2x SE Rh MEN. Tend The Thermal Coefficient of Linear Expansion INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES With few exceptions, solids increase in size or dimensions 4 the temperature increases. Althoug ftely small, itis very important in applications involvin irials that undergo heating and cooling. Unless these thanges are taken into account, material and structural ddmaze can result; for example, a piston fight ints cylinder, a rivet could loosen, or a bridge girder fould produce damaging stress. The expansion properties of a material depend on its intemal makeup and structure, Macroscopically, we ex- this effect is rela ay become 100 ‘degree of temperature change. In this experiment, we will investigate the thermal expansion of some metals and de- termine their temperature coefficients of lin Afier performing this experiment and a data, you should be able to: ir expansion, lyzing the 1. Tell how the thermal coefficient of linear expansion describes such e 2. Explain how the thermal coefficient of linear expan: sion is measured, and give an order of magnitude of its values for metas, 3. Describe and give examples of how thermal expan- reste thermal expansion in terms of temperature coeff- : : eae tients of expansion, which are experimental quantities that Pah as Sunt) ee Tgpsent the change in the dimensions of a material per iene EquipMent NEEDED + Beaker + Linear expansion apparatus and accessories ja Mex Linear expansion apparatus and accessorie + Thermometer (0°C to 110°C) * Steam generator and stand + Bunsen burner and striker or electric hot plate Rubber wi THEORY {Changes inthe dimensions and volumes of materials are fommon effects. The thermal expansion of vious and is generally described by gas laws. But the thermal expansion of solids and liquids is no less impor. fant, Infact, we use such expansions to measure temper fue in liquid and bimetallic thermometers In general for solids, a temperature increase leads to the thermal expansion of an object as a whole, This expan- Sion results from a change in the average distance separat ing the atoms (or molecules) of a substance. The atoms a Hel together by bonding forces, which can be represented Simplistcally as springs in a simple model of a solid (@Fig. 14.1). The atoms vibrate back and forth; and with increased temperature (more internal energy), they become increasingly active and vibrate over greater distances. With Wider vibrations in all dimensions, the solid expands as a whole. This may be different in different directions; how ter ifthe expansion is the same in all directions, i is re fered t0 as isotopic expansion, The change in one dimension (length, width, or thick: ness) of a solid is called linear expansion, For small femperature changes, linear expansion is. approximately psn oH 209 Two or three kinds of metal rods (e.g, aluminum) proportional to AT, or the change in temperature T ~ T,, (@Fig. 14.2). The fractional change in length is (LLL, or ALI is the original length of the solid at the initial temperature. This ratio is related to in temperature by where L, =aAT of AL=al,AT (14.1) L=L, and AT = TT, and avis the thermal (of linear expansion, With units of inverse temperature—that is, 1/C°. [It is convenient to write the unit of a Aas C° (Celsius degree) so as to distinguish from, a particular temperature T (°C, degree Celsius),} Note that with a temperature decrease and a contraction, AL would be negative, or AS Eq. 14.1 shows, « isthe fractional change in length per degree temperature change, AL/L,,* This thermal coefficient of expansion may vary slightly for different negative expansion, To help understand whats meant by frictional change, consider ‘money analogy. I you have $1.00 in the bank and get Se ners then the fractional change (increase) in your money is 8/8, ~ Scens/100 cents = 1/20 = 0,050 (or 5.0%),@ r++? oo+4 trie attt4 O btetet o--4 4-8 ooo ©) Figure 14.1 A springy solid. (a) The elastic nature of interatomic forces is indicated by simplistically representing them as springs, which, like the forces, resist deformation. (b) Heat causes the molecules to vibrate with greater amplitudes in the lat- tice, thereby increasing the volume of the solid (right). The arrows represent the molecular bonds, and the drawing is obviously rot to scale. (James Shipman, Jerry Wilson, and Aaron Todd, An Introduction to Physical Science, Ninth Edition. Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted with permission.) From Wilson/Bufla, College Physics, Fifth Edition Copyright © 2003. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education. temperature ranges, but this variation is usually negligible for common applications, and a is considered to be con- stant By Eq, 14.1, a is defined in terms of experimentally ‘measurable quantities: AL TAT (142) Hence‘ by measuring the inital length L, of an object (-g 4 metal rod) at an inital temperature T, and the change in its length AL for a corresponding temperature change AT, wwe can compute a: ‘This development may be extended to wo dimensions. ‘The linear expansion expression (Eq. 14.1) may be writen L=L,(1 + aa7) (14.3) pol nf ) at=T-T. feaet Y $+ Figure 142 Linear thermal expansion, Atthe intial tem- perature T,, the length of the od is L,. At some higher temperature , the rod has expanded to& length L, and the change in lengths AL = LL, for the temperature change ar and for an isotropic material, its area is A = LX L, or A=P = 11 + eat? = A,(I + 2087 + o2AT?) where A, = L2. Since typical a's are of the order of 10°6/C°, the a term may be dropped with negligible error, and toa good approximation, A + 207) asa) ‘Comparing this expression with Eq. 14.3, the thermal coef ficient of area expansion is seen to be approximately twice the coefficient of linear expansion (i.c., 2a) ‘A similar development can be carried out for the coef- ficient of volume expansion, which is 10 3a EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 41. A typical arrangement for determining thermal c cients of linear expansion is shown in @ Fig. 14.3. The apparatus consists of a steam jacket with a micrometer attachment for measuring AL of a metal rod. A ther ‘mometer in the steam jacket measures the temperature of the rod, Steam is supplied to the jacket by a steam. ‘generator, and a beaker is used to catch the condensate. 2. Before assembling the apparatus, measure the lengths L, of the metal rods with a meterstick to the nearest (0:1 mmand record these lengths in the data table. Avoid. handling the rods with your bare hands in order not to raise their temperature. Use a paper towel or cloth. Copyright© Howton Min Company Al gtdEXPERIMENT 14/ The Thermal Coefficient of Linear Expansion 211 3. Assemble the apparatus, placing one of the rods in the steam jacket. Initially, have one end of the rod placed firmly against the fixed end screw and the other end not touching the micrometer screw, Carefully turn the micrometer screw until it just ‘makes contact with the rod, Avoid mechanical back- lash (and electrical spark-gap ionization, see below) by. always turning the screw foward the rod just before reading. Do not force the serew. Record the microme- {er setting. Do this three times and take the average as the initial setting. AS soon as the initial micrometer is taken, read and record the initial temperature 7, (The Tinear expansion apparatus may be equipped with an electrical circuit that uses a bel, light, of volt- ‘meter to indicate when contact is made. The averaging process is unnecessary in this case.) 4. Tum the micrometer serew back from the end of the rod several millimeters to allow for the thermal expan- sion of the rod with increasing temperature, With the Seam generator about one-half full, tum on the hot plate (or fight the Bunsen burner) and boil the water so that steam passes through the jacket, The thermometer in the steam jacket should just touch the metal rod, Allow steam to pass through the jacket until the thermometer reading. stabilizes (several minutes). When equilibrium has been reached, record the ther- mometer reading. Then carefully advance the microm= eter screw until it touches the end of the rod, and record the micrometer setting. Do this three times, and take the average of the micrometer readings unless ccontact is indicated by electrical circuit, Turn off the heat source, . Repeat procedures 3 and 4 for the other metal rods. Caution: Be careful not to burn yourself with the condensed hot water in the steam jacket or the hot rod when you remove it. Take proper precautions, »- Compute AL and A, and find the coefficient of linear expansion for each metal. Compare these a's with the accepted values given in Appendix A, Table A3, by ‘computing the percent errors. @ Figure 14.3 Cc ar thermal expansion apparatus. (a) The heat of steam admitted to the steam jacket causes a metal rod to ex- ppand. Rods of different metals may be used. (b) The expansion is measured with a dial indicator. (Courtesy of Sargent-Welch,) ipeh © Howplon Min Cnn. AI ight ev ‘Name Lab Partner(s) Section Date EXPERIMENT ies ik The Thermal Coefficient of Linear Expansion AY Laboratory Report DATA TABLE Purpose: ‘To determine the thermal coefficients of expansion of metal samples. Initia Initia Final Initial Final «|« Jeogth | micrometer | micrometer | At | temp. temp | ar | meas. | accepted fy) | setting | sewing | CP my Pry LO FO OS Type of rod 2 Type of ead 3. Type of rad Cateutations (show work) Metal Percent error Ponierors setiniis (continued) Coprgh © Howson Miia Company lights serve 23EXPERIMENT 14 Laboratory Report FY Questions 1. What are the probable sources of error in this experiment? Which will cause the biggest error? 2. Would the numerical values of the thermal coefficients of linear expansion have been the same ifthe temperatures had been measured in degrees Fahrenheit? Explain, and give an example, 3. For a contraction with a negative fractional change, would the coefficient of thermal expansion be negative? Explain. 4, When a mercury-in-glass thermometer is placed in hot water, the thermometer reading first drops slightly and then rises. Explain why. 214 Copyright© Heaton Min Company Alig eenName Lab Partners) EXPERIMENT 14 Section 5. If flat strips of iron and brass were bonded together and this bimetallic strip were heated, What would be observed” Justify your answer, and draw a sketch of the situation, (Hints Sce Appendix A, Table A3, for a's.) 6. A Pyrex graduated cylinder has a volume of exactly 200 mL at 0°C. If its temperature is increased to 100°C, will its volume increase or d lecrease? Compute the change in volume, Assume a metal rod with an initial length L, is heated through a temperature increase of AT'o length Ly and then cooled to its initial temperature—that i, through a temperature decrease of —A7 (same AT increase and decrease) Cal the final length of the rod L after this thermal cycle, (9) Show that Eq, 143 implies that Ly = L, [1 ~ (@AT)%}, iy Ly # Ly (©) What isthe implication if the rod were taken through a number of such thermal cycles? (continued) © Hoehio Min Congy Al ighis ened 215EXPERIMENT 14 Laboratory Report (©) Obviously something is wrong. Can you explain what it is? (Hint: Think of basis, oF reference. For example, if you had aa investment that appreciated 100% in value ‘one day, and you lost 100% of your investment the next, would you still have any money left?) 216 Copyright © Howphan Min Compary. Al sles reserved