terminal of the IPC is a passive current source dependent on the voltage at the other terminal.Chapter: 1 Introduction 1.16 COMBINED SERIES- SERIES CONTROLLERS: This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controllers in a coordinated manner, or it could be a unified controller. The series controllers could provide independent series reactive compensation but also could transfer real power among the nes via the power link (DC link). The real power transfer capability of the unified series- series controller, referred to as interline power flow controller, makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines, thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system, Note that the term “unified” here means that the DC terminals of all controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer. KEY BENEFITS OF APPLYING FACTS TO POWER SYSTYEMS ARE : ‘+ Enhances Voltage Stability Increase loading or more effective use of transmission corridors Added power flow control Increased system security Increased system reliability Added flexibility in setting up new generation 1.17 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE THESIS Main objective of the present research is enhancement of voltage stability in power systems using FACT devices. For this, in the first phase, work to determine the optimal amount location of series compensation SVS in long transmission line is carried out. In the second phase, the research is carried out to improve voltage stability of the power system with the application of optimally located Static VAR compensator and optimal series capacitor compensation of the long transmission line. The application of the tap changing transformer has also been explored for further improving the voltage stability ‘Major modes developedand studied to meet the objective are: ‘* Suitable system model is developed which reflects the system steady state behavior accurately. ‘© The technique has been explored to enhance the steady state voltage stability by locating the series and shunt compensation at various locations along the transmission system to determine the best location of series shunt capacitor with respect to SVS (Static VAR System) location to improve the steady state dynamic voltage stability over wide load variations.Chapter: 1 Introduction ‘* The optimal location of series compensation/ shunt compensation has been determined and amount of series compensation to be used has also been determined, «Possibility of locating SVS along the transmission system has been determined for enhancing the voltage stability for wide load variations under steady state dynamic conditions, «An approach has been derived to determine PV curve for the voltage stability study considering the effect of voltage characteristics of electric loads as well as the reallocation of system transmission losses. SIGNIFICANCE ‘© The main contribution of this study is to obtain more precise voltage profile of power system to study voltage stability problem in power system analysis © The purposed contribution of series shunt compensation may reduce rating expenses with possible risk of subsynchronous resonance in the power system. ‘© The steady state dynamic voltage stability will be enhanced; therefore, this research will be highly beneficial for the electricity boards and other power industries, 1.18 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS This thesis is organized as under: Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter presents the detailed introduction to the subject matter of the thesis and basic aspects of series and shunt compensation with a view to enhance voltage stability and power transfer capability of the power system. Chapter 2: Literature Review ‘An exhaustive review starting from the first incidence of series compensation of a long transmission to VAR compensator, SVS Tap changing transformer for improving the voltage stability is carried out. Chapter 3:Optimal Amount and Location of Series and Shunt Compensation for Enhancing Voltage Stability (AnAnalysis) In this chapter, analysis of the series compensation is done considering all six cases of ‘compensation scheme. In each case, optimum value of series capacitive reactance, optimum value of degree of series compensation, maximum receiving end power, optimum value ofChapter: 1 Introduction compensation efficiency are calculated. Based on the results obtained in all six cases, a comparative study is made between compensation schemes with /without shunt compensation Chapter 4: Optimal Amount and Location of Series and Shunt Compensation for e Study) enhancingvoltage stability (Simulationand In this chapter, acase study of 400KV, 600 Km long transmission line has been considered for analysis for different locations of series and shunt compensation. The analysis has been carried outand plots are drawn between (1) Painand degree of series compensation(s%)(2)compensation efficiency(n.) and degree of series compensation(S%) for the six eases. Chapter 5:Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stability Using SVS, Tap Changing ‘Transformerand Series Compensation(An Analysis) In this chapter, work is carried out to improve voltage stability of the power system with the application of optimally located Static VAR compensator, optimal series capacitor compensation of the long transmission line. The application of the tap changing transformer has also been explored for further improving the voltage stability. Chapter 6:Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stability Using SVS, Tap Changing ‘Transformer and Series Compensation (Simulationsand Case Study) In this chapter, suitable power systemsfor consideration for simulation various cases have been studiedand analy: -d, Following plots are rendered to study the effects : 1. Power versus voltage curve with the presence static VAR compensator tap changing transformer. 2. The plots between load power voltage responses with presence of series capacitor, tap changing transformer static VAR compensator are drawn. 3. Static VAR compensator parameters in the presence of load tap changing transformer 4. Influence of tap changing transformer on SVC controller gain versus slope relation 5. Compensator controller reference in presence of tap changing transformer. 6. (P,Q,V) Curve, voltage as function of load active and reactive powers. Chapter 7:Conclusions Main conclusions are drawn and suggestions made for further scope for future work. ‘The thesis ends with a list of the references cited.