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Ileri Fotojeoloji 6 PDF
Ileri Fotojeoloji 6 PDF
Two types of geologic information can be obtained from aerial photographs: structural and
lithologic. The kinds and amounts of information that could be obtained from aerial photographs
depend primarily on: 1) type of terrain, 2) climatic environment, 3) stage of the geomorphic cycle.
1. Areas underlain by sedimentary rocks yield more information than areas underlain by igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Because the sedimentary rocks have strongly differing physical character-
istics, whereas plutonic rocks are relatively homogeneous over wide areas. Metamorphic rocks may
show the least amount of information from aerial photographs.
2. Arid and semi-arid regions will yield the greatest amount of geologic information compared to
the tropical regions. The arid and semi-arid regions might also show a greater number of significant
plant-rock associations than other climatic areas, because weathered material in the arid and semi-arid
regions is not excessively leached and a close relation of soil to parent rock formation exists. As a
result of difference in vegetation growing on soils, closely associated to the bedrock, mapping of
different rock types is possible in these areas. This association is less developed in tropical areas
where rainfall is abundant. Aerial photographs yield more structural information in areas where
vegetation cover is dense and superficial deposits is wide-spread.
3. During the mature stage of geomorphic cycle, at which time streams show their greatest
adjustment to and reflection of structure, the amount of structural information will be greater.
Factors affecting the photographic appearance of rocks
Most photogeologic studies are designed to compile a geologic map of lithologic units and
structures. The factors which affect the photographic appearance of a rock:
1. Climate
2. Vegetation cover
3. Soil cover
4. Absolute rate of erosion
5. Relative rate of erosion
6. Color and reflectivity
7. Composition
8. Physical characteristics
9. Depth of weathering
10. Structure
11. Texture
12. Factors inherent in the type and conditions of photography.
Use of aerial photographs in geology
1. Outline the structure and structural relationship in an area
2. Outline the stratigraphic succession
3. Preparation of a geologic map
4. Measurements of stratigraphic sections
5. Measurements of dip and strike and thickness of formations
6. Inferences about rock types present in the area.
The photogeologic interpretation of the planar structures like bed, foliation, joint and fault is
termed as structural analysis.
6.1.1. Bedding
In structural analysis, to follow a resistant bed or complex is usually not difficult. The
position of a bed in relation with the horizontal is called an ATTITUDE. The position of a tilted bed
can be determined by the DIP and the STRIKE. The DIP is the direction of the maximum slope. It is
the angle between the surface plane of bedding at its greatest value in degrees and the horizontal. It is
a line the runoff takes flowing down the bedding plane. The horizontal line which can be constructed
at right angles to the dip direction is the STRIKE. It can be said that the strike line is parallel to the
intersection of the bedding plane with a horizontal surface (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1. Relation between strike-dip-bedding plane and talus. The talus tends to reduce
the angle of sloping. E-E is the edge or rim of a hard bed, usually marked on aerial
photographs.
In the aspect of photointerpretation, the beds can be classified into three groups on the basis of dip
amount:
1. horizontal and gentle dipping beds,
2. medium dipping beds,
3. steep and vertical dipping beds.
6.1.1.1. Horizontal and gentle dipping beds.
In deed, there are no perfectly horizontal beds. So, the beds with a very gentle dipping slope, not
exceeding one degree is considered to be horizontal. Beds, having one to five degree dip amount are
named as horizontal beds. Generally, alluvial deposits, terraces, talus and undisturbed deposits may
display horizontal bedding. The appearance of a landscape with horizontal and low dipping beds is
that of a CANYON-MESA type (Figure 6.2). The hills when isolated have the form of a flat table
mountain or MESA. The valleys are deep dissected cut-in CANYONS. The slope of a mesa or sides
of a canyon are step-like. The hard beds, like sandstone or limestone, form near perpendicular cliffs,
the softer shales (or thin sandstone thick shale intercalations) form slopes.
Figure 6.5
But if the direction of dip and direction of stream flow are the same and the stream has a
gradient greater than the amount of dip, the case will be reverse.
6.1.1.3. Steep and vertical beds.
The beds having dips more than 35 degrees are considered to be steeply dipping beds. In practice,
steep or vertically dipping beds are seldom indicative to which side of the ridge the bed is dipping.
Dips over 65 degrees seem vertical on photographs because of stereoscopic exaggeration.
Figure 6.7
2. Dip direction can be determined using the rule of V (Figure 6.6, 6.9). The apex of V always points
the dip direction. The long and narrow V shape shows less dip amount or gently dipping beds while
short and wide V shape refers medium and steep dipping beds.
3. The drainage characteristics may also be used to find the dip direction in the areas, particularly
those of low relief, where beds are obscured by surfical materials or vegetation. Where the dips are
gentle the relatively long tributary systems commonly flow down the face slopes, whereas short
tributary systems will characterized back slopes (Figure 6.8). When the dip is steep, in other words, it
is over the 45 degrees, the rule is reverse (Figure 6.10).
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.10
To interpret the lineaments resulting from the dipping beds, the following characteristics
should be observed on aerial photographs:
a. They have to be persistent ridges when the bed is more resistant to the erosion than the adjacent bed
or rock unit.
b. They have to be approximately parallel to one another. If there is an abrupt ending of this
parallelism, it indicates a structural features like a fault.
c. Ridges of hard beds tend to be found in groups rather than single.
On the basis of dip amount of flanks or limbs, folds are classified into three groups, namely
gentle folds, medium folds and steep folds.
a. Gentle folds. The dip amount of the limbs range from 2 to about 10 degrees. Folds in this
range have long gentle dipslopes. Gentle folding is of great importance to the petroleum geologist
because such structures are favorable for accumulation of oil.
b. Medium folds. The dip amount of the limbs range from 10 to 35 degrees. The landforms
are medium grade dipslopes. Such folded belts follow orogenesis.
c. Steep folds have dips from 35 to vertical. When eroded and in the steeper range, it is often
not possible to construct the approximate axial part of these folds. Metamorphics are almost
everywhere strongly compressed to steep folds because several orogenic movements from different
directions may have worked on the strata. Areas which have undergone several phases of tectonic
pressure usually show steep folds with meandering axes. The highest grade of tectonic pressure
causes over-thrusting. Layers are squeezed out into sheets or nappes.
There are several types and forms of folds namely, anticline and syncline.
a. Anticline. Anticlines are positive folds with bedding planes dipping away from a line called the
axis of the structure (Figure 6.11). The dip amount increases towards the flanks and low or horizontal
on or near the axis. The axis which runs with the highest part of the fold is a theoretical plane of
vertical or tilted attitude cutting the anticlinal fold at its highest part. It is, therefore, marked with a
line or symbol on maps. Axes do not continue horizontally along an anticlinal fold. They plunge
according to the dip of the bedding planes, and are named as plunging anticline (Figure 6.12).
Anticlines are of essential importance for petroleum prospecting.
Figure 6.15
Anticlinal mountain. The axial part can be built up by a resistant and hard formation. Such a
situation is rather frequent because along an anticlinal axis, older beds crop out, which are mostly
harder and more resistant than younger formations which are not too well consolidated. The core part
will, therefore, remain and anticlinal mountain will result (Figure 6.16). Such anticlinal landforms
are frequent in areas of thick sandstone formations or where beds of hard limestone become exposed.
Anticlinal valley. When nonresistant and weak beds are exposed along an anticline and the
flanks are of resistant material, the core of the fold will be carved out by subsequent stream and an
anticlinal valley will result (Figure 6.16).
Synclinal valley. It is a type of landform which is associated with troughs (Figure 6.17).
Synclinal mountain. It is less frequent and occur when the core of the syncline is of hard
rock and the older beds along the flanks are weak and removed by erosion (Figure 6.17).
6.1.4. Fractures
Tectonic forces do not always cause the development of folds. Instead, the rocks may break
or fracture. Faults and joints are examples of these types of deformational features.
6.1.4.1. Faults
Faults are the deformational features of the Earth's crust along which a measurable movement
takes place (6.18).
On aerial photographs fault indications have one common property: they are always straight,
or slightly curved. Straightness is inherent to all breaking phenomena of the crust. This stands mainly
for resistant rocks, because, weak, plastic beds are bent rather than broken. The relative straightness
of a fault indication is based on the straightness of the fault plane. This plane is always somewhat
irregular or slightly curved. Normal faulting displays, as a rule, straightness along a certain length
(Figures 6.18, 6.19). Curved fault traces are found only in reverse or overthrust fault.
6.1.4.2. Joints
Joints are also expressed as linear features, similar to faults, on aerial photographs (Figure
6.18). So, the same features or criterias which are used to detect faults on aerial photographs can be
used also to detect joints. The main differences:
1. there is no displacement along the joint planes,
2. the lengths and the spaces of the linear features caused by the joints are less than that of faults.
Joints in sedimentary rocks develop as regularly spaced parallel sets with equal separation.
Generally two closely spaced sets form at an certain angle to each other. But in igneous rocks more
than two joint sets may occur, and the separation between joints are unequal. Therefore, joint sets
developed on igneous rocks may produce a criss-cross pattern.
In fine grained sedimentary rocks like clay, shale and marl joints are relatively closely and
regularly spaced, while they are widely spaced in coarse grained hard rocks, like sandstone and
limestone.
6.1.5. Unconformities
Deposition of beds in a body of water is a continuous process. Layer by layer is deposited in
succession, the older covered by the younger. Such beds have parallel bedding planes and the strata
are called conformable. When the deposition of sediments is interrupted, and the sedimentary rocks
is lifted above water and consequently becomes exposed to erosion, an erosional surface will develop.
When the depositional cycle is terminated, it will be replaced by an erosional cycle. The eroded or
abraded surface may eventually sink again. A new sedimentary period will start The relationship
between the old and the new deposit cycle is called unconformity. The beds of old cycle may be
Lithological interpretation refers to the recognition of rock types from photogeological data
alone, rather than from photogeological data supported by local field experience. A combination of
geomorphological and structural analysis must be undertaken. Each outcrop seen on the stereomodel
must be considered on its local and regional geological environment, and the final lithological
interpretation must not be made until the other studies are completed.
The photographic appearance of a particular rock type may be quite variable, depending
especially on the climate and the amount of relief. It is not possible to establish a set of criteria for the
recognition of rock types that would be applicable to all areas. However, certain lithologic
information can be obtained by using certain photocharacteristics of different rocks.
The following procedure may be used in lithologic interpretation:
1. Determine the climatic environment (e.g. desert, arid, semi-arid, humid, temperate, tropical),
2. Determine the type of erosional environment (e.g. active, very active, inactive),
3. Recognize and mark the bedding traces of the sediments or metasediments,
4. Recognize and mark the areas of outcrop that do not have any bedding (these may be intrusions, or
horizontally bedded sediments),
5. Recognize and mark the areas of superficial cover that do not indicate bedding,
6. Re-study the bedding traces determined at (3) around fold noses and determine the approximate
position of the axial traces,
7. Study the lineaments to determine whether they represent faults, dykes, joints, or combinations of
these.
To differentiate different lithologies, the following observations should be made on
aerial photographs:
1. The photographic tone of the rock mass in relation to the neighboring rocks,
2. The resistance to erosion of the rock mass in relation to the neighboring rocks,
3. The boundary of whole rock mass,
4. The topographical expression of whole rock mass,
5. The boundaries of the individual outcrops,
6. The gully analysis,
7. The joint pattern,
8. The fault pattern,
9. The drainage pattern,
10. The vegetation cover,
11. The bedding or the relic bedding lineaments,
12. The foliation lineaments,
13. The regional geological environment.
Coarse grained rocks (sandstone). Porosity and permeability are variable. The individual
beds are generally thin and occur interbedded with shale. Differential erosion is an important
recognition factor. Cross bedding features might be observed in the photographs taken in arid regions.
The joints and fissures may be visible on photographs. In spite of their porosity and permeability they
develop a drainage pattern (dendritic). It is partly an internal drainage and streams often follow lines
of dislocations (angular drainage). Gullies are generally short, steep, V-shaped and widely spaced.
The tone is usually light gray, ferruginous types may become dark. Sandstones support little or no
vegetation, less dense than on shales. In humid climates sandstone-shale are usually vegetated and
cultivated.
Shale and similar fine grained sedimentary rocks. Shales are the most common and wide spread
sediments. They exhibit dark tones, a fine-textured drainage, and relatively closely and regularly
spaced joints. Dark tone of shales is due to absorbed water (but it is impervious to it). As a result of
very poor permeability no internal drainage develops on shales (or unconsolidated equivalents, clays).
Erosion is intense, typical drainage pattern is closely spaced tree-like (dendritic), and when steep-
sloped and silty, is dendritic-parallel. Gullies in shales are long, more open with more gentle gradient
than in sandy beds. In most places shales are interbedded with more or less sandy beds or sandstone.
Sand content influences the drainage pattern. Strike controlled subsequent pattern may form. Faulting
can rarely be observed in shales, because the fissure is soon closed and joined together by clay.
Very coarse grained rocks (conglomerate and breccia). These seldom show a great degree of
permeability. Permeability depends on the grade of cementation and the type of solubility of the
matrix. They are usually lenticular and almost always associated with sandstones. It is difficult to
separate conglomerates from sandstones on the basis of drainage since they differ from sandstones
only in the size of fragments. In deserts the surface of beds are disintegrated to gravel deposits giving
a rough surface and darker tone (shadow effect). Cataclastic breccias and conglomerates occur in
crush zones.
Table 6.12. Glacial till Thick young till; thick old till (Way, 1973)
Table 6.24. Volcanic forms: Young; basaltic flows (Humid and Arid) (Way, 1973)
Schists are metamorphic rocks with highly foliated structures (Table 25). Not much resistant
to weathering and erosion. They develop landforms similar to the original rocks they are derived
from. Because they have been repeatedly folded and fractured they are usually in steep attitudes and
folded into undulating lamellations. Drainage in uniform schists is dendritic, close-spaced in phyllites
and widely spaced in quartzite schist. Fault control is prominent. In humid climates schists tend to
form rounded crests as a result of intense weathering.
Allum, J.A.E., 1975, Photogeology and Regional mapping, Pergamon Press, 107 p.
Bandat, H.F., 1962, Aerogeology, Gulf Publishing Company, 350 p.
Drury, S.A., 1986, Image Interpretation in Geology, Allen and Unwin, 243 p.
Hamblin, W.K. and Howard, J.D., 1986, Exercises in Physical Geology, Burgess Publishing, 191 p
Miller, V.C., 1981, Photogeology, McGraw-Hill, 248 p.
Ray, R.G., 1960, Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping, U.S. Geological
Survey, Professional Paper, 373 p.
Wanless, H.R., Aerial Stereo Photographs, Dept of Geology, Univ. of Illinois.
Way, D.S., 1973, Terrain Analysis, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Dowden Hutchinson and Ross.