Allocated Given

TASK 01 Marks Marks

T1.1 Explain & differentiate the two terms called Data & Information. 5

T1.2 Explain what a computer system is by giving examples. 10

T1.3 Draw the total computer system diagram. 15
Draw a simple structure of a processor & explain the functionalities of
T1.4 the ALU & CU. 10

T1.5 What can be measured by using the processor clock speed 5

What are the three types of buses that can be identified in a
T1.6 15
motherboard, explain the functionalities.
What is the abbreviation for the MIPS & what can be measured by using
T1.7 5
it?
T1.8 Write short notes about Pipelining & Flops 5
Covert the following binaries in to decimals. (State the steps of
calculations)
1. 110011002
T1.9 15
2. 101011102

3. 111001012
Convert the following Decimals in to Binaries. (State the steps of
calculations)
T1.10 1. 9710 15
2. 11210
3. 12710

Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 02 Marks Marks
Computer system storage devices can be mainly classified in to two, list all
T2.1 the computer system storage devices by briefly explaining the 25
functionalities of those.
T2.2 By taking examples explain the term called volatility & non Volatility 12
Briefly explain the differences between internal & external storage devices
T2.3 10
by taking examples.
Differentiate the following terms.
1. RAM & ROM
T2.4 15
2. DVD & USB
3. External data bus & Data bus
Accessing something that has been stored in the hard disk is
T2.5 comparatively time consuming than accessing RAM by taking an 10
example justify the above statement
T2.6 Clearly explain the following terms 16

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 1. Data seek time
2. Capacity
3. Access latency

4. Data blocks
T2.7 Explain what data transfer rate (DTR) is & how it relates to storage devices. 12
Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 03 Marks Marks
T3.1 Explain Data Communication with suitable diagram 25
T3.2 Explain Data communication media by giving 3examples each 25

T3.3 Explain the data transmission types 25

Explain the following terms with a diagram
a. Simplex
T3.4 b. Half-Duplex 25
c. Duplex

Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 04 Marks Marks
What is computer network? Give 4 advantages and dis-advantages of Computer
T4.1 25
Networks
T4.2 Clearly explain the devices that used in Networks 25
T4.3 Explain the major types of networks and scope of networks 20
T4.4 Explain the following Network Topologies with diagram 30
a. Bus topology
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 b. Star topology
c. Ring topology
d. Mesh topology
e. Hybrid topology
Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 05 Marks Marks
Computer operating systems can be classified in to many categories, list down
T5.1 50
those categories & state appropriate examples for those categories.
Briefly explain the basic functionalities of an operating system (use an example
T5.2 50
O/S to illustrate your answer)
Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 06 Marks Marks
Do a simple research work about open source operating systems, (Linux,
UNIX & etc) To identify how file structures & functionalities differ from
windows based operating systems.
T6.1 100
Instructions an appropriate comparison work can be allowed & all the
features, limitations needs to be properly illustrated

Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 07 Marks Marks
List down & briefly explain what are the major factors to be concerned when
T7.1 20
buying a computer for yourself.
When implementing a small network (LAN/simple computer system) to a small
T7.2 20
organization, what are the things that you have to consider in general?
Briefly explain the importance of implementing proper computer security
T7.3 20
masseurs.
Briefly explain the following computer system components
1. Memory
T7.4 2. Sound cards 40
3. External storages

4. Video Graphic Adaptor

Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 08 Marks Marks
Clearly explain the objectives of implementing a proper test plan for computer
T8.1 25
system testing
T8.2 Explain the most commonly available software testing methods in ICT 50
T8.3 List down & briefly explain the health & safety issues in ICT 25

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Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 09 Marks Marks
Clearly identify all the basic user training needs in general ICT & explain the basic
T9.1 25
user training needs & objectives.
Explain what is help desk support & the benefits of implementing help desk
T9.2 25
service/s within an organization.
Briefly explain what an ICT based training plan is by taking a sample training plan
T9.3 25
as an example.
T9.4 Briefly explain the objective of preparing a training schedule. 25
Total 100

Allocated Given
TASK 10 Marks Marks
Explain the purposes of implementing proper security measures in to your
T10.1 25
personal computer(Use example security measures that you can take)
Within a computer network environment what are the risks/threats that can be
T10.2 commonly identified, & briefly explain the precautions that can be taken to 25
prevent those risks/threats.
T10.3 Brief out the encryption mechanism by using a clear diagram. 25
Briefly explain how computer/network management helps to reduce Hacking &
T10.4 25
all the other types of computer relative unauthorized activities.
Total 100

END OF ASSIGNMENT

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 Task 1
T 1.1
Data
Data is an unrecognized fact that needs to be processed. Data can be something simple and
seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
E.g.
Each students test score is one piece of data.

Information
When data is processed, organized, structured and presented in a given context so as to make it
useful, it is called information.
E.g.
The class average score or the school average score is the information that can be concluded
from the given data.

T 1.2
A complete working computer. This is including the computer along with any software and
peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. It is the ability to take
instructions often known as programs and execute them that distinguishes a computer from a
mechanical calculator. While both are able to make computations, a calculator responds simply to
immediate input. In fact, most modern calculators are actually computers, with a number of pre-
installed programs to help aid in complex tasks.
Ex- input devices, output devices, internal devices, processor, secondary storage, primary storage
and etc.

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 T 1.3

MEMORY UNIT

OUTPUT DEVICE
INPUT DEVICE
CONTROL UNIT
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse Printer
Bar code Reader Plotter
OCR Speaker
Scanner

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

AUXILERY STORAGE DEVICE

Floppy Disk Drive

Hard Disk
Flash Disk

T 1.4

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 A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer system which carries
out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical,
and input/output operations of the system. show picture 1.1

Picture 1.1

The CPU is made up of three main parts:

1. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and
logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing
unit of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for purposes
such as maintaining timers. Most of a processor's operations are performed by one or
more ALUs. An ALU loads data from input registers, an external Control Unit then tells
the ALU what operation to perform on that data, and then the ALU stores its result into
an output register. The Control Unit is responsible for moving the processed data
between these registers, ALU and memory.

2. The Registers are temporary storage locations inside the processor that hold the data
and instructions being used by the processor at a particular time.

3. The control unit coordinates the components of a computer system. It fetches the
code of all of the instructions in the program. It directs the operation of the other units
by providing timing and control signals. All computer resources are managed by the
CU. It directs the flow of data between the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the other
devices.

Clock Speed

Clock speed is a measure of how quickly a computer completes basic computations and
operations. It is measured as a frequency in hertz (Hz), and most commonly refers to the
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 speed of the computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). While computer developers and
users can refer to this term regarding CPU performance, this has fallen out of favor as CPUs
have become more complex. The easiest ways to boost clock speed in a computer include
upgrading components and "over clocking" a piece of hardware.

There is a small quartz crystal inside of a CPU that vibrates at a particular oscillation or
frequency. This frequency sets the "speed" of processes in the computer and is usually very
high; they are typically measured in megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz). A megahertz is
one-million cycles per second, while a gigahertz is one-billion cycles per second. So a
computer with a clock speed of 800MHz is running 800,000,000 cycles per second, while a
2.4GHz computer is running 2,400,000,000 cycles per second.

The Table1.1 helps you to understand the differences between the different processors that
Intel has introduced over the years.

Name Date Transistors Microns Clock speed Data width MIPS

8080 1974 6,00 6 2 MHz 8 bits 0.64
8088 1979 29,00 3 5 MHz 16 bits 0.33
8-bit bus
80286 1982 134,00 1.5 6 MHz 16 bits 1
80386 1985 275,00 1.5 16 MHz 32 bits 5
80486 1989 1,200,00 1 25 MHz 32 bits 20
Pentium 1993 3,100,00 0.8 60 MHz 32 bits 100
64-bit
bus
Pentium II 1997 7,500,00 0.35 233 MHz 32 bits ~300
64-bit
bus
Pentium III 1999 9,500,00 0.25 450 MHz 32 bits ~510
64-bit
bus
Pentium 4 2000 42,000,00 0.18 1.5 GHz 32 bits ~1,700
64-bit
bus
Pentium 4 "Prescott" 2004 125,000,00 0.09 3.6 GHz 32 bits ~7,000
64-bit
bus
Table 1.1

Additional information about this table:

The date is the year that the processor was first introduced. Many processors are re-introduced at
higher clock speeds for many years after the original release date. Transistors is the number of
transistors on the chip. You can see that the number of transistors on a single chip has risen steadily
over the years.

Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a human hair is
100 microns thick. As the feature size on the chip goes down, the number of transistors rises.

Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be clocked at. Clock speed will make more sense
in the next section.

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 Data Width is the width of the ALU. An 8-bit ALU can add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-bit numbers,
while a 32-bit ALU can manipulate 32-bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would have to execute four
instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can do it in one instruction. In many
cases, the external data bus is the same width as the ALU, but not always. The 8088 had a 16-bit ALU
and an 8-bit bus, while the modern Pentiums fetch data 64 bits at a time for their 32-bit ALUs.

MIPS stand for "millions of instructions per second" and is a rough measure of the performance of a
CPU. Modern CPUs can do so many different things that MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning, but
you can get a general sense of the relative power of the CPUs from this column.

T 1.6
Bus
Computers comprises of many internal components and in order for these components to
communicate with each other, a bus is used for that purpose. A bus is a common pathway
through which information flows from one component to another. This pathway is used for
communication purpose and can be established between two or more computer
components.

Computers can be viewed to be having just three types of buses:

1. Control Bus - The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other
functional areas of the computer.

2. Address Bus - The address bus consists of all the signals necessary to define any of the
possible memory address locations within the computer, or for modular memories any of the
possible memory addresses locations within a module.

3. Data Bus - The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles the transfer
of all data and instructions between functional areas of the computer.

Picture 1.2 shows how buses connected to system

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 Picture 1.2

T 1.7
Millions of Instructions per Seconds (MIPS)

MIPS is the old measure of a computer's speed and power, MIPS measures roughly the
number of machine instructions that a computer can execute in one second.

However, different instructions require more or less time than others, and there is no
standard method for measuring MIPS. In addition, MIPS refer only to the CPU speed,
whereas real applications are generally limited by other factors, such as I/O speed.

Once a common system for judging computer speed, MIPS ratings have fallen out of use,
antiquated by technological progress. Many experts believe MIPS were rendered largely
obsolete with the arrival of the sophisticated microprocessor technologies that shaped the
modern CPU. The argument that supports this claim is that with the introduction of a CPU
that conducts many different operations simultaneously, any measurement of computer
performance should take into account all variables that may affect performance. MIPS refer
only to CPU speed, ignoring other factors known to affect performance, such as I/O
(input/output) speed.

T 1.8
Pipelining
A pipeline is a set of data processing elements connected in series, so that the output of one element
is the input of the next one. In most of the cases we create a pipeline by dividing a complex operation
into simpler operations. We can also say that instead of taking a bulk thing and processing it at once,
we break it into smaller pieces and process it one after another.

Instruction pipelines, such as the classic RISC pipelines, which are used in processor to allow
overlapping executed multiple instruction with the same circuitry. The circuitries is usually
divided up into stages, including instruction decoding, arithmetic, and register fetching
stages, wherein each stage processes one instruction at time
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 Graphics pipelines, found in most graphics cards, which consist of multiple arithmetic units, or
complete CPU, implement the various stage of common rendering operation (perspective
projection, window clipping, color light calculation, rendering, etc.).

Software pipelines, where commands can be written so that opt out of one operation is
automatically used an input to the next, following operation. The UNIX command pipe is a classic
example of the concept: although of operation system do support pipes as well

Pipelining doesn't decrease the time for a single datum to be processed; it only increases
the throughput of the system when processing a stream of data. High pipelining leads to increase of
latency - the time required for a signal to propagate through a full pipe

FLOPS
Short for Floating Point Operations per Second, a common benchmark measurement for rating
the speed of microprocessors. Floating-point operations include any operations that involve
fractional numbers. Such operations, which take much longer to compute than integer operations,
occur often in some applications.

T 1.9
1. 110011002 2. 10101110 3. 111001012
0 x 20 = 0 0 x 20 = 0 1 x 20 = 1
0 x 21 = 0 1 x 21 = 2 0 x 21 = 0
1 x 22 = 4 1 x 22 = 4 1 x 22 = 4
1 x 23 = 8 1 x 23 = 8 0 x 23 = 0
0 x 24 = 0 0 x 24 = 0 0 x 24 = 0
0 x 25 = 0 1 x 25 = 32 1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64 0 x 26 = 0 1 x 26 = 64
1 x 27 = 128 1 x 27 = 128 1 x 27 = 128
204 174 229

T 1.10
1. 9710 = 11000012 2. 11210 = 11100002

2 97 2 112
1 56 0
2 48 2
0 28 0
2 24 2
0 14 0
2 12 2
0 7 0
2 6 2
0 3 1
3
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1
 2 2

3. 12710 = 11111112

2 127
2 63 1

2 31 1

2 15 1

7 1
2
3 1
2
1 1

Task 2
T 2.1
In a computer storage device is an important device to store data. Different types of devices are used to
store data. The data is stores in digital forms. There are three types of data storage, namely primary
data storage, secondary storage devices and tertiary storage devices. The classification of
computer storage devices is made based on the task performed by the device. The primary storage
device is commonly called random access memory, while the secondary storage device is the hard disk.
The tertiary storage devices are removable mass storage devices. While the amount of data stored on
the primary is less and is volatile in nature, while the secondary storage device have better storage
space and also is non volatile in nature.

Primary Memory
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 The primary storage devices for computers are actually a part of the computer's memory. We have
previously used the terms like RAM and ROM, but may not have know what they are exactly. They are
the Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

RAM - Random Access Memory

A random-access device allows stored data to be accessed in very nearly the same
amount of time for any storage location, so data can be accessed quickly in any random
order. In contrast, other data storage media such as hard disks, CDs, DVDs and magnetic
tape, as well as early primary memory types such as drum memory, read and write data
only in a predetermined order, consecutively, because of mechanical design limitations.
Therefore the time to access a given data location varies significantly depending on its
physical location.

There are two main forms of modern RAM:

StaticRAM (SRAM) - Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor
memory that uses bitable latching circuitry to store each bit.

DynamicRAM (DRAM) DRAM is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of
data in a separate capacitor within an integrated. The capacitor can be either charged or
discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally
called 0 and 1. Since capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the
capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement. (e.g. DDR,
SDRAM)

ROM Read Only Memory

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers and other electronic
devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty,
so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware
and unlikely to need frequent updates).

There are several types of ROMs:

Mask-ROM contents are programmed by the integrated circuit manufacturer (rather than
by the user). The terminology "mask" comes from integrated circuit fabrication, where
regions of the chip are masked off during the process of photolithography.

PROM - It is a form of digital memory where the setting of each bit is locked by
a fuse or antifuse. Such PROMs are used to store programs permanently. The key difference
from a strict ROM is that the programming is applied after the device is constructed.

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 EPROM - EPROM can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10
minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage
applied. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but
the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming.

EEPROM EEPROM is based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its
entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so
that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.)

EAROM EAROM is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Writing is a
very slow process and again needs higher voltage (usually around 12 V) than is used for read
access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial
rewriting. EAROM may be used as non-volatile storage for critical system setup information;
in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM supplied by mains
power and backed-up with a lithium battery.

Flash memory - Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM,
and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND
flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as
high as 32 GB as of 2007.

Secondary Storage
Most of the storage devices we are acquainted with come under this category. They are not a part of
the processor. People make use of these devices, so that the storage capacity of the computer can be
increased. Like the ROM, the secondary computer storage is also non volatile. The information stored
on these devices is retained, even if the computer has been switched off.

Hard Drives
The hard drives are one of the most important of the secondary types of computer data storage
devices, the hard drive types. Data is stored on the hard drives in the digital format on the hard
drives. In the initial days of the computers, hard disks were like removable mass storage devices.
However, with time they started coming as a part of the central processing unit of the computer.
However, now there are external hard drives available as well.

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 Floppy Discs
This is a magnetic storage device, which is set in square plastic shell. They are available in
different sizes, like 8 inches, 5 inches and 3 inches. In the initial days floppy discs were very
popular; however, with the advancements they got over shadowed by the other devices.

Compact Discs
Previously compact discs (abbreviated as CD) were used only for recording and storing audio
files. Subsequently along with audio, video and other data is also stored on them. These discs can
store data for long time. The data is stored on the CDs in optical format. Backup can be stored on
the CDs.

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 Digital Versatile Disc
The format of storing data in the digital versatile discs (DVD) is similar to that of a compact disc.
The difference lies in the storage capacity. There is six times more storage space in the DVD's as
compared to the CD's. Like the CD's, DVDs are also used as backup device.

Flash Memory
With a lot of research came the flash memory. This storage devices for a computer is similar to the
read only memory. However, there is a big difference between the flash memory and the ROM.
Data from the flash memory can be erased in a matter of few seconds from the flash drives, which
is not the case with the ROM's. At the same time, the data can be changed as per the requirement.

Blu-ray Discs
Blu-rays discs are abbreviated as BD, are used for high-definition video storage. It is often used by
gamers. Blu-ray discs are similar to the CD's and DVD's in their looks. It is the memory space
which makes all the difference between the CD's, DVD's and BD's. Blu-ray disc is an optical storage
device.

USB Flash Drive

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 The USB flash drives consist of a NAND type flash memory. It has an integrated Universal Serial
Bus (USB) interface. They are non-volatile and data can be rewritten on them. They are very small
in size, but have very large memory space. There are some of the USB drives, where 1 million
erase and write cycles can be carried out. On the other hand, some of them are known to retain
data for as long as 10 years.

Memory Cards
Data is stored in digital format on the memory cards. They can be used in various electronic
devices from hand held computers, mobile phones, cameras, etc. They are also rewritable.
Although they are small in size, they can store a high amount of data.

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 T 2.2
Computer Memory
memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data
(e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or
other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical
systems which are fast (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical
devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity.
Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory".

There are two type of Memory:

Volatile - Volatile storage, is computer memory that requires power to maintain the
stored information, in other words it needs power to reach the computer memory. Volatile
memory retains the information as long as power supply is on, but when power supply is
off or interrupted the stored memory is lost. (e.g. RAM)

Non-volatile - non-volatile storage is computer memory that can retain the stored
information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only
memory, flash memory, ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM), most types of magnetic
computer devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and
early computer storage methods such as tape and punched cards. (e.g. ROM, NVRAM)

T 2.3
Internal storage devices reside inside the PC. Once installed, they become an integral part of the
machine, and due to the complex process of installing, you would definitely hesitate before removing
them again. Hence if something goes wrong with an internal storage device, more often than not, we
need to take it out of the PC system to have it fixed or to have it replaced. For data back-up, an
internal storage device is not a good option since most probably backing up files coming from the
own PC. Having it connected to the PC most of the time would render it vulnerable to virus and other
malicious attacks coming from online predators.

On the other hand, an external storage device gives exactly the opposite of that limitation of internal
storage devices. We can bring this kind of storage device anywhere, and the only time it stays
connected to the main machine is when we are using it. And since it is portable and can universally
connect to all PCs which support it. External storage devices are a great accessory for bringing large
files to where ever we want to bring them.

In terms of speed, internal storage devices though beat external devices. Since external storage
devices rely on another technology/facility to connect it to the computer, transfer speed is severely
affected. Internal storage devices download and upload files to the PC faster than the external
devices. This is due to the fact that internal storage devices become part of the system once it is
installed.
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 On the sharing aspect, external storage devices definitely beat internal storage. We can easily share
files with friends and contacts by simply connecting the device to their machines. And since most
external storage devices now work through USB port connectivity.

Price wise, external storage devices are at the high end as compared to internal storage device.
Manufacturers of external storage get tons of mark-ups to regain at the same profit. This is due to the
fact that external storage devices require special casings that could prevent the device from
malfunctioning since it helps in radiating the heat emitted by the device away from the drive itself.

Advantages of external storage

External storage devices provide additional storage other than that available in computer.
Data can be transported easily from one place to another.
It is useful to store software and data that is not needed frequently.
External storage also works as data backup.
This back up may prove useful at times such as fire or theft because important data is not lost.

T 2.4
1. Differences between ROM and RAM

RAM or random access memory is a read/write type of memory which is used by the processor
to keep program, data and intermediate results during program executions. It is VOLATILE
type of memory, which loses its content when the power supply to it is switched off. The
physical installation of RAM memory on the motherboard can take place in various ways.
DIP(dual In-line Pin) memory chips were used on initial motherboards.
Later SIMM ( single inline memory modules) became common.
Currently DIMM(dual inline memory modules) are most common memory module.

ROM or Read Only Memory, as its name suggests is a read only type of memory it cannot be
written. Data is written into it by the manufacturer.
On major advantage with the ROM is, ROM is Non-Volatile type of memory. ( i.e. it does
not lose its content when the power supply to it is switched off.)
A motherboard normally contains one or more of these ROM chips.
The memory capacity of a ROM varies from one type of system to another.64 Kilobyte
(KB) was normally sufficient for a XT system, whereas as AT system requires 256KB of
ROM.

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 ROM
Non-volatile - Data is never lost
Data is permanent - it can
never be changed
Data can only be read
RAM
Volatile - Data is lost if the computer crashes or is turned
off
Off.
Data is temporary - it is only there as long as the computer
is on and it can be changed
Data can be written to or read from.

2. Differences between DVD and USB

The main component of a CD is petroleum-derived polycarbonate, a lightweight and break-
resistant plastic. Although plastic isn't considered green, so CDs made from captured carbon
dioxide might be a thing of the future. The tiny size of a microchip inside a USB flash drive
belies its environmental impact. Fabricating something so intricate requires very pure raw
materials and a lot of energy to maintain that purity. The 2-gram microchip required 72 grams
of chemicals, 1.2 kg of fossil fuels, and 32 kg of water and 700 g of gases to produce. While
microchip fabrication is becoming more efficient, the demand for more storage per chip means
the amount of materials used in manufacture will remain steady over the years.

One or two gigabyte (GB) USB flash drives are now ubiquitous, with 16 and 32 GB devices
available at the top end of the market. CDs can store of around 700 MB, while DVDs can store
about 5 to 8 GB, or about six episodes of your favorite one-hour TV show. The next
improvement in optical storage is blu-ray technology, providing 25 to 50 GB of space per disc.

A USB flash drive can survive 10,000 write/rewrite cycles, but the USB plug will only survive
about 1,500 connections. On the other hand, you can use a rewritable DVD about 1000 times
before it gives up the ghost.
Unfortunately, rewritable DVDs never gained widespread popularity because USBs came along,
and people have favored DVDs more for permanent file storage.

3. External Data Bus and Data Bus

The external data bus is the primary bus for handling the flow of data. All devices that
require the handling of data are connected to the external data bus. Everything in the
computer that handles data is connected to the external data bus and therefore any
information (data) placed on the bus is available to all devices connected to the computer.
Early computers used 8 conductors (8-bit data bus) that allowed for the transfer of one byte of
information at a time. As computers evolved, the external data bus increased to 16, 32 and
now 64 conductors. These improvements allow larger and/or more data to be processed
simultaneously. The following figure shows a CPU attached to its motherboard. The
motherboard is the main circuit board that contains the external data bus. Notice all the other
devices also connected to the motherboard and therefore the data bus.

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 The size of the data bus (number of bits) will affect the speed of the computer. Typically,
external data buses are defined in byte wide increments and each new bus is double the
previous version. Four became eight that became sixteen and then thirty-two and now sixty-
four.

Data bus, memory bus or system bus or front-Side-Bus, connects all the internal components of
a computer, such as CPU and memory, to the motherboard. Internal data buses are also
referred to as a local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices. This bus is
typically rather quick and is independent of the rest of the computer operations.

T 2.5

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T 2.6
1. Data Seek Time
Seek time is a measure of the speed with which the drive can position its read/write heads over any
particular data track. Because neither the starting position of the head nor the distance from there
to the desired track is fixed, seek time varies greatly, and it is almost always measured as an average
seek time, though full track (the longest possible) and track to track (the shortest possible) seeks
are also quoted sometimes. The standard way to measure seek time is to time a large number of
disk accesses to random location, Subtract the latency and take the mean. Seek time is always
measured in milliseconds (ms), and often regarded as the single most important determinant of
drive performance, through this claim is debated.

2. Capacity
The capacity is the measure of how much space there is available to hold something. In a computer
hard disk is the data storage device. The main objective of disk storage is to record the maximum
quantity of data possible on one disk consistent with reliable reading and writing and fast access. It
measures how much data a computer system may contain. For an example, a computer with a
500GB hard drive has a storage capacity of 500 gigabytes. A network server with four 1TB drives
has a storage capacity of 4 terabytes.

Storage capacity is often used synonymously with "disk space." However, it refers to overall disk
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 space, rather than free disk space. For example, a hard drive with a storage capacity of 500GB may
only have 150MB available if the rest of the disk space is already used up. Therefore, when checking
your computer to see if it meets a program's system requirements, make sure you have enough free
disk space to install the program. If you need more disk space, you can increase your computer's
storage capacity by adding another internal or external hard drive.

3. Access Latency
Despite the quick and constant rotation rate of a hard disk, it cannot deliver information instantly on
request. There's always a slight delay that's called latency. This term describes how long after a
command to read from or write to a hard disk the disk rotates to the proper angular position to
locate the specific data needed. For example, if a program requests a byte from a hard disk and that
byte has just passed under the read/write head, the disk must spin one full turn before that byte can
be read from the disk and sent to the program. If read and write requests occur at essentially random
times in regard to the spin of the disk, on the average the disk has to make half a spin before the
read/write head is properly positioned to read or write the required data. Normal latency at 3600
RPM means that the quickest you can expect your hard disk on the average to find the information
you want is 8.33 milliseconds. For a computer that operates with nanosecond timing,
The newer hard disks with higher spin speeds cut latency. The relationship between rotation and

latency is linear, so each percentage increases in spin pushes down latency by the same factor. A
modern drive with a 5400 RPM spin achieves a latency of 5.56 milliseconds. Table 2.1 lists the
latency of disks based on rotation rate.

Table 2.1

4. Data Blocks
A physical unit of data that can be conveniently stored by a computer on an input or output device.
The block is normally composed of one or more logical records or a portion of a logical record.
Synonymous with physical record.

A data block is the smallest unit of logical storage for a database object. As objects grow they take
chunks of additional storage that are composed of contiguous data blocks. These groupings of
contiguous data blocks are called extents. All the extents that an object takes when grouped
together are considered the segment of the database object.

T 2.7
Data Transfer Rate
The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved from one place to another in
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 a given time. The data transfer rate can be viewed as the speed of travel of a given amount of data
from one place to another. In general, the greater the bandwidth of a given path, the higher the data
transfer rate.

Different peripheral devices have different data transfer rates. Some devices, like keyboards, are
extremely slow when compared to CPU speeds. Other devices, like disk drives, can actually transfer
data faster than the CPU can process it. The appropriate programming technique for data transfer
depends strongly on the transfer speed of the peripheral device involved in the I/O operation.
Therefore, in order to understand how to write the most appropriate code, it rst makes sense to
invent some terminology to describe the different transfer rates of peripheral devices.

Low speed devices that produce or consume data at a rate much slower than the CPU is capable of
processing. For the purposes of discussion, we'll assume that low-speed devices operate at speeds
that are two or more orders of magnitude slower than the CPU. Medium speed devices that transfer
data at approximately the same rate as or up to two orders of magnitude slower than, the CPU. High
speed devices that transfer data faster than the CPU is capable of handling using programmed I/O.

The speed of the peripheral device will determine the type of l/O mechanism used for the I/O
operation. Clearly, high-speed devices must use DMA because programmed I/0 is too slow. Medium-
and low-speed devices may use any of the three I/O mechanisms for data transfer (though Low
speed devices rarely use DMA because of the cost of the extra hardware involved).

There is two type of Data Transfer:

1. Internal Data Transfer
2. External Data Transfer

Internal Data Transfer

Internal Data rate is the speed with which the driver's internal read channel can transfer data from
the magnetic media. Previously a very important factor in drive performance, it remains significant
but less so than in prior years, as all modern drivers have very high internal data rate. Internal data
rate are normally measured in Megabits per second (Mbit/s).

External Data Rate

The External Data rate is the speed with which the drive can transfer data from its buffer to the host
computer system. Although in theory this is vital, in practice it is usually a non-issue. It is a
relatively trivial matter to design an electronic interface capable of outpacing any possible
mechanical read/write mechanism, and it is routine for computer makers to include a hard drive
controller interface that is significantly faster than the drive it will be attached to the external data
rate is usually measured in MB/s or MiB/s.

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 Task 3
T 3.1
Data communication has become an extremely important aspect of the modern world. It has been a
subject of great interest for many decades. However, the possibilities of exchanging business critical
documents and information. Data communication involves the exchange of data between two
computers. Computers work with a binary language consisting of zero and one. Therefore, a
computer generates a stream of zeros and ones and sends it to another computer to which it is
connected in some fashion. The connection can be either a simple wire or it can be through wireless
media. Moreover, these two computers need not necessarily be close to each other they can be in
different rooms, cities, states, countries or even continents. The magic of data communications
technology enables this exchange of zeros and ones from one computer to another

For enabling data communications, a combination of hardware and software is essential. In any data
communications system, three characteristics are desired:

1. Correct Delivery: When a sender transmits data for an intended recipient, the data must reach
only the intended recipient and not someone else

2. Accurate Delivery: The data send must be received in the same form as the one in which it was
sent. There must not be any sort of alterations to it in transit.

3. Timely Delivery: The data must travel from the sender to the receiver in a finite amount of
time. The term finite vague, and would depend on the reason why the data communication is
taking place.

Data communication system consists of five components

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Medium
5. Protocol

Picture 3.1 show the components of data communication system

Picture 3.1

1. Message
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 The message is data or information to be communicated. It can be text, numbers, pictures or
sound.

2. Sender
The sender is a device that sends data. Various device can be used to send the data.

3. Receiver
The receiver receives the information/message transmitted by sender

4. Medium
It is a physical path through which message passes from sender to receiver. The transmission
medium can be twisted-pair cable, co-axial cable, fiber-optic cable or radio waves.

5. Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. Protocol is a predecided term for
communication.

T 3.2
Transmission media are the physical infrastructure components that carry data from one computer to
another. They at the basis of data communication. Examples of simple forms of transmission media are
telephone wires that connect telephones to the central offices and coaxial cables that carry the cable
television transmission to homes. Transmission media need not always be in the form of a physical
wire they can be invisible as well.

All Transmission media can be divided into two main categories:

1. Guided media
2. Unguided media

Guided Media
Guided Media can be further subdivided into three main types as shown in picture 3.2. Guided
media are typically based on some physical cable. Twisted pair and coaxial cables carry signals in the
form of electrical current, whereas optical fiber carries signals in the form of light. We will now study
these one by one.

Guided Media

Twisted-pair Coaxial Fiber Optical

Picture 3.2
Twisted-pair Cable
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external
sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and
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 crosstalk between neighboring pairs.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular
insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an
insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer
shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880, Coaxial cable differs from
other shielded cable used for carrying lower-frequency signals, such as audio signals, in that the
dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is
needed for it to function efficiently as aradio frequency transmission line.

Fiber Optical Cable

An optical fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. The optical fiber elements
are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for
the environment where the cable will be deployed.

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 T 3.3
This is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibres, wireless
communication channels, and storage media. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal,
such as an electrical voltage, radio wave, microwave, or infrared signal or the way in which data is
transmitted from one place to another is called data transmission mode. It is also called the data
communication mode. It indicates the direction of flow of information. Sometimes, data transmission
modes are also referred to as directional modes.

Types of Data Transmission Modes:

There are two types of data transmission modes.
1. Parallel Transmission.
2. Serial Transmission.

Parallel Transmission:
In parallel transmission, a group of bits of data flow at the same time (in parallel) through
separate communication lines. It is very fast data transmission. The automobile traffic on a multi-
lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer, usually a group of bits
of data flow from one component to another at the same time. If a computer uses 32-bit internal
structure, then 32-bits of data can be transferred from one component of computer to another at
the same time. Parallel transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer.

Serial Transmission:
In serial data transmission, a group of bits of data flow in sequential Order through single
communication line. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of serial data
transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel transmission, because
data is. sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit on a single communication line. The telephone line
system uses the serial transmission to transmit data from one location to another. In computer
system, mouse also uses serial transmission to send the command signals inside the computer.

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 T 3.4
Simplex
Standard technique in linear programming for solving an optimization problem, typically one
involving a function and several constraints expressed as inequalities. The inequalities define a
polygonal region (see polygon), and the solution is typically at one of the vertices. The simplex
method is a systematic procedure for testing the vertices as possible solutions.

Half-duplex
Half-duplex is a type of communication in which data can flow back and forth between two
devices, but not simultaneously. Each device in a half-duplex system can send and receive data,
but only one device can transmit at a time. An example of a half-duplex device is a CB (citizens
band) radio. The CB protocol, which is used by truckers, police officers, and other mobile
personnel, allows users to communicate back and forth on a specific radio frequency. However,
since the CB protocol only supports half-duplex communication, only person can speak at a time.
This is why people communicating over two-way radios often say "over" at the end of each
statement. It is a simple way of telling the recipient he or she can respond if necessary.

Duplex
Duplex is a type of communication in which data can flow two ways at the same time. Full duplex
devices, therefore, can communicate back and forth simultaneously. Telephones are common
examples of full-duplex devices. They allow both people to hear each other at the same time. In
the computer world, most network protocols are duplex, enabling hardware devices to send data
back and forth simultaneously. For example, two computers connected via an Ethernet cable can
send and receive data at the same time. Wireless networks also support full-duplex
communication. Additionally, modern I/O standards, such as USB and Thunderbolt, are full-
duplex. The terms duplex and full-duplex can be used interchangeably since both refer to
simultaneous bidirectional communication. Full-duplex is often used in contrast to half-duplex,
which refers to bidirectional communication, but not at the same time. Simplex communication
is even more limited and only supports data transmission in one direction.

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 Task 4
T 4.1
A computer network is a system in which computers are connected to share information and
resources. The connection can be done as peer-to-peer or client/server. This web site reviews the
techniques you can use to set up and possibly manage a network for home or a small business, or else
two or more computers connected together through a communication media form a computer
network. The computers are connected in a network to exchange information and data. The computers
connected in a network can also use resources of other computers. Networks are collections of
computers, software, and hardware that are all connected to help their users work together. A network
connects computers by means of cabling systems, specialized software, and devices that manage data
traffic. A network enables users to share files and resources, such as printers, as well as send messages
electronically (e-mail) to each other.

Advantages of computer network

1. The cost of computing is reduced to each user as compared to the development and
maintain of each single computer system.
2. Network allows users to share common set of data files and software stored in a main
system.
3. Network allows users to share common hardware resources such as printers, fax
machines, modem etc.
4. Networks allow data transmission among far areas also within local areas.

Disadvantages of computer network

1. Networked computers are more susceptible to hackers, since physical access to the
computer is not required in order to access its data. To keep your network safe, use
security software and regularly change your passwords.
2. Computer viruses can spread rapidly through a network. To keep your network safe,
install a high-quality anti-virus program and run regular virus scans.
3. If the main server crashes, all computers residing on the network would be affected. To
avoid losing your information, maintain a scheduled backup system that saves your data
to either a second drive or cloud-based service.
4. If something goes wrong with the communication media, the whole network could go
down with it.

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 T 4.2
Hub - A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect
segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied
to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional features that enable an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the
hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs. A third type of hub, called a switching hub,
actually reads the destination address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct
port.

Switch - that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches operate at the data
link layer and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and therefore
support any packet protocol. LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched LANs
or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched Ethernet LANs. A small lever or button. The
switches on the back of printers and on expansion boards are called DIP switches. A switch that
has just two positions is called a toggle switch. Another word for option or parameter -- a symbol
that you add to a command to modify the command's behavior.

Multiplexer - A multiplexer combines more than one input into a single output. In electronics,
the multiplexer or mux combines several electrical signals into a single signal. There are different
types of multiplexers for analogue and digital circuits. In digital signal processing, the
multiplexer takes several separate digital data streams and combines them together into one
data stream of a higher data rate. This allows multiple data streams to be carried from one place
to another over one physical link, which saves cost.

Router - A hardware device designed to take incoming packets, analyzing the packets and then
directing them to the appropriate locations, moving the packets to another network, converting
the packets to be moved across a different network interface, dropping the packets, or
performing any other number of other actions. In the picture to the right, is a Linksys BEFSR11
router and is what most home routers look like. A router has a lot more capabilities than other
network devices such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions.
For example, a hub is often used to transfer data between computers or network devices, but
does not analyze or do anything with the data it is transferring. Routers however can analyze the
data being sent over a network, change how it is packaged and send it to another network or
over a different network. For example, routers are commonly used in home networks to share a
single Internet connection with multiple computers.

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 T 4.3
Different types of (private) networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the number of
machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach. Private networks are networks that belong to a
single organization. There are usually said to be three categories of networks:
1. LAN (local area network)
2. MAN (metropolitan area network)
3. WAN (wide area network)

LAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. It's a group of computers which all belong to the same
organization, and which are linked within a small geographic area using a network, and often the
same technology (the most widespread being Ethernet). A local area network is a network in its
simplest form. Data transfer speeds over a local area network can reach up to 10 Mbps.

MAN
MANs connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one another at high speeds. Thus, a MAN
lets two remote nodes communicate as if they were part of the same local area network. A MAN
is made from switches or routers connected to one another with high-speed links (usually fiber
optic cables).

WAN
A WAN connects multiple LANs to one another over great geographic distances. The speed
available on a WAN varies depending on the cost of the connections (which increases with
distance) and may be low. WANs operate using routers, which can "choose" the most appropriate
path for data to take to reach a network node.

T 4.4

Bus topology
A bus topology is a type of network setup where each computer and network device is connected
to a single cable or backbone. Below, is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a
network using the bus topology.

Star topology
A star topology is one of the most common network setups where each of the devices and

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 computers on a network connect to a central hub. A major disadvantage of this network topology
is that if the central hub fails, all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected. Below
is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using the star topology.

Ring topology
Ring topology is a computer network configuration where each network computer and device is
connected to each other forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the
ring until it reaches its final destination. Today, the ring topology is seldom used. Below is a
visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a ring topology.

Mesh topology
A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with one another,
allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the connections go down. This
topology is not commonly used for most computer networks as it is difficult and expensive to
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 have redundant connection to every computer. However, this topology is commonly used for
wireless networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a
mesh topology.

Hybrid topology
A network topology is the way in which hardware devices and cables are connected. A hybrid
topology (sometimes called a mesh or mixed topology) connects network components by
combining the features of two or more other topologies (such as star, bus, ring and token-ring).
The resulting hybrid topology exhibits features (and limitations) of its comprising network
components. Examples of hybrid topologies include the star-wired ring and star-wired bus.

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 T 5.1
As computers have progressed and developed so have the operating systems. Below is a basic list of
the different operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that fall into each of the
categories. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.

GUI(Graphical User Interface) - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System
contains graphics and icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI
definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI Operating Systems.
Ex- System 7.x, Windows 98, Windows CE

Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer
at the same time and different times. See the multi-user definition for a complete definition for a
complete definition. Below are some examples of multi-user operating systems.
Ex-Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one
computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing operating systems.
Ex-Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to

run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking operating systems.
Ex- Unix, Windows 2000

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run
concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Ex- Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

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 T 5.2

1. In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same
time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and
how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a
turn.

2. It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.

3. It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as
hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports.

4. It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about
the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.

5. It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that
the initiating application is freed from this work.

6. On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how
to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.

7. Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention of
deadlock.

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 Task 6

Open-source means that you can get the source code of the software for free (source code is the code of the
program written in a certain programming language). Operating system is the software that you use to
operate your PC (like Windows or Linux) Operating system can be any Linux or UNIX flavor, but important
thing is File system. ZFS is best suite for storage, so snapshot, writable clone and replication is free. Most of
the storage company used to charge too much money as snapshot/clone and replication license.

ZFS is very simple and convenient. You can use any operating system under VMware or Virtual box that
support ZFS so you can manage your logical devices on top of physical devices. You don't need to purchase
any hardware or software to manage your storage.

OS means operating system, which is the computer programming that 'operates' a computer. Open source
refers to any application for which you can see and change the underlying code. A big advantage of an open
source program is that it is a collaborative between many people. If there is a problem, many people will
see the problem and work on a solution. Linux is an example of an open source operating system.
Windows and Macintosh both are closed (proprietary) systems.

Linux Kernel based OS

Ubuntu Linux brings together the best of free and open source software delivered on a stable, easy to use
and learn platform. Ubuntu claims to be always free of charge, including enterprise releases and security
updates. It comes with full commercial support from Canonical and hundreds of companies around the
world. Ubuntu includes the very best translations and accessibility infrastructure that the free software
community has to offer.(show Picture 6.1)
Suse Linux is a worldwide community program sponsored by Novell that promotes the use of Linux
everywhere. The program provides free and easy access to openSUSE. Here you can find and join a
community of users and developers, who all have the same goal in mind to create and distribute the
world's most usable Linux. openSUSE also provides the base for Novell's award-winning SUSE Linux
Enterprise products. The goals of openSUSE project are to make openSUSE the easiest Linux distribution
for anyone to obtain and the most widely used open source platform. Provide an environment for open
source collaboration that makes openSUSE the world's best Linux distribution for new and experienced
Linux users.(show Picture 6.2)

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 Picture 6.1

Picture 6.2

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 Windows
Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed, marketed, and
sold by Microsoft.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 as a
graphical operating system shell for MS-DOSin response to the growing interest in graphical user
interfaces (GUI).Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market
with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.
As of April 2013, the most recent versions of Windows for personal computers, mobile
devices, server computers and embedded devices are respectively Windows 8, Windows Phone
8, Windows Server 2012 and Windows Embedded 8 Industry.

File permissions
All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system
referred to as AGLP (Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP which in essence where file
permissions are applied to the file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other
'global groups' as members. These global groups then hold other groups or users depending on
different Windows versions used. This system varies from other vendor products such
as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directory to the
file or folder. However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of
static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without
reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders.

Windows Defender
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 On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the
previously released Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became
Windows Defender with the release of Beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware program
designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software. Windows XP and Windows
Server 2003 users who have genuine copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download the
program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of Windows Vista and
7. In Windows 8, Windows Defender and Microsoft Security Essentials have been combined into
a single program, named Windows Defender. It is based on Microsoft Security Essentials,
borrowing its features and user interface. Although it is enabled by default, it can be turned off to
use another anti-virus solution. Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool and the
optional Microsoft Safety Scanner are two other free security products offered by Microsoft.

Evolution of UNIX OS

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 Task 7
T 7.1

Choose a specialty store, consumer electronics store, retail chain, limited service discount chain, local
computer builder or mail-order/Internet vendor, based on your hardware and service needs. Realize
that many computer manufacturers will not transfer the computer warranty from the old user to you.
Decide which features you'll need based on what you're going to do with the computer. For example, if
you're going to be creating graphics, sound and video, you'll want plenty of RAM. If you're going to be
doing heavy computational tasks. Decide if you want a laptop, which you can carry around with you, or
a desktop model. Make sure computer comes with any CD's for the operating systems or programs that
are promised to be installed. Choose a computer brand based on quality, price and technical support.
Based on your likely needs, determined earlier, figure out the core configuration you need, including
processor and speed, amount of RAM and hard drive size. Determine additional drives you need: CD-
ROM, DVD-ROM, CD recorder, Zip. Determine additional drives you need: CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD
recorder, Zip. Decide how many extra internal card slots and disk-drive bays you'll need in order to
allow room for future expansion. Choose the length of warranty or service coverage appropriate to your
needs.

T 7.2
Good topology is planned, not accidental
Whenever you prepare to add new systems or are prepping a new network, consider its topology
carefully. Work to minimize the number of hops data must travel, even if investing in a switch
with more ports or new cable drops is required.

Network equipment deserves investment

When designing or re-architecting a small business network, budget funds appropriately for
commercial-class network equipment. Buy the best the organization can afford. Although there
are no moving parts, and the equipment is likely parked in a closet where no one will ever see it
to appreciate it, most every aspect of an organization's data and communications will run
through the equipment. If there's ever an element that justifies purchasing quality components,
that's it.

You should choose internal domain names carefully

You should also guard against using publicly routed domain names as an internal domain
namespace. Several years ago, I made that mistake on a test system, and multiple issues arose
due to trouble resolving DNS requests. User logons sometimes took 12 to 15 minutes to
complete. Design networks to use top-level domains that aren't publicly routed on the Internet.

Data requires segregation

When designing a small business network, plan on separating the network's data to maximize
data protection, backups, and recovery.

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 License planning is critical
Planning Small Business Server licensing requirements is another matter. Windows SBS ships
with just five client access licenses (CALs). Unlike other Windows server platforms, the user
CALs associated with Windows Small Business Server cover all SBS' technologies, including
Exchange and SQL.

T 7.3

Computer security is vital for protecting the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of computer
systems, resources, and data. Without confidentiality, trade secrets or personally identifying
information can be lost. Without integrity, we cannot be sure that the data we have is the same data that
was initially sent (i.e., altered data). Without availability, we may be denied access to computing
resources.

On a grander scale, computer security is important because of national security. An unsecured

computer can be unknowingly recruited into a botnet, and the botnet could in turn be used to launch
attacks against financial institutions, infrastructure (utility companies), and disrupt communications.

T 7.4
Memory:
Memory is a location where information is stored that is currently being utilized by the operating
system, software program, hardware device, or the user. It's very common for new computer
users to be confused what the different types of computer memory. For example, a computer
hard drive could be considered memory, however, is more appropriately referred to as storage
and not memory. When a program such as your Internet browser is open it is loaded from your
hard drive and placed into memory, which allows that program to communicate with the
processor at higher speeds since memory is a lot faster than a hard drive. Anything you save to
your computer such as a picture or video is sent to your hard drive for storage. There are two
memory types: volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is memory that loses its
contents when the computer or hardware device loses power. Computer RAM is a good example
of a volatile memory. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, is memory that
keeps its contents even if the power is lost. CMOS is a good example of a non-volatile memory.
Below is an example picture of computer memory module, a 512MB DIMM.

External sound card:

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 A sound card is an expansion card or integrated circuit that provides a computer with the ability
to produce sounds that can be heard by the user either over speakers or headphones. The
computer sound card is considered a peripheral, although the computer does not need a sound
card to function almost every computer today will include a sound card in the expansion slot or
on the motherboard (onboard). Below is an image of the Creative Sound Blaster X-Fi Extreme
Audio sound card and an example of what a sound card that connects to an expansion slot may
look like.
External storages
External storage is storage that is not part of the computer. Examples of external storage are
floppy disk drives, hard drives, tape drives, etc. In the picture to the right, is a Drub and an
example of a popular external storage solution.

Video graphic adaptor

Graphics are an integral part of how we interface, or connect, with our PCs. The graphics we view
via computer monitors are displayed with the assistance of a VGA, or video-graphics array, card.

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 Task 8

T 8.1
There are 5 methods for testing system

Inspection - Inspection is the verification by physical and visual examinations of the item,
reviewing descriptive documentation, and comparing the appropriate characteristics with all the
referenced standards to determine compliance with the requirements.

Certificate of Compliance - A Certificate of Compliance is a means of verifying compliance for

items that are standard products. Signed certificates from vendors state that the purchased items
meet procurement specifications, standards, and other requirements as defined in the purchase
order. Records of tests performed to verify specifications are retained by the vendor as evidence
that the requirements were met and are made available by the vendor for purchaser review.

Analysis - Analysis is the verification by evaluation or simulation using mathematical

representations, charts, graphs, circuit diagrams, calculation, or data reduction. This includes
analysis of algorithms independent of computer implementation, analytical conclusions drawn
from test data, and extension of test-produced data to untested conditions.

Demonstration - Demonstration is the functional verification that a specification requirement is

met by observing the qualitative results of an operation or exercise performed under specific
condition. This includes content and accuracy of displays, comparison of system outputs with
independently derived test cases, and system recovery from induced failure conditions.

Test (Formal) - Formal testing is the verification that a specification requirement has been met by
measuring, recording, or evaluating qualitative and quantitative data obtained during controlled
exercises under all appropriate conditions using real and/or simulated stimulus. This includes
verification of system performance, system functionality, and correct data distribution.

T 8.2

Software testing is an important step in a product's life cycle, as it will determine whether a product
works correctly and efficiently according to the requirements of customers.
Those are Steps
1. Planning
2. Analysis
3. Design
4. Software Development
5. Implementation
6. Software Testing
7. Deployment
8. Maintenance
T 8.3

Health Hazards of Computer Use

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 There is several health problems associated with computer use. All of them are
avoidable, through the use of ergonomic principles. Ergonomics is the science of fitting
the job to the worker, rather than expecting workers to accommodate themselves to
uncomfortable equipment, postures, and work organization. The following are
descriptions of computer-related health hazards and measures you can take to reduce
or eliminate your chance of suffering from pain, discomfort or a disabling condition
because of extensive computer use.

Cumulative Trauma Injuries (CTDS)

As with any task done repeatedly, working on a computer for long periods of time can
cause inflammation of tendons, nerve sheaths and ligaments and damage to soft
tissues. Depending on an individuals sensitivity to the repeated movements of
keyboarding, the cumulative effect can be disabling. Resulting conditions are called
cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). Different types of forearm and wrist CTDs from
computer use are carpal tunnel syndrome, tenosynovitis, epicondylitis, tendinitis,
DeQuervains disease and ganglionic cysts. If you experience pain, numbness, tingling,
or weakness in muscles or movement of arms, hands, and fingers, it could be a sign or
symptom of a CTD.

Reducing Risks of CTDs:

Change how you use your computer - Position of the wrist must be neutral,
or straight. In order to achieve a neutral position, the keyboard needs to be
placed so the arms bend at approximately a 90-degree angle. Any bending of
the wrist puts pressure on the tendons and nerves at the same time they are
being required to work. By bending the wrist, you are narrowing the space
available for your tendons and nerves.

Avoid resting the wrist or forearm on a hard surface while keying - This
is called contact stress and must be avoided. However, if you feel you really
want a wrist rest, make sure that it is well padded. Replace it when it begins to
lose its cushioning.

Do not wear a wrist brace unless a physician prescribes it since braces also
constrict nerves and tendons in the moving hand and wrist.

Back, Neck and Shoulder Problems

Neck and shoulder pain and stiffness can occur from improper placement of the
computer monitor, mouse or document you are working from. If these items are not
placed correctly, the muscles of your neck and shoulders are constantly working to
keep the head and arms in an awkward position. Phone use while keying can also
contribute to neck and shoulder pain from cradling the phone to your ear.

Reducing Risks for Back, Neck and Shoulder Problems:

Your line of vision should hit the top of the monitor, the mouse should be next to
the keyboard at the same height, and a document holder should be used to

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 make sure paperwork is at the same distance, angle and height as the monitor.

Arrange the computer equipment in a straight line so you are not twisting your
back.

To reduce telephone related muscle stress, use the speaker function or purchase
a headset.

A chair that does not provide support for the lower back, or lumbar, can cause back
pain. If there is no lumbar support, back muscles experience fatigue because they must
do more work to keep the body in an upright position. An unsuitable chair also adds to
poor posture, such as slouching, that puts pressure on the spine.

Get a good chair that is adjustable and allows the user to move the seat pan up
and down, the arm rests in and out and the seat back forward and back.
Chairs should be adjusted so the feet can be placed squarely on the ground or a
footrest. Chairs should also come in a few different sizes to best fit the user.

Vision
Many people who use computers for prolonged periods of time complain of eyestrain,
eye fatigue, eye irritation and blurred vision. Fortunately, correcting these problems
can be relatively easy and inexpensive.

Helpful Hints:
To reduce glare, tilt the screen down slightly so that that overhead lighting does
not hit the screen. Place monitors at right angles to windows so glare does not
hit the screen or the users eyes. Use blinds or curtains for controlling sunlight
glare. Reduce room lighting to half-normal office levels and use task lighting for
paper work and other tasks. Try these methods before relying on glare screens,
as they are dust collectors and require continuous cleaning.

If there is flicker, or small and illegible characters, make sure the computer is
operating properly and that the screen and characters are big enough to read
comfortably. Prolonged, intense viewing of the monitor can also cause flickering
sensations.

Take breaks by looking away from the screen for ten seconds; make phone calls
or do other work and give your eyes a rest.

Dryness and irritation are also common complaints. Keep computers and desk
areas clean to keep dust levels down and help reduce eye irritation. Dont forget
to blink when working at a computer. Eyes need lubrication and with computer
work, especially in a dry workplace, blinking is especially important, as is
drinking plenty of water throughout the day. Wearing contact lenses can
aggravate the problem.

Some people discover they either need corrective lenses or a change in their lens
prescription. This is not because computer work is actually causing a worsening of
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 vision, but the intensity of the work can aggravate an existing, but undiscovered vision
problem. If you wear glasses, they may not give you the most efficient viewing of the
screen and you may need a special prescription for computer use.

Radiation
Computers give off very low frequency (VLF) and extremely low frequency (ELF)
radiation. This type of radiation is called non-ionizing. It is not as strong as ionizing
radiation, such as x-rays, that are known to cause cancer.

The source of computer radiation is the flyback transformer in the rear of the monitor
and radiation is therefore strongest at the back of the machine. Newer computers are
manufactured with radiation shielding to minimize emissions.

Prudent avoidance: Research conducted so far does not indicate that radiation from
computers is a significant health hazard. Even so, a policy of prudent avoidance is
recommended because computer radiation studies have not fully answered all the
questions about potential risks. Prudent avoidance means to reduce exposure by
placing people away from the source of radiation. The backs of computer monitors
should be at least three to four feet from any employee.

Task 9
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 T 9.1
1. Review your business objectives and identify critical activities.
2. Set measurable performance standards, for example, measures of production efficiency or
marketing success.
3. Monitor performance to identify problem areas.
4. Get feedback from customers, suppliers and other key business partners; consider using
interviews or surveys in areas such as customer satisfaction.
5. Ask employees to raise concerns and make suggestions; include discussion of training
needs in employee performance management.
6. Identify any dependencies, for example, where only one employee has crucial skills or
knowledge.
7. Review any legal requirements such as health and safety training.
8. Review any changes you plan or expect (eg new products, procedures or technologies);
identify potential weaknesses and problems.
9. Consider how employees' roles may change: for example, your plans to promote
individuals and to develop new employees.
10. Priorities problem areas or areas of weakness.
11. Consider how improving systems or equipment could contribute to resolving problems.
12. Consider whether poor performance reflects bad management, for example, a failure to
agree clear objectives and motivate employees.
13. Consider whether you have unrealistic expectations given the caliber or number of
employees, and if you need to recruit new talent or reassign roles.
14. Consider whether training will be an effective solution; assess employees' willingness to
learn, and preferred learning style.
15. Identify training options (e.g. job shadowing, distance learning or external training
courses); set clear objectives for training activities.
16. Implement a pilot training scheme and review the outcome before rolling the program out.
17. Regularly review the outcome of training to identify further training needs and to assess
the effectiveness of your training-needs analysis.

T 9.2

A department within a company that responds to user's technical questions. Most large software
companies have help desks to answer user questions. Questions and answers can be delivered by
telephone, e-mail, BBS, or fax. There is even help desk software that makes it easier for the people
running the help desk to quickly find answers to common questions.
Managing your help desk is more than just making sure requests get answered. To provide the best
service its important to have access to real time reporting and request monitoring. Your help desk
management software needs to support your efforts by making reporting fast and easy with efficient
filtering to allow for various views into your help desk operations. By providing these capabilities in a
user friendly manner, Help Spot stays out of your way and lets you focus on the data instead of the
software.
Helpdesk software can add value and productivity to a number of key areas in an enterprise. From a
broad perspective, properly configured and utilized helpdesk software has a positive influence on the
end-user clients (employees, contacts etc.), the helpdesk staff, the helpdesk management, and the
enterprise as a whole.
When a client has an issue that needs to be addressed, they have a common point-of-call that they can
contact - the helpdesk. They know that their issue is being correctly logged, assigned and auctioned

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 within a dedicated tracking system, instead of being lost in paper-work, or verbally "handed" around
the office. Additionally, the client gets the benefit of staying in the communication loop via the power
and ease of automated email correspondence that a helpdesk system can provide. Their personal
history is recorded for future reference so that trends and trouble areas can be quickly identified and
addressed.
Help Master allows helpdesk staff to have all the necessary tools to log, Analyze and assist in the
resolution of helpdesk issues. The central database allows all staff to monitor other "job queues" as well
as being able to report on client helpdesk history. With the use of add-on tools such as the Priority
Manager, jobs can be pro-actively managed for timeliness, accuracy and structured workflow.
Helpdesk managers benefit from helpdesk software because they know that a large part of the daily
running of a helpdesk is automated by the effective use of helpdesk software. They know that their staff
are being assigned jobs, are using a structured workflow and are required by the system to provide
accurate and timely service. Managers can quickly generate meaningful reports that can highlight
performance bottlenecks, recurring client issues, and outstanding service. They are able to quickly
configure complex escalation and service level agreement rules so that their helpdesk support is
effective and provides the level of service that clients demand.
Clients that stop work due to technology problems are non-productive. Helpdesk staff that don't have
the tools and information to resolve problems are ineffective. Managers that can't provide or work from
meaningful reports are not managing. All of these things affect the bottom line of the enterprise. In a
recent Gartner Group survey, the vast majority of those surveyed deemed the helpdesk to be a "strategic
asset" within the enterprise.

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 Task 10

T 10.1

The protection of data, networks and computing power. The protection of data (information security) is
the most important. The protection of networks is important to prevent loss of server resources as well
as to protect the network from being used for illegal purposes. The protection of computing power is
relevant only to expensive machines such as large supercomputers.
computer security involves safeguarding computing resources, ensuring data integrity, limiting access
to authorized users, and maintaining data confidentiality. Effective computer security therefore involves
taking physical security measures (to ensure hardware and media are not stolen or damaged),
minimizing the risk and implications of error, failure or loss (for example by developing a resilient back-
up strategy), appropriate user authentication (for example by employing strong pass wording), and
possibly the encryption of sensitive files.
We live in a world where "information wants to be free" and in which people are getting used to having
access to whatever information they want anytime, anywhere and from a wider and wider range of
computing devices. Unfortunately, in terms of the security and control of the resources to which
computers permit access, this can prove quite a problem. Indeed, many users unfortunately often view
security and control measures as inhibitors to effective computer use.
T 10.2

Physical security measures

Passwords and appropriate user authentication
Maintaining confidently
Physical security measures
Personal and business data is now stored across a wide range of organizational, cloud vendor and
personal locations, more work is conducted at home than since the rise of the modern city, and IT
departments therefore have a right to be nervous. At the very least, physical computing security
measures -- such as external building safeguards and the control of access to areas of a building where
computers are located -- should be subject to regular formal updating and review. Most large
organizations -- particularly in the public sector -- have a horror story or several to tell of computer
equipment that has "walked". Many such stories suggest that people who walk out of buildings with
computer equipment under their arm are rarely challenged (and sometimes even assisted!). Locking-
down computer equipment and/or ensuring adequate door and window security at all computer
locations should today just be pure common sense.
Passwords and appropriate user authentication
Physically protecting computer equipment and data against damage or loss is a large element of
computer security. However, another large element is limiting access to all or part of a system or data
store to authorised users only. In the broadest of terms, user authorization within any security system
can be verified via one three means: Something known by the individual (a piece of information such as
a password) something possessed by the individual (a physical token such a credit, security or ID card),

Maintaining confidently
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 In part the confidentiality of data is protected via physical security measures and appropriate user
authentication precautions as already outlined above. However, effective security should plan for what
happens if these measures fail, and how data confidentiality can be protected even if computer
equipment or media fall into the wrong hands. This is particularly important when it comes to the
protection of sensitive information such as financial data.

T 10.4

Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is known as
hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to obtain an illegal
access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The unauthorized revelation of
passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private communication of an organization of a
user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the
hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying
out the criminal activities.
1. Client Server: Most School networks (and really almost all networks that work with money or
classified and important data) have these, basically the main controlling computer (which is usually
a Mini-Computer or Main-Frame in this case) is called the 'server' and all the computers connecting
to it are called the 'clients'. It works in a similar way to Admin and User accounts on Windows
computers, the server has all the control and is the only one who can alter and manage the flow of
data and the sources of that data. The clients just ask permission to take some of it. The server can
also block access to certain users if they are considered a threat (i.e. Hackers). This is much safer for
the data than just being saved on and average peer to peer network.
2. Data Flow Limits (Has technical names, but they are not always understood): Basically this
limits the amount that people can send over the network to stop it from being over charged and
over clocked. A popular way to shut down networks is to send LARGE datapackets that the network
can't manage, so the network just does not try and shuts down (this is generally done through 'Mail-
Bombing''). So the server can set up a limit on how much data can travel through the server. e.g. I
send a 10 gig file over a network to shut it down, but the network has a 10 mb cap, so instead of
sending the file and crashing, it just stops the email from leaving my computer. Very Effective.
3. Blocked/Faked Network Maps: This actually does not happen often, but as a hacker I can truly say
that this is AWFUL (not the victim). To hack a network you have to know where everything is,
Hackers use port-scanning and a function called a ping. What this type of security does is sends
back false information when it receives a ping request so the hacker has no idea what is happening
in the network and attempts to hack non-existent or decoy IP addresses. A Nightmare.

Basically all network security does is it makes it harder for the hacker to acquire admin rights and harder
for them to perform malicious actions (i.e. Shut down, steal Data) on the network.

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Reference
Task 02
What is the Difference Between Internal & External Hard Drives? |
eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/info_8460858_difference-internal-external-hard-
drives.html#ixzz2JEdlBAJZ

Task 03
What is Data Communications? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_5514618_data-
communications.html#ixzz2JEwWkNzU
http://www.camiresearch.com/Data_Com_Basics/data_com_tutorial.html#anchor405943
http://www.techterms.com/definition/half-duplex

Task 05
http://w2.compu2learn.co.uk/theory/advanced-theory/331-the-function-of-operating-systems/main-features-of-
an-operating-system
http://homepages.uel.ac.uk/u0116844/function.htm

Task 07
http://itnotes5.blogspot.com/2012/04/what-are-major-factors-to-be-concerned.html
http://www.explainingcomputers.com/security.html
http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/e/exstorag.htm

Task 08
http://www.information-management.com/issues/20_4/the-purpose-of-system-testing-10018229-1.html

Task 09
http://www.helpspot.com/in-depth/what-is-help-desk-software/

Task 10
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Clo-Con/Computer-Security.html#b
http://www.answers.com/topic/computer-security

http://www.explainingcomputers.com/security.html

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