“Read them,” said the King. The White Rabbit put on his spectacles. “Where shall I begin, please your Majesty?” he asked. “Begin at the beginning,” the King said, very gravely, “and go on till you come to the end: then stop.” “Yes, that’s it,” said the Hatter with a sigh: “it’s always tea time, and we've no time to wash the things between whiles.”” “Then you keep moving round, I suppose?” said Alice. “Exactly so,” said the Hatter: “as the things get used up.” “But what happens when you come to the beginning again?” Alice ventured to ask. “Suppose we change the subject,” the March Hare interrupted, yawning. “I’m getting tired of this.”4. natural numbers END OF THE GREEK ERA Greek mathematics reached its peak with Archimedes. From that time on, Greek society and mathematics declined until the fall of Alexandria in 641, when the Arabs finished burning what the Christians had not destroyed, ushering in the Dark Ages. It was during this period of decline that the first woman mathematician of note appeared. The daughter of the commentator Theon, Hypatia (3702-415) attracted many students by her outstanding ability, coupled with modesty and beauty. Unfortunately, Hypatia had strong pagan leanings, which angered some of the Christians in Alexandria. Thus one day in March, 415, these kindly people dragged her from her chariot to the steps of a Christian church, where they stripped her of her clothing and brutally murdered her with, of all things, oyster shells. And just to make sure the deed was properly done, this mob of loving Christians then burned what was left of her. Perhaps Hypatia’s unfortunate end has influenced women away from mathematics, for very few of the great mathematicians throughout history have been women. We have already read of some other mathematicians who have been murdered. Recall that Pythagoras was probably burned by an angry mob, and that the Pythagorean Hippasus was drowned by his brother Pythagoreans for revealing the irrationality of the square root of 2. And, of course, poor old Archimedes felt the point of a Roman sword. Others who met violent deaths include Zeno of Elea (495-435 B.c.), who lost his head for treason. He posed some thoughtful questions concerning the infinite—mathematically, not politically. Johann Miiller (1436-1476) died quite mysteriously while visiting in Rome at the Pope’s command. He might 103104 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS have been poisoned by an enemy, although it could have been a pestilence that did him in. Ten or more members of the family headed by Nicolaus Bernoulli (1623-1708) were able mathematicians. Two of these, a grandson Nicolaus Bernoulli [11 (1695-1726) and his nephew Jacob Bernoulli II (1759-1789), were accidentally drowned. Curiously, each was about 30 years of age at death, although they lived some 60 years apart. Evariste Galois (1811-1832), just 20 years of age, was killed in a duel. Mortally wounded, he was simply left on the field of battle by his adversary. A “Good Samaritan” peasant, who happened to be passing by, took him to a hospital, where he died. One can only conjecture what he might have accomplished had he not lost that duel. But then, he did save his “honor.” A pair of suicides might be noted here. The Greek Eratosthenes (276 ?- 194? B.c.) starved himself to death when he was in old age and nearly blind. JMOTIVATION SEC. 21 105 The very superstitious Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576) also committed suicide in old age, but his act was to fulfill an earlier astrological prediction of his death date. Most singular was the passing of Abraham De Moivre (1667-1754), He died of an arithmetic progression! Quite suddenly he began requiring 15 minutes more sleep each night, When the terms of this arithmetic progression reached 24 hours, he ceased living. A strong sense of duty has been the finish of many good men, including George Boole (1815-1864), who died of pneumonia which he contracted after keeping a lecture date while soaked to the skin from a rainstorm. Even more dramatic was the death of René Descartes (1596-1650), who died at the request of Queen Christina of Sweden. This young queen with an insatiable thirst for knowledge requested Descartes to tutor her in mathematics. Descartes, of delicate health and used to staying in bed until noon, finally agreed to leave his warm home in Holland. To his great dismay, he was required to give his lessons at 5 A.M. in an unheated, drafty library room. The cold, damp weather of Stockholm coupled with the terribly early hours were just too much for poor René. He died of inflammation of the lungs just four months later. When he heard that Charles II was restored to the English throne, William Oughtred (1574-1660) is said to have died “‘in a transport of joy.” “It should be added, by way of excuse,” Augustus De Morgan later remarked, “that he was 86 years old.” 21 | MOTIVATION Consider the problem of stating a set of postulates for the natural number system; that is, listing enough properties of the natural numbers to characterize them completely. What properties are truly important to the set N of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, ... ? The items, listed in Section 22, selected for our development are motivated by the discussion that follows. Since subtraction and division are readily defined by means of addition and multiplication, we shall confine our primitive terms to natural number, addition, and multiplication. Not all operations are commutative and associa- tive. Neither subtraction nor division possesses either property: $-2=3 but 2-5=-3, 8+4=2 but 4+8=4, and so forth. “Nevertheless,” you say, “all additions and multiplications certainly possess these properties.” In answer to this comment, suppose we consider a well-known mechanical addition in the form of parking meters. In one common type of two-hour parking meter, a penny adds enough time106 = CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS to bring the pointer to the next 12-minute mark, and a nickel sends the pointer to the next hour mark. Thus, if a meter registers 43 minutes and a penny is inserted, then the needle moves to 48 minutes; if a nickel is inserted, it moves to 60 minutes. Your penny is actually purchasing only 5 minutes of additional time; the nickel, only 17 minutes. Starting with an expired meter, put in 5 + 1 cents; that is, first a nickel, then a penny, yielding 72 minutes or 6 (12-minute) units of time. On the other hand, putting in 1 + 5 (first a penny, then a nickel) yields only 5 units of time. Thus, in parking meter arithmetic, 5+1=6 and 1+5 Strange indeed! Here is a noncommutative addition. Let (a) + (6) mean put a in one meter and 6 in another meter. Now consider 1 + 5 + 1. If we put in (1) + (5 + 1) cents, that is, 1 cent in one meter, then 5 + 1 cents in another meter, we obtain 1 unit of time on the first meter and 6 units on the second, for a total of 7 units of time for our 1+ 5+ 1 cents. On the other hand, if we put in (1 + 5) + (1) cents, we get 5 units on the first meter and 1 on the second, for a total this time of 6 units of time. Thus we write. @M+6+)D= and (1+ 5)+()=6. Hence parking meter addition is not associative either. Such examples as these illustrate the great importance of being careful to understand just what laws are obeyed by a given system. Just as one is quite careful to note and obey the speed laws when driving in front of a state policeman, so one should be just as careful about noting and obeying the rules of a mathematical system. Certainly the following laws apply to the natural number system N, and we shall assume them as postulates: NI: a+b=b+a. N2: ab = ba. N3: @+b)+c=a+(b+0). N4: (ab)e = a(be). NS: a(b + c) = ab + ac. Note that we are using the “My Dear Aunt Sally” rule that unless grouping symbols indicate otherwise, first multiply (M), then divide (D), then add (A) and subtract (S). Thus ab + ac means (ab) + (ac).MOTIVATION SEC. 21 107 Remember that N1 and N2 are commutative laws, N3 and N4 are asso- ciative laws, and N5 is the left-hand distributive law for multiplication over addition. The right-hand distributive law, (b + oa = ba + ca, also holds for the natural number system, but we shall not listit as a postulate, since it is quite easily proved from NS and N2. Since N — {1} = {2,3,4,...} forms a system satisfying the five listed postulates, another postulate is needed to guarantee that 1 « N: N6: There is an element I € N such that a+ 1 = a forall aeN. Clock arithmetic (modulo 12 arithmetic) satisfies NI through N6. In this system, addition and multiplication are performed as usual, but then all multiples of 12 are subtracted out. We have 6 + 8 = 2 and 5-7 = 11 in clock arithmetic. A complete addition table appears in Fig. 21.1. Observe that we use 0 in place of 12. Th estudent is urged to make out a multiplication table for this system, observing such oddities as 3-4 = 0 and 6: 10 = 0. Ficure 21.1. Modulo 12 addition. An added postulate serves: to eliminate clock arithmetic from our con- sideration: N7: Ifa,béN, then exactly one of the following is true: a+x=b, a=b, a=bty for some x or y in N. Clock arithmetic does not satisfy this irichotomy law. For example, consider 5 and 8, From Fig. 21.1, 5+ x = 8 is true for x = 3 and also108 = CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS 5 = 8 + yis true for y = 9. Since two of the cases of the trichotomy law are true for some pairs of numbers, the trichotomy postulate N7 has eliminated clock arithmetic from consideration. The system of positive rationals satisfies NI through N7. Axioms NI through N7 guarantee that N contains all the natural numbers, but another postulate is‘needed to restrict N to only the natural numbers. This postulate, N8, merely states that all the natural numbers can be obtained by taking 1, and for each natural number 7, by taking n + 1. That is, the only natural numbers are 1 and numbers that are 1 more than given natural numbers: N8: If.S ¢ N such that () 1eS, and Q) keS+k+1es, then S= N. This postulate, the postulate of mathematical induction, completes our postulate set for the natural numbers, but it does require some explanation. Suppose S is a set satisfying the two conditions of N8. Then (see Fig. 21.2) 1 © S by part (1). For k = 1, part (2) now states that |e S+ 2S, so 2€S. But now, when k = 2, (2) states 2¢ S—> 3€ S,so 3S. Letting k = 3 in (2), we conclude that 4€ S. Similarly, 5e S,6€S,7€S, It follows that every natural number is in S. That is, S = N. Ficure 21.2. An inductive set. To show that the rational number system does not satisfy N3, note that 4 is a rational number, but under conditions (1) and (2), 4 need not be in set S. We shall make no attempt to show that these eight postulates are suffi- cient to define the natural numbers. As one works with such a postulate set, its sufficiency becomes more apparent. EXERCISES: 21-1. In parking meter arithmetic, 1 + 5 = 5. Find the value of 1+1+ 141+ 1 + 1. This shows that one cannot even substitute in this system, for here we see that] +5A1+1+14+1+4+1+1.MOTIVATION SEC. 21 109 21-2. Assuming parking meters of unlimited time (instead of two hours), define xy to mean “deposit y cents x times.” Show that the distribu- tive law a(b + c) = ab + ac does not always hold true by selecting appro- priate values for a, b, and c. 21-3. Consider the phrase “high school building.” The first two words are normally grouped together as “(high school) building.” More- over, “high (school building)” also makes sense, but with a different mean- ing: a school building twenty stories high, perhaps. Hence such phrases are not associative. a. What is the normal grouping for “big brick house”? b. Give a meaning to the other grouping of “‘big brick house.” c. Distinguish the two interpretations of “plastic milk carton. d. Read “light green feather” two ways and give interpreta- tions. Can you do the same for “light black feather”? 21-4, Show that ordinary subtraction is not associative. 21-5. Prove that raising to a power is not associative; that is, (a°)' # a for some numbers a, b, and c. 21-6. Prove that raising to a power is not commutative; that is, a # b* for some numbers a and 5. 21-7. Show that these operations are not commutative; the order in which they are performed makes a decided difference. a. Undressing and taking a bath. b. Studying for a test and taking the test. c. Putting on socks and shoes. d. Breaking an egg and scrambling it. 21-8. Write a multiplication table for modulo 12 arithmetic. 21-9. Observe that 3-4 = 3-8 in modulo 12 arithmetic. Find two other examples which show that the cancellation law “if ¢ # 0 and ca = cb, then a = b” does not hold in this system. 21-10. Verify that the set of rational numbers satisfies NI through N7. 21-11. Set up a line of dominoes, each one standing on end and so placed that if it falls down, then it will knock down its neighbor. Then knock down the first one. Observe that all the dominoes fall. Compare this situation with N8. 21-12. Suppose we have a very tall ladder and a dog who dearly loves to climb ladders. Suppose (1) that the dog can get up onto the first rung, and (2) when he is on any given rung, he can climb up to the next one. What can we conclude? Compare this ladder-climbing dog with N8. 21-13. Show that division is right distributive over addition, but not left distributive.110 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS 22 | THE NATURAL NUMBERS The eight postulates mentioned in the last section are satisfied by the natural number system. It is our purpose here to consider natural numbers as elements of an abstract system satisfying N1 through N8, to show that the natural numbers are indeed determined by these postulates. 22.1 DEFINITION. The natural numbers are a set N of elements a, b, c,..., which is closed under two binary operationst called addition (+) and multiplication (+) and equality used in the sense of identity, satisfying the following postulates: NO: Ifa,beN, then a + beN and abeN. Ni: a+b=b+a. N2: ab = ba. N3: (a@+b)+c=at+(b+0). N4: (abe = a(be). NS: a(b +c) = ab + ac. N6: There is an element | € N such that a+ 1 = a. N7: For given a, b€ N, exactly one of the following three statements is true: atx=6b a=b, =bt+y, for some x € N or some y¢N. N8: If Sc N such that (1) 1€S,and Q) keS+k+1es, then S = N. Now N1 and N2 state that addition and multiplication are commutative; N3 and Né4 state that they are associative. That multiplication is distributive over addition is stated in NS. N6 says that | is a multiplicative identity; N7 is trichotomy; and N8 is the mathematical induction postulate.. Remember that N8 simply guarantees that N contains no elements other than 1 and, for each nN, n + 1. Later we shall have much to say about N8 and its conse- quences, but now we shall investigate only NI through N7. + Again we remind the reader of this closure by restating it in an extra postulate, NO. Furthermore, multiplication is also denoted by juxtaposition (as well as by the raised dot).THE NATURAL NUMBERS SEC, 22 WL Just how these natural numbers have been obtained is of no concern to us in this chapter. Here we are only concerned with the results of these eight postulates. These properties are all we shall assume about natural numbers. It seems incredible that the entire system of natural numbers rests on so slender a base as just eight simple statements. In fact, this base will be reduced to only five postulates toward the end of this chapter! Now we shall consider some of the results which can be derived from these postulates. Since equality is used in the sense of identity, it follows that any expression may be substituted freely for one that is equal to it, in any mathematical statement about natural numbers. 22.2 THEOREM. Ife +a=c + 6, thena Suppose a + x = 6 (it is assumed that x ¢ N unless otherwise stated). Then c+b=c+(@+x) Substitution =(c+a)+x NB =(c+6)+x. — Substitution We now have c + b= c + b and also c + b = (c + b) + x. This violates N7. Thus we cannot have a + x = b. It is left for the reader to show that the assumption a = b + y leads toa similar contradiction of N7. Since we can have neither a + x = b nor a= b + y, then N7 states that we must havea= 5. 22.3 THEOREM. Ifa+c=.b +c, thena = b. To prove this theorem we may use either the method of the proof of Theorem 22.2 or the result of Theorem 22.2. For this latter idea, we must reduce the at+c=bte of this theorem to the e+ta=ct+b of this last theorem. The commutative law for addition will accomplish this task quite easily. . For we have c+a=ate NI =b+c Substitution =c+5, NI whence a = b by Theorem 22.2. a112. CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS One might very well ask why we bother to state both Theorems 22.2 and 22.3 when they state almost the same thing. In fact, if a + ¢ = c + 6, then a =b in this case also. There are some operations on the set of natural numbers for which not both right and left cancellation laws hold. On set N define axb=a’. One can easily establish a right cancellation law: ifaec=b*c, thena but the left cancellation law does not hold, since l*5=1%7 but S#7, for example. Also cross cancellation does not hold true: ifaxc=c*b, thena =b is shown to be false for a = 2, b = 4, and c = 16. 22.4 THEOREM. If ca = cb, thena = b. Since 0 ¢ N, we do not have to worry about cancelling (dividing by) zero. Hence the restriction ¢ ¥ 0 is not needed here. Suppose a + x = b, Then cb = cla +x) Substitution = ca +x NS =cb+ cx, — Substitution violating N7. Similarly, the assumption a = 6 + y also violates N7, whence, by N7 again,a=b. 0] 22.5 THEOREM. If ac = bc, then a = b. These last four theorems are called cancellation laws. From them we are able to establish the next theorem, which states that no other natural number can behave as | does. That is, whenever ax = a, then x must be I. 22.6 THEOREM. 1 is unique. For suppose ax = a for some a, x € N. Then also a-l=a N6 = ax, Substitution whence | = x by Theorem 22.4.THE NATURAL NUMBERS SEC. 22 113 ‘The eight axioms give a name to only one natural number, namely 1. It is necessary, then, to define what we shall mean by 2, 3, 4,.... One must display great care here to assume only those properties stated in the defini- tions, postulates, and theorems. By using familiar symbols, we are placing the reader at a disadvantage, for these symbols (such as “2”) conjure up known properties which we have not proved as yet in this discourse. The reader would do well to keep a list of the statements of the postulates, theorems, and definitions close at hand, for these are the ‘‘rules of the game,” which he is permitted to use. He should be sure that every step he takes is justified by one of these rules, as has been done in this text. 22.7 DEFINITION. 1+1=2,2+1=3,3+1=4,4+1=5, S+1 “ 22.8 THEOREM. 1+2=3,1+3=4,1+455,.... These follow directly from NI and Definition 22.7. o Complete addition and multiplication tables can be developed from Definition 22.7. We shall establish two such number facts here to illustrate the process. 22.9 THEOREM. 2+2=4. For we have 242=24+(141) Definition 22.7 =Q+1)+1 NB = 341 Definition 22.7 =4. Oo Definition 22.7 22.10 THEOREM. 2:3 = 6. We have 2°35 Definition 22.7 NS Definition 22.7 =(+142!D 42:1 NS =(24+2)+2 ~ N6 =442 Theorem 22.9 =44(1+) Definition 22.7 N3 Definition 22.7 Definition 22.7114 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS In such fashion all addition and multiplication facts can be obtained. In the sections which follow, we shall assume that this task has been accom- plished; we shall freely use addition and multiplication tables whenever needed. Next we illustrate some of the basic laws of algebra, leaving two of the proofs as exercises. 22.11 THEOREM. (6 + c)a = ba + ca. Thus multiplication is both right and left distributive over addition. Exercise 21-13 examines the distributive law for division over addition and shows that one may not assume both distributive laws just because one of them holds. 22.12. THEOREM. (a + b)(c + d) = (ac + ad) + (be + bd). For we have (a + Bc + d) = alc +d) + Wc +d) Theorem 22.11 = (ac + ad) + (be + bd). = NS 22.13 THEOREM.t (a + 6)(a + 6) = (aa + 2+ ab) + bb. For we have (a + b)(a + 6) = (aa + ab) + (ba + bb) Theorem 22,12 = ((aa + ab) + ba) + bb N3 = (aa + (ab + ba)) + bb N3 = (aa + (ab + ab)) + bb N2 (aa + (ab+1 + ab+1))+ 6b NO = (aa + ab(1 + 1)) + bb NS = (aa + ab+2) + bb Definition 22.7 = (aa +2-+ab)+6b. 0 N2 22.14 THEOREM. I|-a=a. EXERCISES 22-1. In the proof of Theorem 22.2, show that a = b + y cannot oceur. 22-2. Prove Theorem 22.5. t+ Exponents are introduced later in this chapter.ORDER SEC. 23 us 22-3. Prove that 2 + 4 = 6. 22-4, Prove that 3+3 = 9. 22-5. Prove Theorem 22.11. 22-6. Prove Theorem 22.14. 22-7. Prove that (a + (b + c)) +d=a+ (b+ 0c) +4). 22-8. Prove that (a + 6) + (c +d) =(c +a) + (6+). 22-9. Prove that (ab)e = (cb)a. 22-10. Prove that (b + c)a = ac + ba. 22-11. Prove that (a + b)(c + d) = (ac + bc) + (ad + bd). 22-12. Define a*b = a’. a. Is * distributive over multiplication (check both right and left cases)? b. Is * distributive over addition? 22-13. Use 5 + (2 + 3) to show that division is not left distributive over addition. Then decide whether division is distributive over multiplica- tion and prove it. 23 | ORDER The consequences of N7 will be examined in this section. This trichotomy postulate gives rise to the concept of order, distinguishing, as we saw in the preceding chapter, between the natural numbers and finite modulus systems. 23.1 DEFINITION. We write 6 > a, “6 is greater than a,” and a < b, “ais less than b,” to denote that a + x = b for some xe N. 23.2 THEOREM. For given a,6¢N, exactly one of the following three statements is true: ach, a=b arb This trichotomy theorem is an immediate consequence of Definition 23.1 and postulate N7. 0 23.3 THEOREM. Ifa < b,thena+¢ ato denote that either a=bora b. Then, applying Theorem 23.7 and Definition 23.6, we find that a +c = b +c, contradicting the hypothesis. Thus we cannot have a>b.Nowa bora = b. By Theorem 23.2, only one of the alternatives a bcan occur. It follows thata=b. 0 23.13 THEOREM. Ifa < bande < d, then ac < bd. 23.14 THEOREM. Ifa+6o,thend d. Then, since a > c also, we conclude that a + b > ¢ + d, violating Theorem 23.2. Hence b < d, again by Theorem 23.2. 0] 23.15 THEOREM. Ifab < cdanda 2 c, thenb < d. 23.16 THEOREM. Ifa+x <6, thena P(k + 1). Now N& states that S = N. That is, for every n in N, we have P(n) true. o t+ Also called finite induction, since it is a method of proving a theorem for every (finite) natural number.MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION SEC. 25 123 We now illustrate this first principle of mathematical induction by proving several theorems. Remember that we are using all of high school algebra quite freely. 25.2 THEOREM. YneN, 5" — 2° is divisible by 3. Let P(n) denote the statement 5* — 2" is divisible by 3. (1) P(1) is true, since 5‘ — 2? = 5 — 2 = 3, and 3 is certainly divisible i“ *@) ‘We must now establish the implication P(k)—> P(k + 1). Therefore, write both of these primitive statements: P(k): S* — 2 is divisible by 3 and P(k + 1): 5**! — 2**1 is divisible by 3. Remember that to prove the implication p> g, assume the hypothesis p to be true, then prove the conclusion g must also be true. Thus we assume P(k). We have 5* — 2 = 3r for some r in N. (Note that 5**! = 5(5*), If we add —2* + 2 inside the parentheses, then we can group 5* — 2* together. Perhaps such an attack will produce results. Indeed it does.) We have Seth pest = 5(5" — 2k 4 28) — 2681 = 5(5t — 24) + 5+2k — gkes = 5+3r + (5 — 2)+2 = 3-57 43-2 = 3(5r + 2%), Since 5**1 — 2+ is 3 times the natural number Sr + 2, it is divisible by 3. We have shown that P(k)> Pk +1). The theorem now follows by Theorem 25.1. 0 Before attempting a proof of a theorem such as Theorem 25.2, the reader will find it helpful to review Section 8 on proofs. Especially appro- priate here is Rule 8.1, for how can one expect to construct a proof unless one understands just what the theorem states? Example 8.10 brings out this idea quite fully.124 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS It may help the reader to understand mathematical induction if he thinks of a long row of dominoes all standing on end. Suppose these dominoes are so placed that if any one of them is knocked over, then it knocks its neighbor down, Now consider what happens if the first one is knocked over. Why of course, all the dominoes fall, since the first knocks down the second, the second knocks down the third, then the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, and so forth. This is the idea behind mathematical induction. We have P(1) and P(k)-> P(k + 1) both true. Since P(1) is true, then P(I)—>P(2) proves P(2) is true (when we let k = 1). Then P(2)-> P(3) proves P(3) is true (for k = 2). And so forth. Thus we obtain P(n) true for every natural number n. COUR008 Ficure 25.1. Dominoes and mathematical induction. 25.3 THEOREM. For each nin N, n(n + 1) is divisible by 2. Let P(m) denote “n(n + 1) is divisible by 2.” Now (1) P(1) is true since I + 2 is divisible by 2. (2) P(k) states that k(k + 1) is divisible by 2, and P(k + 1) states that (ke + DK + 1) + 1) = & + IK + 2) is divisible by 2. We assume P(k); that is, K(k + 1) = 2r for some natural number r. Then K+ Ik +2) =k + DEF (kK + 12 = kk +1) + 2k +1) = 2r + Ak + 1) =Ar+k+)), whence P(k + 1) is true. The theorem follows by mathematical induction (Theorem 25.1). a 25.4 THEOREM. 1+2+3+---+n=an+ 1/2. > Care must be exercised to understand that n must be a natural number in this formula and that there are exactly n addends in the left-hand side. Thus, for n = 2, for example, the statement reads 142 = 2(3)/2,MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION SEC. 25 125 which is true. We now prove the theorem, denoting its statement by P(n). (1) For n = 1 we have 1 = 1(2)/2, which is true. (2) Now P(k) states 14243 4---+k =kk + 1/2, and P(k + 1) is the statement 14243 4---4+K+) = + DKF 2/2. Remember that there are k + 1 terms in this last sum; it includes all the addends of P(k) plus the additional term k + 1. To prove that P(k) implies P(k + 1), assume P(k). Then we have 1+ 2434 ---4¢4K +I) H=142434---+¢kK + (K+) Hkk+)/2+%+D) by P(k) = (k + Ik/2+ 1) =(k + IK + 2/2, whence P(k + 1) follows from P(k). ‘Again the theorem follows by Theorem 25.1. Occasionally a theorem is true for nearly all natural numbers, and it can be proved by modifying the proof by mathematical induction accordingly. The most common occurrence is for a theorem to be true for all natural numbers greater than some fixed number. All that is necessary in such a case is to start at the smallest truth value in part (1) of the proof. An illustration follows. 25.5 THEOREM. For every natural number n > 2, Av + 1/V2 + 1/V3 + ++ + Van > Va. (1) Set n= 2. Then 1/VI + 1/V2 > V2, as the reader can easily verify. (2) Suppose 1/V1 + 1/V2 + 1/V3 +--+ + I/Vk > Vk. We must prove that AVI + 1V2 + V3 + + VE FT > VE FT. To this end we have YVT + V2 + V3 + oe + VE FT = (IJV + 1/V2 + V3 + +++ + VK) + VE FT > Vk +1/Vk+1 by hypothesis.126 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS But Vk +1 > Vk, whence VEVE +I > k, VEVEFI+1>k41, VEVEFI+1> k+l Vk +1 Vk +1 and VE+AVE FT > Vie+d. Thus we have established part (2) of the proof. The theorem now follows; we haye proved the formula true for all natural numbers n > 2. Further work on such modifications of N8, along with considerations of other modifications, will be found in Exercises 25-26 through 25-34. EXERCISES Prove each theorem true for all natural numbers n by mathematical induction in Exercises 25-1 to 25-20. * 25-1. n(x + 1 + 2) is divisible by 6. 25-2. n(n + In + 2)(n + 3) is divisible by 24. 25-3. 5° — 3” is divisible by 2. 25-4. 3" — 1 is divisible by 2. 25-5. a* — b* is divisible by a — b. 25-6. 2"-1 + 33"-1 is divisible by 5. 25-7, 3°*-1 + 42"-1 is divisible by 7. 25-8. a*"-1 + 5?"-1 is divisible by a + b. 25-9. 2ZH4tO tes + m= n(n + 1). 25-10. "3 +6 +9 4 +--+ 3n = 3n(n + 1/2. 25-1. V+ 3454 ---+ (n—1) = 2% 25-12, 12 4+ 224 324 0-0 +n = a(n + IQn + D6. 25-13, 15242-3 43-44 --- 400+ Dann t Dm + 23/3. 25-14. po taty tale tet Int 1) = anj(a + 1. 25-15. L+2+4484 +--+ 2-2 529-1, 25-16. a + ar + ar? + +6 + ar} = al — ry — r). 25-17. 14+54+9+4-+++ (4n — 3) = n(n — 1). 25-18. 12+ 474+ 7 + ...4+ Gn—2)? = n(6n? — 3n — 1/2. 25-19. 1+2+34+2°3°443+4-54 stan + Int 2) = nn + In + 2(n + 3)/4.MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION SEC. 25 127 25-20. phy + sty toby te $1/(Qn — Qn + 1) = n/n t VD. * 25-21. The expression f(n) = n? — n + 41 yields prime numbers for n = 1,2,3,...,40. Does f(n) yield primes for all n in N? Explain why the first statement in this problem does not prove that. + 25-22. Prove part (2) in a mathematical induction proof for the formula 14243400402 (0 4 1/27/2. Does this prove the formula? Show that this formula is in fact false for every n in N. + 25-23. What is the fallacy in the following “proof” of P(1)? P(n): All numbers in any set of n numbers are equal. (1) Clearly P(1) is true. (2) Suppose P(k) is true, and let S$ be a set of the k +1 numbers Gy, da... ., Gear. NOW dy, da, ..., a, form a subset of exactly k elements, so @, = dy = -»- = a, since P(k) is assumed true. For the same reason we can conclude that a, = ay = --- = a3. Now it follows that Gy = Oy = = Ay = Oey, whence P(k + 1) is true. Hence the theorem by mathematical induction. 25-24. Explain why 1 + 2+ 3+ ---+ =n? cannot be proved by mathematical induction. Illustrate your answer. 25-25. Verify 1/V1 + 1/V2 > V2 in the proof of Theorem 25.5. 25-26. Prove that n? < 2* for all natural numbers n > 4. 25-27. Prove that n° < 2" for all natural numbers n > 9. 25-28. Prove that 2* < n! for all natural numbers n > 4. Remember that 7 1+2+3---- +n 25-29, For all n in N, n > 2, prove that n° +1 > 7? +n. + 25-30. For every natural number 1 > 2, prove that Bai P-1 e-1 _ntl Be mann 25-31. For every natural number n > 2, prove that ee ee wn 132-435 @-DeF ~ att 25-32. Find set S where S has those elements and only those elements such that a. Sis in S, and k in S implies k + 1 in S; b. 32 is in S, and k in S implies 2k in S; c. 7is in S, and k in S implies k + 2 in S;128 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS 1 is in S, and k in S implies k? in S; 1 is in S, and k in S implies 2* in S; 1 is in S, and k in S implies 2k — 1 in S; 3 is in S, and k in S implies k + 3 in S; 5 is in S, and k in S implies k + 5 in S; 25-33. For every odd natural number n > 3, prove that G+ 0 - Hl +3) + Dn) = 1. 25-34. For every even natural number n, prove that (- 40 + Pd - 4-1 = (- 1%) = PRoo ae 26 | EXPONENTS AND INEQUALITIES Before considering two more principles of mathematical induction, let us return to our development of the properties of the natural numbers. Many basic number concepts can be made to depend upon mathematical induction quite naturally. Exponents and further work with inequalities are considered in this section. 26.1 DEFINITION. Let a’ = a and a**} = aa Vk EN. Such a definition is called a definition by mathematical induction. Compare this terse statement of Definition 26.1 with the usual form of the definition of exponents: 26.1a ALTERNATIVE DEFINITION. Let a! = a and, for n > 1, rete aeentat where there are n factors. This awkward “a-a----+a, where there are n factors” has been eliminated in our definition, leaving a more precise and aesthetically better statement. Since it is not immediately obvious that Definition 26.1 defines exponents for all cases, the following theorem is included. 26.2 THEOREM. For all natural numbers a and n, a” is defined. (1) For = 1, a‘ = a, so a’ is defined for all a in N. (2) Suppose a* is defined for all a and some k in N. Then a} = ata, Definition 26.1 and a**? is also defined.EXPONENTS AND INEQUALITIES SEC. 26 129 The theorem now follows by mathematical induction. a The usual laws of exponents may now be proved. A few are included here. 26.3 THEOREM. 1"= 1. (1) We have 1! 1 by Definition 26.1. (2) Suppose 1* = 1. Then 11 = 141 Definition 26.1 =l* N6 =1, Substitution and the theorem follows by Theorem 25.1. 0 26.4 THEOREM. (ab)" = a*b*. (1) (ab)! = ab = a*b* by Definition 26.1. (2) Assume (ab)* = a*b*, Then (ab)**4 = (ab)"(ab) Definition 26.1 = (@b' (ab) Substitution = (@b)ab NA (a'(b%a))b NA = (a'(ab®)bN2 = ((@’'ab)b NA = (@'a)(b%b) NA = a®*1+1, Definition 26.1 Hence the theorem by mathematical induction. 0 26.5 THEOREM. aa" = a™*", (i) For n = 1, aa! = a"a = a™*? by Definition 26.1. (2) Suppose a"a* = a™**, Then a"a**? = a(a‘a) Definition 26.1 = (a"a")a N4 = aa Substitution = gmthrr Definition 26.1 = attey, NB The theorem follows by mathematical induction. a130 CH.4 NATURAL NUMBERS 26.6 THEOREM. (a")* = a". A proof of this theorem by mathematical induction on 1 is left to the reader. It is well known that | is the smallest natural number; that is, 1 < n for every natural number . Try to prove this simple fact without using mathe- matical induction. Then read the proof of the next theorem. 26.7 THEOREM. | < 2 for every natural number x. (1) Since 1 = 1, then 1 < 1 is true. (2) Suppose 1 < k. Then 1+ 1 6, then b < a < 6 + 1, which violates Theorem 26.8. Hence the theorem. 0] One more theorem completes this section. The principle of the smallest natural number, or the well-ordering theorem for the natural numbers, again is quite intuitive, but is impossible to prove without using N8 or some equiva- lent statement. This theorem will be quite useful in the next section. 26.10 THEOREM. Well-ordering theorem. If S is a nonempty subset of N, then S has a smallest element. That is, there is an element s in S such that s < ¢ for all rin S. Suppose the theorem is false and let M be the set of all natural numbers that are less than every natural number in S. Then S and M are disjoint by trichotomy (Theorem 23.2). We haveEXPONENTS AND INEQUALITIES SEC. 26 131 (1) 1 is in M. For if 1 is in S, then 1 is the smallest element of S by Theorem 26.7. Thus 1 is not in S. It follows that 1 is in M. (2) Suppose k is in M. Then k < 1 for every t in S, whence k + 1 6, then arriving at a contradiction. 26-4, Use mathematical induction on n, along with Theorem 26.7, to prove that for all natural numbers a and n, a" 2a. 26-5. Prove that (I + a)" = 1 + na for all a and n in N. 26-6. Prove that 2n = n + 1 for all x in N. 26-7. Prove that n? + 1 > n for all nin N. 26-8. Prove that? + 1 > n? +n forallnin N. 26-9. Prove that 4" > n* for all natural numbers n > 4. 26-10. Prove that 2" > n* for all natural numbers n > 16. 26-11. Prove that n! > 4* for all natural numbers n > 8. 26-12. Comment on the following proof of the theorem: Every natural number is interesting. Let S be the set of all natural numbers that are not interesting and suppose that S # @. Then Shas a smallest member s. That is, s is the smallest natural number that is uninteresting. Ah, but that is interesting! Oo 26-13. Analyze the statement “there is always room for one more at a round table” from the point of view of mathematical induction. 26-14. A set of numbers is called well ordered iff every nonempty subset has a least element. a. Show that the integers are not well ordered. b. A set of numbers is bounded iff there is a number b such that |x| < b for every element x in the set. Show that every bounded subset of the integers is well ordered.132 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS c. Show that the rational numbers are not well ordered. d. Show that there are bounded subsets of the rational numbers that are not well ordered. 26-15. In the proof of Theorem 26.10, explain why S and M are disjoint. 26-16. Prove Theorem 26.6 by mathematical induction on m. 26-17. Define n! by induction (7! = 1+2+3+---+n). 27 | TWO MORE PRINCIPLES Some theorems do not readily lend themselves to a proof by finite induction (Theorem 25.1), but still they are of that form. An example of such a theorem is that every natural number n > 2 is either a prime or a product of primes, The fact that one number k can be so represented is no help in estab- lishing such a representation for k + 1. A stronger principle of mathematical induction is needed. Two such principles are now stated and proved. Observe that these principles are proved from the principle of the smallest natural number. The interested reader might try to establish proofs directly from N8. 21.1 THEOREM. The second principle of mathematical induction. Let P(x) be a proposition having N as a meaningful set. Suppose (1) P(1) is true, and (2) for m> 1, P(m) is true whenever P(k) is true for all natural numbers k < m. Then P(n) is true for all n in N. Let S be the set of all natural numbers n for which P(n) is false and assume that S # @. Then S has a smallest element s by Theorem 26.10. Now s # 1, since P(1) is true. Thus s > 1. Since s is the smallest element » for which P(n) is false, it follows that P(k) is true for all natural numbers k <-s. But, by (2), P(s) is then true. This contradiction, that P(s) is both true and false, shows that S cannot be nonempty. Thus S = 2, and P(n) is true forallinsetN. 0 27.2. THEOREM. The third principle of mathematical induction. Let P(n) be a proposition having N as a meaningful set. Suppose that for some fixed A in N, (1) P(1), PQ),..., P(A) are all true, and (2) P(m + h) is true whenever P(k) is true for all k in N such that msk 2 is either a prime or a product of primes. (1) Ifn = 2, then nis a prime. (2) Suppose that for 2 < k < m, k is either a prime or a product of primes. If m is a prime, then P(m) is true. If m is not a prime, then m can be factored into factors other than 1 and m. Let m = rs be such a factorization. Then 1 r(fors # 1). b. Ifr = m, then rs > m.134 CH. 4 NATURAL NUMBERS a or 2 is less than 4 logio 7. 27-5. Show that N8 could be replaced by Theorem 26.10. That is, assuming NI through N7 and Theorem 26.10, prove N8. In Exercises 27-6 to 21-9, f, denotes the nth Fibonacci number. See Definition 21.4. 27-6. Prove f341 —Snfava = (—1)%. 27-7, Prove fo + fa + +++ + fon =Soner — 1. 27-8. Prove fy + fo + +++ + fan-1 = Son 27-9. By Theorem 27.2, prove that _ (+ V5" = (1 = V5)", te as 27-10. Define g, = 1, go = 3, and gy49 = 3gcs3 — 2g, for all k in N. Prove that g, = 2" — I using Theorem 27.2. 27-11. Define 4, = 1, fg = 2, ts = 3, and, for all k in N, teva = te + tesa + tesa Prove that t, < 2". 28 | AN INDEPENDENT POSTULATE SET It is possible to state more postulates in a postulate set than necessary. For example, we could have stated in N6 that 1 is unique. This was unneces- sary, since this uniqueness can be proved (Theorem 22.6). It is not wrong to assume more than necessary, and sometimes it is quite convenient to do so. By postulating a theorem that is difficult to prove, we avoid forcing the student to step immediately into work that is complicated and discouraging. Later, when the student is more familiar with the ideas developed in the discourse, the assumed theorem can be proved from the remaining postulates with greater ease and understanding. 28.1 DEFINITION. A postulate in a given postulate set is called dependent if it can be logically deduced from the remaining postulates in the