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    The Easy Way PDF

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    ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS "THE EASY WAY" By: J. R. Seiver Da Senckw ane ce ZOIDS ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS “THE EASY WAY" A PRACTICAL "HOW TO DO IT" BOOK FOR EVERY DAY ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS First Edition 1993 ¢ a. Page 2 copyte 1869 Se & Amel TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE 1. .eseeeeseeeeeeeree INTRODUCTION ‘ANEW CALCULATION TECHNIQUE BACKGROUND INFORMATION ...... INCLUDING X/R IN THE CALCULATION EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE EQUATION ...... DELTA - WYE CONVERSIONS ... COMBINING KVAS ... 0.2.0.0. ese eens A SIMPLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM . CIRCUIT REDUCTION (kVA Method) ‘THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES ... . . Fundamentals of Short Circuit Calculations. . Source (Utility) Fault Capacity Generator Fault Capacity . Motor Impedance ........-..s0s005 Motor Fault Capacity (Short Circuit) ......- Transformer Impedance ...... 66-2565 Transformer Fault Capacity . Transformers With Taps . . Three Winding Transformers... +6... +e eeee ee Reactor Fault Capacity . Cable Fault Capacity ........ : EQUIVALENT kVA SUMMARY - SHORT CIRCUIT .........+ UNBALANCED SYSTEM SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES. “The Eesy Way” - HOW TO DO IT! (Short Circuit). MOTOR STARTING STUDIES . . Motor Starting Calculations - The Problem EQUIVALENT kVA SUMMARY - MOTOR STARTING ........ SOURCE CAPACITY DISTRIBUTION - LOAD FLOW . LOAD DISTRIBUTION - LOAD FLOW .. . "The Easy Way” - HOW TO DO IT! (Motor Starting) . . . Page 3 conyratt 1909 ste Ameren "at igen Reserved REFERENCES .. APPENDIX . . EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ....... EXAMPLE 1: No Upstream Motor Contribution EXAMPLE 2: Keeping Track of X/R . : EXAMPLE 3: Transformers With Taps - 1.0 PUTap . EXAMPLE 4: Transformers With Taps - 0.975 PU Tap EXAMPLE 5: Phase to Ground Fault EXAMPLE 6: Improving Power Factor ........ EXAMPLE 7: Reducing Starting Voltage Drop With Shunt Capacitor . . EXAMPLE 8: Three Winding Transformer ...... +. ++. EXAMPLE 9: What kVA Should You Use? ind Feeder Length for Fifteen Percent Drop . EXAMPLE 11: Using the “Regular Equation" - Starting : EXAMPLE 12: Using the "Regular Equation” - Running ...........+.. 62 EXAMPLE 13: The "Real World” Maximum Feeder Length - Case 1... . . 63 EXAMPLE 14: The "Real World” Maximum Foeder Length - Case 2 ..... 64 EXAMPLE 15: The “Real World" Maximum Feeder Length - Case 3 ..... 65 EXAMPLE 16: Double Ended Bus - Tie Breaker Open... EXAMPLE 17: Double Ended Bus - Tie Breaker Closed (Bus Fault) ...... 67 EXAMPLE 18: Double Ended Bus - Tie Breaker Closed ( Cable Fault) ..... 68 EXAMPLE 19: How to Iterate the Solution 69 EXAMPLE 20: Special Case Requiring Iteration for Solution 70 COMPARISON RESULTS - "The Easy Way" vs. ETAP ...........24.56.+71 Page 4 copra 1863 sve oct Ie ‘tage Renewed EFACE ‘With the advent of the personal computer (PC), manual electrical calculations are essentially becoming a thing of the past. The formal classical manual electrical calculations usually used are abstract, difficult, time consuming and do not lend themselves to “what if" scenarios. Modern computer programs used to make electrical calculations are abstract as wall, but very fast and relatively simple 1nd without some idea of the to use. Computer system modeling errors are not uncommon, however, “right answer", computer results may be in error by orders of magnitude without realizing it. This book presents a new MANUAL technique for electrical system analysis which is simple, easy to use, considers the whole system, and is accurate enough to check computer results. The method can also be used to design and develop electrical systems, much more quickly than with other manual methods, when it is desired not to use a computer, when no computer is a There is no complex number algebra or ble, or for those many occasions when a fast but accurate check is neet ‘trigonometry involved: rather, only a few commonly used simple equations are required. A hand held calculator is all that is needed to make the simple calculations. The method is based upon the premise that electrical systems are KVA systems, and manipulates kVAs in a unique way to affect a total system solution. The method can be used to make short circuit calculations, load flow/voltage drop calculations, motor starting calculations, and many other day to day calculations made by the electrical engineer. A single simple calculation provides a solution for ‘every bus in the system; separate calculations for each bus are not required. A step by step procedure is presented allowing the user to get "up and running" very quickly, Tables of typical cable characteristics, and typical motor data used in most calculations are provided as well. Many "real world” example problems are included to show the broad use of the technique, along with @ comparison of results between “The Easy Way" and the Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP)®. It is hoped that this book will become a handy reference manual to which the electrical engineer will refer often as he or she goes about the every day activit analysis of electrical systems. involved with the design, development, and J. R. Seiver Page § ‘copra 1069 ater & Anos I "al mona nerve INTRODUCTION Most of the electrical calculations made in the design and development of electrical systems are: 1.) Short Circuit Calculations (three phase, phase to ground, phase to phase, and phase to phase to ground); 2.) Voltage Drop Calculations; 3.) Transient Motor Starting Calculations ‘The manual calculation method most often used for short circuit calculations is called the "per unit” ‘method. The “per unit” method is abstract involving many difficult to remember formulas required to convert all system elements to a common base. Once all system circuit elements are converted to a ‘common base, the system is reduced to a single equivalent impedance at the point of the fault in order ‘to determine the fault current. When faults at all the buses of a system are to be calculated, a parate calculation is necessary to solve for a fault at each bus, which for large systems is a very time consuming effort. Results obtained by this method, however, are as accurate as the data (and the assumptions) used, and are conservative. Calculations to verify that feeder steady state voltage drops meet design requirements are performed ‘on a routine basis. In many cases, because of the installation conditions, conductor derating is required, and after feeder conductors are sized to satisty the derating requirements, voltage drap is no longer a problem. Most manual voltage drop calculation methods are straight forward and involve well known simple equations, probably the most popular of which, in the simplified form, is the following ‘equation: Veur = 1# (R Cos + X Sind) Where: ‘Vesa = Phase to neutral voltage drop 1 = Line current © = Phase angle of the load R = Feeder cable resistance X = Feeder cable reactance Using this equation forces the engineer to assume that the current which will flow is the load current, since it is the only current that is known. In the case of a running motor, which is a constant kVA device, load current varies inversely with voltage; and in the case of a starting motor, or other static loads, which are constant impedance devices, the load current varies directly with voltage, so that ‘except for just the right length of feeder cable, the calculation will be in error. Page 6 ‘Manual calculations which assume that constant current is flowing, and consider only load power factor, do not take into account the real situation. Of course the error is not significant, and the calculation provides a "good answer” for the drop in the cable. The system source capacity and other loads on the bus have an impact on the calculation, and to subtract the cable drop just calculated from the nominal bus voltage to arrive at the motor terminal voltage, not only assumes that there are no finite (constant voltage bus). other loads, but that the source capacity is System source capacity, at the point where the calculation is made, is often overlooked (or assumed to be infinite) in many electrical calculation procedures. Fortunately, most systems are "stiff" enough that the errors are generally not significant; but for those “soft” systems that are sometimes encountered, significant error can result if the "total system” is not considered, USUALLY, THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ERRORS IN CALCULATIONS IS NOT NEARLY AS IMPORTANT AS. ‘THE FACT THAT MANY ENGINEERS DO NOT CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF THE ASSUMPTIONS IMPOSED BY THE EQUATIONS, THE LIMITATIONS OF THE CALCULATING METHODS, NOR WHAT ‘THE CALCULATION IS TO BE USED FOR. SO THAT WHEN SYSTEM CONDITIONS ARE IMPORTANT, ERRORS CAN BE SIGNIFICANT, AND THE ENGINEER IS UNAWARE OF THE IMPACT OF THE RESULTS. ‘Most manual methods used for motor starting calculations, in general, consider that only a single motor is to be started on a single isolated bus in the system and then calculates the voltage drop at the motor terminals. Once again, the system capacity at the bus in question is assumed to be the fault capacity at that bus, and such calculations totally ignore the “real problem” of motor starting, which involves answers to the following questions: > What happens to the voltage at the bus to which the motor being started is connected? > What happens to the voltage at the bus to which the motor being started is connected, if there are running loads on that bus? » What happens to the voltage on adjacent upstream and downstream buses which have running loads on those buses? Calculations to find answers to these questions involve the total system, including the “system ‘capacity” at the bus to which the starting motor is connected. A load flow calculation is required to ‘make such a calculation which, to do manually, has been very difficult and time consuming - until now! Page 7 Copy 1009 ave Aeon e Computer programs now available for these calculations have greatly simpli the system in the computer, however, is also very time consuming, and computer mode errors are not uncommon. in fact many times there are subtie computer modeling error that are extremely difficult to detect. Without some idea of what the results should be, computer solutions with erroneous answers may be accepted unawares because, “computer answers are bound to be right”. A simple, easy to use, manual calculation method is needed to allow the engineer to have some idea of what the “right” answer is for the many day to day calculations made. Page 8 ‘conyren 1009 saver teste ‘Anes Booed ANEW CALCULATION TECHNIQUE Electrical Caloulations “The Easy Way", is a simple, accurate, easy to use, manual electrical calculation technique based upon load flow, which can be used to solve for three phase short circuit, currents at ALL system buses with a single calculation. In addition to three phase fault currents, line ‘to ground fault currents, phase to phase fault currents, and phase to phase to ground fault currents can be calculated as well. “The Easy Way" technique is just as simple and accurate for solving for voltages at ALL points in the system with a single calculation, including ALL bus voltages and ALL feeder voltage drops. “The Easy Way" technique is just as simple and accurate for making motor starting calculations for ALL cases with a single calculation, including starting a single motor on a bus, or starting multiple motors, with running loads on all buses. The foremost feature of this calculation technique, is that it allows the engineer to consider the entire system during the calculation instead of just a small segment; and consequently, the engineer can better relate to the electrical system, and “get a feel” for what is happening during normal operation and for upset conditions. ‘The following are some of the capabilities and advantages of using "The Easy Way" method to make manual electrical system calculations: > There are no complicated formulas to remember - only a few simple ones. > Asingle short circuit calcul provides fault currents at all system buses. » Assingle motor start calculation provides voltages at all system buses, and the motor terminals. > Multiple motors may be started simultaneously on any number of buses, and a single motor start calculation provides voltages at all system buses, as well as at the terminals of every motor. questions while developing the electrical system, » Manual system remodeling to answer "what can be accomplished very easily. » Reverse calculations can be performed to determine system requirements to meet design criterion. > Many other day to day electrical system calculations, such as cable sizing for voltage drop, capacitor power factor correction, and others can be made very simply. Most manual calculation methods have some limitations and shortcomings. The simplified voltage drop. equation mentioned earlier assumes constant current, and considers only the phase angle of the load, not the feeder cable, The "per unit” impedance reduction method commonly used for manual short circuit calculations, in order to simplity the complex algebra involved for a solution, allows separate resistance (R) and reactance (X) networks to be resolved to keep track of X/R, results. These limitations seldom effect the accuracy of the results from a practical stand point, ving only approximate however, but it is nice to know what they are if the results are critical or may affect equipment selection. Page 9 “cop 1003 Save & Asem I ‘Al os Rove Likewise, lculations "The Way" is not without limitations and shortcomings, and the user needs to be aware of them. Even though kVAs are vector quantities, "The Easy Way" treats them as though they were scalars, which is NOT “mathematically correct”. The results obtained by using “The Easy Way" when compared to computer program results, are surprisingly accurate in spite of this. violation of "mathematically correct” procedures. When resolving two parallel impedances into a single impedance using the kVA method as compared to using classical methods, the result will be in error ‘gn the low side. When resolving two series impedances into a single impedance using the KVA method as compared to classical methods, the result will be in error on the high side. Depending upon the relative number of series and parallel circuit elements that are involved in any given system configuration, the errors compared to rigorous calculation methods have been found to "average out” to some extent. In addition, "The Easy Way" calculation method, treats all loads as though they were ‘constant impedance loads. So that for constant kVA loads, such as running motors, if "very accurate” results are desired, iterative procedures must be resorted to, which is no different from other calculation methods when handling constant kVA loads. BACKGROUND INFORMA’ The common denominator of electrical systems is kilovolt amperes (kVA). Even though we pay primarily for electrical eneray, kilowatts (kW); make “energy balance” calculations; correct for "power factor” (PF distribute and safely control kilovolt amperes (kVA). Feeder cable must handle the total current, not ; and try to use “energy efficient” equipment, the electrical power system must be able to just the "in-phase" component of current. The system generators, switchgear, and other equipment must be capable of supplying, controlling and interrupting "reactive" (quadrature) as well as “real” (in- phase) current. The fact is: AN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM IS A kVA SYSTEM, Since the electrical system is a kVA system, a technique to make system studies and design calculations of the system, based upon manipulating kVAs, would be desirable. Such a technique has been developed in Electrical Calculations "The Easy Way", which allows the electrical engineer to perform routine electrical system studies and design calculations by manipulating kVA. The value of kVA alone includes all of the necessary system parameters (such as power factor and consequently kVAR/KW) to arrive at the magnitude of the solution with a great deal of accuracy. With this technique ‘of manipulating kVA, the calculations are greatly simplified relative to the “per unit" calculation ‘method. There are no complex number algebraic calculations to make and no trigonometry involved. Page 10 ‘Cope 1083 aver & Aaoseten be ‘Al apvePosevet There are no complicated formulas needed to convert system element i kVA is independent of bus voltage; kVA is the same on both sides of transformers; kVA requires no jpedances to a common base. normalization to a common base, which allows the electrical engineer to "move around” in the system without complicated abstract conversions; kVAs are proportional to admittance and are combined accordingly to affect a system solution. To use this technique, all system circuit elements must be converted to their “Equivalent kVA" values before the calculation is made, ‘The "Equivalent kVA" of PASSIVE DEVICES such as transformers, reactors, or cable is, by definition: ‘The kVAs which would be delivered into a short circuit connected to one set of the device terminals with the other set of terminals ‘The "Equivalent kVA" of ACTIVE DEVICES such as the Utility, generators, or motors is, by definition: ‘The kVAs which would be delivered into a short circuit connected to the device terminals with constant system voltage maintained. Poge 11 "Coma 3269S & Aeon ne ‘ARs Reeves INCLUDING X/R IN THE CALCULATION ‘The ratio of circuit element reactance (X) to circuit element resistance (R), X/R, is an important factor which is used to determine the asymmetrical value of fault current. The X/R ratio is used to determine ‘the multipliers to use to convert from the symmetrical fault current to the interrupting current, when selecting breakers, To keep track of X/R when using "The Easy Wav", it is important to convert impedance (Z) to kilovolt-amperes (kVA), before determining kW and kVAR. After determining kVA, KW and kVAR can be determined by means of conventional phasor manipulations (i.e. © = Tan’ (X/R) = Tan” (kVAR/KW); KW = KVA © Cos; KVAR = kVA ® Sin®). This method is comparable to using separate networks for R and X as allowed by the IEEE "Red Book" to keep track of X/R when making short circuit calculations using the "per unit " method. The following example illustrates the method used to convert from the resistance (R), reactance (X) and impedance (Z) domain to the kilowatt (kW), kilovar {kVAR) and kilovolt-ampere (kVA) domain, Example: For @ 480 Volt system in the R, X and Z domain: R=3; X=4; X/R= 1.33 Z=R+jX=34)4 = 5253° Converting to the kW, kVAR and kVA domain: KVAR/KW = X/R = 1.33 © = Arctan(X/R) = Arctan (kVAR/kW) = Arctan 1.33 = 53° = 1.000 + kV? _ 1,000 + 0.48" «4g, 530 kVA » 1,000 kT 1.000 0.48" ~ 462-53 KW = {kVA + Cos ©} = {46 * Cos (-53°)} = 27.7 KVAR = {kVA © Sin@} = (46 » Sin(-53°)} = -36.8 KVA © 27.7 -j36.8 = £2-53° 4e Page 12 © Cepnigt 1009 Saver & Asesetnne ‘At te nes EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE EQUATION elements which will be covered later. kv 5 Low = 1,000 + kV, ig = Baw - 14000 # Keg 0 hn YSZ KVA = V3 # kV # he 1,000 WB +24 KVA = V3 # kV. = 1,000 * kV3.5 kVA Ze Page 13 ‘copie 1609 Geer & Aan ‘The following is the derivation of an equation which can be used to convert any series impedance to it’s "Equivalent kVA" value. Other techniques exist to make this conversion for certain system DELTA - WYE CONVERSIONS ‘Some electrical system configurations contain sections where three circuit elements are connected in a three terminal, "DELTA" configuration and must be converted to their equivalent three terminal, three element “WYE" configuration, before a solution can be made by means of “Ihe Easy Way" analysis method. It may be desirable to convert a three terminal, three circuit element “WYE" connected ‘configuration to the equivalent three terminal, three circuit element "DELTA" connected configuration ‘as well. To make these conversions use the following formulas: KVAy KVApe KVAps KVAyg KVAyy 2 KVApy 3 a 3 i 2 RVAg * kVAg kva,, «An WA a BVAn * kVA ass KVAg ! va,» Ahn = An RVA, = Where: $= kVA, + KVAy + KVAy Sp = (KVAg, * KVAg,) + (KVAse ® KVAse) + (KVAg, # KVAg) Page 14 ! ‘coprtt 1089 cater & hae ‘ni Rita Pemros COMBINING kVAs KVAs are proportional to admittances, which are reciprocal impedances, and are combined in the same ‘manner as admittances are. Following are examples of how to combine kVAs when making ns using "The Easy Way": calculat ‘SERIES kVAs. The total of all kVAs in sories {kVA,) is the “reciprocal sum" or “inverse sum” of all series kVAs which is by definition: KVA, = PARALLEL kVAs- The total of all kVAs in parallel (kVA,) is, the “arithmetic sum" or "sum" of alt parallel KVAs, which is by de KVA, = KVA, + KVA, +6 © © KVAN KvAy kVA, KVA, BUS KVA, Bus KVA, ane KvA, Page 18 ‘conyier 1003 Gaver & Amedeo ‘Ange Reeves RICAL SY: SOURCE $ 120190 SOURCE 13.8 KV_j MVAsc_= 1000 13.8 KV. TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER 4.16 KV 4.16 KV FEEDER CABLE FEEDER CABLE wt NOTOR WOTOR ONE-LINE DIAGRAM KVA DIAGRAM Page 16 Copy 1803 Saver Aaa CIRCUIT REDUCTION (kVA METHOD) SOURCE KVA,2= : KVAy geese dec kv, * KVA, 13.8 KV, => sen} aur TRANSFORMER 1 KVAy KVAs4= — 7 Sole laa kvas_* kVA, 4.16 KV Ye eaur ele CABLE - 4 ML woToR KVA, KVAy = KVAy.9 + KVAs4 a sey FAULT kVA, ae v3 © 4.16 age 17 "Conran 1005 ave & Aaect Ie. ‘Arnon Renee THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIE! What is a short circuit study? A short circuit study is 2 calculation made on the electrical system to determine the maximum fault current (short circuit current) which will flow into a “fault” (short circuit) should one occur anyplace in the system. Why do we make a short circuit study?. Should a fault occur in the electrical system, it is desirable (necessary?) to remove the fault from the electrical system as quickly as possible in order to minimize damage and as close to the fault as possible in order to isolate only the faulted portion. The switchgear which performs this function must be sized properly to red result. So a short circuit study is performed primarily to obtain the information accomplish this di required to size the electrical equipment used to control and interrupt the electrical energy of the system. Information derived from a short circuit study is also used to determine the setting of the protective relays which control the switchgear. For short circuit calculations, "The Easv Way" gives the maximum three phase symmetrical fault current, or the "momentary" value of fault current. Fundamentals of Short Circuit Calculations Short circuit calculations are based upon reducing the total system to a single equivalent impedance at the point of the fault, which is connected to the nominal bus voltage to produce the fault current at that bus. This is to say that the system voltage suddenly collapses to zero at each bus except the bus under consideration which remains at nominal (1.0 PU) value. > The Utility, all generators and all motors are sources of short circuit current. » Transformers limit short circuit current. » Reactors limit short circuit current. » Cables limit short circuit current. > Capacitors do not contribute to short circuit current. > Static loads (heaters, lighting, etc.) do not contribute to short circuit current. > Allmotors, 50 HP and smaller, are lumped together and assigned an impedance value of Z=25%. > All motors, larger than 50 HP, are lumped together and assianed an impedance value of Z=17%. Page 18 connie 1982 Savy Atos ‘Ales Fonevee ‘Source (Utility) Fault Capacity. By definition, the source fault capacity (MVA,.) is the maximum output capability at system voltage; and the source impedance is one per unit (Z,,= 1) on the source fault capacity base. Example: ‘The fault duty (capacity) at the 115 Kv bus is 2500 MVA. MVA,, = 2,500 Zy 1 (On 2 2500 MVA Base) ke = 2-800.000 = 12,551 Amps V3 0115 ‘When the source (Utility) is given as a per unit impedance (Z,,) on a given base (MVAxu), then the source fault capacity (MVA,,) may be obtained by: MVA,. = MVpoce Example: ‘The source (Utility) impedance at the 115 Kv bus is 0.04 per unit (Zy a 100 MVA base. ~ 100 va. = 390 = 2,500 Ihe = 2,500,000 - 12.551 amps V3 6115 Page 18 * Copan 2083 Gaver ance I ‘At iene Renova Generator Fault Capacity ‘The effective impedance of a generator for short circuit calculations is called subtransient reactance (%"], which is by definition, the impedance which limits short circuit current immediately after a fautt ‘occurs at the generator terminals. The fault capacity (kVA,.) of a generator, or the "Equivalent kVA" of a generator is: 100 +kVA, _ kVA, | kVA, Generator kVA, = oyeynte = Ae x Where: x2 100+ | A

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