Roman D.

Herrera July 17, 2017

ME-4

Topic 3: Semiconductor PN Junction Diode

Matter is anything that occupy space and has mass. This is the famous line that
encompasses a lot of subjects. Matter is composed of atomsvery small particles.
Materials are composed of matter. Materials have different characteristics that may be
based on different aspects. Some materials have high conductivity and some have low.
Materials may also have impurities. And some materials may be classified as
semiconductors.

Semiconductor materials have two (2) basic typesthe n-type and p-type
semiconductors. N-type semiconductor is a semiconductor with 5 th valence impurities and
conductivity, based on the free electrons mostly. Semiconductor material doped with
donors. The majority carriers in the n-type materials are the electrons and the minority
carriers are the holesthe vacancy of the electron. P-type semiconductor is a
semiconductor with 3rd valence impurities and conductivity, based on the holes mostly.
Semiconductor material doped with acceptors. The majority carriers in the p-type
semiconductor are the holes and the minority carriers are the electrons. However, if we join
(or fuse) these two semiconductor materials together they behave in a very different way
merging together and producing what is generally known as a PN Junction.

A pn junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor

material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side
contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons.
The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of
dopants, or by epitaxygrowing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of
a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant. If two separate pieces of material were
used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would
severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.

The p-n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor

electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they
are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a
common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two pn junctions in
series, in the form npn or pnp.

When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined
together a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The
result is that some of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate
across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing
negative ions.

However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type
silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the
negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in
the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free electrons.

As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with
negatively charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the
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junction becomes positive. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN
junction is known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily
each side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.

This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have
crossed the junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more
charge carriers from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium
(electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a potential barrier zone around the
area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the
electrons.

Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier,
the regions on either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more
free carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the junction.
This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.

The invention of the pn junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell

Ohl of Bell Laboratories. However, Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p-n-junctions in
Cu O and silver sulphide photocells and selenium rectifiers in 1941. A Schottky junction is a
special case of a pn junction, where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor.

On the voltage axis above, Reverse Bias refers to an external voltage potential
which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential
barrier is said to act in the Forward Bias direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible biasing conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are Zero Bias, Reverse Bias and Forward Bias. When a
diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the
PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will

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move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the Forward
Current and is referenced as IF. Likewise, holes generated in the N-type, find this situation
favorable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
Reverse Current and is referenced as IF.

This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known
as diffusion. The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more
majority carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers
(few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the
junction.

Then an Equilibrium or balance will be established when the majority carriers are
equal and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing
in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of Dynamic
Equilibrium.

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the
positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also
attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high
potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a
very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-
amperes, ( A ).

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts
for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome
and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the knee on
the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the
external voltage.

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path
through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden
increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above
as the knee point.

In electronics, diode modelling refers to the mathematical models used to

approximate the actual behavior of real diodes to enable calculations and circuit analysis. A
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diode's I-V curve is nonlinear which is well described by the Shockley diode law. This
nonlinearity complicates calculations in circuits involving diodes so simpler models are
often required.

There are three (3) common Diode Circuit models. These are the Ideal Diode Model,
Practical Diode Model and Complete Diode Model. The Ideal Diode Model is the first and
simplest approximation. This model assumes that the diode is either perfect short circuit or
perfect open circuit. In this model, the diode is designed to allow current to flow in only one
direction. The perfect diode would be a perfect conductor in one direction (forward bias)
and a perfect insulator in the other direction (reverse bias). In many situations, using the
ideal diode approximation is acceptable.

The Practical Diode Model is the second approximation that takes an ideal diode and
a DC source equal to the barrier voltage (Si=0.7V and Ge=0.3V). When the diode is forward
biased, the diode is equal to the barrier voltage. When the diode is reversed biased, it is
equal to an open circuit just like the ideal diode.

The third model is the Complete Diode Model. It consists of the barrier potential, the
small forward dynamic resistance (rd) and the large internal reverse resistance (rR). When
diode is a forward biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the barrier potential
voltage and the small dynamic resistance (rd). When the diode is reversed-biased, it acts as
an open switch in parallel with the large internal reverse resistance (r R). The barrier
potential does not affect reverse bias.

LED is an acronym which stands for light emitting diode. LEDs are found
everywhere. They can be seen in our phones, laptops, tablets, cars and etc. Each time that a
device lights up, LED may be behind it. LEDs come from different sizes, shapes and colors.

It is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn junction diode that emits light

when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are
typically small (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used to shape
the radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted

low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements
in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer
electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red.
Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments have
produced LEDs suitable for environmental and task lighting. LEDs have led to new displays
and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications
technology.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,
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automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, and
lighted wallpaper. As of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap as or cheaper
than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also significantly
more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their
disposal.

Unlike a laser, the color of light emitted from an LED is neither coherent nor
monochromatic, but the spectrum is narrow with respect to human vision, and for most
purposes the light from a simple diode element can be regarded as functionally
monochromatic.

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_modelling

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html

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