PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

A. Introduction
The concept in communication is to use the language. Language is very important in
all aspects of life, especially as we are human beings. In daily life, people use
the language to express what is in their hearts and thoughts to others. In
forwarding, human beings to pass some process from a thought to be a language that
has been mentioned. Included in the process that is language acquisition for kids,
processing language in the brain, delivery language, etc. If it was seen from the
psychology, language is associated with a psychological one. Will be very different
languages in which people who are pleased with the people who are angry or sad, the
man who was sick with healthy person, who is in a tired, and the people who are in
a fit, all will be different.[1]
In terms Of language acquisition for kids, those who have been trained to use
English mother and good and right, will be comfortable to use English is good and
right, is inversely proportional to the since he was a kid does not have been
trained to use English well and correctly, and he will not be comfortable with it.
Besides the above, other things that language-related someone is biological
conditions, in this case the nerves. Nerves is a computer system link that made an
idea to a phrase language.
Initially, psycholinguistics is not independent knowledge, which is examined in
particular. Psycholinguistics is the knowledge that studied separately by both the
linguistic experts as well as experts psychology. The term psycholinguistics itself
was first used by Thomas A. Sebeok and Charles E. Osgood in 1954 in a book entitled
Psycholinguistik : A survey of Theory and Research Problems. Although in fact,
recent studies firmly grounded has started since the days of socratic Method and
Panini.[2]
As we have seen that language is a symbol system (symbol) the noise of the
arbitrary agreed to be used by the members of the group community to identify
themselves, working together, or interact, then in this case also had contacts with
language human soul. Both psychology and language (linguistics), both have
closeness that help and to serve people so that they could live with good and
easily. But, in understanding a scientific disciplines should we delve into study
of the scientific disciplines. Psycholinguistics is a joint or combination of
discipline of psychology with discipline of the linguistic. One cannot explain
toeing around issues (at psycholinguistics with only guessing or consider from his
name only. Of course, psycholinguistics not only discuss levels language that is
influenced by on a person, in a study disciplines, discussed the relationship
psycholinguistics psychological man in using language.
I. History of psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is knowledge hybrid that is, knowledge, which was a compound
examine both of psychology and linguistic. Seed this knowledge actually have
appeared in the 20th century when psychologist Germany, Wilhelm Wundt said that
language can be explained by the principles of the psychological (Kess, 1992). At
that time study language began to change from his nature that aesthetic and
cultural to an approach that "scientific."
Meanwhile in the Americas connection between language with knowledge people also
have started to grow. This development can be divided into four stages (Kess,
1992): (a) formative phase,(b) linguistic phase, (c) cognitive phase and (d) theory
psycholinguistics phase, psychological reality, and cognitive science.[3]
a. The formative phase
John W. Gardner, a psychologist from Carnegie Corporation, America, in the middle
ages to 20th centuries, began formulating hybrid (the conjunction) both knowledge.
This idea and then developed by a psychologist, John B. Carroll, who held a seminar
at the University of Corrnell for initiating an interrelationship between the two
knowledge discipline is at the end of 1951. At the end of 1953, the meeting was
continued at the University of Indiana. This meeting to make the resonance that is
so strong among the experts knowledge soul and the language so that a lot of
research and then be directed to link between the two this science (Osgood and
Sebeok, 1954). It is the time when psikolinguistics was first used.[4]
b. The linguistic phase
The development of the linguistic re-oriented in the bloodstream behavioristik then
moved to mentalisme (psychological nativism) in 1957 with published books Noam
Chomsky, Syntactic Struktures and sharp criticism from Noam Chomsky to the theory
behavioristik B. F. Skinner has made psycholinguistics as knowledge that many
interested by people. And develops rapidly because this view Noam Chomsky about
universal language is getting lead to language acquisition for kids especially why
children in any language, get them by using a strategy that period.[5]
A common strategy is supported by developing of science neolinguistik and
biolinguistik. A study in neolinguistik shows that human brain has decreed that is
different from other primate in structure and function. There are people In the
brain that is set aside for language while in an animal parts of this is not there.
Biolinguistik is a science hybrid between biology and linguistically and trying to
answer questions five central in a study language that was put forward by Noam
Chomsky: (1) what is meant by knowledge language, (2) how this knowledge, (3) how
knowledge was applied (4) brain mechanism which is relevant in this case (5) how
this knowledge have a role in human species (Jenkins 2000). First question refers
to a knowledge of language that human knowledge such as what is owned by people so
that he was able to speak. This is associated with the second question where it
came from this knowledge. Wheather knowledge has already been there since human
beings are born (innate) or by from environmental man is born. Third trying to
answer questions about how knowledge was applied on the data. With the knowledge
that we have a parameter what we use to process and digest input that goes to us.
The four questions related to the role human brain that distinguish it from the
brain animals and last question refers to circumstances that distinguishes human
beings with animals that is what knowledge and ability to speak, owned exclusive
man.[6]
Nexus between language with neobiologi support a Noam Chomsky, said that growth
language in human beings programd genetically. Human beings are born in the world
is not with an empty plate (theory tabula taste). Time was born human cases have
been supplied with what he gets called faculties of the mind (over plots young)
that one of its specially created for language acquisition for kids. According to
Noam Chomsky, people have provisions for rapid humanity advancement (innate
properties) time was born and provisions are then made it to be able to develop
their language.
The scholars have been many investigating and trying to teach animals speak
(Kellogs 1933; Hayes 1947; Gardner1966; Terrace, 1979, but has not even one of
them, which is considered a success. Cave, a chimpanzee that is examined by
Professor and Puan kellogg, can understand about seventy words but he could not
speak . Viki, a chimpanzee that was taught by Dr. and Puan Hayes, and finally, only
can tell papa, mama, cup, and up. Professor and Puan Gardner to train a chimpanzee
Washoe using sign language. Washoe contributed only about 100 words in the 21
months, but it is still could not speak. A Chimpanzee who had been trained by
Herbert Terrace called Nim Chimsky (as a joke to public is exposed to powerful
persuasive Noam Chomsky.) seems to indicate that there is a capability combining
the words, but after examined more obvious that ability, but only vague.
They got language is unique to humans, only people may treat one another unjustly
who can speak. Other creatures can do many things, including things that were done
by people but the ability to merge them is only limited in circumstances that non-
verbal. As soon as they were protesting at a verbal eastward to them is different
from that of man.[7]

c. The cognitive phase

At this stage psycholinguistics began to lead to the role cognition and biological
basis for man in language acquisition for kids. Noam Chomsky said that linguis is
actually a cognitive psychology. They got language in man is not self-control
components language without based on the principles of the cognitive problems.
Grammar for example will no longer be seen as something that apart from cognition
men for their constituents in a speech actually reflects reality psychology that is
in human beings.
Speech is not a sequence the noise of the linear but the sequence sound that formed
units constituents and each hierarkhis this unit, and each hierarkhis unit is
reality psychological warfare. This phrase can be replaced one word such as Ahmad
or him.
At this stage people began to speak about the role in biological language because
they feel that biology is a foundation upon which the language grow. Noam Chomsky
and Lenneberg said that growth language a man genetically related with the growth
cetaceans.[8]

d. The theory psycholinguistics phase

In the final stages of the, psycholinguistics would no longer stand as knowledge
that separated from other science because they got and the use of the language man
when it comes to many branches of science. Psycholinguistics no longer consist
psychosocial support and linguistically, but also in relation to other sciences
such as neurology, philosophy, primatology, and genetic engineering.
Neurology own important role in the language ability of man speaking because
apparently is not because the environment but because the nature neurological
disturbance was brought from birth. Without a brain with the functions that we have
as it is now, it is impossible man able to speak. [9]Knowledge philosophy again
holding role is important because they got knowledge is a problem of ancient times
to have a debate among the philosopher-what knowledge, and how people acquire
knowledge. Primatology and genetic study to how far the language for people and how
specific genetic related with the growth language. Psycholinguistics has now become
knowledge that is supported by other sciences

II. Definition of psycholinguistics

To the different definitions psycholinguistics although essentially the same.
Aitcison (1998: 1) defines it as a "study of language and mind". Harley (2001: 1)
called it as a "study about the process mental wearing". Meanwhile, Clark and
Clark (1977: 4) states that psychology language associated with three main things:
comprehension, production, and they got language. From these definitions it can be
concluded that psycholinguistics is knowledge that studied the process that is
passed through mental by people in order to language.
In detail psycholinguistics studied four main topic: (a) comprehension, namely the
process mental health that passed by the people so that they can catch what people
and to understand what is meant, (b) production, namely the process mental
ourselves that makes us can be said as we speech, (c) biological basis and
neurological disorders that makes human beings can speak, and (d) they got
languages, namely how children get their language.[10]

III. Nature of language

Humans have characteristics: different style to produce the language
between human and animals. Animals can communicate with each other, wearing
"tongues" their own. For example, in the animal apes, if there is a danger that
threatens them, apes can communicate with apes, another with a certain way. So is
the man, we have to communicate with using our language. Even though they are on
one side there are some similarities, on the other hand there is a particular
characteristics that distinguishes the language of birds language of man.
a. First, tongues of men (starting from now: language) have a high dependence
structures-dependence). A sequence said in his words does not constitute a random
sequence but one depends on the other. The sequence said it is seen in linear but
one word with one another word to form a structure hierarkhis. Humans always depend
on the structure-dependence.
Example: I kicked the ball

b. Second, humans language can't differenciate with animals language. In

language using, humans can't producing the creative language styles likes
methapore, action, etc. Language and users language, creative. In terms Of user
language, he creative because he has the ability to understand and speak the speech
any new. Speech that we have heard anytime also had not been there is none like
ujaran that we have heard before, even though book organizes period. However, we
can understand it. So in studying: we never issued are exactly the same speech,
even if we are talking about the same. The creative there are only words in humans.
It has never been you have heard before, but you must understand it.[11]

Example: Compassion, his feet debt side but he must bear millstone for a bag that
we are looking for food on a day this heat.

In terms of their own language, the English language structure is creative because
allows users to manipulate it during the rule rule certain followed. In a sentence
that ended with the name, for example, we can always add clause relative, and if
clause this relative also ended with the name, we still can be expanded to memory
we restrictive. It was clear From the example kreativiti language.

Example: The indicator feeling burned the house that owned by people who steal
their property that is stored in a bank that would be suspended by the government
is trying to become golden economy that . .

Language also creative because shape is not controlled by external factors. If a

man his feet be stepped on by the other time went by bus, the reaction verbal that
will be given it cannot be predicted. He may be cried out: Aduuuh; he can curse:
the eye butakah, invisible road., or he may be silent. Time saw Queen Beautiful
World emerged, one can be turned away their faces: finalise while There is satan,
satan, satan. But there is the one that might say: Whoa! What a beautiful, etc.
External factors such as shaky at his feet and the emergence of Queen Beautiful
World are not able to determine form language that pronounc by human beings. The
reaction like this is different from the reaction animals. When a cat be stepped on
its tail, he will definitely will scream miauuu ... and even he tried to bite the
stirrup.

c. Third, language can be used to express situation or the events that have
been past or that it has not happened and even for something that was shaded to
imagine. Language structure allows us to talk about the incident that happened
yesterday or even hundreds of years ago. Human language possible we are talking
about rain evening overnight or things about Sultan Mansor Shah students from the
kingdom Malacca. Language structure allows us to talk about what we intend or will
happen in the future. We can even thought speaking about or dreams. Things like
this is not to be found in a means of communication animals.[12]
Animals, like a swarm of bees, can also said that the new honey that he saw, but
the ability like this is very limited. If the leading to a honeycomb bees, passing
through their nests, he will lead to a honeycomb the first.
d. The four, languages have double structure which is called the structure
hidden (deep structure) and the structure was born (surfsce popularly). In many
ways both this structure is united so that is not seen the difference. In the
example as below, both structure in nor surface structure is the same.
Example: Many experts parliament that pour.
But in many other things there is a structure the surface that actually has two
structures in different ways. In the following example:
Example: 1. The shooting of the hunter was terrible (deep structure)
We see that there is a structure the surface. However, one sentence has two
structures in a different. So far, the meaning is that no two also, namely:
a. The hunter shot someone cracked me and the way he did it feel very bad.
b. Someone cracked me shot the hunter and this action was very bad.
Here appears the hidden that the two (1) due to the existence of two structures in
a different as seen in (a-b). It is not impossible that there were there two
structures the surface, but actually represents two structures in a different.
Example:
2. John is easy to please
3. John is eager to please
We see that the two sentences have been born are exactly the same structure:
subject followed by the verb is, adjective easy/eager, infinitifto; and please.
But, from (2) we can to make sentences (2a) while from (3) we will not be able to
make sentences (3a).[13]
2a. It is easy to please John.
3a. *It is eager to please John.
So, although (2) and (3) seems to have a same structure, it turns out that
similarities, there is only on the surface. The phrase for the second sentence is
different as seen in fact (2a) and (3a).
On the other hand, can occur in the existence of two sentences that surface
structure but different structure it. Note:
4. They beat me.
5. I was beaten by people.
Both the verse have meaning that period, the difference is that this sentence (4)
form sentences active while passive sentences (5).

From the above illustration it can be concluded understanding of the structure in

opposing the surface structure: (a) one verse can have a structure of the surface
and the structure, (b) a verse can have two structures in a different, (c) two
verses that seems to have a surface structure that period is found to have two
structures in a different, and (d) two sentences that have two different structure
the surface is found to have a structure of the period.
e. Fifth, language, by all generations from one generation to generation of
the other. Sundanese Son who was born and raised in the family Sundanese in Bandung
will get Sundanese language. But language which is obtained by children depends on
the comments of a society where children are living. A child who was born in Kuala
Lumpur and interact with the Kuala Lumpur will get language, Kuala Lumpur even
though the age of Kedah. In contrast, the son of his father and mother Kelantan who
was born in the land of Nine and mix with the local Seremban probably will get
language of Nine.[14]
This is not happening in animals because they got "language animals" is instinct or
Instinctive. A bird terkukur will give voice to the sound birds terkukur if any
time he was born and raised in the "community" birds starling (crow) or parrots. A
kitten will caterwaul, if any time he left by their mothers' milk and brought up by
the human being to protect them. Cats in Kuala Lumpur and cats in London will
caterwaul with same sound despite the fact that they were brought up in two
different environment.
f. The Sixth, the relationship between words and objects, works, or the state
to which he refers, arbitreri (run extention). There is no reason why a thing we'll
call rice and a works we'll call ran away. This connection merely a second helvetic
convention (custom), the approval, among the language. For that reason, they
devised English rice and run while the Malays rice and ran away.
Allegedly animals there are some things that arbitreri. When angry, the bird gull
(sea gulls) allegedly, even went away from their enemies and plucking grass, an act
that do not appear to be associated with anger.
g. The Seventh, the English patterns duality, this means that sounds itself
does not have the significance and meaning after new sounds, we combine. The
sound /k/, /s/, and a/ separately is meaningless. However, after /k/ combined
with /a/ and then /s/ then formed by the word /cash/; but if combined is /s/, /a/,
and /k/, then formed is other words, namely, /canker/.
h. The Eighth, languages , have semantisitas, it means that as soon as a name
is given the name will always refers to the concept told them, even though they are
in fact did not meet the requirements for the name. Take the word seats. So we
control the concept that was represented by the object, so if at one time we saw
that there was a chair on which his legs broken one, we will still be devised
seats.[15]
IV. Definition of language
In the picture the characteristics of the top, language can be defined from various
point of view. But definitions are many people are: The language is a system of
symbols oral arbitreri that used by a local language to communicate and interact
with his neighbor, based on culture in which they have together.
The system at this definition refers to the elements of the relationship with each
other that eventually formed a constituents that Petitioners failed submit his
nature. In the field phonology, for example, these elements are sounds that were
found in language that concerned. The elements with the sound is of course is
different from one language to the language. In the English, for example, there are
many sound is also in our language, but there are some of the sounds that is not in
our language. The sound English /th/ and /e/ like in the words of the thin and
then, for example, there is nothing in Malay language. English is not On the other
hand, have a sound /mrs./ like the word Malay 'no'.
Sounds this forms a system in the sense that a combination of a sound with the
noise of the other not just follow a certain order but. Two languages can have some
of the sounds, for example, a sound [T], [b]tiles, [s]tiles, [k]tiles, [t], and
[a], but A, Javanese language, allowing (m) and (b) to start a word, such as in the
word 'miss', but, the English language language B, not allow it. There is nothing
in this language the word that started with mb such as, for example, *mbear,
*mboating, and *mblasted. English allows Instead, their cluster consonant /skt/ in
the last words such as the words per skt/ asked and /mskt/ masked while Javanese
language forbade it. In Petitioners failed submit, a group formed the sound of
tribe, a group of forming the word. That it might be fulfilled the words such as
bamboo (Indonesia), playon (Central Java), and happy (English).[16]
In components syntax, languages have, for example, the elements A, B, and C.
However, the English X confirming the sequence ABC, while language Y confirming the
Commonwealth Bank. An example that concrete is the word A = the, B = blue, blue,
and C = book, the book. With the English, the English language, X the sequence is
ABC, the blue book, while in language Y, English, CBA, blue book. In a group
Petitioners failed submit the word form a phrase and a group phrase to form a
clause that envisioning a clause as blue book, it is very expensive or The blue
book is very expensive.
A system in language is a system that consists of their symbols. In the example
above, the symbols of this is the word that vocab, blue, book, etc. because
language is spoken of symbols, but this is also the symbols of the tongue. These
symbols is arbitrerari, that is, there is no correlation between these symbols of
the objects, the state, or the events that they represent. There is no reason why
objects that are used to sit named seat, which was sent by post named letters, and
that had been drunk named water; so did the unhealthy named hospital and taking
another person's belongings named steal. All the words do not have a reason why is
this reality. The sound animals, which is called onomatopea, often used as the
argument to oppose the arbitreri, but it sounds this animal is actually arbitreri.
A Crow and big cats we sound we symbol as kukuluruk and ngiau, but if the animals
were also issued the noise of the period in the ears English? Of course, do not,
because even though the sound the same, according to the sound English ear chicken
is cock-a-doodle-do and the sound is cats meow.
The symbol System oral arbitreri was used by the society the language, that is,
people who have the language. People were from other languages may not, of course
using this system. The language use language to communicate and interact with each
other for them, but in interacting they are then, by unconscious, dikendala by the
culture that they lap. On their language is a reflection of their culture. The
rejection of his words Tutiek marry Ahmad not due to confusion grammar but
ignorance suitable in Indonesian culture. In culture we, a woman may be married to
a man, but he was not able to marry him. In contrast, the words of English How old
are you? That aimed to a woman felt quite normal for us, but been considered less
worthy by speaker English because in English culture problem age, especially for
women, is a personal matter that are not fit to be questioned.[17]

V. Language component
Phology indeed had various changes, both in terms of the foundation philosophy or
principal. The debate between the behavioris with the people of this mentalist
produce a major changes in the science language: science language now dominated by
the people of this mentalist. But there was one thing he stays constant, namely,
the components language.
In the bloodstream linguistic any language always say has three components: syntax,
phonology, and semantics. Components syntax to handle affairs related to the word,
the phrase, and his words. Study about the words, such as study about how the words
were established and sent down, generally are dealt with in a the argument that is
named morphology. Although morphology is getting to obtain a place as a subilmu
itself, especially when it has been developing morphology generative (see Halle,
1973; Aronoff, 1976; Scalise, 1984; Jensen, 1990; Spencer, 1991; Katamba, 1993), in
relation with components language knowledge is included as part of the components
syntax.[18]
At the time mainstream theory mentalistic pioneered by Noam Chomsky reached the
stage for so-called standard theory in the year 1965, the components syntax is
central components. By using the phrase structure (happy birthday popularly
monster), component syntax mediocre (value addes) structure which represent hidden
meaning sentence. A words like