8. K. CHAKRABARTI (CBI Industries, Inc. 1501 North Division Street Plainfield, Mlinois 60544-8929 USA. Bish Library Cataloguing in Publaton Data (Chakrabarti, Subeata K. “Hyérodynamis of ore structure, Overs seuctures Hydrodynamics Ute arse Te166s ISBN 0505451-65 Libary of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-71235 SRN 0.905451-6X Computational Mechanics Publications Southamton ISBN 09312151641 Computational Mecha Pubcatins Boston [BBN 13 3168 Speen ete Heber Now Ye London "Tokyo ISDN 0367-13196 Springer‘ New York Heiderg Bein London Pass Tokyo “This work ie sbjot to copyright. Al gh ae eaerved whee the “whole o prt ofthe matali concen, specially the hs of Tranlton, epitngf-oseof stations, eiation, browdeasting, ‘epredacion oa mlerofie ori other wa, and storage in data baks. ‘Boplaton ofthis pustion or parts theo i aly Pemited under ofthe German Copyright Law of Septenbe 9, 1965, ints 24, 1985, and a copyright fee mat sways be pai Volatoos fall under the prosrtioa tof the German Copyright Law. (© Computational Mechanics Publications 1987 1B Springer Veriag Bes, Heidelberg 1987 ‘Printed in Geet Britain by Heary Ling Lid, Dorchester Flimet ty Md:Couny Pes, Landon “The wt of rpiered ame, uademarks, ec. this politi doe ot ply even ithe abence ofa speie sateen, that sch ames are xc fom the reeratprotecve lve and regulon ad therore Ite for geneal we. Table of Contents ‘Acknowledgements Ra pee ceea en Definition of Symbols Used tas Chapter 1 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND . . Ld. Fourier Series... « eee 12, Complex Variable... 2... 124. Singularity 22... Sree eae 122. Complex Integration 22 1.3. Hyperbolic Funetion as 13.1, Catenary Equation 14, Bessel Functions... . 45. Pasta Diflental Equation 16. References... ee ee eee : Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO OFFSHORE STRUCTURES . 2.1. ‘Types and Funetions of Offshore Structures. . 214. Exploratory Structures... 212, Production Structures... . 213. Oil Storage Structure |... 214. Oil Loading Structure - 2.1.5. Installation Operations 22, Fixed Jacket Platforms... . 22.1. Gulf of Mexico Platforms. 222. Southem Caforia-West Coat Patforms 22.3. North Sea Platforms 23, Single Point Mooring Systems ‘ 24, Tension Leg Platform... ee 25. Arctic Structures... Bee 26. Future Ofbor Sine Cone 2. - References Chapter 3. WAVE THEORIES eee 34, Stream Function 2... 32. Potential Function... - BESesauee =33, Bemoulli Equation 3.4, Boundary Conditions 3.5. Common Wave Theories 35.1, Linear Airy Wave Theory 352) Stokes Finite Amplitude Wave Theory 35.3. Choidal Wave Theory 3.54. Stream Function Wave Theory 3155. Standing Wave Theory 356. Applation of Theories 36, References Chapter 4 DESIGN WAVE ENVIRONMENT 44. Wave Energy Spectral Density 4.11, Autocorrelation Method . 4.12, Fast Fourier Transform Method 42, Smoothing of Enerey Spectra 43. Filtering of Energy Spectra 44, Limitation of Energy Spectral Approach 45. Variation in Spectral Representation 46. Mathematical Spectrum Models 46.1. Phillips 462. General Form 463, Neumann Spectrum 464, Pierson-Moskowitz Spectrum 46.5. Bretschneider Spectrum 4.66. ISSC Spectrum 46.27, ITTC Spectrum . 468. Unified Form. 469, JONSWAP Spectrum 4.6.10, Scott Spectrum . 4.6.11. Liu Spectrum 46.12. Mitsuyasu Spectrum 46.13. Ochi-Hubble Spectrum 46.14, Variation in Spectrum Models 477. Simulation of Wave Profile from Spectra 48. References Chapter §. WAVE STATISTICS 5,1. Short Term Statistics 5.11. Significant Wave Heights 5.12, Root Mean-Square Wave Heights 5113. Maximum Wave Heights . Sd, Average Wave Periods « 5.1.5. Spectral Width Parameters Contents a 45 46 48 35 6 @ 5 2s 130 132 33 1B3 14 Contents 5.1.6, Probability Distribution and Probability Density 5.1.6.1. Probability Density of 5.1.62. Probability Distribution of H 5.163, Wide Band Extreme Value Prediction 5.1.64. Probability Distribution of T 5.1.63. Joint Distribution of H and T 52, Long Term Distribution of Wind and Wave 5.2.1, Return Periods of Local Storms 522. Wave Height Long-Term Distribution 52.3. Gumbel’s Standard Skewed Distribution 52.4. Weibull Distribution 525. Frechet Distribution 52.6. Log-Normal Distribution 527. Discusion of Long Term Probability Distribution 53, References Chapter 6 WAVE PORCE ON SMALL STRUCTURES 6.1. Wave Force Formulations 62. Morison Equation . 62.1, Development of Morison Equation 622, Inclined Cylinder 62.3, Oscillating Cylinder 62.4. Oscillating Cylinder in Current 62.5. Fixed Cylinder in Waves and Current 62.6. Oscillating Cylinder in Waves 7 627. Oscillating Cylinder in Waves and Current 62.8, Method of Coefficient Computation 63. Transverse Force 64. Hydrodynamic Coeficients 64.1. Smooth Cylinders 642. Rough Cylinder 643. Inclined Cylinders 64.4, Wall Proximity Effects 6455. Interference Elects 65, Discussion on Appropriate Design Values of Coeficients 65.1. Certifying Agency Guidelines 651.1. American Petroleum Insitute 65.12. British Standard Institution 65.13. Det Norske Veritas 65.14. Norwegian Petroleum Directorate 652, Ocean Tests in Waves... 65.3. Use of Laboratory Coefficients in Deen 66, Free Surface EMfects 67. References 13s 140 41 14s 150 152 134 155 136 138 158 162 163 165 165 168 168 19 14 178 19 197vill Contents Chapter? WAVE FORCE ON LARGE STRUCTURES 7. Froude-Krylov Force 7d. General Theory 7.111. Horizontal Cylinder 71.12. Horizontal Halfeylinder TAA. Sphere : 71.14. Hemisphere TAS. Vertical Cylinder 71.16. Rectangular Block TAAT. Cirealar Dise 71.18. Force Coefficients 72. Diffraction Theory 72.4. Closed Form Solution 72.11, Large Fixed Vertical Cylinder 7.24.L.1. First-Order Theory 72.1.12. Second-Order Theory 7.2.1.12.1. Free Surface Component 72.1.12.2, Velocity-Squared ‘Component 72.1.12.3. Second Order Incident Vel- city Potential 7.2.12. Bottom Seated Horizontal Halfeylinder 72.13. Bottom Seated Hemisphere 72.13.1, Application of Stokes Fifth Onder They 72.14, Multiple Vertical Cylinders 72.2, Two Dimensional Source-Sink Method 7.2.2.1, Half Submerged Cylinder 7222. Fully Submerged Cylinder 7223, Half Cylinder on Bottom 723, Three Dimensional Source-Sink Method 72.4, Open-Bottom Structures 73. Application of Wave Force Regime 7a. References : Chapter 8. FLOATING STRUCTURE DYNAMICS 8.1, Added Mass and Damping Coefficients 82. Single Degree of Freedom System 83, Articulated Tower Analysis 84. Floating Storage Vessel Analysis 85. Tower-Tanker System Analysis 86, Six Degrees of Freedom System 87. Wave Drift Oscillation 88. Multi-Body Structure 89, Two Floating Structures mm 232 241 329 330 32 338 346 351 356 367 368, Contents 8.10, Tension Leg Platform 8.10.1. Set-Down Effect 8.11, Guyed Tower 8.12, Slender Body Dynamics 8.13. References Chapter 9 STRUCTURE RESPONSE STATISTICS 9.1, Short-Term Response Statistics 9.1.1. Response Amplitude Operators 9.12. Linear Response Spectra 9.12.1. Dynamic Pressure RAO 9.1.2.2. Inertial Force RAO 9.13. Nonlinear Drag Force 9.1.3.1. Linearization of Drag Force 9.1.32. ‘Nonlinear Drag Force Spectrum 9.1.33. Total Morison Force Spectrum 9.1.34. Extreme Morison Force Statistics 9.13.5, Linearization of Coupled Current and Wave Drag 9.1.36, Nonlinear Coupled Current and Wave Drag Force Spectrum 9.1.3.7. Extreme Wave Current Force Statistics 9.14. inertia Force Spectrum Coupled with Current 9.1.5. Motion Response and Spectrum 9.116. Response to Short Crested Waves 9.2. Long Term Distribution 93. Short Term Vs. Long Term Prediction 93.1. Short Term Prediction 932, Long-Term Prediction 94. Fatigue Analysis 95. References Author Index Subject Index 37 374 379 383 386 391 391 392 393 395 397 397 399 405 407 au 415 416 42 407 a7 29 at 434 436 439The women in my life ‘My mother, Shefali, My wife, Prakriti, and My daughter, Sumita “We make a living by what we get Dut we make a life by what we give.” Winston Churchill, Preface ‘The famous statistician, E.J. Gumbel once said, “A book should either have inteligibiity or correctness. To combine the two is impossible.” The subject of ‘hydrodynamics applied to offshore structures is so. vast that it is impossible to incorporate every aspect of this subject into one book. No attempt has been madeto ‘make the presentation complete inthis book. However, the topics included in the ‘book have been made as complete as possible so that they can be studied in their entirety without reference to other works. Most of the basic ideas of the subjects covered have been included. Also, detailed derivations have often been given to provide a basic understanding ofthe subject. The book is intended to have at least {wo applications. It is expected that the book may be used as a textbook in both ‘undergraduate and graduate studies for students majoring in the area of offshore and ocean engineering. On the other hand, the final results including handy tables and illustrations, may be referenced directly without going through detailed derivation. Thus, the book should also be useful to the design and application engineers involved in the design of an offshore structure, ‘The book is not intended as a state-of-the-art work. It does not attempt to include all pastor recent scientific works on the related subjects. Only the relevant subjects that help designers or students of offshore engineering to understand the hydrodynamic principles have been included here, In this respect, the references listed at the end of each chapter are by no means exhaustive, but rather, representative. The references have been subdivided by categories for convenience, Itis understood that a reference may cover more than one area in Which case it is included under the major subject area ofits content. Controversial areas and areas that definitely need further research work before they can be used in a design or analysis of offshore structures have been either identified as such or omitted from the text. Appropriate references have been included in many cases, In choosing the subjects fr inclusion in the book, the areas that are used inthe offshore structure design have been considered. For example, in the chapter on wave theory, only those theories that are most commonly applied to offshore structures have been discussed, ‘Short descriptions of some of the often-used mathematical formulations in the book are introduced in Chapter 1. Some ofthese mathematical subjects are Fourier Series, Complex Algebra, Hyperbolic Functions, Bessel Functions and partial diferential equations. This chapter is intended as a review chapter and only the important arcas of the aforementioned topics are addressed, Chapter 2 introduces the offshore structures. The ollshore structures are subdivided according to their functions in the offshore field and each type isi Prelace described with suitable examples. The most prevalent of offshore structures is a fixed jacket. Various noteworthy jacket platforms that have been installed in recent years are introduced by their geographical locations. A few ofthe offshore structure ‘concepts that may find applications in future offshore projects are also described. ‘This chapters believed to give the reader an overall picture ofthe variety of offshore structures and the importance of their hydrodynamic characteristics in designing Such structures. In studying subsequent chapters, the reader may refer to this ‘Section to investigate the application ofa particular hydrodynamic formulation toa practical structure. ‘As aleeady mentioned, only limited wave theories applicable to offshore structure designs have been presented in Chapter 3. These include linear (Airy) theory, Stokes higher order theory, Cnoidal theory and Stream Function theory. Of these, cnoidal wave theory is most often used in coastal structure design but has lesser application in the oflshore structure design. A series of charts is presented for fone of the enoidal wave theories so that its effect on an offshore structure may be ceasily assessed, The applicability of the various wave theories in terms ofthe design wave parameters is discussed, "The wave theories outlined in Chapter 3 are adequate in describing individual cycles in an ovean wave but not its random nature. The ocean waves are ‘conveniently represented by their energy content. Chapter 4 addresses the subject of, wwave energy density spectrum, and some of its limitations are detailed. In the Absence of a measured spectrum, a theoretical spectrum is used to describe a ‘seastate, Various mathematical formulations developed for this purpose are shown. land theic applications are discussed. A description of how a wave profile may be ‘simulated from a given energy density spectrum for a time domain simulation is provided ‘Since ocean waves are random, their description may be appropriately madein terms oftheir statistical parameters, Various statistical quantities used to describe the short term ocean waves are introduced in Chapter $. The short term probability distribution formulas generally used to describe the individual heights and periods fof ocean waves are shown, The distributions for the long term wind and wave conditions are also discussed in Chapter 5 The first few chapters of this book were devoted to the cause, ¢g., wind and waves; the following chapters deal with the effect of wind, waves and currents on offshore structures. The determination of wave forces on offshore structures may be rouped according to the size ofthe structural component —small and large. The ‘wave forees on small structural members are the subject of Chapter 6, The most common formula for the computation of wave forces on small structures is the ‘Morison formula, Its development into other modified forms are formulated with ‘examples. The hydrodynamic coefficients associated with the Morison formula and the transverse force for structural members in different orientations are shown and. the appropriate values of these coefficients in designs are discussed. A diffeent approach is taken in obtaining the wave forces on a large structure “The presence ofthe structure alters the waves incident on it, and this altered wave form must be taken into account, The methods used to compute forces on the structure based on the incident and difracted wave fields are described in Chapter 7 Preface xi If the effect of the dfraction is considered in the form of @ multiplier, i., by a diffraction coelicient, then the forces are shown to come from the Froude Krylov theory. The total forces on various shapes of offshore structure components are derived in detail. The correlation of theoretical forces with measured data in the laboratory is exemplified. The applicability of the force formulations for small and large structures is discussed. ‘When a structure is allowed to move, the structure will respond to the forces exerted by the waves by moving with it. The dynamics of the moving offshore structure are covered in Chapter 8. The motions ofthe structure in water generate an added mass and a damping coefficient. The motion is sometimes restricted to a few degrees of freedom by the restraints imposed on the structure. However, in general, the structure may be allowed six degrees of freedom. Several examples of, offshore structures are included in which the solutions of the appropriate equations ‘of motion are shown, The results are often correlated with experimental data. The effect of the interaction of several structures placed in close proximity to one another is also discussed. ‘While the deterministic method of analysis provides a means of determining responses of structures subjected to regular monochromatic waves, this method ‘may not be suitable for the design of offshore structure because of the random nature of ocean waves thatthe structure invariably experiences. This gave rise tothe concept of the extreme value analysis which is covered in Chapter 9. The extreme value analyses for short term as wel as long term waves based on a probabilistic approach are discussed. The short term statistics of linear systems is relatively straightforward, However, for @ nonlinear system, even the short term statistics becomes cumbersome, and several simplified and approximation methods for response calculation are shown. The long term statistics and the fatigue analysis are briefly discussed. It is acknowledged that many important aspects of the hydrodynamic design of offshore structure have not been addressed inthis book, while others have not been fully probed, but only touched at their surface. However, it is hoped that the reader will guin some insight into the hydrodynamics of offshore structures and thus will find the book useful. While it has been a joy to write this book, only the enjoyment land benefits realized by the reader (in reviewing this book) will make my labor ‘uit Subrata K. Chakrabarti October 1986Acknowledgements Help from numerous people has made this book possible. Firs ofall, would like to thank CBI Industries for giving me many opportunities over the years to research the areas of hydrodynamics of offshore structures. Being a newcomer to the field on fist joining the company, the company patiently waited for me to pickup the pieces of ocean engineering from the textbook, “Oceanographical Engineering” by Wicgel. During this endeavor 1 was inspired by Dr. Basil Wilson, who was then a consultant to our Matine Research Division. My first real education in the field ame from Dr. Wilson for which I am ever grateful. Dr. Wilson also carefully Feviewed several chapters of this book and provided many useful suggestions. Several other people reviewed the sections in the book which undoubtedly improved the quality of the presentation. Scott Armbrust who was a short time colleague of mine provided many comments on several ofthe chapters in their early Stages. Keith Melin patiently reviewed the manuscript and improved its readability. ‘Dr. Robert Nafteger carefully reviewed Chapters 7 and 8. had the good fortune to work with Dr, Naftager on several research projects that were beneficial to several sections inthis book. Besides reviewing several chapters of the book. Prof, Michael McCormick and Prof. Rameswar Bhattacharyya provided continued encouragement to me in completing this book. T would also like to thank ll my colleagues at CBI whose helpin executing many research projects provided a large amount of material for this book. The management of CBI liberally allowed much of this material to appear in open literature. Ms Becky Cole carefully yped the manuscript many times over, Mr Jobin ‘Owens aptly drafted many figures which appeared in the textbook, Finally 1 appreciate the patience of my family members in leting me work alone for long, ‘hours in the evenings and during weekends at home. Definition of Symbols Used Symbol Pe BEr = ~2EES = = Description Radius of structure component or wave amplitude Beam of vessel Wave eelerity Jacobian elliptic function Damping coefficient ‘Added mass coeficient Drag coefficient Lift coefficient Inertia coeficient Water depth Draft of vessel, or cylinder diameter Exponential ‘Mean square error or wave energy Complete elliptic integral of the first kind of modulus k Force per unit length, or frequency Frequency ratio ‘otal force on structure Gravitation acceleration Green's function Elevation below still water level ‘Wave height or Hankel function (J+1Y) Imaginary quantity Inertia of structure [Bessel Function of first kind Wave number Spring constant or roughness parameter Complete eliptc integral of the second kind of modulus k Keulegan-Carpenter number ‘Characteristic length Wave length Mass of structure rth moment of spectrum (w= 0, 1,2, ‘Added mass of structure ‘Mean water level ‘number of terms in a series Probability density function or pressureSymbol ae gator ee eR ORNN GE ROH SERESE e Definition of symbols used Description Cumulative probability Probability of Exceedance Radial coordinate ‘Autocorrelation function or horizontal reaction of cable or risk Reynolds number Elevation from ocean floor or cable length Surface area Sull water level Energy density Time ‘Wave period or tension in cable ‘Mean crest period Mean zero-crossing period Long-term period Retum period Length of short-term wave Horizontal water particle velocity Current speed Ursell number Wind speed Vertical water particle velocity Volume of structure Normal body velocity Reduced velocity ‘Transverse water particle velocity Weight Horizontal coordinate or oscillation ‘Amplitude parameter Structure motion amplitude Vertical coordinate Bessel function of the second kind ‘Transverse coordinate ‘Transverse axis or complex plane Phase angle of force or x—ct Operator Phase angle of motions, or Re/KC of yja ‘Stream function (spatial) Stream funetion as a function of time Velocity potential (spatial) Velocity potential asa function of time Spectral width parameter, or perturbation parameter ‘Coeficient for Stokes Sth order theory or Lagrange multiplier ‘Wave profile or vertical coordinate Crest height or amplitude of wave ‘Wave frequency (= 2x/T) Definition of symbols used il Symbol Description Boar poymans oss = e888 Peak frequency ‘Natural frequency ‘Zero-crossing frequency ‘Mean frequency Partial sign Kinemati viscosity Density of water Strength of current, Ujo, Gamma fonction Polar coordinate kx-ot Standard deviation or source strength ‘Summation sign ‘Lag or time interval or JONSWAP shape parameter Horizontal coordinate Cross product Phase angle ‘Number of cylinders in a group Vertical coordinate or current strength 3.14159 Integral sign Dynamic viscosity or mean valueChapter 1 Mathematical Background Af were again bepining my stutes, 1 would Jolow the adele of Plato and start with Mathematics Galileo Dialogue Concerning the Two World System (1530) “The solution to the problem of ocean wave interaction with offshore structures is usually very complex. In many cases, only an approximate method of solution is, ‘ought. Some of the tools required for the hydrodynamic problem associated with the design of ofshore structures are analytical while many are numerical in nature, ‘Thus, the problem solving tools often require sophisticated mathematics. Many of these analytical and numerial solutions, particularly the ones that can be solved in closed form, are discussed in this book. The subject addressing the design of offshore Structures included in this book can be studied in its entirety without attention to the detailed mathematical development. However, for the benefit of those who want to explore the detailed analysis and who need some mathematical background for reference purposes, a short description of the mathematics applied in the book is tiven in this chapter, The material in this chapter is intended only as a refresher in these areas. If desired, the reader should consult one of the many mathematics textbooks to eam more about 2 particular subject area. The following sections may ‘seem rather disjointed because only the fields of mathematics applied in this book are briely covered here. 1.1. Fourier Series “The Foutier series is an infinite series of trigonometric functions. Because of the periodicity of the trigonometric functions, the Fourier series has avery special place in the ocean wave problem, as well as in other periodic physical phenomena. For ‘example, itis used as a simple representation of the complex ocean waves (Chapter 44). Ia function f(x) is defined in a closed interval xp 0 will contain zp If zs the only singularity within the6 Chapter 1 Mathematical Background circle, then the point is called an isolated singularity. Furthermore, ifwe can find a postive integer n such that lim (¢~z9)'fle)=e#0 (134) the 229s called a pole of order m.Ifm= 1, then itis @ simple pole. ‘As an example, let us consider the function Sem aip (135) Writing f@= eer ‘wenote that f() has two singularities at := +2, and both are poles of order? and both ace isolated singularities since 6 (eg., 6= 1) can be found to form a circle around each of the two singularities individually. 1.22. Complex Integration Letusconsier fe) to be continuous a al points ona curve C defined by the limits and bas shown in Fig. 13. Then, 2 f() df [e f() ds iscalle the line integral of fie) along C or definite integral from a to b I's region R is bounded by a simple be known which will then provide the expression for the pressure from Ea. (3.20) 34, Boundary Conditions ‘Afewr ofthe common boundary conditions encountered in the water wave problems and in developing the wave theories are introduced here. On the assumption that the floor ofthe ocean i at, the boundary condition at the ocean bottom states that the vertical velocity component is zero at the bottom = x (322) where d= water depth. Note that y is negative since our coordinate system originates at the water surface. Similarly, in the presence of a fixed body in waves, the surface of which is described by the direction normal, n, the water velocity at the surface of the body must be z2r0, ‘on the surface of the body 23) the body ismoving with the velocity Fat its surface, then the boundary condition ofthe water particle at @ point on the body surface is given in terms of its velocity being equal to the velocity of the body at that point ‘on the surface of the body 624 In the absence ofthe body, of course, these latter two conditions do not exist. In developing a water wave theory it is assumed that the flow is unobstructed.6 CChopter 3. Wave Theories ‘Therefore the above boundary conditions, Eqs. (3.23}-(3.24) are absent and wil be considered when the problem of the wave structure interaction is encountered in Chapter 7, The free surface of the wave is governed by two boundary conditions— kinematic and dynamic. The kinematic condition states that a particle lying on the free surface at one instant of time will continue to remain on the free susface. Mathematically, Fy at ye ut po at yen 625) where y= nlx.2,4) represents the free surface. The dynamic fre surface condition derives from the Bernoulli equation (Eq. 320), on the assumption that the ‘atmospheric pressure outside the Muid is constant, BY (BY +(B) Joos aty-n 029 3.5, Common Wave Theories ‘The governing equations for the wave theories are summarized here based on the developments in the earlier sections. It is assumed that the waves are two dimensional in the XY plane, that the ocean floor is flat of undisturbed depth, d, fom the still water level (SWL), and that the waves are progressivein the positive X irection, At this point it is convenient to understand the difference between a progressive wave train anda standing wave. The difference may be best described by Fig. 3.1. The progressive wave travels along the X axis at 2 given velocity (also called celerty defined earlier) Its characteristics remain identical for an observer traveling at the same speed and in the same direction as the wave. On the other hhand, the water surface of the standing wave oscillates vertically between fixed points without progression. The standing wave can be considered as the superposition of two progressive waves of the same amplitude and period, but traveling at the same speed in opposite directions so that the net travel is 2270, leaving only the vertical oscillation. At a given point, standing wave experiences the same amount of oscillation about the X axis from one cycle to the next. Thus, ‘one point experiences the maximum vertical oscillation called the antinode while ‘another point in space 1/4 of wave length away experiences no vertical displacement, and is called the node. A standing wave may have several nodes and aantinodes and is usually encountered in 2 confined body of water, eg, harbor basins lakes, laboratory basin, etc. The standing wave theory is discussed in detail in a later section. [Now let us return to the progressive waves. The progressive wave is defined in Fig. 32 in which the various symbols used to characterize the wave are given. A ‘wave train is generally defined by its height, H, period, T, and water depth, d 3.5. Common Wave Theories a PROGRESSIVE WAVE STANDING WAVE ° ELEVATION, 7) DISTANCE, x Fig. 21. Types of waves in open and closed waters Fig. 32. Definition sketch for a progressive wave train ‘The problem for any water wave theory is to determine the velocity potential, © (or equivalently, the stream function, Y) pertaining to the fluid region, The boundary value’ problem in the two-dimensional case may be summarized as follows Differential Equation: #20 met arn? 627)8 (Chapter 3. Wave Theories Bottom Boundary Condition: 2 Le 028) Fro ay Free Suiface Kinematic Condition: an , 20 ay 20 a x 29) at ae be Oy 629) Free Surface Dynamic Condition: am , 1/20)? , (20)* sul) +(2)]en-0 aty=n 620) ‘The potential, ©, must satisy the Laplace equation (Eq. 3.27) and the three boundary conditions (Eqs. 328-330) The solution ofthis complete problem is dicate because the Free surface boundary conditions are nonlinear and must be satisfied atthe free surface which is constantly changing 3S. Linear Airy Wave Theory ‘The simplest and most useful of all wave theories is the small amplitude wave theory. This wave theory is also known as Airy theory or sinusoidal wave theory. It js based on the assumption that the wave height is small compared to the wave length or water depth. This assumption allows the fre surface boundary conditions to be linearized by dropping wave height terms which are beyond the firs order, ‘This assumption also allows the free surface conditions to be satisfied at the mean, water level, rather than atthe osilating fre surface. The solution for @ is assumed to take the form of a power series in terms of nondimensional perturbation parameter ¢, which is defined in terms of the wave slope (wave height/wave length) as ka eat G31) in which k is the wave number, defined as k= 2n/L. Then o= 5 0, 632) where ©, isthe nth order solution for ® Similarly, the wave profile, mis defined as n= Sem ay 3.5. Common Wave Theories * Now, since the linear theory is directed toward a first-order solution (ie. linear in the wave height, H, or wave slope, e), only the frst term of the series in and 1 is retained on substitution in the free surface boundary conditions (Eqs. 329-3.30), ‘Then Eqs. (329)-(3.30) reduce to an, _ 20, M29 ayaa oy ad From Eq, (3.35), the free surface profile is given by i/o (2) ayo 039 ‘The two free surface boundary conditions may be combined into one by eliminating ‘one of the unknowns, n, as follows: 20, 30, Baten o nm 637) ‘The other equations in BVP are the same as Eqs, (3.27)-3.28), For the progressive wave withthe speed, c, the periodicity is given by a = x —ct. This form of assumes that the time is traveling in the negative x direction (direction of wave propagation along +x). Asan altemative ifthe times taken inthe same direction asthe positive x direction (direction of wave propagation along —x), then 2=x-+er. This type of BVP is solved by the separation of variable technique. The potential, ©,, is assumed to be of the form Y(y)A@) 638) Which when substituted in the partial differential equation produces two ordinary iferential equations #Y yao G39) ar Breaco omy where isa constant. It willbe shown later that kis the wave number. The general solutions are Y= A, cosh ky + Ay sinh ky Gan)0 Chapter 3. Wave Theories ‘Am Ay 00s [Kx ~ C8] + Ag sin [hl —et)] 6.22) ‘The reference point (x =0) is considered for the wave such that at x =0, the surface profile, n,, becomes equal to H/2 (ie., the wave crest) when the time, ‘equals 0. Then, 4 =0. The bottom boundary condition gives A, = A, tanh kd Referring to Eq, (3.38), © may now be written as cosh k(y +d) Om A cosh kd sin [k(x —c1)] 643) whore As= AyAy. Again applying 1 = H/2 from Eq. (3.36) at x=0, y=0, and at t=, weget As= gH/2ke. Also, from Eq. @.43), wavelength L = 2x/k, wave period nike; also,c = L/T,ke = a kbeing the wave number and @ = wave frequency. ‘Then substituting s= yd and @= k(x ~ct) the expression forthe first-order velocity potential, © (= <®), becomes Ht cosh ks, “20 cosnkd oa From Eq, (3.36), we have # nay cs 3.45) Substituting the value of ®in the combined fre surface boundary condition (Eq. 3.37), the linear dispersion relationship is obtained 6.46) ‘An alternate form for @ may be obtained by combining Eqs. (3.44) and (3.46) oan ‘Similarly, noting that ¢ = a/k an alternate form of the dispersion relationship S tanh ka 3.48) wile te wavelength i obine tom te oma t=fT ahaa ow) From Eq. (3.49) it is seen that the wave length, L, is dependent on T and d. Since 35. Common Wave Theories st ‘k= Da/L, the wave length cannot be computed directly, and an iterative technique may be used starting with the deep water value for the wave length. In shallower ‘water, however, it is more efficient to start the iteration with the shallow water approximation. Inthe intermediate range of water depth, a simpler approximate formula for the wave length is L= Loftanh Ond/Lg)}** 50) where Ly is the deep water wave length, For a given water depth and wave period, there is an upper limit to the wave height at which the wave becomes unstable and breaks. The Stokes criterion for wave breaking is that the particle velocity at the crest of the wave reaches the celerity. Its intuitively clear that velocity higher than the eelerity will make the waves topple forward and break. Stokes’ (1880) breaking-wave criterion is a crest angle of no more than 120°. In deep water the limiting wave steepness is given by A, As ota B51 BR 51) Which makes the breaking wave height, H, about one-seventh the deep water wave length. In finite water depth the limiting steepness is similarly obtained by introducing the intermediate depth parameter Hy 4 0.142 tanh kd 3.52) where L is now the wave length corresponding to the intermediate depth. These relationships will be again considered when discussing the regions of applicability of various wave theories ‘The water-partcle velocities in the X and Y directions are obtained from the expressions 6.53) and G54) 28 Differentiating Eq, (2.47) with respect to x and y respectively, the horizontal water particle velocity is ai cosh hs T sinh kd “* 6 a5)2 Chapter 3 Wave Theories and the vertical water-particle velocity is stl sinh ks sins sn 3.56) T sinh kd 7 au “The water particle accelerations inthe x and y direstion are given by du _2n?H cosh ks Horizontal: Y=?7EE SEK sin os 0 2H sinh ks Venice: & = 638) T? sinhkd It is sometimes convenient to express u and v in an alternate form using Eq. (G4). In this case kt coshks = HH costs og, 3.59) cosh kd °° ce and 6.0) Similany, the water-particle aeelrations take the forms au _gktt cosh ks ugh sin® a" 2 eoshhd teas Sins os 6.02) From the expressions ofthe horizontal and vertical velocities i is observed that the horizontal velocity of a water particle is maximum (or minimum) when the vertical velocity is 270 and vice versa. Since the amplitudes ofthe two velocities are ‘enerally different, it may be inferred that a water particle describes an elliptical orbit about its mean position in a complete wave cycle. The displacements of the water particle about its mean position are obtained by the integration of u and o with respect tothe time, t, and applying the appropriate boundary condition forthe ‘constant of integration. ‘The horizontal and vertical particle displacements, ¢ and m, ate given by H coshks = EE in 6.63) and Hi sinks F sinh ead 35, Common Wave Theories 3 Note that the maximum vertical displacement (at the still water level) of a water particle is equal to the wave amplitude, H1/2 ‘Asin the case ofthe velocity potential, the dynamic pressure, p, takes on the first-order form as G55) so that # P= 007 coshkd “O° hee ‘An example ofthe water-partice velocities and accelerations fora wave height of. 20 ftand period of 10 sec in a water depth of 100 fis given in Fig 3.3. The quantities ‘are computed at the SWL at a station given by x=0. Note that u and Gv/dt are respectively in phase and 180° out of phase with the wave profile, while v and du/t are out of phase by 90°. An example of the correlation of maximum measured pressures in a laboratory wave tank with linear theory predictions is shown in Fig. a rs 6 Fig 3 Peample profiles of ave and Kinematie-dynamie properties by linear theoryPy (Chapter 3 Wave Theories oie on Pet a0 228 Tare? ho al a os z 7 | Roe i el 7 a Af [ [ on MO ker ome tide soft / NORMALIZED DYNAMIC PRESSURE, Prex/H peo Fig. 34. Correlation of measured dynamic pressures with linear theory 344. The test was performed in a wave tank in $ ft water depth and the waves were generated by a pneumatic wave generator. The theoretical results are shown as a solid line and test data are normalized with the wave height. Diflerent wave heights ateach period are shown with diferent symbols. Note that the higher waves at each period tend to deviate from the linear theory. Also, near the fre surface where linear theory isnot valid, the pressure tends to reduce to zero from the maximum valuein fan approximate linear Iashion, Certain simplifications to the above expressions can be made depending on the ‘magnitude of the water depth relative to the wave length. The simplifications are 35. Common Wave Theories 3s ‘based on the application ofthe asymptotic values of the tanh function, Note that for a large argument, x tanh x= This assumption is valid (<0.4% %, error) for x > m. Similarly, for small x, tanh x= Which is acceptable (<1.0% error) for x t Lege ‘Shallow water djL 5 Fig. 25. Particle obits and kinematics by linear theory equation andthe bottom boundary condition, and separation of terms of diferent order in ¢, 6, etc., the subsequent equations look similar to the original form for n= 1,2, 3:70) 35, Common Wave Theories 37 , ha aty=—dform=1,2, a y 2, en However, the two free surface conditions are not straightforward because they ‘become coupled in ©, ©, ec. for higher-order components, and the mathematics is very cumbersome. The first-order term (e)for ®, isexactly equivalent to thelinear ‘wave theory 20, | 80, “me 8 Fimo nyno @7) G73) However, the second-order term (¢) gives 2, , 2s aren. ea.) “a Tey aya (2) -(B] so-0 aa fon, 2 1/06), 1f4%)* ren Hern ERM) a1] areo 29 ‘Thus, the solution for @, is written in terms of ©, and n,. Similarly, once ©, is known, n may be obtained from Eq. (3.79), For Stokes second-order wave theory, the velocity potential is defined as and O20, +20, 76) Both ©, and ©, satisfy the differential equations (Eq. 3.70), and thus the solution for ‘, should have a form similar to Eq. (3.43) for, except that the constant k should be replaced by 2k and © by 20. Applying the boundary conditions at the free surface and then applying the appropriate inital conditions, it can be shown that 6x cosh 2ks WP sin kd 20,= sin20 a7 while the dispersion relation is the same as that for the linear theory given by 2 tanh kd (3.78) Substituting the values of ®, and ©, in Eqs. (2.36) and (2.75) for ny and n>,8 Chapter 3. Wave Theories respectively, the surface elevation profile is given by H ogo 4 2H cosa Fos + SE SOE 19 co 8.9) n= Heose + 2 Ser (2-+ cosh 2kd]cos20 6%) In deep water the wave profile has the form aay rs went rate prhe wc t rosin: volo (OEMs an Veni: — va tl ng 2() HIM sya ‘The water-particle accelerations can simply be obtained from these expressions by diflerentiation du _2n°H cosh se cothkS 599 83) Horizontal: pT sinned Oo) Sinn dv _ 2s? H sinks ee are Meee wT sind °° “TT J sin ka 0520 (3.84) From here, the expressions for the water-partcle displacements for the Stokes second-order theory can be derived. ‘The expression for the dynamic pressure is obtained by the substitution of ©, and @ from Eqs. (3.44) and (3.77) nto the complete Bernoull’s equation (Eq, 3.20) [lor s(t) =0 and without hydrostatic pressure) H cosks Ht P= 0 Sch td 8 TT a coshks _1 a? 1 (3 ]eos20 tee Sg x [oosh 2ks ~ 1] 6.89) [Note that the dynamic pressure has a time-independent term and the hydrostatic term has been left out. ‘The wave velocity or celerity given to the third order is ‘Ss hd oe HV T9 Scout ids sted 4.5. Common Wave Theories » ‘which has an alternate form as follows: ay [ftzeqnate ota ae} ae Bsinh kd in which cy is the celerity given by linear wave theory (c term within the bracket is the correction term. ‘The fith-order velocity potential is written in a series form as, (gik) tanh kd) and the on8 F Apooshis sinn® 388) where the nondimensional coefficients, 4, are written as Ais + PAs +A Ana + Maa PAss + Ass Maus Ass a a as a as “The wave height i given by HZ (+ By + Bsa Be] 89) ‘According to the Stokes Gfth-order wave theory, the celerity is given by teed + BC, +28C3) (3.90) in which Ais an unknown along with the wave number, The quantities 4 and k are determined from Eqs, (3.89) and (3.90) through an iterative technique. Once the potential © is known, the water-particle kinematics and dynamic pressure from Bernoulli's equation may be obtained as before. The coefficients A, By, and C, (j= 1,2,...,5) above are functions of kd only and are listed below from Skjelbreia and Hendrickson (1961). In the following expressions, C = cosh kd, and inh kd. IS cxsct +1) oF 1s4cte 153697o (Chapter 3. Wave Theories (ug2c* —424cé -312C*++ 48007— 17) STE 4c (512242241? — 68008 — 12,808C* + 16,704C4~3154C?+ 107) ae FORE (6CF— _(90C*=816C4 + 1338C#- 197) i 15365°%6C*— 1) = (2880019 72,480 + 324,000C* —432,000C* + 163,470C?- 16,245) LARS HEC = NBC LIC +3) (2C7-+1) as 8, CRTC ~ 504C* — 192C* + 322C? +21) se 3845" H8C* +1) Ba ge (88,128C"* —208,224C? + 10,848C!° + 54,000C8 —21,816C* + 6264C* ~ S4C? ~81) 12,2885"*(607—1) age LBB! ABC" = ABC 4 ABC 106C*- om 38457(6C*— 1) (192,000 ~260,720C** +83 680C!# +20,160C'° —7280C%) 12,2885" (6C*— IBC*—11C*+3) (7160C* — 1800¢* —1050C# +225) 12,2885" (6C? = 1)6C*= 117+ 3) Bys= _@ct=8c+9) ast (840C!? — 4096C1 +2592C* — 1008C° + 5944C*~ 1830C?+ 147) i eeaeaas aageenaasiae oct): — ct G asc (12C# +3608 — 16204 + 141C?-21) aaa aes ~ 35, Common Wave Theories 6 “Table M1. Sample values for Stokes’ fifth-order theory. (Given: d= 1008, H= On, T'= 10sec, Caleulated: L= 502.2191) @ 0 m 0 © © 10 10 10 160 180 BAL 221 1636 S44 296 B63 -1265 ~1526 -19.05 17.79 e 0 4 er er er er en) et at ew ee Re aa 2873 12800. 25.7 as 11393 usr 1340 11000 20.78 1034 10000. 1809 1029 nas 11 280 124 Mor 44-198 138740 128 2000 96 619 —080 yo 86) S67 —0.59 00 831 $50 0.52 846 905 25181028, 567 636 359 2406 Lert 350 408 473837783008 167196 $938 SORE 4351 00 © 00 719263795652 surface elevation © = phase angle "y= proile coordinate above SWL, ft 3 distance measured fom mud line, f {t= horizontal particle velocity, see ‘p= verial particle velocity, Mec P= total pressure h/t ‘An example of the values of wave profil, particle velocities and total pressures {including hydrostatic) for Stokes ith-order wave theory is given in Table 3.1. The values ofthe kinematics have been computed fora wave of H = SO‘, T= 10sec ina 100 water depth. The first two rows show the wave elevation at various phase angles over half a wave length. Then, the values of u,v, and p are given at phase Angles of °, 45°, and 90°, and at several elevations from the bottom up to the free surface. 353. Cnoidal Wave Theory ‘Stokes finite amplitude wave theory is most useful when the depth to wave length ratio, d/Lis greater than about 1/8-1/10. Finite amplitude long waves of permanent form in shallow water are better described by the cnoidal wave theory. The cnoidal wave is @ periodic wave that usually has sharp crests separated by wide troughs. ‘According to Keulegan (1950) the validity ofthis theory rests on the assumption that the square of the inclination of the water surface is small compared to unity ‘The theory accounts for a large class of long waves of finite amplitude. The approximate range of validity ofthe theory is d/L < 1/8 and the Ursell parameter, Uy > 26. Note that the Ursell parameters defined as U, = H12/d°. The twollimiting@ Chapter 3. Wave Theories ‘cases are the solitary wave on one end of steep waves and Airy wave on the other end. As the wave length becomes infinite the solitary wave theory is approached, Whereas infinitesimal wave height (compared to water depth) yields the linear theory in the limit. Several theories have been developed that are particularly suitable for the shallow water applications. Korteweg and de Vries (1895) initiated the theory of cnoidal waves, Keulegan and Patterson (1940) also studied the enoidal wave theory. Wiegel (1960) simplified these works for engineering applications which is the basis for much ofthis section. Laitone (1960) developed a second approximation to the ‘cnoidal wave theory, while Chappelear (1962) obtained a third approximation to this theory. Yamaguchi and Tsuchiya (1974) compared the difference between these to wave characteristic ‘The theory is described by the solution of the ordinary differential equation oF puters esp where wand Bare constant, Fis a function of X = (x ~ ct)/,and lis length inthe x direction, which is of the same order of magnitude as the wave length, This equation has a periodic solution in terms ofthe Jacobian elliptic function, n(g, 1), where q isthe argument and « is the modulus of the function, hence the ‘name cnoidal wave theory. Functions of x needed to describe the theory are K and. E, the complete elliptic integrals ofthe frst and second kind respectively. ‘The wave length, L, is calculated from L4 x)" £ Fexeo(ae 7 9) where Kil isthe compete elite integra ofthe fist kind wth modus k tbe erica distance fro the ocean floor to the wave trough (ee Fig. 36 ft these Akfntons for cnoidal waves) The quantities Land f are obtained fom the following two eystons G93) (20+1-#)e0 = (at+2-#)x0) am) ‘where E(k) is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind with modulus k. Note that most ofthe mathematical handbooks tabulate the values of K and Ein terms of «8 parameter m, where m= K?. The following inequalities must also hold H a+ 1> and 0<<1 “a 35. Common Wave Theories 6 Peeters Fig. 46. Definition sketch for cnoidal wave Combining Eqs. (3.92) and (3.93) one obtains the Ursell parameter, Us (defined as Bd) as Up= MALIK]? = ASK) G95) from which the wave length is obtained as ne -(H) kK) 6.96) ‘The surface profile of the cnoidal wave is given by srenstorw(S-2).] om ‘where y, is measured from the ocean floor, y,=d +n, and cn is the Jacobian elliptic function associated with the cosine function and 1A acne) B09) 41-2 38) ‘The period of n* is 2K (i). Its values are plotted in Figs. 3,7 and 38 asa function of x/Ly /T with k? as parameter. The pressure at any distance s from the bottom is ziven to second approximation by the simple formula P= paly,~3) 6.99) ‘The period of en becomes infinite for k= 1 giving rise to a solitary wave. The6 (Chapter 3. Wave Theories Fig. 37. Surface profiles of enoidal waves [Wiegel (1960]] Fig. 38 Surface profiles of cnoidal waves [Wiegel(1960)] wave velocity is given by yal 4H 1 (1 Eu) oof (1-20) oo ee (1 4 on(v-8) ou For the other limiting case of the linear wave, k +0 and B/K -+ 1 so that 35. Common Wave Theories 6 (oarn(1-258) 6.102) whieh, for small kd is approximately equal to [xem oom the formula of celerty for Airy wave. Note that the wave period is given by Tae G10) Keulegan and Patterson (1940) gave a slightly dlferent form for the wave corafiat[ ore (2-0) 09 ‘The horizontal and vertical components of the water-particle velocities and local accelerations are found [Keulegan and Patterson (1940), Wiegel (1960)] from ye] 5,34 9 (3H a) a 5 oa) { 3-243 Be) -Fot) BH) eae ane?) + on Jn) = sn*(dn*( >] (3.106) - so AR) EW a) ¥ )— Hor) ar) Joentit), e107) ‘where sn{) refers to sn[2K (k)(x/L —t/T),K], ete. 3 gg BRE (2B) Hoy) 4 AO (8 on [G-2)-nr0 25-4) x (sm?) ~ en) — dn fon Jen dnt), 2.108)66 Chapter 3. Wave Theories a SKK) eat x [i+ ]or087 0 ete +0070] +4 [aan idn2() edn?) + Horn) RRL ys ae [e = % (Bk sn2(Jen4( Jdn2() — Kon )kon?() + dn?) + Kent sn? )— dn*()) + dn fon?() — en D} 6.109) A simple procedure for computing the quantities in a cnoidal wave theory is not available, A computer program is often written based on the formulas outlined earlier. Alternatively, the quantities may be derived by a graphical procedure based (on Figs. 3.7-3.13 reproduced here from Wiegel (1960). This is illustrated by the Fig. 39. Relationship between k2,H/d, and T-/g/d [Wiesel (1960)] 3.5. Common Wave Theories o Fig. 3.10. Relationship between k? and Ursell parameter, ?H/d* [Wiegel (1960)] e = 7 co aa Fig. 3.11. Relationship between k? and Ursell parameter, ?H/d? and between dimensionless crest height, (= €)/1 and Ursell parametet [Wiegl(1960)) following example: Example For a given water depth of 20(t, period of 10sec, and a height of 4ft, find the wave length, L, and the crest and trough heights, y, and 4, respectively. Calculate H/d=4/ 12 Toi = 10,/38.2720 = 12.696 Chapter 3 Wave Theories 4 Fig. 312, Relationship between TY/a/d(,/d) H/y, and BH/d? [Wiese (1960)} From Fig. 39 find &? He = 107 = 0.112 Using this value of K2, Fig. 3.10 gives BH/a =30 from which L= 244.951 Note d/L = 0.082 < 1/8 and U, = 30 > 26, which makes cnoidal theory applicable inthis ease, ‘The percentage of wave height above the SWL may be determined from Fig. TN ee Fig, 313. Relationship between C/4/ayi, H/y and I2H/d° [Wiege! (1960)] 3.11 for Up= 30, From this, (.- O/H = 063 so that % GH +d= 22.528 Also, from Fig, 3.11 ()- O/H = -1+063=037 Thus, yea 2146 354. Stream Funetion Wave Theory ‘The Stream Function theory, a nonlinear wave theory related to that of Stokes, was developed by Dean (1965) and is so called because itis based on a stream function representation of the flow. There are two types of stream function theory’ ‘© Symmetric or Regular Stream Function Theory—deseribes preiodic waves of symmetric, permanent form with prescribed period, height, and still- water depth.0 Chapter 3. Wave Theories ‘¢ Irregular Stream Fonction Theory—represents a stream function and associated kinematics of a wave witha predetermined profile. This theory is suitable in analyzing wave tank or field test data, In the general formulation of Irregular Stream Function wave theory, no restrictions are placed on the wave form. The wave can change form asit propagates, 1.0) the Stokes nonlinear theory is more appropriate, according to kinematic analytical ‘validity. Ofcourse, the kinematic condition error forthe steam function theory is ‘dentially zero, On the other hand, the dynamic condition error is smallest for the stream function theory (ith-order) except at low d/T? values (<0.1) where Airy theory gives the lowest error. Similar results were obtained for other H/H, values [Dean (1968)].On the basis of analytic validity, then, the steam function theory is ‘most suitable over the entice range of d/T® values. (Note thatthe limiting case of stream function theory at low wave height is Airy theory.) Tn order to satisly design engineers in choosing the appropriate wave theory ‘valid forthe particular design case, a epion of validity of various wave theories has ‘been prepared, Figure 3.21 comes from the works of Dean (1968) and LeMehaute (1970). The regions are described in terms of H/T? and d/T. Since the fourth-order Stokes theory isnot widely available, it may be replaced bythe more popular fith-0 ‘Chapter 3. Wave Theories ono to! tot to! T T SOLITARY fsacitany 2 lasrerore stokes m—] stReaM Function 10 18" . aT /see) eam Dimensions enor, /ATA, a dmami fee srice touay ce, McTOE ee we a ‘order theory, The stream function theory may be shown to be appropriate and consistent over most of the wave parameter domain except at the very low end ofthe values of H/T? and d/T? where cnoidal theory is applicable. The difference between the linear theory and stream function theory is small for waves of low steepness in deep and intermediate water depth. The value ofthe Ursell parameter, U,is used 10 determine the boundaries of various wave theories. For example, thelinear theory is. applicable for small steepness H/T* and small Us values. The experimental data superimposed on the plot was obtained from Chakrabarti (1980). [tis shown that the experimental data verified the analytic validity ofthe third-order Stokes and the stream function theory. The linear theory, however, was found to be applicable beyond its analytic validity, It should be noted that the experimental validity is based on how well the dynamic pressure profiles were correlate. Example Find the suitable wave theories from the chart in Fig. 3.21 for the following cases. ‘Case 1 Consider North Sea waves H= 100f, T= 16 00, d= S00f 35. Common Wave Theories BL eee Se a RY oa E aft eae] or or a 4 crusech Fig. 221. Ranges of suitability of various wave theories From the chart (Fig. 3.21), the applicable wave theory isthe Stokes third- order theory. Case 2. Shallow water waves H=40n, 12sec, #H FPTOMBT, = 002 From the char, the cnoidal wave theory is applicable in this case.a ‘Chapter 3. Wave Theories ooo ie wer j EST {1 cee | eae cal ti te san ig. 322. Dimensionless representation of zones of application of gravity water ‘ke theo [ison 0963] Wilson (1963) made a similar analysis regarding the validity of wave theories, but instead of the fre surface boundary conditions, he chose the wave form or the steepness. the bass of selection of wave theory. The work was never published and was brought £0 the author's attention through personal communications. The following discussion essentialy follows his work. The areas of applicability of various water wave theories derived by him is shown in Fig. 322. For small amplitude Airy theory, it seems possible to ignore the second term of the expression ofthe wave profile given by Stokes’ second-order theory (Ea. 3.79) when its amplitude is, say, less than 1% ofthe frst term. Under this condition, the wave slope parameter is given by EH = (2/25) sinh? kd/cosh kd(3 +2 sinh? kl) 6.138) ‘which defines the limiting height of Airy waves. In Fig. 3.22 thisis represented by the ‘most right-hand shaded area. ‘A similar criterion may be adopted to limit the zone of application of Stokes’ second-order theory so that the third-order term is made les than 1% ofthe first 35. Common Wave Theorie 8 term. This yields the condition EH < (16/1732) sinb®kd/(1 +8 cosh? ka)! G.139) ‘Simplification ofthis expression forthe shallow water condition (kd < n/10),and the ‘deep water equivalent (kd > 2), yields the asymptotic straight lines to the upper ‘boundary of the Stokes’ second-order wave zone in Fig. 3.22. From Stokes’ fifth-order theory, it i possible on a similar basis to establish the asymptotes to Stokes’ third-order theory. In Fig. 3.22, these asymptotes are: (@ Hid-<0-725(kd)*, in shallow water emo i) H/Lg <0.10, : in deep water ‘The zone encompassed is shown shaded in Fig. 3.22. It seems reasonable to assume that by extending Stokes’ theory to a sufficiently high order of approximation it would be possible to add successively smaller layers tothe area of Stokes' third-order theory in Fig. 3.22 until the breaking wave limit is, reached. For all practical purposes, Stokes’ fith-order theory will accomplish this. Laitone (1961) imposed a limit on Stokes’ higher-order theory by limiting the Ursel's number, Us, a8 Up <216 ey De (1955) compared the overlap of Stokes’ ith-order theory with cnoidal wave theory, and concluded that U should be less than 10 for successful application of ‘Stokes’ theory. The cnoidal wave theory envelops the remaining area of Fig. 322, but the isoline of U, = 10 in Fig. 3.22 runs into the domain of Stokes’ third-order theory and is unnecessarily restrictive. For all practical purposes, Stokes’ fifth-order theory and cnoidal theory overlap smoothly at or near the “critical velocity limit,” c= Ved. train ofenoidal waves would beidentified in Fig. 3 22by a point tothe ritical velocity limit” at a particular wave steepness H/Ly and relative depth djLo (alternatively H/T? and d/T?), and would have an identifying value of Ursel’s number, U,. At the junction ofthe isoline U,,= 20, the enoidal theory and ‘Stokes’ fifth-order theory have been found to be in agreement so that complete continuity is established. ‘The various isolines of Ursell’s parameter, Uy, in Fig. 3.22, cross the diagram in 1 diagonal fashion. In the region of Airy and Stokes’ wave theories, they are slightly ‘curved, but as their magnitude increases beyond the “critical velocity limit,” they tend to become virtually straight lines inthe log-log plot of Fig. 3.22. Actually they have very flat reverse curvature and assume parallelism with the straight line Ug=20 at the very small values of H/T? At approximately U, = 20 (21.6 according to Eq. 3.141) the isoline defines a relationship H/T? =C,(a/T*) G1)8 Chapter 3 Wave Theories jn which C, isa constant. Inspection of Fig. 3.22 shows this to be true, which verifies the result ‘that sub-crtical velocities obtain for U,<21.6, and supercritical velocities at Us > 21.6. We now retum to the examples given earlier, in considering the results in Fig. 3.22. Case I North Sea waves H= 1008, 7 H a H FE7 03906; -Zy= 19531 (sec units, 4-020 From Fig. 322, Up 10; applicable theories are Stokes' third-order or fifth-order, Case 2 Shallow water waves H=40h, T= see, d= 50 Design parameters H a H Feroz; Zn0mm, Haos0; Vad= 40.1800 From Fig. 322, Uy =55; applicable theory is enoidal 36. References A, Wave Theory 1. Ippen, A, (Ea), Esuary and Coast Hydrodynamics, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 196. 2. Komst,.D., Beach Processes and Sedimentation, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cis, New Jersey, 1976 3, LeMehaute,B, Inoduction t Hydrodynamics and Water Waves, Spinger-Verig, New York, 1976. 4, Sarplaya,T. and Isaacson, M., Mechanics of Wave Fores on Offhore Structures, Van ‘Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1981. 5. Shore Protection Marual, Cousal Engineering Research Center, US. Army, Vitsiis, 1973. 6. Stoker J.J, Water Waves, The Mathematical Theory with Applications, Interscience, New York, 1957 Stokes, G. G., On the theory of osilatory waves, Mathematical Physics Papers, Cambridge University Press 1880, 1. 8, Wiesel, RL, Oceanographical Enginzering, Prentice-Hall, Englevood Clift, NJ. 1964 36, References 8s B, Stokes Finite Amplitude 1. De, $. C., Contribution to the theory of Stokes waves, Proceedings Cambridge Philosophical Society 1985, 51, 713-736, 2 Skjelbreia, L., and Hendrickson, J. A., Fith-order gravity wave theory, Proceedings of, Seventh Confrence on Coastal Engineering 1961, pp. 184-196 ©. Croldat 1. Chappelear, J. E., Shallow water waves, Journal of Geophysical Research 1962, 67, 4693-4704, 2 Keulegan, G. H., Wave motion, Engineering Hydraulics, Proceedings Fowth Hydraulics Conference, Wiley, New York, 1950, pp. 711-768, 3. Keulegan, G. 11, and Patterson, G. W-, Mathematical theory of rotational translation waves, Research Jounal, National Buréou of Standards (US, Department of Commerce) 1940, 24, «7-101. 4. Korisiwep, D1, and de Vries, G., On the change of form of long waves advancing in a rectangular canal, and on a new type of long stationary waves, Philosophical Magazine {Sih Series) 1895, 39, 422-423. 5. Laitone .V., The second approximation to cnoidal and solitary waves, Journal of Fld Mechanics 1960, 9 (Part 3), 430-444, 6, Skovgaard, O, Svendsen, I A., Jonsson, I. G., and Brink-Kjser, 0, Sinusoidal and Cnoidal Grsiey Waves—Formalae and Tables, stitute of Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 1974 7. Wiege, RL, A presentation of enoidal wave theory for practical application, Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1960, 7. No, 18, 273-280. 8, Yamagouchi, M., and Tsuchiya, ¥., Relation between wave characteristics of enoial wave theory derived by Laitone and Chappelear, Builetn Disaster Prevention Research Institue, Kyoto University 1974, 24, 217-231 D. Streom Function 1. Dean, R. G., Stream function representation of nonlinear ocean waves, Journal of Geophysical Research 1965, 70, No. 18, 4561-4572. E, Validity of Wave Theories 1. Chakrabarti, §. K., Laboratory generated waves and wave theories, Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE August 1980, 106. 2, Dean, R-G., Relative validity of water wave theories, Proceedings on Civil Engineering in Ocean, ASCE, San Francisco, 1968, 1-30, (Also Jounal of Waterways and Harbors, ‘ASCE 1970, 105-119. 3. Dean, RG. and LeMchaute,B., Experimental validity of water wave theories, Stractural Engineering Conference, ASCE, Portland, Oregon, 1970. 4. Dean, R.G., Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories for Engineering Application, Coastal Engineering Research Center, US. Army Corps of Engineers, Special Report No.1, 1974 5, Laitone, EV. dlgher Approximation to Nonlinear Water Waves and the Limiting Heights of Croidel, Solitary and Stokes” Waves, TER Technical Report 89.6, Hydraulic Engincering Lab, University of California, Retkeley, March 1961. 6, LeMehaute,B, Divoky,D.,and Lin, A. Shallow waier aves: A comparison of theories and experimenis, Proceedings of Elesenth Coastal Engineering Conference, London, 1968, pp. 87-107, ‘Wilson, B. W., Conditions of existence for types of Tsunami waves, paper presented at XIIIth Generat Assembly 1UGG, Berkeley, California, Aujust 1963 (unpublished).Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment “The guiding motto of every natwal philosopher should be: ‘Seek simply and distrust -A.N. Whitehead, A Commonplace Book ‘There are two basic approaches considered in choosing the design wave environment for an offshore structure. One of these uses a single wave method in which the design wave is represented by a wave period and a wave height. One reason for using this approach is the simplicity in the design analysis and easy determination of the response due to extreme wave conditions (as opposed to a design sea state). I this method isused, then itis recommended that several possible single design waves of varying period be analyzed and the structure design be based ‘on the worst loads experienced for any of these design waves. The extreme wave height, whether short term or long term, may be derived from one of the methods described in Chapter 5 ‘The other approach to selecting the design wave environment considers the ‘wave spectrum. In this case a sutable wave spectrum model is chosen representing ‘an appropriate density distribution of the sea waves atthe site under consideration. ‘The most suitable spectrum is a measured design wave spectrum at the site, although such a spectrum is seldom available. Asan alternative, one chooses one of the theoretical spectrum models available based on the fetch, wind and other meteorological conditions of the site. The chosen wave spectrum, of course, describes a short term wave condition, ‘Waves in the open ocean are generally generated by winds. Waves traveling out of a distant generating area are called swells while waves generated locally are known as sea, The ultimate growth of a sea depends primarily on wind speed, duration, and fetch. Attempts have been made by various researchers to formulate the spectrum of a wind-wave or a swell, for purposes of forecasting. In general there are two classes of forecasting procedure—the spectrum method and the significant ‘wave method. Neither ofthese methods can be considered completely adequate, but ‘they can provide useful approximations fr the representation ofa sea state likely 0 exist. ‘There is no theoretical set of forecasting curves; all ofthe “theoretical”, semi- pirical, and empirical procedures rely on physical measurements. These ‘measurements in the open ocean are few in number largely unreliable for a number of reasons, usually for varying winds and fetches, and often are for moving fetches. However, improved forecasting methods are becoming available which are based ‘on more reliable and accurate field data. This has resulted ina variety of theoretical wave spectral models, Inthis chapter the concept of wave energy density spectrum is briefly developed. In particular, the variability of wave energy density spectrum and the parameters 4.1, Wave Energy Spectral Density a affecting the spectrum is explained. Then, the various available mathematical spectrum models and ther differences are discussed. 4,1. Wave Energy Spectral Density ‘An ocean wave, in its simplest form, may be thought of as @ pure sinusoidal oscillation about the still water level. For a single sinusoidal wave (Fig. 41, a-b) of frequency, «the wave profile may be given as nt cos x01) 4.) (Choosing the origin at x= coset @2 ‘where the amplitude of wave, , = H/2. This form is used when a single wave design approach is chosen. It represents the Airy wave theory. Instead ofthe sinusoidal form, however, a nonlinear regular wave, ¢g., described in Chapter 3, soften used. ‘The next step in generalizing the wave form isto consider it asa periodic signal Af 6) REGULAR WAVE (TEMPORAL! 1 1 REGULAR WAVE (SRTAL) ht t = IRREGULAR Mave th Antal Fig. 41. Representation of various types of wave profiles88 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment of fundamental frequency, and represent it as a Fourier series containing ‘components of multiples ofthe fundamental frequency (Fig. 4.1c) 44008 (not +6) a3) which may be rewritten as n= ¥ (ay cosnot + by sin not) 64) ‘where Vis the number of Fourier components. In developing thisform itis assumed that since the form in Eq. (4.1) is linear, the principle of superposition applies. Assuming that the Iength of the wave record is 7, and taking the help of Fourier analysis, the coeficients, a, and b, are computed from the integrals an 2 forenna «s ar 2 frinsionae “6 Te [Note that this representation of sea state by a, and b, anda finite N may be used to approximate particular wave record. Itis not representative ofa random sea state. This form is often used ina design where time domain analysisis employed. Itisalso, sometimes used in simulating an ocean wave in the laboratory. ‘The random sea state on a short term basis maintains certain identifiable statistical properties and is best represented by its energy density spectrum. The total energy of a wave, E (Per unit surface area in the wave record between inf time limits is given by the integral E=do0 J twat an [Now generalizing the expression for n:) in Ea. (44) so thatthe frequencies are not represented by the Fourier components, but vary continuously (Fig. 4.14) and the coefficients a, and b, given by Eqs. (4.5-4.6) are generalized as alo) and b(o) we write no! | faereror+ Ho)sna do ws where afa)=[2_n(Qeosardt and bio) [eq n()sinor dt. Note that the Frequency range irom —o to o in the above expression defines a two-sided energy spectrum, The diference between atworsided spectrum and a one-sided spectrum 4.1, Wave Boergy Spectral Density ® will be discussed later. From Equs. (4.7) and (48), the energy may be written as Lew fol Ftarenerstorinanco}e 49 Interchanging the integrals hae foe Lanes +40) J nisin to (410) Bako | [o)+b%)] do (an which is weitten as Pe | Herd (42) ‘Thus, from Eqs, (4.7) and (4.12) we obtain the equality of the Parseval Theorem { [nie]? ae=. FT Mey do 4.3) ‘which gives ris tothe concept ofthe wave energy spectrum. Theamplitude, 4,hasa Unit of length-time and is a continuous funetion ofthe Frequency, If [HGP is the mean square value (variance) of m0) over a specified record length, 7, then BOP = ff roa 4 Which may be written as the mean energy per unit area 1 ‘2a pa f (Alo) /T, de> a5) Defining the spectral energy density as sq) =e" 4.16) the total energy is obtained from the area covered by the energy density curve as a0 Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment function of frequency B=tp9 (a7) ‘Note from Eqs. (4.13) and (4,16) that S(w) bas the unit of length?-time. There are two commonly used methods of calculating the energy spectrum of an ocean wave record. 41. Autocorrdation Method ‘The basic principle ofthis method is to compute the autocorrelation function of the wave profile. The autocorrelation function or autocovariance is obtained as the integral over the record length of the lagged product of the variable. Then the Fourier Transform of the autocovariance yields the energy density spectrum. Given ‘wave profile n() first the average value over the record lengthis subtracted and an autocorrelation function, R(e) is calculated from the given record of length T, as F momen ae 8) Ro=z f in which «isthe lag, or time interval between measures of surface elevation n() and (t+). In digital computation the integral is replaced by a discrete summation in ‘which the quantity «is varied between Oand M, where M isthe total number of lags and dt is replaced by a finite time increment, A. The number of lags, M, is chosen such thatthe frequency resolution, Af, sas detailed as possible without sacrificing the confidence on the energy density estimate. Note that Af is defined as S=E 4.19) whereas the degrees of freedom, a confidence criterion, is estimated from N Dor =X 420) where NV = the number of data points defined as N= Ty/At. The higher the value of DOF, the smaller isthe confidence band around the estimate. The choice of the independent variables in an estimate of the energy density and their effect on the estimate itself are further discussed in the next section ‘Knowing the autocorrelation function, the spectral energy density is calculated as its Fourier cosine transform Sto) = J R(cosar de @2y 4.1, Wave Energy Spectral Density Pn Where o = 2af; and f varies from Af to Jy. Thus, the energy spectrum is given as a ‘continuous function of frequency. In actuality, however, Eqs. (4.18) and (4.21) are replaced by a summation so that a discrete time interval, At in Eq. (4.18) and a discrete frequency interval, Af in Eq. (421) are needed. The upper limit of the frequency, fy iscalled the Nyquist frequency and is related to the time increment, At a f= IAN). The estimate in Eq. (4.21) is generally called the raw spectral estimate, 412, Fast Fourier Transform Method In a more efficient Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique, the transformation is taken directly from the time-domain to the frequency-domain and then the result is squared to convert tothe energy unit. Thus, the intermediate step of calculating the autocorrelation function is avoided. Ifneeded, ths function can be obtained by an inverse transform. If (isthe wave profile as a function of time, then the energy spectrum by FFT is obtained as So) AE aanemrns] am alin an FFT alton, te otal dt length, Tide into a mumber tale segments Mach ove having tn equal urbe of ta pny at 2 Sonsnn Une ncema A. The final et bens venged ve he M tts “The advartage ots technique ont te sonentionl meted hat ony one ingen vlad instead of two and, moreover by ting NH bea power fhe conpuation oft inogl becomes Yr een fact canbe tow ha he tuber ofarthneiopetion forthe FFT math isabout Vin compare to Ffortheauowoatance method Tas for N= 486 te saigin compte ine about 171 Now lat weave ws ow en enegy spectrum ofa wave oor ieee, ‘essa what pact arlnvelted in thecompotaton The vrabls tha Mavetobeelrted oe an coy Spestum ofa wave ord canbe bane by the FFT etbod ae ¢ Number of sections, M ‘Number of data points in each section, N (a power of 2) ‘@ Time increment or sampling rate, At ‘¢ Frequency increment or resolution, Af ‘e Frequency range, or so-called Nyquist frequency, fy ‘The itt three ofthese quantities have to be independently selected. The length ‘of the record, Tis dependent on M, N,and At,ie.,7,= MN Ar. Fora given record, and A¢ are fixed, so that the total number of data points can be obtained from these values. Therefore, the only choice that has to be made is the number of2 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment sections, M, (Note, however that ifrequired, At can be varied through interpolation of data} Knowing te fist three variables, the last wo can be ealeuated as follows a (423 Tap a aaa 4% 5a) ‘The length of the wave record that is analyzed is always finite, This requires limiting the Fourier transform in the evaluation ofthe energy spectrum to Finite Fourier Transform. The data reduction, therefore, yields no more than estimates of the power spectrum which are subject to sampling errors and to biases in the usual statistical sense [Based on the value of M, lower and upper bounds ofconfidence may be imposed ‘on an estimate ofthe energy spectrum, The larger the number of sections, M, the greater isthe degree of confidence inthe estimate ofthe energy spectrum, resulting in convergence of confidence band in the estimate, Thus, in order to attain high confidence in the estimate of the spectrum, the value of M should be as large as possible ‘While this confidence limit may seem easy enough to achieve, in practice it conflicts with the degree of resolution. Considering that T, and AV are fixed for a record, decreasing N to attain high confidence would mean at the same time decreasing the resolution in the spectrum [higher Af from Eq. (4.23)] while increasing N will produce high resolution (low 1). “These mutually antagonistic conditions are perhaps reconcilable in the fact that poor resolution of a spectrom ‘means excessive blunting of peaks of energy density, which conversely increases the confidence of the realty of any such energy concentrations. On the other hand, if high resolution is used for disceming various details of such energy concentrations inthe spectrum, we run the risk that the details uncovered havea much lower degree ofconfidence in being true measure oftheir actual magnitudes. Thus, a compromise is warranted [Wilson (1971)].” Generally, this is based on the type of wave recording and instrumentation used and the minimum amount of resolution (value of Af) needed for the study undertaken, Given T, and At (which may also be varied if needed) once Af is fixed, N may be calculated from Eq. (4.23), and then M can be determined. If M wens out to be too small, then further computations should follow until a satisfactory arrangement among these parameters is reached. An example of the effect of varying Nis shown in Fig. 4.2. Note thatthe energy density spectrum is composed of finite number of frequencies and higher values of N reveal their individual peaks and reduces the confidence in the ordinate values, The value of H, however, is relatively unchanged. In practice, the value of M is usually taken as MP8, while the value of N is normally between 512 to 2048. 42, Smoothing of Energy Spectra 93 Fig. 42. Variation of energy density spectral shape of wave ecord (Ged T,) with ‘atition of (oratemadly fora fied M) ae .2. Smoothing of Energy Spectra [Because the record length for which an energy spectrum is calculated is always finite, the autocovariance function of lagged products is only an apparent (raw) ‘autocovariance function, Iti, therefore, modified with a suitable smoothing routine called a spectral window, so that smoothed values of the true (refined) spectral density may be obtained. The reason for the smoothing operation isto eliminate the cle of noise in the estimate and the finite time length of record. Thus, the smoothing operation in the frequency domain tends to eliminate any side lobes introduced by the raw estimate without altering the energy content of the spectral estimate, ‘The most commonly used spectral windows are Hanning and Hamming. The smoothing is performed on the basis of three consecutive unsmoothed spectral values as follows: Hanning: Se) 0,58(n) + 025[Sin— 1) + St +1)] (425) Hamming: Sn) = 0.54S\n) + 0.46[S(1— 1) +5(n-+ 0)] (426) ‘The general nature of these spectral windows is the same. The windows consist of a ‘main lobe and lobes on either side of the main lobe which are about 1 or 2% of the height ofthe main lobe (Fig. 4.3). However, the highest side lobe for the Hamming spectral window is about 1/3 the height of the highest side lobe for the Hanning window. On the other hand, the heights of the side lobes for the Hanning window {all off more rapidly than do those for the Hamming window. ‘An example of the difference between an unsmoothed and smoothed spectrum can be given with the help of a pure sinusoidal wave of given frequency (Fig. 44). ‘Theoretically, the spectrum should be a straight vertical line atthe frequency of the(Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment oe Fig 43. Hanning and Hamming smoothing routine—iag windows (0) inthe time domain and spectral windows (Q) in the frequency domain [Blackman ani Tockey (9 @ paeet i ‘wave (Fig. 44a). Because the spectrum is based on finite data record the spectrom will have a certain width depending on the length of the record—the longer the record, the narrower the spectrum. However, in the unsmoothed version, the main spectrum appears with side lobes (Fig. 4.4b) which can be smoothed out by the use of a spectral window (Fig. 4c). Either Hanning or Hamming window may be applied for smoothing. While we discussed the difference between these wo kinds of smoothing routines, their choice in examining the smoothed spectral form is not readily distinguishable. ‘The intent of the above discussion is to inform the reader of the possible variability ofthe shape of an energy density spectrum. In examining such spectra the reader should note the input variables used, and pay special attention to them when comparing two different spectra. However, ifone is willing to deal with this subject in greater depth and learn more about the mathematical background on this subject, there are several excellent text books available a few of which are in refs. 1 through $ under the heading “Wave Energy Spectrum”. Much of the foregoing ‘material follows the work of Wilson (1971), and Wilson, et al. (1974), 43. Filtering of Energy Spectra ‘While smoothing routines should always be used, itis sometimes desirable to apply ‘filtering routine to the raw or refined data—either to eliminate some unwanted high or low frequency components appearing as noise in the original data or to isolate the energy at a selected frequency group. There are three basic types of flters—high, low, and band pass. There isalsa filter called band reject whichis the 43. Filtering of Energy Spectra 9 sw ENERGY DENSITY, FREQUENCY, @ Fig. 44. Energy spectral density of a sinusoidal wave combination of high ahd low pass filters. These filters can be specified by the frequencies f, and f, (Fig. 45 plotted as functions of period = lif; shaded areas represent periods or frequencies retained) which defines the limits of the filters. In the case ofthe high pass iters, only high frequency components are retained and only J; need be specified (/ = co); similarly, for the low pass filters, low frequency ‘components are retained and only f, need be specified (/, = 0). The values off, and ‘Jain a particular case depend on the range of frequencies oneis interested in. Even if, only one frequency in the filtered data is desired, the fiter should contain atleast two frequency points on either side of this central frequency (Le fis Sot2* Af where fo is the desired frequency). Note, however, that there is “Teakage” of neighboring frequencies ina filtering process as discussed below. An ‘example ofa low pas filter asa function of period is shown in Fig, 4.5. The shaded area represents [requencies retained, The ideal filter is shown as a dotted line96 ‘Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment = Design response ——— Actual _response RESPONSE FACTOR WAVE PERIOD (seconds) Fig. 4S. Low pass filter response for & 41-point filter (P= 20) (Wilson (1971)] ‘The process of filtering involves the convolution of & bias of weight function W with the wave record, The digital filter is designed by approximating the desired response function, Uf) by a Fourier cosine series UL) = MO)+2 Y Wpeos [a/v At)] 627) where the total bias or weights introduced tothe iter is 2P + 1 and Ps called the number of weights. Thus, in estimating the filtered data from a wave record ‘numerically, an integral representing the convolution ofthe filter function U(f)and the wave record m() is evaluated on the computer. ‘The central weight, WO), is usually termed as the principal weight while the others are called trail weights. An example of the weights is given by Principal weight: W(0)=2.41(f,—f,) (4.28) ‘Trail weight Wp) (sin 2nfyp At—sin 2xf,pAdvap (4.29) ‘The ideal band pass filter has @ response U(f)=1 between any specified 45, Variation in Spectral Representation 7 frequency limits f, and f,; but by the nature of Eq, (427) itis inevitably distorted near the frequency limits. The type of distortion is two-fold. Since the actual response does not have a sharp cut-off point (Fig. 4.5), the cutoff frequency is not clean and a small response outside the cut-off frequency is retained. Moreover, there isan attenuation of amplitudes at frequencies near the cut-off frequency. The degree of distortion is large for small values of P, so that if undesirable side effects of filtering on the wave analysis are to be avoided, P should be chosen as large as possible. Against the increase of P must be measured the fact that, in the filtering process, the evolving record length is shortened at each end by (P A) A judicious ‘balance between the selection of P and record length T, = MN At must, therefore, be maintained. It is recommended that P should not be greater than 10-12% of N not less than 3-5% of N. 44, Limitation of Energy Spectral Approach ‘Now that we know what a wave spectrum means and how it may be obtained, let us talk about some ofits limitations. We have already mentioned that in the numerical evaluation ofthe energy spectrum of a wave record certain parameters have to be selected. The most important ofthese is the number of data points, N, in a section of FFT routine. The choice of N depends on the frequency resolution (Af) required and the confidence desired in the final spectrum. The larger the value of N, the sharper is the form of the spectrum with an increasing number of peaks, whereas for smaller value of N the spectrum is smoother. Tus, the form of the spectrum ofa given wave record is not unique; by merely changing the value of the shape ofthe spectrum, ie. the relative distribution of energy changes, The comparison of two spectral forms can only be made as ong as they have nearly the same length and same parameters. Generally, however, the total content of energy in the different spectral forms remains nearly the sime Likewise, the statistical properties, e., the estimated significant wave height, are found to be about the same from these spectral forms (Fig. 42). ‘Even within a given wave record, the estimates for various sections ofthe record are expected to vary [Wilson, et al. (1974). This is why it is customary to compute average values ofa large number of sections within the record to increase confidence in the estimate. As an example of this variation, examine Fig. 4.6. The record has ‘been divided in three sections as first, middle and las. Different lengths ofthe wave record was considered for each ofthese sections (T,/2, 7,/3,T,/4),and their spectral plots are superimposed. The spectral estimates are found to be different for these sections. 4.5. Variation in Spectral Representation ‘There are several widely used conventions inthe display ofthe energy spectrum. In these representations either the energy content or the energy density is displayed along the ordinate. One of several forms of frequency is used along the abscissa.8 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment lenener oensitY = FT sounneD see #10" Fig. 46, Estimates of energy density of different sections of a measured wave record Plots ofthe same spectrum may be presented in these forms as shown in Fig 4.7. In particular, these representations are as follows: Energy density vs. eylg or circular frequency or period (Fig. 478) Energy vs. cyclic or circular frequency or period (Fig. 4.70) ‘The representation could be n a linear sale, a log-log scale ora semilog scale. the ‘ordinate is energy, then it gives the total energy content in the wave at a particular frequency. The energy density is obtained by dividing the energy ordinate at each point by the frequency increment, Af or Aw depending on the representation of the abscissa (cyelic or circular frequency). Note that the ordinate value of the energy density in the eyclic frequency representation is 2x times that in the circular frequency ptot. su) nS) 430) 45. Variation in Spectral Representation 8 coeay Density (eT¥ see) 0) Wave SPECTRAL ENERGY OERSITY Fig. 47. Sample plots of wave spectral energy and energy density ‘A measured spectrum ofa storm generated sea has a form typically shown in Fig. 48. The spectrum generally rises sharply at the low frequency end to a maximum value and then decreases rather slowly with the increase inthe frequency, f or o. ‘The most popular representation is the energy density along the ordinate and cyclic or circular frequency along the abscissa. As noted before, the advantage of this kind of representation (.., energy density) is thatthe area under the curve gives ‘the total energy ofthe wave system. These ae the only kinds of representation that will be henceforth considered. ‘There are, however, other kinds of commonly used variations that must be known before the application of a wave spectrum model, eg., in the evaluation of the response spectrum (Chapter 9). The difference in these forms of the spectral energy density isin the ordinates of these curves. Note from the mathematical description of Eq. (4.17) thatthe spectrum exists on both sides ofthe frequency axis since the integration in Eq, (4.17) extends from — co to +20 for w. However, from the stationarity (defined in Chapter 5) assumption ofthe random waves, it follows that the spectrum is symmetric about @=0, Thus, the spectrum computed ‘mathematically is a symmetric two-sided spectrum as shown in Fig. 49.100 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment Pisce » | oe @ 3 3” Lis ° 2 fie 7 a f, HZ Fig. 48. Energy spectrum for a North Atlantic storm wave ‘The conventions used in the literature to define energy spectral density are not standardized. Itis customary, however, to represent the spectrum as a one-sided spectrum, S, as opposed toa two-sided spectrum, S™ so that the spectral density ‘exists only on the positive side ofthe frequency, «, The consequence of thisis quite important and clear from Fig. 4.9. In eflect, the spectral density ordinates are 439)106 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment in Eq, (4.$6), we have so exp =1251004) a Sto) ‘Also, the root mean square water surface elevation, 0, is related to the peak frequency as o= JafSgio§ 661) Noting that Hy=de 6a) the peak frequency is related tothe significant wave height , by o}= 01619), 603) ‘An equivalent expression forthe P-M spectrum in terms ofthe eyclc frequency, J (c/2n) may be writen as a 1 f exr[ -125(£) where fo 09/2. Note the factor of 2x between the expressions of SU) in Ea. (4:64) and S(o) in Eq, (4.56). The second moment ofthe energy spectral density, ms, is defined as ma]povna 9 ] ao) ‘Note that this definition for m, differs from the general definition of m, in Eq (4.38) in terms of « by appropriate factors of 2x. Ia characteristic cieular frequency is related to the moments of the spectrum, itis generally understood that Eq. (4.38) has been used in defining m,._However, since the same notation for moment, my is ‘used in literature, its definition in terms of cyclic or circular frequency should be ‘made clear in introducing m,. On carrying out the integration in Eq. (4.65) through similar substitution as before 1 [a _ag? mon Gia Oi ve ‘The zero-crossing frequency, , is defined as 46, Mathematical Spectrum Models 107 ‘Then, the peak frequency is related to a, by = 07100, (468) 465, Bretschnelder Spectrum On the basis of the assumption that the spectrum is narrow-banded and the individual wave height and wave period follow the Rayleigh distribution, Bretschneider (1959, 1969) derived the following form of the spectral model: So) dient (4.69) where «2,=2n/T,, H, significant wave height and T, = significant wave period defined as the average period of the significant waves. From the Bretschneider spectral model it can be shown that q 946 T. (4.70) where Tp = peak period. This relationship makes the Bretschneider and the P-M models equivalent. ‘The preceding models are derived fora fully-developed sea. But they appear 10 bbe reasonably acceptable to partially developed seas as wel. Relationships between ‘wave height, wave period and wind speed have been derived by Bretschneider (1959) ‘empirically. For the fully developed sea oan am a ene ay For the “nearly” developed sea te o2sug0%) and 0226807) 623) Th a4 (48) ‘Thus, knowing the equivalent average wind speed U,, the significant wave height and period can be derived for use in the Bretschneider model. Let us consider the example of a partial and fully developed Bretschneider spectrum for a wind speed of U = $0 knots. Converting the wind speed to the units108, CChepter 4 Design Wave Environment of ft/sec, the significant wave height and the significant wave period for the fully developed sea obtained from Eqs. (4.71) and (4.72) are Similarly, for the partially (90%) developed sea, the values ofthe significant wave ‘height and period are computed from Eqs. (4.73) and (4.74) as H,= S638 1,= 124900 Note that both the peak period and significant height are lower forthe partially developed sea. Thus, the development process transfers more energy at the higher periods of the wave. A sequence of Bretschneider spectrum models ae plotted in Fig. 4.10 showing the growth ofthe spectrum with time. The spectra are computed for a wind speed of Uy =20 knots with the wind durations, of 6, 12, 18, 24, 6.4, {10. Growth of Bretschneider spectrum a a function of wind duration for a ‘spend of U = 20 knots [Walden (1963)) 46. Mathematical Spectrum Models 109 ‘and 204Shrs. For 664 hrs, the correlation coeficient becomes zero, which characterizes the fully developed sea ‘The wind speeds in the expressions of P-M and Bretschneider models are measured at two diferent heights. The distribution of the wind speed may be given, by the relationship for the wind speed U,, = Uso(/10)"” where y is the vertical distancein meters above the average sea level and Uy isthe wind speed ata hight of| 10m, Adjusting the wind speed by this relationship, the two spectrum models may be shown to be equivalent. 466, ISSC Spectrum ‘The International Ship Structures Congress (1964) suggested slight modification in the form of the Bretschneider spectrum, (4278) Bhattacharyya (1978) discussed this form with the definition of d= ,s. The relationship between the peak frequency, «9p and «for ISSC spectrum is = 129605 (4.16) 4621. ITC Spectrum ‘The International Towing Tank Conference (1966, 1969, 1972) proposed a ‘modification of the P-M spectrum in terms ofthe significant wave height and zero, crossing frequency, «,. The average zero crossing frequency is calculated from (ay ay om Me aa inwhich o= ng = Hy/,the standard deviation (cans. value) ofthe water surface110 (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment clevation. If k= 1, His elated to 0, as 8 TH, as Note that for k= 1, Eq. (4.78) reduces tothe one parameter (H,) P-M spectrum, In order to compare the ITTC spectrum to the P-M spectrum, Eq. (4:60), ag? is defined as Ci (422) ‘Then on substitution ofthe value of « and kit can be shown that, 0," 0.7100, 483) ‘This is, however, the same expression that can be obtained for «, from the P-M spectrum, Alternatively, the peak frequency,» from the ITTC spectrum, Eq. (4.78) is obtained as a 16aa? = SHE (4.84) ‘which isthe same form asin the P-M spectrum. Since the two spectral forms, Eqs. (4.60) and (4.78) are the same, the characteristic frequency for the ITTC spectrum is, ‘y (Mathews (1972)] and the ITTC spectrum is the same as the modified P-M ‘spectrum, Other forms of ITC spectrum for different values of k and for diferent characteristic periods have been discussed by Mathews. 468. Unified Form (On examining the forms of the modified P-M, Bretschneider, ISSC and ITTC spectral models, it is found that they can be written as two parameter spectra, the two parameters being a statistical height and a period. A general form of these spectral models may be written, then, as soya ta -4(2)"] ca in terms ofthe significant wave height, H,, and a characteristic wave period, d. The rondimensional coefficient A, isin effect dependent on @ and thus Eq. (4.85) is a two-parameter spectral model. Any statistical period parameter, eg., yd, elt may be substituted for & in Eq. (4.85). Moreover, this form is such that the area under this energy spectral representation corresponds to H2/16 irrespective of the ‘values ofthe parameter A and the type of the characteristic period chosen for 3. 46, Mathematical Spectrum Models mn Bsunpn? Fig. 4.11. General two dimensional spectra in nondimensional form Thus, many spectral models may be described by this formulation. The nondimensional representation of this class of spectriim is Slo) 4 (ojay-* exp [—Ato/a) (436) ‘An equivalent form was presented by Mathews for the ITTC spectrum. Equation (4.86) is presented graphically in Fig. 4.11 for different values of the parameter A, Similar curves can be used to describe any of the spectral models, eg., P-M, Bretschneider, ISSC or ITC. Note, however, that the JONSWAP spectrum model ‘Which is described later and is represented sometimes as a two-parameter spectrum does not fall inthis category. The relationship between the peak frequency and the characteristic frequency chosen to describe the above spectrum is oe o-(3)"o, sn “The mth moment ofthe spectrum may be derived as oe a ar( ata (4.88)iy Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment Equation (4.88) gives Eq. (4.39) for n=0, The relationship between various statistical wave frequencies and @ can be established from this relationship. For example oaMangaa (4.89) en me (nays (4.90) where PQ) = 1.226 Table 4.1 has been prepared for the various two-parameter spectral models, showing the values ofthe parameter 4, the form of Gand the relationship between and other statistical wave frequencies. This table along with Fig. 4.11 should be uscful in generating a spectral mode! given the H, and any of the statistical frequency parameters, oy, «,, or &. Note that forgiven significant height and peak period, the forms of the P-M, Bretschneider, SSC and ITTC spectrum models are identical. This is ilustrated Below. ‘Let us consider an example of a wave spectrum whose significant height ig 1m ‘and which has a mean period of 12 sec. Then the ISSC spectrum is specified. The Irequency parameter of the Bretschneider spectrum assumes a value = 05903 =0471 ‘The modified P-M spectrom characteristic frequency becomes @)=0.716 = 0.408 The plot of thes three spectrum models forthe above two parameters ae shown in Fig. 412. Notethat they al have the same peak pesod andthe energy distribution is also the same as the plots overlay on one another. Thus, for a given significant height and mean period, any one ofthese spectrum modes will give similar results, ‘able 41, Relationship among various two-parameter spectrum models Model 4 Blog oo a0, PM 5H & 10 om 0710 Bretschneider oars o Ler 090 0829 Issc ou 1296 10) osai me sie o 10 om 710 ‘A= nondimensional coefcint Gm characteristic frequency (= peak frequency 46, Mathematical Spectrum Models 13 SW), mPsec. 0, rod /see. Fig.4.12, Modified PM, Bretschneider,and ISSC spectrum models for a given H, (= 15m) and & (= 12sec) sae 469, JONSWAP Spectrum ‘The JONSWAP spectrum was developed by Hasselman, et al. (1973) during a joint North Sea wave project and hence the name. The formula for the JONSWAP. spectrum can be written by modifying the P-M formulation as follows Slo) =29?a"* exp [-125(a)-*y Lat] aon in which y = peakedness parameter, and r = shape parameter (, for © <0 and ty for «> a). Considering a prevailing wind field with a velocity of U, and a fetch of X, the average values of these quantities are given by ya 30 may vary from 1 t0 7 = 007 considered fixed = 0.09 = 0.076(X,)"°2 40,0081 (when X is unknown)na (Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment te Faauener (3. Comparison of the JONSWAP and Pierson-Moskowitz spectra Fig. y= 2n(g/U,)X-)-°** normally related to 7 Xo oX/U3 usually not used ‘The value of a is considered to be the same as in the P-M formula forthe fetch independent case. The P-M and JONSWAP spectra are compared in Fig. 4.13. The 1 value of 3.3 yields a mean spectrum for a specified wind speed, U,, and a given fetch length, X. However, the value of y will vary even for @ constant wind speed ‘depending on the duration ofthe wind and the stage of the growth and the decay of the storm. They values seem to follow a normal probability distribution (Fig. 4.14) (Ochi (1978) presented a family of curves for five different values of in the range of 1.75 and 4.85 along with their weighting factors based on the probability density spectrum (Fig. 4.14). He suggested using the family of JONSWAP wave spectra in the design of an offshore structure in a fetch limited area. Thus, for a given significant height and peak period, the response is computed forall five JONSWAP. spectra forthe five y values in Fig. 4.14. Then, the desired response amplitude is computed by averaging the responses based on these five spectra and their appropriate weighting factors. The method of computing responses through the spectral approach will be discussed in Chapter 9. ‘The JONSWAP spectrum is usually considered asa two-parameter spectrum in terms of y and wo, and a, t,, and r, are taken as constants with values prescribed earlier. However, in a design case, usualy the significant height and average period ofa random wave are specified. Unfortunately, the moments, m, ofthe JONSWAP- spectrum may not be obtained simply in a closed form and the values fy and T, ere caleulated numerically by trial and error from Eq, (4.91) using H, and T,.A detailed !nalysis ofthe relationships among these four parameters showed that H, and T, may be related to Ty and 7 by the following two polynomial equations: H,= (0.11661 +0.01581y ~0,00065)4)73 (492) 46, Mathematical Specrum Modes us Iie 330 o=orsT Goa . 3 zea] Fig.4.14, Histogram and derived probability distribution of values, andy values ifionnensd TONSWAP lamly with coresponding weighting factors (Ocht (97 and Ta = (1.49 —0.102) + 0.0142)? —0.00079)8)T, (493) From the above equations, for Hm 0.31773 (494) Which has an error of less than 1% for P-M spectrum (Eq. 4.63) and To= 140147, 695) with an error of about 0.1% (Ea, 4.68), Goda (1979) derived an approximate expression forthe JONSWAP spectrum in terms of H, and og as follows: Slo) sareacety (496) 2H; exp -125(0/09)-*}"16 Chapter 4 Design Wave Environment where a 0.0624 9330 + 0.0336, — 0.18509 Fy) on Note that for 7=1, «* ‘312 which reduces to the P-M spectrum (Eq. 4.60). 46.10. Scott Spectrum ‘The Scott (1965) spectral formula is independent of the wind speed, fetch or uration, and, as such, should represent afullydeveloped sea spectrum. The Scott spectrum is a two-parameter model given as Pep) --——@=e0* oases rps ae-075) Slo)= for ~0.26 < (w~09) < 1.65 498) 0 elsewhere ‘Note that this form does not directly fallin the general category shown in Eq, (4.37), There is no energy inthe wave by this formulation for frequencies less than (9~0.26) and greater than (+ 1.65) where oy is defined as the frequency of ‘maximum wave energy. The coefficients ofthis spectral form are not dimensionless ‘An example of the Scott spectral model in normalized form is shown in Fig. 4.15. ‘The spectrum is correlated with field data from the North Atlantic. 46.1. Lin Spectrum ‘The Liu (1971) spectrum model is derived from the Lake Michigan wave data. It is similarin form to the P-M spectra, buts modified to include fetch-dependence, The fetch limited spectral form is Slo) = ag?(Xo)" 0" Fexp [~ BlOU,fo)*X5 4") (49) Here, «= 04, B =5.5 x 10°, X= gX/U3, and U,=U,/(U2/oX)!”. It hes found limited practical application, and is inclided heré to show the dependence of the spectrum on the fetch parameter. ‘The form of Eq, (499) is similar to the form of P-M spectrum. However, as Xp does not approach a constant value at any stage ofthe growth, Eq, (4.99) does not asymptotically approach the P-M spectrum. For a given wind speed, the growth of the spectrum with etch i illustrated in Fig. 4.16. The wind speed for this example is chosen as 30-m/see 46. Mathematical Spectrom Models uw Steiag « seconos Fig. 415. Average normalized spectral values from North Atlantic data (March 19, 1968) vs. normalized Scott spectrum 46.12, Mitsuyasu Spectrum Mitsuyasu (1972) proposed fetch limited wave spectral forms using the similarity theory of Kitaigorodski The empirical forms were derived based on data on wind generated waves in a laboratory and in a bay, The range of dimensionless fetch Xp covered by these two sts of datas from 10 to 10*. An earlier fetchlimited form of the wave spectrum was derived as ol, (a) = ag?" 8X59"? exp| ~ exe! (SEs 4.100) Sto) =a | p &) | (4.100) where a= 5204, B= 125, and U,=frition wind speed (Us9/2.5). This form approaches the P-M model at X= 10”. It gives consistent results in relation to the ‘measured data except at low frequencies including the peak frequency. Mitsuyasw, therefore, proposed a revised mode! ofthe fetch limited spectrum consisting of two parts: one for the low frequency and the other for the high frequency end. oU. Sw)mag'antere[px3(Se2)“] 03ey 1000) were used, This random wave profile has several applications. It is used in duplicating a siven wave energy density spectrum in a model test in a wave tank, It can also be conveniently used in a numerical computation of responses due to @ random sea. ‘The wave particle kinematics at any location (x, ) in given water depth may be ‘computed for the given wave height-period pair and the random phase angle. Uses, ‘made of the formulas from the linear wave theory outlined in Chapter 3 A disadvantage of this method is that it requires a large number of harmonic components and considerable computer time. More advanced methods of simulating random waves from a given wave spectrum are available as discussed by Spanos (1983). Other methods of simulating random waves, e., nonlinear waves and short crested sea, have been discussed by Hudspeth and Chen (1979) and Shinozuka and Wai (1979) 48, References ns 48. References ‘ave Energy Spetram 1. Bath, M., Spectral Analysis in Geophysics, Elsevier Scene Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 974 2, Bendat, 1. S. and Pietsol, A. G., Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures, Wiley-tercienee, 1971. 3, Blackman, RB. and Tukey, W., The Measurement of Power Spectra from the Poin of View of Communications Engineering, Dover Publications, In New York, 1959, 4, Kinsman, B, Wind Wares" Their Generation and Propagation on the Ocean Surface, Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Ciifs, NJ., 1975, Chapters 4 and 7. ‘.Wilson, B. W., Tsonam’ characteristics at representative tide stations along the Pacific ‘seaboard, Technical Report, Coastal Engineering Research Centr, US. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., May 1971. 6, Wilson, B. W., Chakrabarti, 8. K., and Snider, . H., Spectrum analysis of ocean wave econds, International Symposia on Ocean Wave Measurement and Analysis, Wives "4, ASCE, New Orleans, LA, September 1974. Philips 1. Philips, 0. M, The equilibrium range in the spectrum of wind-geneated waves, Journal of Fluld Mechanics 1988, 4, 426-434 Newnann 1. Hoffman, D., and Walden, D. A., Eovironmental wave data for determining bull structural loadings, SSC-268, Final Technical Report, Ship Structures Commits, US. Coast Guard, Washington, B.C. 1977 2, Neumann, G., On ocean wave spectra and a new method of forecasting wind generated sea, Beach Erosion Board, US. Atty Corps of Engineers, Technical Memo No. 32, 1933 POM Spectrum 1, Pierson, W.,and Moskowitz, L.A propoted spectral form for fully developed wind seas ‘based on the similarity theory of. A. Kitaigorodskii, Journal of Geophysical Research, December 1964, 69 (2, 5181-5203, Bretschnelder Spectrum 1. Bretchneider, C. L, Wave variability and wave spectra for wind-generated gravity ‘waves, Technical Memorandum No. 118, Beach Erosion Board, US. Army Corps of Engincers, Washington, D.C, 1959, 2. Bretschelder,C.L., Wave forecasting, Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Englneering, ‘Myers J.J. tal Editors), MeGrawHill Book Co., New York, 1969, Chapter 11 4, Walden, ft. Comparton of one-dimensional wave spectra recorded i the German Bight with vious “theoretical” spectra, Ocean Mave Specira, National Academy of Sciences, Prentice-Hall, New Jerey, 1963, pp. 67-94, 1SSC Specirum 1. Bhattacharyya, R., Dynamics of Marine Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons, Chapter 5, New York, 1978 2. Proceedings of the Second International Ship Structures Congress, Delf, Netherlands, 1964 :2s Chapter 4 Design Weve Environment ITTC Spectrum L.ITTC, Recommendations of the lth Intemational Towing Tank Conference, Proceedings 11th ITC, Tokyo, 1966 2, ITTC, Technical Decisions and Recommendations of the Seakesping Committe, Proceedings 12h and 13th ITTC, Rome, 1969, Berlin, 1972. 3. Mathews, ST. A erica review ofthe i2th ITTC Wave Spectrum Recommendations, Report of Seakeeping Committe, Appendix 9, Proceedings of Lith TTC, Berlin, 1972, p.973-986, JONSWAP Spectrum 1. Chakrabarti, S, K.,and Snider, R.H,, Moding of wind-waves with JONSWAP specs, ‘Spmposum on Modeling Tecligues for Noverways, Harbors, and Coastal Engineering, San Francisco, Califia, September 1975. 2, Chakrabarti, §. K., and Cooley, R. P., The stability of some currently used wave parameters—a discussion, Coasal Engineering 1977, 1, 359-365 3, Chakrabarty. Ky Technical note:on the formulation of JONSWAP spectrum, Applied ‘Ocean Research 1984, 6 (3), 175-116. 4, Goda, YA review on statistical interpretation of wave data, Report of the Port and Harbour Research Instinte, March 1979, 18 (1), 5-32 ', Hastlman, Kya, Measurement of wind-wave growih and swelldecay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (]ONSWAP), Deutscher Hydrographschen Zeitschrift, Brganzunschft 1973, 13, No. A. 6, Hasseiman, Ket al, A parametric wave prediction model, Jounal of Physical Oceanography 1976, 6, 200-228 7, Lee, WT and Bales, S.L."A modified JONSWAP spectrum dependent only on wave height and period, David Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center, Report No, DTNSRDCSPD-0018.01, May, 1980. 8. Ochi, M.K., Wave statistic forthe design of ships and ocean structures, Transactions of the Society af Naval Architects and Marine Engincers 1978, 86, 47-16. Scott Spectrum 1. Chakrabarti S.K., and Cooley, R. P, Further corelaton of Seott spectra with osean wave spetra, Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Divison, ASCE, November 1978, 104 2, Soothd R.A sa spectrum for model tests and long-term ship prediction, Jounal ofShip ‘esearch, December 1965, 9, 145-152. Liu Spectrum 1. Liu, P.C., Normalized and equilibrium spectra of wind-wave in Lake Michigan, Journal of Physical Oceanography 1971, 1 (8), 289-257 Musuyasu Spectrum |. Mitsuyasu, H., The one-dimensional wave spectra at limited fetch, Proceedings of the ‘Thirteenh Coastal Engineering Conference, ancomver, B.C. ASCE, July 1972, 1, 289 306, Ochi-Hubble Spectrum 1. Ochi,M, Kyand Hubble, EN. Six parameter wave spectra, Proceedings ofthe Fjenth Coastal Engineering Conference, Honolulu, Howail, ASCE, 1976, pp. 301-328 Rardom Wave Simlation 1, Borgmsn,L. E. Ocean wave simulation for enginering design, Journal of Waterways and Harbors Dission, ASCE, November 1969, 551-583 48, References mr 2. Blane, 8. Guza, R. T, and Seymour, R. J, Wave group statistics from numerical Simulations of random Se, Applied Gceon Research 1988, 7 (2), 98-96 3, Hudspeth RT and Che, MC. Digital simalationofaoninear random ways, una Of the Witeray, Por, Coastal dnd Ocean Division, ASCE 1999, 105 (WW1), 67-85 4, Shinozka, Mand Wai, P, Digital mulation of shorterestd soa Suriace‘elvation, Journal of Ship Research 199,28, 13-18, ‘5. Sorensen, A Atif ireguar waves inthe Norwegian Hydrodynamic Laboratory, Report NiiL, VHL Divison, Tondbein, Norway, Apel 19. 6, Spine, P-D ARMA algorithms for oan wave middeing, Journal of Energy Resources ‘Tecmoigy, Transaction of the ASME, September 1983, 108, 300-303 1. Tucker, MI, Challeror, P. J, and Carter DJ. T, Numeral simlation of random sea: acomn err and it ate upon wave group satis, Applied Ocean Research, 1984, 6 (2), 118-12.Chapter 5 Wave Statistics “However big floods get, here wil always be 1 bigger one coming: 30 says ome theory of extremes, land experience suggest 1 tre.” Presidents Water Resourees Policy Commission, 1950 ‘The wave theories that are generally used to determine the response ofan offshore structure have been described in Chapter 3. These theories are based on the fssumption that the waves are regular in that they remain invariant in their properties from one cycle to the next. However, ocean waves are random in nature And, therefore, should be described by their statistical properties. In arriving at those properties, an ocean wave is recorded for a finite amount of time, typically about 20 minutes, The wave record is considered stationary and its properties are considered to be invariant over a few hour period. This wave record is assumed (0 follow the short-term statistics. 5.1. Short-Term Statistics Short-term ooean waves are treated as random processes which are functions ofthe time variable governed by a probability law. The two assumptions often made in describing the short-term statistics of ocean waves are the stationarity and ergodicity. The statistics of stationary processes are time invariant, A random signal, x(),a8a function of time is considered stationary ifthe statistical properties of the variable x are independent of the origin of time measurement. Consider an ‘ensemble of records given by the process x(:) The mean of the process is given as the expected value of x() defined as be ELC] (sa) where E denotes expected value of x(t). The standard deviation or the root-mean- square value of the process is defined as «= JV) (62) where V represents the variance of x(t). The auto-correlation function is obtained as, Retysta)= Ela )a(¢)) 63) ‘The process x() is stationary if, and ¢, are constant forall values of ,and Ris @ function only of t= #2— ty Si, Short Term Statistics ns If, in addition, the properties of x(t) measured at diferent locations are invariant, itis also called homogeneous. In practice, the variable x(t) may be stationary and homogeneous over a limited time and area. Thus, ovean waves are stationary for only a few hours, beyond which their properties are expected t0 ‘change. The variable x() is considered ergodic ifthe measured realization of x(t), say %;(0), is typical ofall other possible realizations. Thus, a stationary process is ergodic ia time average ofa single record in an ensemble is the same as the average across the ensemble, For an ergodic process, the sample mean from the ensemble approaches the mean, j,, and the sample variance approaches the variance, ¢7 of the process. These concepts of stationary, ergodic process are important in developing and applying short-term statistics of the ocean waves, even though such a hypothesis may not exist in reality. Let us start with the definition of the wave parameters used to describe ocean ‘waves. Common methods of computing some of the statistical parameters of the ‘ocean waves will be discussed and the appropriate formulas will be given. A definition sketch ofthe wave is shown in Fig 5.1. The length of the record is given as 1, The maximum height in the record is given by Hx aS the maximum trough-to- test height. The crest period is defined as T; while the zero upcrossing period is writen as 7, ‘There are many short-term parameters that are used to describe the statistics of| ‘ocean waves, Two ofthe most important parameters that quantify the state of the sea are a characteristic height and 2 characteristic period. Different quantities are used to describe the height ofthe sea, e.., the mean height, the root-mean-square ‘height, the mean height of the highest one-third ofall waves (significant height) and finally the most probable largest height. Of these, the most commonly used is the significant height. The significant height is written as H, (or Hs) and is defined as, the average of the highest one-third waves in the given wave record. The ‘characteristic period could be the mean period, average zero-crossing period, peak ve PY sre, se Fig. $1. Definition of wave parameters in an ocean wave130 (Chapter $_ Wave Statistics period, etc. The definition of these quantities and the method of evaluating these parameters will be discussed shorty. ‘The statistical parameters may be obtained from the wave record directly in the time domain or from its frequency domain representation, For the later case the ‘energy density spectral representation, S(f) or S(a), must be known, Also, a ‘quantity called the moment of the energy density spectrum is often needed for the calculation ofthese parameters. A general definition ofthe nth order moment of an energy density spectrum is given as m= FSF (54) ‘Note that the definition is written in terms of S() where isthe cyclic frequency. ‘An equivalent expression can be written in terms ofthe circular frequency, «, S(e), as was shown in Eq. (4.38). However, cate should be taken in using and interpreting the results because ofthe factor (2x) involved in determining m, due to the later definition. The zeroth moment, mg, then, represents the area under the energy density spectrum curve, mom | SiNaf =F Sto)do 65) From the above equality, the relationship between S(f) and S(a) is obtained sin aS(0) 66) 5.14. Significant Wave Heights ‘The concept of significant wave height was first introduced by Sverdrup and Munk (1947) asthe average height ofthe highest one-third of all waves in a parcula sea state. Itis denoted by ,,, oH, both of which have been used here. has also been found tobe close to the height reported by sea captains through visual observation. Hoffman and Walden (1977) showed thatthe relationship between the signilicant weave height and the wave height observed by trained observers on ocean \weatherships at weather stations “India” and “Papa” in the North Atlantic Ocean isthe following equation of straight line. H,=0.75H, +70 “6 ‘This relationship is valid for significant wave heights up to about 40 t, There are ‘other relationships of other observed data of this type. Since there isa large amount ‘of observed data available [eg., Hogben and Lumb (1967)], this kind of relationship is quite valuable to help derive the significant wave height. The significant wave heights may be determined from a wave record in three diferent ways. Following the definition ofthe significant wave height, the number of 5: Shon Term Statics wt 2? 8 ay ac] 120 240 360 TIME, Sec Fig. 52. Wave profile recorded by OWS Weather Reporter at station J on February 18, 1974 at time 00 hours (crest-to-trough) waves are counted from the record and the highest one-third waves are selected. The average of these wave heights gives the significant wave height. Thus nook Sn “s ‘where Nis the number of individual wave heights, 1, in a record ranked highest lowest ‘An example of a portion of wave elevations recorded by a shipbome wave sta ‘on OWS Weather Reporter at station “Jlliet” on February 18, 1974 is shown in Fig. 52. The significant wave height computed in the time domain by averaging the highest one-third waves in the record is shown in Table §.1 to be 19.21 (5.84). ‘This method of computation is time consuming and a simpler approximate ‘method is provided by Tucker (1963). An estimate of the significant wave height can, bbe made directly from the wave record if one knows the height of the highest crest, 4, the depth ofthe lowest trough, q,,and the total number of zr0 uperossing cycles, N,. Then H,= JIC\(a,+0) 69) where the funetion Cis defined as C, = (in N,)-*7L1 40.2890 N,)-* —0.2470n N,)-2]-* (5.10) Forth examplein Fig. 52, the significant wave height by the Tucker method can be shown to be 21.21 (646) Tn the spectral analysis, the significant wave height is related tothe total energy content ofthe wave spectrum. I'm isthe total area under the wave energy density spectrum, then ime (ay ‘The energy density spectrum is one sided inthis case. The significant wave height by x,m2 Chapter §- Wave Statistics ‘Table $1. Random wave statistical analysis (OW' Weather Reporter, voyage 121 sation J, February 10, 1974, time 00 hours) Time Domain Analysis Signfcant wave height w2n Sigifeant wave height by Tucker method 228 Rootsmean-aquare wave height from record 98 Standard deviation of surface elevation 538 Standard deviation of surface elevation (Tucker) 3am Average period at zero drowncrosing 10928 ‘Mean eres period 84sec Spectral width parameter 060 Frequency Domain Analysis ‘Slenfcant wave height 16st Root-mean-quare wave height 1178 Zeroth moment spectral density function Wane First moment specral density function 1673 Second moment spectral density funtion O19 Fourth moment spectral density funetion 0.0043 sect Peak period 1200s ‘Average period based om mal 1024506 “Average period based on «/mig/m, 9290 Spectral width parameter 070 Degree of freedom 669 Notes: A= 04000 se; LAGS = 240; 7, 753 min the frequency domain analysis for the wave in Fig. $.2 gives 16.5 (5.03 m). This estimate of the significant height is unusually lower than the other two in this example $12, Root-Mean-Square Wave Heights ‘The root-mean-square (rms) wave height is calculated from the wave record by the formula sof ey” 9 ‘The H my computed from Eq. (5.12) for the wave profile in Fig, 5.2is 12.9ft (3.92 m), In the frequency domain, Hm is given by 6 6.13) Hae ‘The root-mean-square wave height by the frequency domain analysis obtained as 11.7ft (3.57m), The rms value of the wave elevation is o=ng (5.14) 5. Short Term Statistics Bs Note that the wave elevation is obtained from the wave record at every time increment, At, a8 opposed to the wave amplitudes which are the maxima or minima in the record. Thus, « is also equivalent to [geo]” en hich, fr the example wave profil, was found tobe 5.3 (162m). Tucker showed an equivalent forma based on the mean rectified wave elevation jn(| as .253}n10)] (5.16) ‘which gives a value extremely close to the value from Eq. (5.15), For the example cited above, the standard deviation of surface elevation Was 5.4 ft (1.64). 51.3. Maximum Wave Heights ‘The maximum wave height ina record is obtained from the largest of all erests-to- preceding-trough valuesin the record. This is referred to as the measured maximum ‘wave height, ‘The most probable maximum wave height in a record can beestimated from the ‘ms wave height (or, equivalently, the significant wave height) in the record, Assuming a narrow band for the spectrum of the record, Longuet-Higgins (1952) derived a relationship between the most probable maximum and the rms wave hight for a given number of waves ina record. The relationship between Hyu. and “Hg is given by tar [ va 28a, em Vin. ‘This relationship is discussed in further detail in Section 5.1.62. The maximum value ofthe wave height can also be projected toa longer period oftime by adjusting the value of N based on the mean period 7, in the record defined below. Thus, the ‘most probable maximum wave height in a 3-he period is computed from Eq, (5.17) using I = 10,800/, in sec SLA. Average Wave Periods In the time domain analysis, the average wave period may be obtained from the total length of time, T, of a record by two diferent methods. If, isthe number of zero uperossings in’ the record, the mean zero-uperossing period, T., is14 Chapter $ Wave Statistics obtained from (5.18) ‘The mean zero-uperossing period for the wave in Fig. 52is 10.92 sec. On the other hand, ithe total number of crests in the record is N,, then the mean crest period, Tis (519) N. ‘The length 7, is adjusted in Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19) by eliminating fractional cycle defined by zero uperossing (Eq. 5.18) or crest (Eq. 5.19). The mean crest period for the above example is 8.74 sec. Note that by the definition ofthese periods, 7 < T, "The difference in the values of 7; and 7, determines the width ofthe spectrum defined below. If Tis close to 7, most ofthe individual waves inthe record eross the 2270 axis. In this case the wave spectrum is considered a narrow banded spectrum in that the energy is concentrated in a small frequency band. In the frequency domain, a mean period is calculated from the spectral ‘moments, my, defined in Eq (54). The mean period, Tp, is obtained from the ratio, fof mg and m, as Tame 6.20) while the mean period, Te, is defined as me (521) ‘The spectral periods, Te. and To. for the example cited are 10.24 sec and 9.52 sec, respectively. There are to other characteristic periods often used in statistics, One is the peak period, Tp, defined as the period at which the energy density spectrum ‘peaks. The other one is the significant wave period, ,, defined as the average period of the highest one-third waves in the record, SAS. Spectral th Parameters ‘The spectral width parameter, e, is a measure of the rms width of a wave-energy density spectrum. The value of e ranges from 0 to 1. Thus, ifeis small, the spectrum ‘may be said to be narrow banded, whereas for ¢ near 1, itis a broad banded spectrum, In the time domain analysis, an estimate ofthe spectral width parameter, 2, ofa record can be made from the mean creast period and the mean zero-crossing 5.1, Short Ter Statistics ns (5.22) ‘Thus if most of the local peaks in the wave profile follow a corresponding zero crossing, then 7, T, and the spectral width parameter will be near zero. On the ‘other hand, if there ate a large number of local peaks in the profile not going ‘through zero, the spectrum will be broad banded. For the example in Fig. 5.2, the value of gis 0.60. In the energy spectral analysis, the spectral width parameters obtained from the moments of the spectrum. The value of « inthis case may be estimated from moma = mb (523) mothe @ CCare should be taken in computing the higher moments ofthe spectrum. Any noise inthe estimate ofthe energy spectral density atthe high frequency will be amplified in the caloulation ofthe higher moment, eg, mg, because of the fourth power ofthe frequency involved in its estimate. Thus, the computation should be terminated ata reasonable finite frequency. The spectral width parameter, ¢, forthe example wave {s 0.70, The spectrum is considered reasonably narrow banded ifthe spectral width parameter is below 0.60. ‘The spectral width parameter values are sometimes not considered as an indication of how broad the spectra are. The main reason for thisis the possibility of, errors in the estimates of m, and, particularly, mg. Goda (1974) suggested a spectral peakedness parameter defined as ze Opn 5g | INNA (524) ‘which depends only on the first moment ofthe energy density spectrum. While there isno direct relationship between eand Q,, small «implies that Q, is large, and vice During a storm, it may be expected thatthe value of¢ will decrease asthe storm builds up, and will increase as the storm subsides again. The reverse is true for the significant wave heights as well as for Q,, 516, Probability Distribution and Probability Density Under certain simplified assumptions, the parameters of a random wave follow known probability distribution functions. Let us discuss the probability136 Chapter $ Wave Statistics distribution of the following parameters in a wave record: © wave surface, wave height, and ‘© wave period As tated earlier, these distributions are considered the short-term probability of the sea because they are limited to waves found in the sea over a period ofa few hours, and expected to change in the following hours. Let us begin with the definition of the probability distribution (or cumulative probability as itis sometimes called) and probability density, Probability density is Aefined as the fraction (or percentage) of time that a particular event is expected to ‘occur. The probability distribution is the fraction (or percentage) of time this event isnot exceeded. A probability distribution, P(x), ofa random variable, x,isa plot of the proportion of values less than a particular value versus the particular value of the variable x P(e) = prob [x(0) su) 1 PEt) Hare in the highest one-third range. From Ea, (6.68), considering that H,, sis the centroid of the area for H > Hg under the density function, then Hy, is defined by the formula (5:70) in which p(Hf)is given by Eq. (5.66). On carrying out the integration and noting that the numerator gives the error function, we obtain Hyyy = 1416H es (7)ua Chapter $. Wave Statistics (5:72) It can be similasly shown that the average of the highest one-tenth and one- hundredth waves are 091 /me Hyuao= 6612 ‘The most probable maxima, Has, 1000 waves can be obtained by letting P(H) = 1 ~ yu 80 that (5:73) TB of) arom 6% Hag yy 29 {In general the most probable maximum height in N waves is elated to the rms ‘wave height by the relation in Eq. (5.17), which may be obtained by a similar analysis (The reader may want to derive this relationship as an exercise.) The values ‘of the most probable maximum wave height ina wave record with a given number af cycles, Nin the record are given in Table 52. Note thatthe most-used factor of 1.86 corresponds to 1000 wave cycles in the record, ‘The probability density of North Atlantic storm data of September, 1961 is compared with the Rayleigh density in Fig. 56. The histogram is an average of ‘many wave records over a few days of storm conditions computed inthe following way. For each of the records, an rms wave height is computed. Then the wave Table 52. Values of Hou /Hays 5 functions of number of waves, 1, in'a record of a narrow-band spectrum Ny Hau lByis 100 1s 200 sat 500 Lm 1,000, 1866 2000 1986 5,000 2097 30.00 2.150 20,000 228 50,000 2328 100,000 2aol 5.1, Short Term Statitios us onmiizeD mie neo, Mg Fig. 54. Histogram of the normalized wave heights from ocean wave records compared with the Rayleigh probability density function heights for that record are normalized with respect tothe Hy for the record. These normalized values of H/Hay are grouped within every 0.2 increment over a range of 6103 fromall records. The probability density foreach ofthese groupsis obtained by taking the ratio of number of wavesin that group divided bythe total number of ‘waves and by the inrement 02. Thus, te total area under the histogram i 1.0. ‘The probability of exceedence of Rayleigh distribution i plotted in Fig. 5.7 along with simulated random waves recorded in a wave tank. The theoretical probability of exceedence i shown as a straight lin on the Rayleigh probability paper. The correlation of laboratory data shows that it follows the Rayleigh ‘istbution well. Note that the probability of exceedence scale inthe plot is obtained from the relation Co Pls) (5:76) ‘where Q(x) isthe probability of exceedence. 516.3, Wide-Band Extreme Value Prediction ‘The probability distribution for a narrow-band spectrum (¢~0) follows Rayleigh distribution, Ifthe bandwidth is finite then the probability distribution falls between ‘normal and a Rayleigh distribution function