University of Technology

Department of Machines and Equipment Engineering

Branch of General Mechanics Engineering

Notes on Machine Design II, Fourth year

Text Book: Machine Elements, vol. II
GUSTAV NIEMANN

Lecturer: ABDUL KAREEM SELMAN,

2008 - 2009

REFRENCES:

1. Machine Design, by: Black & Adams

2. Standard Handbook of Machine Design, by: Joseph E. Shigley & D.N.
Mischke
3. Machine Design, by: D.N. Reshetov
4. Design of Machine Elements, by: Virgil M. Faries
5. Machine Design, by: Khurmi - Gupta
6. Machine Design, by: Roberts H. Creamer
7. Machine Elements, by: V. Dobrovolskey
8. Machine Design, by: Hall, Holowenko, (Schaums Series)
9. Design Methods, by: G. Jones
10. Engineering Design Methods, by: Nigel Cross
11. Optimization Methods for Engineering Design, by: Richard L. Fox
12. Optimization of Mechanical Elements, by: Ray Johnson

1
 Lecture 1 and Lecture 2

Drivers types, characteristics, and applications

The following points are considered in these lectures:

1. Gear Drives:
Spur and Helical gearing, figs (20/1 20/6), pp. 4
Bevel gears, figs (20/7 20/9), pp. 5
Hypoid gears, figs (20/10), pp. 5
Worm gearing, figs (20/12), pp. 5
Spiral gearing, figs (20/11), pp. 5
2. Chain Drives, figs (20/13 and 20/14), pp. 6
3. Belt Drives, figs (20/15 20/18), pp. 6
4. Friction gear drives, figs (20/19), pp. 7

Here, some related important issues:

1. Comparison of technical data: this is made in tables (20/1
20/3), pp. 8-9.
2. Horsepower, size, weight and price: the comparison are
made in table (20/3) and figs (20/20 20/26).

3. Comparison of drive types and commercial gear drives.

The next page gives the chart of general specifications of gears.

The other pages will describe most of the characteristics of the
various types of gear drives.

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 Specifications

Economic
Performance Weight Noise Space
considerations

Power
Tooth Tooth Lubricant
Transmission Speed Maintenance
alignment Shape change
Capacity

Tooth
Pitting Accuracy Coupling
Bending Foundation Initial cost
(Wear rating) spacing arrangement
Fatigue

Gear Vibration of Installation Power

Efficiency Gear case
ratio work losses
walls

No Load Production
Load losses
losses Time cost

Tooth Load Oil seal

Temperature
friction transmission friction

Churning of
Speed
lubrication

3
Introduction, see figs (20/1-20/12):
In transmitting rotary motion from one shaft to another, gears
provide a positive ratio type of drive. If the shafts are parallel, any of
these types may be used: Spur, Helical, or Herringbone. Spiral gears
are used to connect two shafts that are non-parallel and non-
intersecting. Worm gearing is used where high ratios are desired and
where the shafts are non-intersecting and at right angles. Bevel gears
are often used where two shafts are at right angle to each other and
their centreline extensions intersect, however, some Bevel gears are at
angles other than 90. Spiral Bevel gears may be used in the same
type of applications as straight-tooth bevel gears. The Spiral Bevel
gears are capable of higher speeds and quieter operation. Hypoid
gears are similar to Spiral Bevel gears, except that the extensions of
the centrelines are non-intersecting. Hypoid gears were originally
developed for the automotive rear-axle drive. Rack-and-pinion drives
are used where it is desirable to transfer the rotary motion of one
part into translating motion for the other parts or vice versa.

1. Spur Gears (see fig 20/1):

Spur gears are toothed wheels whose tooth elements are
straight and parallel to the shaft axis. They are used to transmit
motion and power between parallel shafts for:
1. Speed ratios of up to 8, (in extreme cases, up to 20), for one step
(single reduction) design, up to 45 for two step design and up to
200 for three-step design,
2. Powers up to 25000 hp,
3. Speed up to 100000 rpm and for peripheral speed up to 200
m/sec.

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2. Helical Gears (Single or Double),see figs (20/4-20/6):
Helical gears connect parallel shafts, and the tooth flanks from
spirals around the shaft axes. The variation of mesh stiffness at
different phases of engagement are generally very less than Spur
gears and therefore they can operated at high pitch line speeds with
acceptable levels of noise and vibration. Single Helical gears under
load produce axial thrust which most be contained by the shaft
bearings or by other means. Double Helical gears have the face width
split into two equal parts with teeth of opposite spiral. This gives the
advantage of cancelling the axial thrusts produced from each spiral.
Therefore, the bearings are required to carry radial loads only, and
care should be taken in designing their mountings to insure that one
shaft is axially free, to allow the gears to apex correctly.

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3. Bevel Gears, see figs (20/7 20/9):
They connect shafts with intersecting axes. Theoretically, any
angle of axes can be adapted; but there are limitations imposed by
available machines. Most gears are designed for mounting at 90.
Accurate axial location of both gears is important for correct tooth
contact.

4. Hypoid Gears, see fig (20/10):

Connect shafts with axis at 90, but not lying in a common
plane. They are generated in a similar manner to Spiral Bevel gears
and resemble them in appearance apart from the offset shaft. Their
main advantage is to allow a greater ratio for a given set of blank
dimensions, and wheel torque. Their contact has a large sliding
component, which makes lubrication conditions more severe.
Accurate axial location of both gears is important for correct tooth
contact.

5. Spiral Gears, see fig (20/11):

They are, basically, helical gears having a common normal
pitch and they have sliding contacts, (theoretically points). Their load
capacity is small, mainly used to transmit motion where convenient.
Accurate axial location of gears is not important to tooth contact. The
speed ratio in this case is about 1 to 5.

6. Worm Gears, see fig (20/12):

Connect shafts with non-intersecting axes. They are regarded
as Spiral gears with one of the pairs modified to envelop the other,
giving line instead of point contact. The enveloping gear is the wheel,

6
which must have accurate axial location to ensure correct tooth
contact.

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8
9
10
11
Comparison of Gear Drivers:
Gears are important components in the general area of power
transmissions. One should carefully evaluates the merits and
disadvantages of gear drives as compared to Belt and Chain drives
before incorporating either in to design. Table (20/1) shows in what
range the speed ratios, efficiencies, power transmitted, rpms,
torques, and sizes of various types of drives lie, according to designs
already constructed and the design offered.

In figs (20/20 to 20/25), the size, nominal horsepowers, weights,

and list prices are shown for different types of gears. The notations
used in the following figures are:
A: Centre distance,
G: Weight,
P: Price,
N1: Input power,
i: Speed ratio,
n1: Driving shaft speed,
n2: Driven shaft speed,

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K: Single step Bevel gearing with 100 Spiral teeth,
S, SE: Single step Parallel-axis gearing with helical teeth,
SG: Single step Parallel-axis gearing double helical teeth, (heavier
design),
SZ: Two step Parallel-axis gearing with helical teeth,
SP: Parallel-axis Planetary gearing with helical teeth,
KS: Bevel Parallel-axis,
SchB1: Worm gearing with cooling fan,
SchD: Worm gearing without cooling fan,
SchK: Worm gearing with additional oil cooling,

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14
1 Power Transmission Capacity:
Their resistance to two forms of failure limits the power
capacity of gears: one being tooths surface fatigue, (pitting), which
sometimes referred as wear rating, and the other one is the tooths
bending fatigue, which referred to as strength rating. Current
manufacturing capacity, known materials, and method of lubrication
limit the maximum power that can be transmitted through gears of
different types. Approximate maximum powers are:
Helical Gear = 25000 hp,
Spiral bevel = 2950 hp,
Worm Gear = 1000 hp,

15
 These values vary with ratio and are only intended to give
practical guidance on what is available commercially.

2 Maximum Speeds:
Table (20/1) gives approximate maximum peripheral speed for
various types of gears. Approximate maximum speeds are:
Spur = 40 m/sec
Helical = 200 m/sec
Straight Bevel = 5 m/sec
Spiral Bevel = 7.5 m/sec
Spiral (crossed helicals) = 100 m/sec
Worm = 70 m/sec

Many of the speed limitations are concerned with the

acceptable noise level and what is acceptable on one application may
be unacceptable for the other. Therefore, the figures should not be
taken as strict rules.

3 Maximum Ratios:
Theoretically, there is no limit to the speed ratio that can be
designed into a single reduction gearbox, but there is an approximate
ratio for each type of gear above where the materials are not being
used economically. These ratios are:
Spur and Helical = 8/1
Bevels = 5/1
Worms = 60/1

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4 Efficiency:
The losses in a gear transmission system can be divided into
two categories:
1. Load losses: which are proportional to the load transmitted,
and are mainly due to tooths friction.
2. No-load losses: which are constant for a given operating
speed and temperature, and to the churning of the
lubricant, oil seal friction, etc.

The tooth losses of helical, spur and bevel gears are small, since
their tooth actions are predominantly rolling. The no-load losses can
vary from a small proportion to as much as 80% pending upon the
gear peripheral speeds and the types of bearing used. A good
practical guide to the efficiency of this class of gear, mounted in an
anti-friction bearing and lubricated with oil, is to allow 1% loss per
gear mesh when transmitting full load. On the other hand, at part
load, the efficiency will be lower since the fixed no-load losses are a
higher percentage of the smaller total load.

Worm gear tooth action, on the other hand, is predominantly

sliding. Therefore, the tooth losses are higher comparing with helical,
spur, and bevel gears. They depend mainly on the load angle of the
worm and the coefficient of friction at the contact, which varies
widely with speed.

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5 Noise Level:
Noise is generated from gearing due to the torque fluctuations
associated with the load transfer between the teeth in mesh. It
increases sharply with the increase in peripheral speed, (tooth
contact frequency), and to a lesser extent with the increase in tooth
load. Noise from enclosed gear drives emanates from vibration of
gear case walls and foundations, which are excited by the tooth
fluctuations. So, badly designed gear casings or foundation structures
can be the main reason for an excessively noisy transmission system.
Under such circumstances, the use of the most precisely
manufactured gears might not control the noise level within desirable
limits. The type of gear used, has the great effect on the noise level.
Worm gears generally have the lowest noise level due to the low
peripheral speed of the wheel and the thick oil film between the
meshing surfaces resulting from the high sliding velocity, which
characterise their tooth action. Helical gears, hobbed or profile
ground to precision limits have almost as low noise level as the worm
gears have, because of their high efficiency that may often be
preferred where noise and efficiency are important.

When the power of drive exceeds the power capacity limit of

worm gears, the helical gears would be used. Precession ground spur
gear with a suitable profile modification gives fairly, good results at
moderate speeds. Spiral bevel gears, on the other hand, tend to be
noisier than helical gears since the manufacturing accuracy is not,
the overlap ratio of the teeth cannot be made so high, and their
mounting accuracy and rigidity seldom equals that of cylindrical
gears.

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 Accurate tooth spacing, tooth shape, and tooth alignment are
essential to low noise level. As the peripheral speed of gears increases,
the manufacturing quality must improve accordingly. When
designing gears and casings, careful choice of tooth particulars can
reduce torque fluctuations and thus noise level. Structural rigidity of
gear wheels and mountings, and the use of cast iron cases, are all
helpful features to suppress noise transmission.

6 Economic Considerations:
When it has been established that various types of gear should
be technically suitable for a particular application, then the deciding
factor was the lowest cost. To evaluate the true cost, the effects of the
type of unit on connected equipment and the subsequent
maintenance and running coasts should be examined. To the initial
costs of the unit should be added: coupling arrangements,
foundations, installation works, lubricant changes, power loss when
running, maintenance, and production time lost. The total obtained
for each type unit considered, should be compared to make the best
decision.

Single reduction worm gear units of high-speed ratio have

significantly higher power losses than other types, but set against
this: is the low initial cost, high reliability due to the small number of
components, and the low noise level. Helical gear units have low
power losses, but have higher initial cost, often required two or three
reduction stages against it slightly less reliable with a higher noise
level.

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 Lecture 3

Gear Fundamentals
1 Definitions, see fig (1, & 2):
It is important to understand the following definitions since
they play an important part in the design of any equipment utilizing
gears:
Pitch Circle: (do)
It is an imaginary circle, which by pure rolling action, would
give the same motion as actual gear:

1. Addendum: (hk)
It is a radial distance of the tooth from the pith circle to the top of
the tooth.
2. Dedendum: (hf)
It is the radial distance of the tooth from the pitch circle to the
bottom of the tooth.
3. Addendum Circle: (dk)
It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric
with the pitch circle.
4. Dedendum Circle: (df)
It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also
called the root circle.
5. Circular Pitch:
It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle
from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next
tooth.

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6. Diametral Pitch:
It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in
millimetres.
7. Module: (m)
It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in (mm) to the number of
teeth.
8. Clearance: (Sk)
It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of
the tooth in the meshing gear. A circle passing through the top of
the meshing gear is known as Clearance Circle.
9. Total Depth: (h)
It is the radial distance between the Addendum and the
Dedendum circle of a gear, i.e. [hk + hf].
10. Working Depth:
It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance
circle. It is the sum of the addendum of the meshing gear.
11. Tooth Thickness: (So)
It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
12. Tooth Space: (lo)

It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured

along the pitch circle.
13. Backlash:
It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness
as measured on the pitch circle.
14. Face of the Tooth:
It is the surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.
15. Top Lend:
It is the surface of the top of the tooth.

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16. Flank of the Tooth:
It is the surface of the tooth below the pitch surface.
17. Face Width:(b)
It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
18. Profile:
It is the curve formed by the face and the flank of the tooth.
19. Fillet Radius:
The radius connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
20. Path of Contact:
It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the
beginning to the end of engagement.
21. Base Circle: (dg)
It is the circle, from which the involute curves forming the tooth
profile are drawn.
22. Pressure Angle: ()
It is the angle between the common normal to the two teeth in
contact and the common tangent to the pitch circles.

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2 Law of Gearing and Sliding Velocity:
In fig (3), O1 and O2 are the centres of the pinion and wheel
respectively. FB is the common normal at the point of contact (A) on
pinion, (E) on wheel. O1B and O2F are the perpendiculars from O1
and O2 respectively to the common normal.

Let U1 be the velocity of point A on the pinion and U2 be the

velocity of point E on the wheel. If the teeth are to remain in contact,
the components of the theses velocities along the common normal FB
must be equal,

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24
 The angular velocities are universally proportional to the parts
in which the line of centre is divided by the common normal at the
point of contact. Therefore, for constant angular velocity ratio, the
common normal through the point of contact must divide the line of
centres in a fixed ratio. This is the Law of Gearing.

The velocity of sliding is the relative velocity between A and E

and of course occurs at common tangent, thus the sliding velocity is

along the common tangent. Therefore, the sliding velocity

equals along the common tangent =

25
Where: e is the distance of contact point from the pitch point C.

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 Lecture 4

Involute Teeth and Contact Ratio

1 Form of Gear Tooth Profile:

Since the velocity ratio of the two gears is required to be
constant, then the tooth profile must satisfy the fundamental
requirement of a pair of curves in direct sliding contact. The most
common form is the involute and cycloid.

2 Involute Properties:
An involute curve may generate as shown in fig (1). A partial
flange B is attached to the cylinder A, around which is wrapped a
cord of which is held tightly.

Point b on the cord, represents the tracing point, and as the

cord is wrapped and unwrapped about the cylinder. Point 1 will
trace out the involute curve ac.

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3 Calculation of Path of Contact and Contact Ratio:
Assuming the pinion to be the driver, the first and last points of
contact are E1 and E2, as shown in fig (2), where the addenda circles
cut the common normal.

The path of contact is E1E2 = g, which is divided into the path

of approach, (E1 c = e1) and the path of recess (E2 c = e2). If r1 & r2

28
are the pitch circle radii, and rk1 & rk2 are the radii of the addenda
circles, then:

29
A chart for determining is given in fig (22/29), pp.133.

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